118 files changed, 62113 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/19694-8.txt b/19694-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c018476
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18755 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by 
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Smaller History of Rome
+
+Author: William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2006 [EBook #19694]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED.]
+
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME,
+
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
+
+
+BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.
+
+
+WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 479.
+BY EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Illustrated by Engravings on Wood.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+1881.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Map of Italy.]
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDENT'S SERIES.
+
+12MO, CLOTH, UNIFORM IN STYLE.
+
+
+_MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 50.
+
+_THE STUDENT'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST_. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HISTORY OF GREECE_. By Dr. WILLIAM SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_COX'S GENERAL HISTORY OF GREECE_. With Maps. $1 25.
+
+_LIDDELL'S HISTORY OF ROME_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_MERIVALE'S GENERAL HISTORY OF ROME_. With Maps. $1 25.
+
+_GIBBON'S DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_LYELL'S GEOLOGY_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HISTORY OF FRANCE_. By the Rev. W.H. JERVIS, M.A. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HUME'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. Illustrated. Now Edition. $1 50.
+
+_STRICKLAND'S QUEENS OF ENGLAND_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HALLAM'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. $1 25.
+
+_HALLAM'S MIDDLE AGES_. $1 25.
+
+_OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.
+
+_NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.
+
+_LEWIS'S HISTORY OF GERMANY_. With Maps and Illustrations. $1 50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE STUDENT'S SMALLER SERIES.
+
+16MO, CLOTH.
+
+
+_SCRIPTURE HISTORY_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF GREECE_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF ROME_. 60 cents.
+
+_COX'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF GREECE_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. 60 cents.
+
+_ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST_. 60 cents.
+
+_SEEMANN'S MYTHOLOGY_. 60 cents.
+
+_MERIVALE'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF ROME_. 75 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
+
+[Illustration: hand] _Any of the above books sent by mail, postage
+prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-five, by HARPER & BROTHERS, in the Clerk's Office of
+the District Court of the Southern District of New York.
+
+
+
+
+NOTICE.
+
+
+The present History has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in
+schools, at the request of several teachers, and is intended to range
+with the author's Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a
+similar History of England. The author is indebted in this work to
+several of the more important articles upon Roman history in the
+Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.
+
+The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been
+so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the
+examination of his class, the answers to which will be found in the
+corresponding pages of the volume.
+
+The restoration of the Forum has been designed by Mr. P.W. Justyne.
+
+W.S.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julius Cæsar.]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  B.C.                                                              Page
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
+
+          Position of Italy                                            1
+
+          Its boundaries                                               1
+
+          Its two Divisions                                            1
+            I. Gallia Cisalpina                                        2
+                Liguria                                                2
+                Venetia                                                2
+           II. Italia, properly so called                              2
+                Etruria                                                2
+                Umbria                                                 2
+                Picenum                                                2
+                Sabini                                                 3
+                Marsi                                                  3
+                Peligni                                                3
+                Vestini                                                3
+                Marrucini                                              3
+                Frentani                                               3
+                Latium: its two senses                                 3
+                  The Campagna                                         3
+                  The Pontine Marshes                                  4
+                Campania                                               4
+                  Bay of Naples                                        4
+                Samnium                                                4
+                Apulia                                                 4
+                Calabria                                               4
+                Lucania                                                4
+                Bruttii                                                4
+
+          Fertility of Italy                                           5
+
+          Its productions                                              5
+
+          Its inhabitants                                              5
+            I. Italians proper                                         5
+                  1. Latins                                            5
+                  2. Umbro-Sabellians                                  5
+           II. Iapygians                                               5
+          III. Etruscans                                               5
+                Their name                                             5
+                Their language                                         5
+                Their origin                                           5
+                Their two confederacies                                6
+                  1. North of the Po                                   6
+                  2. South of the Apennines                            6
+               Foreign races--
+           IV. Greeks                                                  6
+               Gauls                                                   6
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+             THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
+
+          Position of Rome                                             7
+
+          Its inhabitants                                              7
+            1. Latins                                                  7
+            2. Sabines                                                 7
+            3. Etruscans                                               7
+
+          Remarks on early Roman history                               8
+
+          Legend of Æneas                                              8
+
+          Legend of Ascanius                                           8
+            Foundation of Alba Longa                                   8
+
+          Legend of Rhea Silvia                                        8
+
+          Birth of Romulus and Remus                                   8
+
+          Their recognition by Numitor                                 9
+
+    753.  Foundation of Rome                                           9
+            Roma Quadrata                                              9
+            Pomoerium                                                  9
+
+          Death of Remus                                              10
+
+753-716.  Reign of Romulus                                             9
+            Asylum                                                    10
+            Rape of Sabines                                           10
+            War with Sabines                                          10
+            Tarpeia                                                   10
+            Sabine women                                              10
+            Joint reign of Romulus and Titus Tatius                   11
+            Death of Titus Tatius                                     11
+            Sole reign of Romulus                                     11
+            Death of Romulus                                          11
+            Institutions ascribed to Romulus                          12
+              Patricians & Clients                                    12
+              Three tribes--Ramnes, Tities, Luceres                   12
+              Thirty Curiæ                                            12
+              Three Hundred Gentes                                    12
+              Comitia Curiata                                         12
+              The Senate                                              12
+              The Army                                                12
+
+716-673.  Reign of Numa Pompilius                                     12
+            Institutions ascribed to Numa Pompilius                   12
+              Pontiffs                                                12
+              Augurs                                                  13
+              Flamens                                                 13
+              Vestal Virgins                                          13
+              Salii                                                   13
+              Temple of Janus                                         13
+
+673-641.  Reign of Tullus Hostilius                                   13
+            War with Alba Longa                                       13
+            Battle of the Horatii and Curiatii                        13
+            War with the Etruscans                                    14
+            Punishment of Mettius Fuffetius, Dictator of Alba Longa   14
+            Destruction of Alba Longa                                 14
+            Removal of its inhabitants to Rome                        14
+            Origin of the Roman Plebs                                 14
+            Death of Tullus Hostilius                                 14
+
+640-616.  Reign of Ancus Marcius                                      14
+            War with the Latins                                       14
+            Increase of the Plebs                                     15
+            Ostia                                                     15
+            Janiculum                                                 15
+            Pons Sublicius                                            15
+            Death of Ancus Marcius                                    15
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+         THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
+       REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.
+
+616-578.  Reign of Tarquinius Priscus                                 16
+            His early history                                         16
+            His removal to Rome                                       16
+            Becomes king                                              16
+            His wars                                                  16
+            The Cloacæ                                                16
+            Circus Maximus                                            17
+            Increase of the Senate                                    17
+            Increase of the Equites                                   17
+            Attus Navius                                              17
+            Increase of the Vestal Virgins                            17
+            Early history of Servius Tullius                          17
+            Death of Tarquinius Priscus                               18
+
+578-534. Reign of Servius Tullius                                     18
+            I. Reform of the Roman Constitution                       18
+                1. Division of the Roman territory into Thirty Tribes 18
+                2. Comitia Centuriata                                 18
+                   Census                                             18
+                   Five Classes                                       19
+                   The Equites                                        19
+                   Number of the Centuries                            19
+                   Three sovereign assemblies--Comitia Centuriata,
+                     Comitia Curiata, Comitia Tributa                 20
+           II. Increase of the city: walls of Servius Tullius         20
+          III. Alliance with the Latins                               20
+                Death of Servius Tullius                              22
+
+534-510.  Reign of Tarquinius Superbus                                22
+            His tyranny                                               22
+            His alliance with the Latins                              23
+            His war with the Volscians                                23
+            Foundation of the temple on the Capitoline Hill           23
+            The Sibylline books                                       23
+            Legend of the Sibyl                                       23
+            Capture of Gabii                                          23
+            King's sons and Brutus sent to consult the oracle at
+              Delphi                                                  23
+            Lucretia                                                  24
+            Expulsion of the Tarquins                                 25
+
+    509.  Establishment of the Republic                               25
+
+          The Consuls                                                 25
+
+          First attempt to restore the Tarquins                       25
+            Execution of the sons of Brutus                           25
+            War of the Etruscans with Rome                            26
+            Death of Brutus                                           26
+            Defeat of the Etruscans                                   26
+
+          Valerius Publicola                                          26
+
+          Dedication of the Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius          26
+
+    508.  Second attempt to restore the Tarquins                      26
+            Lars Porsena                                              26
+            Horatius Cocles                                           26
+            Mucius Scævola                                            27
+            Cloelia                                                   27
+
+    498.  Third attempt to restore the Tarquins                       28
+            War with the Latins                                       28
+            Battle of the Lake Regillus                               28
+
+    496.  Death of Tarquinius Superbus                                28
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+          FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE.
+                              B.C. 498-451.
+
+          Struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians              29
+
+          Ascendency of the Patricians                                29
+
+          Sufferings of the Plebeians                                 30
+
+          Law of debtor and creditor                                  30
+
+          Ager Publicus                                               30
+
+          Object of the Plebeians to obtain a share in the political
+            power and in the public land                              30
+
+    494.  Secession to the Sacred Mount                               30
+            Fable of Menenius Agrippa                                 31
+            Institution of the Tribunes of the Plebs                  31
+
+    486.  Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius                                 31
+
+          Foreign wars                                                32
+    488.      I. Coriolanus and the Volscians                         32
+    477.     II. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines                    33
+    458.    III. Cincinnatus and the Æquians                          34
+
+          League between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans            35
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                     THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.
+
+    471.  Publilian Law transferring the election of the Tribunes
+            from the Comitia of Centuries to those of the Tribes      36
+
+    462.  Proposal of the Tribune Terentilius Arsa for the
+            appointment of Decemviri                                  37
+
+    460.  Seizure of the Capitol by Herdonius the Sabine              37
+
+    454.  Appointment of three Commissioners to visit Greece          37
+
+    452.  Their return to Rome                                        37
+
+    451.  Appointment of the Decemviri                                37
+            The Ten Tables                                            37
+
+    450.  New Decemviri appointed                                     37
+            Their tyranny                                             38
+            Two new Tables added, making twelve in all                38
+
+    449.  The Decemviri continue in office                            38
+            Death of Sicinius Dentatus                                38
+            Death of Virginia                                         39
+
+          Second secession to the Sacred Mount                        39
+            Resignation of the Decemvirs                              39
+            Election of ten Tribunes                                  40
+
+          Valerian and Horatian Laws                                  40
+
+          Death of Appius Claudius                                    40
+
+          The Twelve Tables                                           40
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+          FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS.
+                             B.C. 448-390.
+
+    445.  Third secession to the Sacred Mount                         41
+            Lex Canuleia for intermarriage between the two orders     41
+            Institution of Military Tribunes with consular powers     41
+
+    443.  Institution of the Censorship                               41
+
+    421.  Quæstorship thrown open to the Plebeians                    42
+
+    440.  Famine at Rome                                              42
+
+          Death of Sp. Mælius                                         42
+
+          Foreign wars                                                42
+
+          Roman colonies                                              43
+
+          War with the Etruscans                                      43
+
+    437.  Spolia Opima won by A. Cornelius Cossus                     43
+
+    426.  Capture and destruction of Fidenæ                           43
+
+    403.  Commencement of siege of Veii                               43
+
+          Tale of the Alban Lake                                      43
+
+    396.  Appointment of Camillus as Dictator                         43
+            Capture of Veii                                           44
+
+    394.  War with Falerii                                            44
+            Tale of the Schoolmaster                                  44
+
+          Unpopularity of Camillus                                    44
+
+    391.  He goes into exile                                          44
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+      FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE
+                       TWO ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.
+
+          The Gauls, or Celts                                         45
+
+    391.  Attack of Clusium by the Senones                            45
+
+          Roman ambassadors sent to Clusium                           45
+
+          They take part in the fight against the Senones             45
+
+          The Senones march upon Rome                                 46
+
+    390.  Battle of the Allia                                         46
+
+          Destruction of Rome                                         46
+
+          Siege of the Capitol                                        46
+            Legend of M. Manlius                                      47
+
+          Appointment of Camillus as Dictator                         47
+
+          He delivers Rome from the Gauls                             47
+
+          Rebuilding of the city                                      47
+
+          Further Gallic wars                                         48
+
+    361.  Legend of T. Manlius Torquatus                              48
+
+    349.  Legend of M. Valerius Corvus                                48
+
+    385.  Distress at Rome                                            48
+
+    384.  M. Manlius comes forward as a patron of the poor            48
+
+          His fate                                                    49
+
+    376.  Licinian Rogations proposed                                 49
+
+          Violent opposition of the Patricians                        50
+
+    367.  Licinian Rogations passed                                   50
+
+    366.  L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul                            50
+
+          Institution of the Prætorship                               50
+
+    356.  First Plebeian Dictator                                     51
+
+    351.  First Plebeian Censor                                       51
+
+    336.  First Plebeian Prætor                                       51
+
+    300.  Lex Ogulnia, increasing the number of the Pontiffs and
+            Augurs, and enacting that a certain number of them
+            should be taken from the Plebeians                        51
+
+    339.  Publilian Laws                                              51
+
+    286.  Lex Hortensia                                               51
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+         FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS.
+                              B.C. 367-290.
+
+    362.  Pestilence at Rome                                          52
+
+          Death of Camillus                                           52
+
+          Tale of M. Curtius                                          53
+
+          The Samnites                                                53
+
+          Their history                                               53
+
+          Division into four tribes                                   53
+
+          Conquer Campania and Lucania                                53
+
+          Samnites of the Apennines attack the Sidicini               53
+
+          Campanians assist the Sidicini                              53
+
+          They are defeated by the Samnites                           53
+
+          They solicit the assistance of Rome                         53
+
+343-341.  FIRST SAMNITE WAR                                           54
+            Battle of Mount Gaurus                                    54
+            Peace concluded                                           54
+            Reasons for the conclusion of peace                       54
+
+340-338.  THE LATIN WAR                                               54
+            The armies meet near Mount Vesuvius                       55
+            Tale of Torquatus                                         55
+            Decisive battle                                           55
+            Self-sacrifice of Decius                                  55
+            Capture of Latin towns                                    56
+            Conclusion of the war                                     56
+
+    329.  Conquest of the Volscian town of Privernum                  56
+
+          Origin of the Second Samnite War                            56
+
+    327.  The Romans attack Palæopolis and Neapolis                   56
+
+326-304.  SECOND SAMNITE WAR                                          57
+            _First Period._
+            Roman arms successful                                     57
+    325.    Quarrel between L. Papirius Dictator and Q. Fabius, his
+              master of the horse                                     57
+321-315.    _Second Period._
+            Success of the Samnites                                   57
+    321.    Defeat of the Romans at the Caudine Forks by C. Pontius   68
+            Ignominious treaty rejected by the Romans                 58
+314-304.    _Third Period._
+            Success of the Romans                                     58
+    311.    War with the Etruscans                                    58
+            Defeat of the Etruscans                                   59
+            Defeat of the Samnites                                    59
+    304.    Peace with Rome                                           59
+
+    300.  Conquests of Rome in Central Italy                          59
+
+          Coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites against Rome 59
+
+298-290.  THIRD SAMNITE WAR                                           59
+    295.    Decisive battle of Sentinum                               59
+            Self-sacrifice of the younger Decius                      59
+    292.    C. Pontius taken prisoner and put to death                59
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+    FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY.
+                             B.C. 290-265.
+
+    283.  War with the Etruscans and Gauls                            60
+
+          Battle of the Lake Vadimo                                   60
+
+    282.  State of Magna Græcia                                       60
+
+          The Romans assist Thurii                                    60
+
+          Their fleet is attacked by the Tarentines                   61
+
+          Roman embassy to Tarentum                                   61
+
+    281.  War declared against the Tarentines                         61
+
+          They apply for aid to Pyrrhus                               61
+
+          Pyrrhus arrives in Italy                                    62
+
+    280.  His first campaign against the Romans                       62
+
+          Battle of Heraclea                                          62
+
+          Remarks of Pyrrhus on the victory                           62
+
+          He attempts to make peace with Rome                         62
+
+          Failure of his minister Cineas                              63
+
+          He marches upon Rome and arrives at Præneste                63
+
+          Retires into winter quarters at Tarentum                    63
+          Embassy of Fabricius                                        63
+
+    279.  Second campaign of Pyrrhus                                  64
+
+          Battle of Asculum                                           64
+
+    278.  Treachery of the physician of Pyrrhus                       64
+
+          Truce with Rome                                             64
+
+          Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily                            64
+
+    276.  He returns to Italy                                         64
+
+    274.  Defeat of Pyrrhus                                           65
+
+          He returns to Greece                                        65
+
+    272.  Subjugation of Tarentum                                     65
+
+          Conquest of Italy                                           65
+
+    273.  Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome                     65
+
+          Three classes of Italian population:
+            I. Cives Romani, or Roman Citizens                        66
+                1. Of the Thirty-three tribes                         66
+                2. Of the Roman Colonies                              66
+                3. Of the Municipal Towns                             66
+           II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin name                       66
+          III. Socii, or Allies                                       66
+
+    312.  Censorship of Appius Claudius                               67
+
+          His dangerous innovation as to the Freedmen                 67
+
+    304.  Repealed in the Censorship of Q. Fabius Maximus and
+            P. Decius Mus                                             67
+
+    312.  The Appian Way                                              67
+
+          The Appian Aqueduct                                         67
+
+          Cn. Flavius                                                 67
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                   THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.
+
+    814.  Foundation of Carthage                                      68
+
+          Its empire                                                  68
+
+          Its government                                              68
+
+          Its army                                                    68
+
+          Its foreign conquests                                       68
+
+          Conquest of Messana by the Mamertini                        69
+
+          Hiero attacks the Mamertini                                 69
+
+          They apply for assistance to Rome                           69
+
+    264.  The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses over to Sicily to aid them  70
+
+          He defeats the forces of Syracuse and Carthage              70
+
+    263.  Hiero makes peace with the Romans                           70
+
+    262.  Capture of Agrigentum by the Romans                         70
+
+    260.  The Romans build a fleet                                    70
+
+          Naval victory of the Consul Duilius                         71
+
+    256.  The Romans invade Africa                                    72
+
+          Their naval victory                                         72
+
+          Brilliant success of Regulus in Africa                      72
+
+          The Carthaginians sue in vain for peace                     72
+
+    255.  Arrival of the Lacedæmonian Xanthippus                      72
+
+          He restores confidence to the Carthaginians                 73
+
+          Defeat and capture of Regulus                               73
+
+          Destruction of the Roman fleet by a storm                   73
+
+          The Romans build another fleet                              73
+
+    253.  Again destroyed by a storm                                  73
+
+          The war confined to Sicily                                  73
+
+    250.  Victory of Metellus at Panormus                             73
+
+          Embassy of the Carthaginians to Rome                        73
+
+          Heroic conduct of Regulus                                   74
+
+    250.  Siege of Lilybæum                                           74
+
+    249.  Defeat of the Consul Claudius at sea                        75
+
+          Destruction of the Roman fleet a third time                 75
+
+    247.  Appointment of Hamilcar Barca to the Carthaginian command   75
+
+          He intrenches himself on Mount Herctè, near Panormus        75
+
+          He removes to Mount Eryx                                    75
+
+    241.  Victory off the Ægatian Islands                             76
+
+          Peace with Carthage                                         76
+
+          End of the War                                              76
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+         EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-219.
+
+240-238.  War of the Mercenaries with Carthage                        77
+
+          She owes her safety to Hamilcar                             77
+
+    238.  The Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica                       77
+
+          Hamilcar goes to Spain                                      78
+
+    235.  Temple of Janus closed                                      78
+
+          Completion of the Thirty-five Roman Tribes                  78
+
+    229.  ILLYRIAN WAR                                                78
+            Conquest of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians                 78
+
+    223.  Honors paid to the Romans in the Grecian cities             78
+
+    232.  Agrarian law of the Tribune Flaminius                       78
+
+    225.  GALLIC WAR                                                  78
+            Defeat of the Gauls at Telamon in Etruria                 79
+    224.    Conquest of the Boii                                      79
+    223.    The Romans cross the Po                                   79
+    222.    Conquest of the Insubres                                  79
+            Marcellus wins the Spolia Opima                           79
+
+    220.  The Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum                      79
+
+    218.  Foundation of Colonies at Placentia and Cremona             79
+
+    219.  SECOND ILLYRIAN WAR                                         79
+
+    235.  Hamilcar in Spain                                           80
+
+          Oath of Hannibal                                            80
+
+    229.  Death of Hamilcar                                           80
+
+          Hasdrubal succeeds him in the command                       80
+
+    227.  Treaty with Rome                                            80
+
+    221.  Death of Hasdrubal                                          80
+
+          Hannibal succeeds him in the command                        80
+
+    219.  Siege of Saguntum                                           80
+
+          Its capture                                                 81
+
+          War declared against Carthage                               81
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+       THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNÆ
+                              B.C. 218-216.
+
+    218.  Preparations of Hannibal                                    82
+
+          His march to the Rhone                                      83
+
+          Arrival of the Consul Scipio at Massilia                    83
+
+          Hannibal crosses the Rhone                                  83
+
+          Scipio sends his brother to Spain, and returns himself to
+            Italy                                                     83
+
+          Hannibal crosses the Alps                                   83
+
+          Skirmish on the Ticinus                                     84
+
+          Battle of the Trebia                                        84
+
+          Defeat of the Romans                                        84
+
+    217.  Hannibal's march through Etruria                            86
+
+          Battle of the Lake Trasimenus                               86
+
+          Great defeat of the Romans                                  86
+
+          Q. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator                        87
+
+          His policy                                                  87
+
+          Rashness of Minucius, the Master of the Horse               87
+
+    216.  Great preparations of the Romans                            88
+
+          Battle of Cannæ                                             88
+
+          Great defeat of the Romans                                  88
+
+          Revolt of Southern Italy                                    88
+
+          Hannibal winters at Capua                                   89
+
+          Note on Hannibal's passage across the Alps                  90
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+       SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE
+                  BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.
+
+    215.  Plan of the War                                             91
+
+          Hannibal's repulse before Nola                              92
+
+    214.  He attempts in vain to surprise Tarentum                    92
+
+    213.  He obtains possession of Tarentum                           93
+
+          WAR IN SICILY--
+    216.    Death of Hiero                                            93
+            Succession of Hieronymus                                  93
+            His assassination                                         93
+    214.    Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily                            93
+            He takes Leontini                                         93
+            He lays siege to Syracuse                                 93
+            Defended by Archimedes                                    93
+    212.    Capture of Syracuse                                       94
+
+          WAR IN SPAIN--
+    212.    Capture and death of the two Scipios                      95
+
+          Siege of Capua                                              95
+
+    211.  Hannibal marches upon Rome                                  95
+
+          Is compelled to retreat                                     96
+
+          The Romans recover Capua                                    96
+
+          Punishment of its inhabitants                               93
+
+    209.  The Romans recover Tarentum                                 96
+
+    208.  Defeat and death of Marcellus                               97
+
+    207.  Hasdrubal marches into Italy                                97
+
+          He besieges Placentia                                       97
+
+          March of the Consul Nero to join his colleague Livius
+            in Umbria                                                 97
+
+          Battle of the Metaurus                                      98
+
+          Defeat and death of Hasdrubal                               98
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+     SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO
+                  THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
+
+          Character and early life of Scipio                          99
+
+    210.  He is elected Proconsul for Spain                          100
+
+          He takes New Carthage                                      100
+
+    206.  He subdues Spain                                           101
+
+          He crosses over into Africa and visits Syphax              101
+
+          He returns to Rome                                         102
+
+    205.  His Consulship                                             102
+
+          He prepares to invade Africa                               102
+
+          His project is opposed by Fabius and others                102
+
+    204.  He arrives in Africa                                       103
+
+    203.  He defeats the Carthaginians and Syphax                    103
+
+          Masinissa and Sophonisba                                   103
+
+          The Carthaginians recall Hannibal                          104
+
+    202.  Battle of Zama, and defeat of Hannibal                     104
+
+          Terms of peace                                             105
+
+    201.  Conclusion of the war                                      105
+
+          Triumph of Scipio                                          105
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+         WARS IN THE EAST: THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS.
+                             B.C. 214-188.
+
+          State of the East                                          106
+            Syria                                                    106
+            Pontus                                                   106
+            Galatia                                                  106
+            Pergamus                                                 106
+            Egypt                                                    107
+
+          State of Greece                                            107
+            Macedonia                                                107
+            Achæan League                                            107
+            Ætolian League                                           107
+            Rhodes                                                   107
+            Sparta                                                   107
+
+214-205.  FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR--
+            Its indecisive character                                 108
+    211.    Treaty of the Romans with the Ætolian League             108
+    205.    Conclusion of the war                                    108
+            Philip's hostile acts                                    108
+            He assists the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama       108
+            His conduct in Greece                                    108
+
+200-196.  SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR--
+    200.    First campaign: the Consul Galba                         108
+    199.    Second campaign: the Consul Villius                      109
+    198.    Third campaign: the Consul Flamininus                    109
+    197.    Battle of Cynoscephalæ                                   109
+    196.    Declaration of Grecian independence at the Isthmian
+              Games                                                  109
+
+191-190.  SYRIAN WAR--
+            Antiochus the Third                                      110
+            Intrigues of the Ætolians in Greece                      110
+            They Invite Antiochus to Greece                          110
+            Hannibal expelled from Carthage                          110
+            He arrives in Syria                                      110
+            His advice to Antiochus                                  110
+    192.    Antiochus crosses over to Greece                         110
+    191.    The Romans defeat him at Thermopylæ                      110
+            He returns to Asia                                       110
+    190.    The Romans invade Asia                                   111
+            Battle of Magnesia                                       111
+            Defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus                  111
+            Terms of peace                                           111
+            Hannibal flies to Prusias, king of Bithynia              111
+
+    189.  ÆTOLIAN WAR--
+            Fulvius takes Ambracia                                   111
+            Terms of peace                                           111
+
+    189.  GALATIAN WAR--
+            Manlius attacks the Galatians without the authority of
+              the Senate or the People                               112
+    187.    He returns to Rome                                       113
+
+          Effects of the Eastern conquests upon the Roman character  113
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+          WARS IN THE WEST: THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS.
+                              B.C. 200-175.
+
+    200.  THE GALLIC WAR--
+            The Gauls take Placentia and lay siege to Cremona        113
+            Conquest of the Insubres and Cenomani                    114
+
+    191.  Conquest of the Boil                                       114
+
+    190.  Colony founded at Bononia                                  114
+
+    180.  Via Æmilia                                                 114
+
+    200.  THE LIGURIAN WAR--
+            Continued with intermissions for nearly 80 years         114
+            Character of the war                                     114
+
+    198.  TWO PROVINCES FORMED IN SPAIN                              114
+
+    195.  THE SPANISH WAR--
+            The Consul M. Porcius Cato sent into Spain               114
+            His success                                              115
+            The Spaniards again take up arms                         115
+    180.    The war brought to a conclusion by Tib. Sempronius
+              Gracchus                                               115
+
+    178.  THE ISTRIAN WAR                                            115
+
+177-175.  THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN WAR                             115
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                     THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.
+
+          Review of the history of the Roman Constitution            116
+
+          Political equality of the Patricians and Plebeians         116
+
+            I. THE MAGISTRATES--
+                The Lex Annalis                                      117
+                  1. The Quæstors                                    117
+                  2. The Ædiles                                      117
+                  3. The Prætors                                     117
+                  4. The Consuls                                     118
+                  5. The Dictators                                   118
+                  6. The Censors                                     118
+                    (_a_) The Census                                 118
+                    (_b_) Control over the morals of the citizens    119
+                    (_c_) Administration of the finances of the
+                            state                                    119
+
+           II. THE SENATE--
+                Its number                                           119
+                Its mode of Election                                 119
+                Its power and duties                                 119
+
+          III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES--
+                1. The Comitia Curiata                               120
+                2. The Comitia Centuriata: change in its
+                  constitution                                       120
+                3. The Comitia Tributa                               121
+                The Tribunes                                         121
+                The Plebiscita                                       121
+
+           IV. FINANCES--
+                Tributum                                             121
+                Vectigalia                                           121
+
+            V. THE ARMY--
+                Number of the Legion                                 122
+                  1. _First Period_--Servius Tullius                 122
+                  2. _Second Period_--The Great Latin War, B.C. 340  122
+                    Hastati                                          122
+                    Principes                                        122
+                    Triarii                                          122
+                    Rorarii and Accensi                              123
+                  3. _Third Period_--During the wars of the
+                      younger Scipio                                 123
+                    Two legions assigned to each Consul              123
+                    Division of the legion                           123
+                    The Maniples                                     123
+                    The Cohorts                                      123
+                    The Tribuni Militum                              123
+                    The Horse-soldiers                               123
+                    Infantry of the Socii                            123
+                  4. _Fourth Period_--From the times of the
+                      Gracchi to the downfall of the Republic        123
+                    Changes introduced by Marius                     124
+                Triumphs                                             124
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+       INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS.
+                             CATO AND SCIPIO.
+
+          Effect of the Roman conquests in the East                  126
+
+          Debasement of the Roman character                          126
+
+    192.  Infamous conduct of L. Flamininus                          127
+
+    193.  Worship of Bacchus                                         127
+
+          Gladiatorial exhibitions                                   127
+
+          Rise of the new nobility                                   127
+
+    191.  Law against bribery                                        127
+
+          Decay of the peasant proprietors                           128
+
+          M. Porcius Cato                                            128
+
+    234.  His birth                                                  128
+
+          His early life                                             128
+
+    204.  His Quæstorship                                            129
+
+    198.  His Prætorship                                             129
+
+    195.  His Consulship                                             129
+            Repeal of the Oppian Law                                 130
+
+    191.  Cato serves in the battle of Thermopylæ                    130
+
+          Prosecution of the two Scipios                             130
+
+          Haughty conduct of Scipio Africanus                        130
+
+          Condemnation of Scipio Asiaticus                           130
+
+          Prosecution of Scipio Africanus                            130
+
+          He leaves Rome                                             131
+
+    188.  His death                                                  131
+
+          Death of Hannibal                                          132
+
+    184.  Censorship of Cato                                         132
+
+          He studies Greek in his old age                            132
+
+          His character                                              133
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+      THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHÆAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.
+
+    179.  Death of Philip and accession of Perseus                   134
+
+    172.  Murder of Eumenes, king of Pergamus                        135
+
+171-168.  THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR--
+    168.    Battle of Pydna                                          135
+            Defeat of Perseus by L. Æmilius Paullus                  135
+
+    167.  Æmilius Paullus punishes the Epirotes                      135
+
+          His triumph                                                135
+
+          His domestic misfortunes                                   136
+
+          Haughty conduct of Rome in the East                        136
+
+          Embassy to Antiochus Epiphanes                             136
+
+          Treatment of Eumenes, king of Pergamus                     136
+
+          Mean conduct of Prusias, king of Bythinia                  136
+
+          Treatment of the Rhodians                                  136
+
+    167.  One thousand Achæans sent to Italy                         136
+
+    151.  The survivors allowed to return to Greece                  137
+
+    140.  A pretender lays claim to the throne of Macedonia          137
+
+          He is defeated and taken prisoner                          137
+
+147-146.  THE ACHÆAN WAR--
+    146.    Corinth taken by L. Mummius                              138
+            Final conquest of Greece                                 138
+
+          Rome jealous of Carthage                                   139
+
+          Advice of Scipio                                           139
+
+          War between Masinissa and Carthage                         139
+
+          Conduct of the Romans                                      140
+
+149-146.  THIRD PUNIC WAR--
+    147.    Scipio Africanus the younger, Consul                     140
+            His parentage and adoption                               140
+            His character                                            140
+    146.    He takes Carthage                                        142
+
+          Formation of the Roman province of Africa                  142
+
+          Later history of Carthage                                  142
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+         SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.
+
+    153.  War with the Celtiberians                                  143
+
+    152.  Peace with the Celtiberians                                143
+
+    151.  War with the Lusitanians                                   143
+
+    150.  Treacherous murder of the Lusitanians by Galba             144
+
+          Success of Viriathus against the Romans                    144
+
+          The Celtiberians again take up arms--the Numantine War     144
+
+    140.  Murder of Viriathus                                        145
+
+    138.  Brutus conquers the Gallæci                                145
+
+    137.  The Consul Hostilius Mancinus defeated by the Numantines   145
+
+          He signs a peace with the Numantines                       145
+
+          The Senate refuse to ratify it                             145
+
+    142.  Censorship of Scipio Africanus                             145
+
+    134.  Consul a second time                                       145
+
+          He carries on the war against Numantia                     146
+
+    133.  He takes Numantia                                          146
+
+          Increase of slaves                                         146
+
+          They rise in Sicily                                        146
+
+          They elect Eunus as their leader                           146
+
+          Eunus assumes the title of king                            146
+
+    134.  He defeats the Roman generals                              147
+
+    132.  Is himself defeated and taken prisoner                     147
+
+    133.  Death of Attalus, last king of Pergamus                    147
+
+          He bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans                     147
+
+    131.  Aristonicus lays claim to the kingdom of Pergamus          147
+
+    130.  Is defeated and taken prisoner                             147
+
+    129.  Formation of the province of Asia                          147
+
+          Extent of the Roman dominions                              147
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI.
+
+                        THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.
+
+          Necessity for reform                                       148
+
+          Early life of Tiberius Gracchus                            149
+
+    137.  Quæstor in Spain                                           149
+
+    133.  Elected Tribune                                            150
+
+          Brings forward an Agrarian Law                             150
+
+          Opposition of the landowners                               150
+
+          The Tribune Octavius puts his veto upon it                 150
+
+          Deposition of Octavius                                     151
+
+          The Agrarian Law enseted                                   151
+
+          Three Commissioners elected                                151
+
+          Distribution of the treasures of Pergamus among the Roman
+            people                                                   151
+
+          Renewed opposition to Tiberius                             151
+
+          He becomes a candidate for the Tribunate a second time     151
+
+          Riots                                                      152
+
+          Death of Tiberius                                          152
+
+    132.  Return of Scipio to Rome                                   152
+
+          He opposes the popular party                               153
+
+    129.  Death of Scipio                                            153
+
+    126.  Expulsion of the Allies from Rome                          154
+
+    125.  M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes to give the franchise to the
+            Italians                                                 154
+
+          Revolt and destruction of Fregellæ                         154
+
+    126.  C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as Quæstor                    154
+
+    124.  He returns to Rome                                         157
+
+    123.  He is elected Tribune                                      157
+
+          His legislation                                            157
+            I. Laws for improving the condition of the people        157
+                1. Extension of the Agrarian Law                     157
+                2. State provision for the poor                      157
+                3. Soldiers equipped at the expense of the Republic  157
+           II. Laws to diminish the power of the Senate              157
+                1. Transference of the judicial power from the
+                    Senators to the Equites                          157
+                2. Distribution of the Provinces before the
+                    election of the Consuls                          158
+
+    122.  C. Gracchus Tribune a second time                          158
+
+          Proposes to confer the citizenship upon the Latins         158
+
+          Unpopularity of this proposal                              158
+
+          The Tribune M. Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus              158
+
+          Foundation of a colony at Carthage                         159
+
+          Decline of the popularity of Gracchus                      159
+
+    121.  His murder                                                 160
+
+          Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi                        160
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXII.
+
+                    JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.
+
+          C. MARIUS                                                  161
+    134.    Serves at the siege of Numantia                          161
+            Attracts the notice of Scipio Africanus                  161
+    119.    Tribune of the Plebs                                     162
+    115.    Prætor                                                   162
+
+    149.  Death of Masinissa                                         162
+
+          Accession of Micipsa                                       162
+
+    134.  Jugurtha serves at the siege of Numantia                   162
+
+    118.  Death of Micipsa                                           162
+
+          Jugurtha assassinates Hiempsal                             163
+
+          War between Jugurtha and Adherbal                          163
+
+    117.  Roman commissioners divide Numidia between Jugurtha and
+            Adherbal                                                 163
+
+          Fresh war between Jugurtha and Adherbal                    163
+
+          Siege of Cirta                                             163
+
+    112.  Death of Adherbal                                          163
+
+    111.  The Romans declare war against Jugurtha                    163
+
+          Jugurtha bribes the Consul Calpurnius Bestia               163
+
+          Indignation at Rome                                        163
+
+          Jugurtha comes to Rome                                     164
+
+    111.  He murders Massiva                                         164
+
+          Renewal of the war                                         164
+
+    110.  Incapacity of the Consul Sp. Postumius Albinus             164
+
+          Defeat of his brother Aulus                                164
+
+    109.  Bill of the Tribune C. Mamilius                            164
+
+          Many Romans condemned                                      164
+
+          The Consul Q. Cæcilius Metellus lands in Africa            164
+
+          Accompanied by Marius as his lieutenant                    165
+
+          Metellus defeats Jugurtha                                  165
+
+          Ambitious views of Marius                                  165
+
+    108.  He quits Africa and arrives in Rome                        166
+
+          Is elected Consul                                          166
+
+          Attacks the nobility                                       166
+
+          Campaign of Metellus as Proconsul                          166
+
+          The people give Marius command of the Numidian War         166
+
+    107.  First Consulship of Marius                                 166
+
+          He arrives in Africa                                       166
+
+          He defeats Jugurtha and Bocchus, king of Mauritania        167
+
+    106.  Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla, the Quæstor of
+            Marius                                                   167
+
+          Early history of Sulla                                     167
+
+          His character                                              167
+
+    104.  Triumph of Marius                                          168
+
+          His second Consulship                                      168
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+    THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
+                              B.C. 103-101.
+
+          Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones                        169
+
+          Their probable origin                                      169
+
+    113.  Defeat of the Consul Cn. Papirius Carbo                    169
+
+    109.  Defeat of the Consul M. Junius Silanus                     169
+
+    107.  Defeat of the Consul L. Cassius Longinus                   169
+
+    105.  Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
+            Proconsul Cn. Servilius Cæpio                            170
+
+    104.  Second Consulship of Marius                                170
+
+          The Cimbri invade Spain                                    170
+
+    103.  Third Consulship of Marius                                 170
+
+    102.  Fourth Consulship of Marius                                170
+
+          The Cimbri return from Spain                               170
+
+    102.  Marius takes up his position near Arles                    170
+
+          The Cimbri enter Italy by the Pass of Tridentum            170
+
+          Great defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquæ Sextiæ      171
+
+    101.  Fifth Consulship of Marius                                 171
+
+          Great defeat of the Teutones at Vercellæ by Marius and
+            the Proconsul Catulus                                    171
+
+          Triumph of Marius and Catulus                              171
+
+103-101.  Second Servile War in Sicily                               171
+
+          Tryphon king of the Slaves                                 172
+
+          Succeeded by Athenio as king                               172
+
+    101.  The Consul Aquillius puts an end to the war                172
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+    INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES
+                     TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.
+
+    100.  Sixth Consulship of Marius                                 173
+
+          His league with the demagogues Saturninus and Glaucia      173
+
+          Agrarian Law of Saturninus                                 174
+
+          Banishment of Metellus                                     174
+
+          Saturninus declared a public enemy                         174
+
+          He is put to death                                         175
+
+          Marius visits the East                                     175
+
+     92.  Condemnation of Rutilius Lupus                             175
+
+     91.  Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus                              175
+
+          His measures                                               176
+
+          Proposes to give the franchise to the Italian allies       176
+
+          His assassination                                          176
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXV.
+
+                   THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.
+
+     90.  The Allies take up arms                                    178
+
+          The war breaks out at Asculum in Picenum                   178
+
+          Corfinium the new capital of the Italian confederation     178
+
+          Q. Pompædius Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papius Mutilus, a
+            Samnite, the Italian Consuls                             178
+
+          Defeat and death of the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus     179
+
+          Exploits of Marius                                         179
+
+          The Lex Julia                                              179
+
+     89.  Success of the Romans                                      180
+
+          The Lex Plautia Papiria                                    180
+
+          The franchise given to the Allies                          180
+
+          All the Allies lay down their arms except the Samnites
+            and Lucanians                                            180
+
+          Ten new Tribes formed                                      180
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+                      FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.
+
+     88.  Consulship of Sulla                                        181
+
+          Receives the command of the Mithridatic War                181
+
+          The Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus                             182
+
+          He proposes to distribute the Italians among the
+            thirty-five Tribes                                       182
+
+          Sulla flies from Rome to Nola                              182
+
+          The people give Marius the command of the Mithridatic War  182
+
+          Sulla marches upon Rome                                    182
+
+          Sulpicius put to death                                     183
+
+          Marius flies from Rome                                     183
+
+          His adventures                                             183
+
+          Is seized at Minturnæ                                      183
+
+          Escapes to Africa                                          184
+
+          Sulla sails to the East                                    184
+
+     87.  Riots at Rome                                              185
+
+          The Consul Cinna invites the assistance of Marius          185
+
+          Marius and Cinna march upon Rome                           185
+
+          They enter the city                                        185
+
+          Proscription of their enemies                              185
+
+     86.  Seventh Consulship of Marius                               185
+
+          His death                                                  185
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+                    FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.
+
+          Kingdom of Pontus                                          186
+
+          Its history                                                186
+
+    120.  Accession of Mithridates VI                                186
+
+          His early life                                             186
+
+          His attainments                                            187
+
+          His conquests                                              187
+
+          His disputes with the Romans                               187
+
+     88.  He invades Cappadocia and Bithynia                         187
+
+          He invades the Roman province of Asia                      188
+
+          Massacre of Romans and Italians                            188
+
+     87.  The Grecian states declare in favor of Mithridates         188
+
+          Sulla lands in Epirus                                      188
+
+          He lays siege to Athens and the Piræus                     188
+
+     86.  Takes these cities                                         188
+
+          Defeats Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, at Chæronea 188
+
+     85.  Again defeats Archelaus at Orchomenus                      189
+
+     84.  Peace with Mithridates                                     189
+
+          Sulla attacks Fimbria, the Marian general, in Asia         189
+
+     83.  He returns to Italy                                        189
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+        SECOND CIVIL WAR--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH.
+                                B.C. 83-78.
+
+     84.  Consulship of Cinna and Carbo                              190
+
+          Death of Cinna                                             190
+
+     83.  Consulship of Scipio and Norbanus                          190
+
+          Preparations for war                                       191
+
+          The Italians support the Marian party                      191
+
+          Sulla marches from Brundusium to Campania                  191
+
+          Defeats the Consul Norbanus                                191
+
+          Pompey, Metellus Pius, Crasus, and others, join Sulla      192
+
+     83.  Consulship of Papirus Carbo and the younger Marius         192
+
+          Defeat of Marius, who takes refuge in Præneste             192
+
+          Murder of Senators in Rome by order of Marius              192
+
+          Great battle before the Colline gate at Rome between
+            Sulla and the Samnites                                   192
+
+          Defeat of the Samnites                                     193
+
+          Surrender of Præneste                                      193
+
+          Death of Marius                                            193
+
+          End of the war                                             193
+
+          Sulla master of Rome                                       193
+
+          Proscription                                               193
+
+          Dreadful scenes                                            194
+
+     81.  Sulla dictator                                             194
+
+          He celebrates his triumph over Mithridates                 194
+
+          His reforms in the constitution                            194
+
+          His military colonies                                      194
+
+     73.  He resigns the Dictatorship                                195
+
+          He retires to Puteoli                                      195
+
+     73.  His death                                                  195
+
+          His funeral                                                196
+
+          LEGES CORNELLÆ--
+            I. _Laws relating to the Constitution_                   196
+                Deprive the Comitia Tribute of their legislative
+                  and judicial powers                                196
+                Increase the power of the Senate                     197
+                Increase the number of the Quæstors and Prætors      197
+                Deprive the Tribunes of all real power               197
+           II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations_    197
+                Repeal of the Lex Domitia                            197
+                Increase of the number of Pontiffs and Augurs        197
+          III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice_      197
+                Quæstiones Perpetuæ                                  197
+                Transference of the Judicia from the Equites to
+                  the Senators                                       198
+           IV. _Laws relating to the improvement of Public Morals_   198
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+       FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS.
+                               B.C. 78-70.
+
+     78.  Consulship of Lepidus and Catulus                          199
+
+          Lepidus attempts to repeal the laws of Sulla               199
+
+          Is opposed by Catulus                                      199
+
+          Is defeated at the Mulvian Bridge                          199
+
+          Retires to Sardinia                                        200
+
+          His death                                                  200
+
+     82.  Sertorius in Spain                                         200
+
+     79.  Carries on war against Metellus                            200
+
+          CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS                                        200
+            His birth                                                200
+     89.    Fights against the Italians under his father             200
+     83.    Joins Sulla                                              200
+     82.    Is sent into Sicily and Africa                           200
+     80.    Enters Rome in triumph                                   201
+     78.    Supports the aristocracy against Lepidus                 201
+     76.    Is sent into Spain to assist Metellus                    201
+
+     72.  Assassination of Sertorius by Perperna                     202
+
+     71.  Pompey finishes the war in Spain                           202
+
+     73.  War of the Gladiators: Spartacus                           202
+
+     72.  Spartacus defeats both Consuls                             202
+
+     71.  Crassus appointed to the command of the war against
+            the Gladiators                                           202
+
+          Defeats and slays Spartacus                                203
+
+          Pompey cuts to pieces a body of Gladiators                 203
+
+     70.  Consulship of Pompey and Crassus                           203
+
+          Pompey restores the Tribunitian power                      203
+
+          Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, transferring the Judicia to
+            the Senators, Equites, and Tribuni Ærarii                204
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXX.
+
+                 THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.
+
+     83.  SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR--
+
+          Murena invades Pontus                                      205
+
+     83.  Mithridates defeats Murena                                 205
+
+          End of the Second Mithridatic War                          205
+
+          Preparations of Mithridates                                206
+
+     71.  THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR--
+
+          Mithridates defeats the Consul Cotta                       206
+
+          He lays siege to Cyzicus                                   206
+
+     73.  The siege is raised by Lucullus                            207
+
+          Lucullus defeats Mithridates                               207
+
+     71.  Mithridates takes refuge in Armenia                        207
+
+     70.  Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia                       207
+
+     69.  He invades Armenia and defeats Tigranes                    208
+
+     68.  Lucullus defeats Tigranes and Mithridates, and lays
+            siege to Nisibis                                         208
+
+     67.  Mithridates returns to Pontus and defeats the generals
+            of Lucullus                                              208
+
+          Mutiny in the army of Lucullus                             208
+
+          The command of the Mithridatic War given to Glabrio        209
+
+          WAR WITH THE PIRATES--
+            Account of the Pirates                                   209
+            Command of the war given by the Gabinian Law to Pompey   210
+            Success of Pompey                                        210
+            He finishes the war                                      210
+
+     66.  THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR CONTINUED                            210
+
+          Command of the Mithridatic War given by the Manilian Law
+            to Pompey                                                210
+
+          It is opposed by the aristocracy                           211
+
+          It is supported by Cicero                                  211
+
+          Pompey defeats Mithridates                                 211
+
+          Mithridates retires into the Cimmerian Bosporus            211
+
+          Pompey invades Armenia                                     212
+
+          Submission of Tigranes                                     212
+
+     65.  Pompey pursues Mithridates                                 212
+
+          He advances as far as the River Phasis                     212
+
+          He returns to Pontus, which he reduces to the form of
+            a Roman province                                         212
+
+     64.  He marches into Syria, which he makes a Roman province     212
+
+     63.  He subdues Phoenicia and Palestine                         212
+
+          He takes Jerusalem                                         212
+
+          Preparations of Mithridates                                213
+
+          Conspiracy against him                                     213
+
+          His death                                                  213
+
+          Pompey settles the affairs of Asia                         213
+
+     62.  He returns to Italy                                        213
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+      INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
+         RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST: THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE.
+                               B.C. 69-61.
+
+          C. JULIUS CÆSAR--
+    100.    His birth                                                214
+            His early history                                        214
+            Proscribed by Sulla                                      215
+     81.    He serves in Asia                                        215
+     77.    Accuses Dolabella                                        215
+            Taken by the Pirates                                     215
+     75.    Studies in Rhodes                                        215
+     68.    Quæstor                                                  215
+     65.    Curule Ædile                                             216
+            Restores the statues of Marius                           216
+
+          M. TULLIUS CICERO--
+    106.    His birth                                                216
+     80.    Serves in the Social War                                 216
+     81.    His speech for P. Quintius                               216
+     80.    His speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria                    216
+     79.    He goes to Athens                                        216
+     78.    He studies in Rome                                       216
+     77.    He returns to Rome                                       216
+     76.    Quæstor in Sicily                                        217
+     70.    He accuses Verres                                        217
+     68.    Ædile                                                    217
+     66.    Prætor                                                   217
+            He speaks on behalf of the Manilian law                  217
+
+     65.  First conspiracy of Catiline                               217
+
+          History of Catiline                                        218
+
+     63.  Consulship of Cicero                                       219
+
+          Second conspiracy of Catiline                              219
+
+          Catiline quits Rome                                        220
+
+          Cicero seizes the conspirators                             220
+
+          They are put to death                                      221
+
+     62.  Defeat and death of Catiline                               221
+
+          Popularity of Cicero                                       221
+
+          Remarks upon the punishment of the conspirators            221
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXII.
+
+   FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
+                                B.C. 62-57.
+
+     62.  Pompey arrives in Italy                                    223
+
+     61.  Triumph of Pompey                                          223
+
+          State of parties in Rome                                   224
+
+     60.  The Senate refuses to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia   224
+
+     63.  Prætorship of Cæsar                                        224
+
+     61.  Proprætor in Spain                                         224
+
+     60.  His victories in Spain                                     224
+
+          He returns to Rome                                         225
+
+          FIRST TRIUMVIRATE                                          225
+
+     59.  Consulship of Cæsar                                        225
+
+          Agrarian Law for the division of the Campanian land        225
+
+          Ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia                      225
+
+          Marriage of Julia, Cæsar's daughter, with Pompey           225
+
+          Cæsar gains over the Equites                               225
+
+          Vatinian Law, granting to Cæsar the provinces of
+            Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years              226
+
+          Transalpine Gaul added                                     226
+
+     62.  Clodius profanes the rites of the Bona Dea                 226
+
+     61.  His trial and acquittal                                    227
+
+          His enmity against Cicero                                  227
+
+     58.  Tribune of the Plebs                                       227
+
+          He accuses Cicero                                          227
+
+          Banishment of Cicero                                       227
+
+     57.  Riots at Rome between Clodius and Milo                     227
+
+          Return of Cicero from banishment                           228
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+                   CÆSAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-51.
+
+     58.  _First Campaign_                                           229
+            He defeats the Helvetii                                  229
+            He defeats Ariovistus and the Germans                    230
+
+     57.  _Second Campaign_                                          230
+            The Belgic War                                           230
+            Great victory over the Nervii                            230
+
+     55.  _Third Campaign_                                           230
+            He defeats the Veneti                                    231
+            He defeats the Morini and Menapii                        231
+
+     55.  _Fourth Campaign_                                          231
+            Cæsar crosses the Rhine                                  231
+            His first invasion of Britain                            231
+
+     54.  _Fifth Campaign_                                           232
+            His second invasion of Britain                           232
+            Revolt of the Eburones                                   232
+            They destroy the detachment of T. Titurius Sabinus
+              and L. Aurunculeius Cotta                              232
+            They attack the camp of Q. Cicero                        232
+
+     53.  _Sixth Campaign_                                           232
+            Cæsar puts down the revolt in Gaul                       233
+            He crosses the Rhine a second time                       233
+
+     52.  _Seventh Campaign_                                         233
+            Revolt of all Gaul                                       233
+            Headed by Vercingetorix                                  233
+            Cæsar takes Alesia and Vercingetorix                     234
+
+     51.  _Eighth Campaign_                                          234
+            Pacification of Gaul                                     234
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIV.
+
+       INTERNAL HISTORY FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
+        COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR: EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS.
+                                B.C. 57-50.
+
+
+     57.  Cicero supports the Triumvirs                              235
+
+     56.  Pompey and Crassus meet Cæsar at Luca                      236
+
+          Fresh arrangements for the continuance of their power      236
+
+     55.  Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus                    236
+
+          The Trebonian Law, giving the two Spains to Pompey and
+            Syria to Crassus, and prolonging Pompey's government
+            for five years more                                      236
+
+          Dedication of Pompey's theatre                             236
+
+     54.  Crassus crosses the Euphrates                              237
+
+          He winters in Syria                                        237
+
+     53.  He again crosses the Euphrates                             237
+
+          Is defeated and slain near Carrhæ                          237
+
+     54.  Death of Julia                                             237
+
+     53.  Riots in Rome                                              238
+
+     52.  Murder of Clodius by Milo                                  238
+
+          Pompey sole Consul                                         238
+
+          Trial and condemnation of Milo                             238
+
+     51.  Rupture between Cæsar and Pompey                           239
+
+          Pompey joins the aristocratical party                      239
+
+     49.  Proposition that Cæsar should lay down his command         240
+
+          The Senate invest the Consuls with dictatorial power       240
+
+          The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fly to Cæsar's camp        240
+
+          Commencement of the Civil War                              240
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXV.
+
+     THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CÆSAR'S DEATH, B.C. 49-44.
+
+     49.  Cæsar at Ravenna                                           241
+
+          He crosses the Rubicon                                     241
+
+          His triumphal progress through Italy                       241
+
+          Pompey and his party fly from Rome to Brundusium           242
+
+          They are pursued by Cæsar                                  242
+
+          They embark for Greece                                     242
+
+          Cæsar goes to Rome                                         242
+
+          He sets out for Spain                                      242
+
+          He conquers L. Africanus and M. Petreius, Pompey's
+            lieutenants in Spain                                     243
+
+          Is appointed Dictator, which office he holds only
+            eleven days                                              243
+
+          He takes Massilia                                          243
+
+     48.  He sails from Brundusium to Greece                         243
+
+          He besieges Pompey at Dyrrhachium                          244
+
+          Is compelled to retire                                     241
+
+          Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat of Pompey                  244
+
+          Pompey flies to Egypt                                      245
+
+          His death                                                  245
+
+          Cæsar is appointed Dictator a second time                  245
+
+          The Alexandrine War                                        245
+
+     47.  Conclusion of the Alexandrine War                          246
+
+          Cæsar marches into Pontus and defeats Pharnaces            246
+
+          He sails to Africa                                         246
+
+     46.  Battle of Thapsus, and defeat of the Pompeians             246
+
+          Siege of Utica                                             247
+
+          Death of Cato                                              247
+
+          Cæsar returns to Rome                                      247
+
+          His triumph                                                247
+
+          His reformation of the Calendar                            247
+
+          Insurrection in Spain                                      248
+
+          Cæsar sets out for Spain                                   248
+
+     45.  Battle of Munda, and defeat of the Pompeians               248
+
+          Cæsar returns to Rome                                      248
+
+          He is undisputed master of the Roman world                 248
+
+          Honors conferred upon him                                  248
+
+          Use he made of his power                                   248
+
+          His vast projects                                          249
+
+     44.  Conspiracy against Cæsar's life                            249
+
+          Brutus and Cassius                                         249
+
+          Assassination of Cæsar on the Ides of March                250
+
+          Reflections on his death                                   250
+
+          His character and genius                                   250
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVI.
+
+        FROM THE DEATH OF CÆSAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.
+
+     44.  Proceedings of the conspirators                            252
+
+          Antony and Lepidus                                         253
+
+          Pretended reconciliation                                   253
+
+          Cæsar's will                                               253
+
+          His funeral                                                253
+
+          Popular indignation against the conspirators               253
+
+          They fly from Home                                         253
+
+          OCTAVIUS, Cæsar's nephew, at Illyricum                     253
+
+          Is made Cæsar's heir                                       253
+
+          He proceeds to Rome                                        254
+
+          His opposition to Antony                                   254
+
+          He courts the Senate                                       254
+
+          Antony proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul, and lays siege to
+            Mutina                                                   254
+
+     43.  Cicero's second Philippic                                  254
+
+          Octavian and the Consuls Hirtius and Pansa march
+            against Antony                                           255
+
+          They attack Antony                                         255
+
+          Death of Hirtius and Pansa                                 255
+
+          Antony is defeated, and crosses the Alps                   255
+
+          Octavian marches to Rome                                   255
+
+          Is declared Consul                                         255
+
+          Breaks with the Senate, and outlaws the murderers
+            of Cæsar                                                 255
+
+          Marches against Antony and Lepidus                         255
+
+          Is reconciled with them                                    256
+
+          SECOND TRIUMVIRATE                                         256
+
+          The Triumvirs enter Rome                                   256
+
+          Dreadful Scenes                                            256
+
+          Death of Cicero                                            257
+
+          Sextus Pompey master of Sicily and the Mediterranean       257
+
+          He defeats the fleet of the Triumvirs                      257
+
+          Brutus obtains possession of Macedonia                     258
+
+          Cassius, of Syria                                          258
+
+          Their proceedings in the East                              258
+
+          They plunder Asia Minor                                    258
+
+     42.  They return to Europe to meet the Triumvirs                258
+
+          Battle of Philippi                                         261
+
+          Death of Brutus and Cassius                                261
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVII.
+
+       FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.
+
+
+     41.  Antony remains in the East                                 262
+
+          He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus                               262
+
+          He accompanies her to Alexandria                           263
+
+          Octavian returns to Rome                                   263
+
+          Confusion in Italy                                         263
+
+          Confiscation of lands                                      263
+
+          Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and L. Antonius, his
+            brother, rise against Antony                             263
+
+          They take refuge in Perusia                                263
+
+     40.  Capture of Perusia, and end of the war                     263
+
+          The Parthians invade Syria                                 264
+
+          Antony joins Sextus Pompey and lays siege to Brundusium    264
+
+          Reconciliation between Antony and Octavian                 264
+
+          Fresh division of the Roman world                          264
+
+          Antony marries Octavia                                     264
+
+     39.  Peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum                        264
+
+          Ventidius, the Legate of Antony, defeats the Parthians     265
+
+     38.  He again defeats the Parthians                             265
+
+          Death of Pacorus                                           265
+
+          War with Sextus Pompey                                     265
+
+          He destroys the fleet of Octavian                          265
+
+     37.  Antony comes to Tarentum                                   266
+
+          Triumvirate renewed for another period of five years       266
+
+     36.  Renewal of the war with Sextus Pompey                      266
+
+          His defeat                                                 266
+
+          He flies to Asia                                           266
+
+          Lepidus deprived of his Triumvirate                        266
+
+     35.  Death of Pompey                                            266
+
+     30.  Antony joins Cleopatra                                     267
+
+          His infatuation                                            267
+
+          He invades Parthia                                         267
+
+          His disastrous retreat                                     267
+
+     34.  He invades Armenia                                         267
+
+          Octavian subdues the Dalmatians                            267
+
+          His prudent conduct                                        267
+
+     33.  Rupture between Octavian and Antony                        267
+
+     32.  War against Cleopatra                                      268
+
+     31.  Battle of Actium                                           268
+
+          Defeat of Antony                                           268
+
+          He flies to Alexandria                                     268
+
+     30.  Death of Antony and Cleopatra                              269
+
+          Egypt made a Roman province                                269
+
+          End of the Republic                                        269
+
+     29.  Triumph of Octavian                                        269
+
+     27.  He receives the title of Augustus                          270
+
+          His policy                                                 270
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVIII.
+
+        SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST
+                      TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.
+
+          Poetry--
+
+          Saturnian Metre                                            272
+
+          Commencement of Roman Literature                           272
+
+          _The Drama_--
+    240.    M. Livius Andronicus                                     272
+    235.    Cn. Nævius                                               273
+239-169.    Q. Ennius                                                273
+254-184.    T. Maccius Plautus                                       273
+195-159.    P. Terentius Afer                                        274
+    160.    Q. Cæcilius                                              274
+    100.    L. Afranius                                              274
+220-180.    M. Pacuvius                                              275
+ 170-90.    L. Accius                                                275
+
+          _Comoediæ Togatæ_                                          274
+
+          _Comoediæ Palliatæ_                                        274
+
+          _Comoediæ Prætextatæ_                                      275
+
+          _Atellanæ Fabulæ_                                          275
+
+          _Mimes_                                                    275
+     50.    Dec. Laberius                                            275
+            P. Syrus                                                 275
+
+          _Fescennine Songs_                                         276
+
+          _Satire_                                                   276
+148-103.    C. Lucilius                                              276
+  95-51.    T. Lucretius Carus                                       276
+  87-47.    Valerius Catullus                                        276
+  70-19.    P. Virgilius Maro                                        277
+   65-8.    Q. Horatius Flaccus                                      278
+     30.    Albius Tibullus                                          280
+            Aurelius Propertius                                      280
+B.C. A.D.
+  43-18.    P. Ovidius Naso                                          281
+
+  B.C.    PROSE WRITERS--
+
+          _The Annalists_                                            282
+    210.    Q. Fabius Pictor                                         282
+            L. Cincius Alimentus                                     282
+234-140.    M. Porcius Cato                                          282
+ 106-43.    M. Tullius Cicero                                        282
+ 117-28.    M. Terentius Varro                                       283
+ 100-41.    C. Julius Cæsar                                          283
+  86-34.    C. Sallustius Crispus                                    284
+            Cornelius Nepos                                          284
+B.C. A.D.
+  53-17.    Titus Livius                                             284
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIX.
+
+                THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.
+
+          Conduct of Augustus                                        286
+
+          His friends                                                286
+
+          Police of Rome                                             286
+
+          Condition of the empire                                    287
+
+          Italy, Gaul, and Spain                                     287
+
+          Africa                                                     288
+
+          Egypt and Greece                                           288
+
+          Boundaries of the empire                                   289
+
+          The Prætorian guard                                        290
+
+          Army and navy                                              290
+
+          Augustus in Spain                                          291
+
+          His family                                                 291
+
+          His wife, Livia                                            292
+
+          Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius                                 292
+
+          Cains and Lucius Cæsar                                     293
+
+          Birth of the Savior                                        293
+
+          Death of Augustus                                          294
+
+          His character and personal appearance                      294
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XL.
+
+      FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.
+
+          Accession of Tiberius                                      295
+
+          Germanicus                                                 296
+
+          His death                                                  296
+
+          The Lex Majestas                                           297
+
+          The Delatores                                              297
+
+          Sejanus                                                    297
+
+          Death of Sejanus                                           298
+
+          Death of Tiberius                                          299
+
+          Caligula                                                   299
+
+          Claudius                                                   300
+
+          His conduct                                                300
+
+          The Emperor Nero                                           301
+
+          His crimes                                                 301
+
+          Vitellius                                                  302
+
+          Vespasian                                                  302
+
+          Fall of Jerusalem                                          303
+
+          Reign of Titus                                             304
+
+          The Colosseum                                              304
+
+          Reign of Domitian                                          305
+
+          He persecutes the Christians                               305
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLI.
+
+     PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF
+                     M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.
+
+          The Emperor Nerva                                          306
+
+          Prosperity of the empire                                   306
+
+          Trajan                                                     307
+
+          His wise administration                                    307
+
+          The Dacian war                                             308
+
+          Conquests in the East                                      308
+
+          Trajan's public works                                      309
+
+          Reign of Hadrian                                           309
+
+          His travels                                                310
+
+          His death                                                  312
+
+          Antoninus Pius                                             313
+
+          His excellent character                                    313
+
+          Marcus Aurelius                                            314
+
+          His conduct                                                315
+
+          He defeats the Barbarians                                  316
+
+          The depraved Commodus                                      316
+
+          His vices                                                  316
+
+          Is assassinated                                            316
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLII.
+
+                FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.
+
+          Pertinax made emperor                                      319
+
+          Is assassinated                                            319
+
+          Didius Julianus                                            319
+
+          Severus                                                    320
+
+          His severe rule                                            320
+
+          Geta and Caracalla                                         321
+
+          Papinian executed                                          321
+
+          Cruelties of Caracalla                                     322
+
+          Elagabalus                                                 322
+
+          Alexander Severus                                          322
+
+          Maximin                                                    323
+
+          The Goths invade the empire                                324
+
+          Valerian                                                   325
+
+          Thirty tyrants                                             325
+
+          Zenobia                                                    325
+
+          Aurelian                                                   325
+
+          The Emperor Tacitus                                        326
+
+          Frugal habits of Carus                                     326
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLIII.
+
+         FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
+
+          Diocletian                                                 327
+
+          His colleagues                                             328
+
+          Persecution of the Christians                              329
+
+          Abdication of Diocletian                                   329
+
+          Constantine the Great                                      330
+
+          His administration                                         331
+
+          The Council of Nice                                        332
+
+          Constantinople                                             332
+
+          Its magnificence                                           333
+
+          The præfectures                                            334
+
+          Christianity the national religion                         334
+
+          Taxes                                                      334
+
+          Family of Constantine                                      335
+
+          He is baptized and dies                                    335
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLIV.
+
+         FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS,
+                                 A.D. 476.
+
+          The three sons of Constantine                              336
+
+          Constantius jealous of Julian                              337
+
+          Julian becomes emperor                                     337
+
+          Attempts to restore Paganism                               337
+
+          Valentinian                                                338
+
+          The Huns appear in Europe                                  338
+
+          The Goths cross the Danube                                 338
+
+          Theodosius the Great                                       339
+
+          Stilicho                                                   339
+
+          Alaric enters Italy                                        340
+
+          Luxury of the Romans                                       340
+
+          Sack of Rome                                               341
+
+          Arcadius and Honorius                                      341
+
+          The Vandals                                                342
+
+          The Huns                                                   342
+
+          Romulus Augustulus                                         343
+
+          Extinction of the Empire of the West                       343
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLV.
+
+             ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.
+
+          Decline of letters                                         344
+
+          Epic poetry--Lucan                                         344
+
+          Silius Italicus                                            344
+
+          Claudian                                                   345
+
+          Persius, Juvenal                                           345
+
+          Martial                                                    346
+
+          History--Velleius Paterculus                               346
+
+          Valerius Maximus                                           346
+
+          Tacitus                                                    347
+
+          Quintus Curtius                                            347
+
+          Rhetoric--Seneca the elder                                 348
+
+          Quintilian                                                 348
+
+          Appuleius                                                  349
+
+          Philosophy--Seneca                                         349
+
+          The elder Pliny                                            349
+
+          His nephew                                                 350
+
+          Grammarians--Macrobius                                     350
+
+          Marcellinus                                                350
+
+          Legal writers--Gains                                       350
+
+          Science and art                                            351
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The Roman Forum                                             FRONTISPIECE
+Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens                        TITLE-PAGE
+Map of Italy
+Temple of Janus                                                       vi
+Julius Cæsar                                                         vii
+Virgil                                                               xxx
+Tivoli, the ancient Tibur                                              1
+Gate of Arpinum                                                        6
+The Alban Hills                                                        7
+Plan of the City of Romulus                                           11
+Salii carrying the Ancilia                                            13
+Arch of Volaterræ                                                     15
+Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina                                    16
+Cloaca Maxima                                                         17
+Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills             21
+Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors      23
+The Campagna of Rome                                                  29
+The Environs of Rome                                                  33
+Tarpeian Rock                                                         36
+View in the neighborhood of Veii                                      41
+Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored                                45
+Ruins at Capua                                                        52
+Coin of Pyrrhus                                                       60
+Temple of Vesta                                                       67
+Mount Ercta in Sicily                                                 68
+Columna Rostrata                                                      71
+Plan of Mount Ercta                                                   76
+Coin of Carthage                                                      77
+Coin of Hiero                                                         81
+Lake Trasimenus                                                       82
+Map of the coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the history of
+      the Punic Wars                                                  85
+Route of Hannibal                                                     89
+Plain of Cannæ                                                        91
+Hannibal                                                              99
+The Capitoline Wolf                                                  105
+Coin of Antiochus the Great                                          106
+Roman Soldiers                                                       113
+Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus                                        115
+Lictors                                                              116
+A Roman general addressing the soldiers                              125
+Scipio Africanus                                                     126
+Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges          134
+Plan of Carthage                                                     141
+Personification of the River Tiber                                   143
+Stairs of the modern Capitol                                         148
+The Forum in its present state                                       155
+Temple of Saturn at Rome                                             160
+A Roman Trophy                                                       161
+Soldiers blowing Tubæ and Cornua                                     168
+Caius Marius                                                         169
+Fasces                                                               172
+Tomb of Metella Cæcilia                                              173
+Beneventum in Samnium                                                177
+Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation      178
+Terracina                                                            181
+Mount Argæus in Cappadocia                                           186
+Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia                             189
+Brundusium                                                           190
+Coin of Sulla                                                        198
+Cn. Pompeius Magnus                                                  199
+Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome                                 204
+Coin of Mithridates                                                  205
+Coin of Tigranes                                                     207
+Cicero                                                               214
+Coin of Pompey                                                       222
+Julius Cæsar                                                         223
+Temple of Hercules at Rome                                           228
+Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison Carrée_         229
+Ruins on the Esquiline                                               235
+Marcus Brutus                                                        241
+Coin of Julius Cæsar                                                 250
+Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga                             251
+M. Antonius                                                          252
+Philippi                                                             259
+Coin of Antony and Cleopatra                                         261
+M. Agrippa                                                           262
+Plan of Actium                                                       268
+Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire                             271
+Horace                                                               272
+Mæcenas                                                              285
+Aureus of Augustus Cæsar                                             288
+Gold Coin of Agrippa                                                 292
+The Carpentum or Chariot                                             293
+Medal of Augustus                                                    294
+Medal of Nero                                                        295
+Roman Galley                                                         299
+Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius                                        306
+Trajan's Pillar                                                      308
+Hadrian's Mausoleum restored                                         311
+Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoninus Pius                            313
+Commodus                                                             317
+Pertinax                                                             318
+Septimius Severus                                                    319
+Caracalla                                                            321
+Alexander Severus                                                    323
+Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spolatro                        327
+Constantino and Fausta                                               330
+Arch of Constantine                                                  331
+Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, and Bosphorus                      333
+Map of Constantinople                                                333
+Julian the Apostate                                                  336
+Juvenal                                                              351
+Coin of Augustus                                                     361
+
+[Illustration: Virgil.]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ROME.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tivoli, the ancient Tibur.]
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
+
+
+Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which project
+from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on
+the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a natural barrier, and it
+is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its shores are washed on the
+west by the "Mare Inferum," or the Lower Sea, and on the east by the
+Adriatic, called by the Romans the "Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea.
+It may be divided into two parts, the northern consisting of the great
+plain drained by the River Padus, or _Po_, and its tributaries, and the
+southern being a long tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone
+running down its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length
+of the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles.
+The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the southern
+portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till the time of
+the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of the Po in Italy. To
+this country they gave the general name of GALLIA CISALPINA, or Gaul on
+this (the Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited
+by Gauls. The western-most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian
+tribes, and was therefore called LIGURIA, while its eastern extremity
+formed the Roman province of VENETIA.
+
+The name ITALIA was originally applied to a very small tract of country.
+It was at first confined to the southern portion of Calabria, and was
+gradually extended northward, till about the time of the Punic wars it
+indicated the whole peninsula south of the Rivers Rubicon and Macra, the
+former separating Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, the latter Liguria and
+Etruria. Italy, properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being
+filled up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the offshoots
+or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea,
+but in others leave a considerable space of level or low country.
+Excluding the plain of the Po, it was divided into the following
+districts:[1]
+
+1. ETRURIA, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the
+River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the Tiber
+also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from Umbria,
+afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. Its inhabitants
+were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being still preserved in
+the name of _Tuscany_. Besides the Tiber it possesses only one other
+river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, upon which the city of
+_Florence_ now stands. Of its lakes the most considerable is the Lacus
+Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in circumference, celebrated for the
+great victory which Hannibal there gained over the Romans.
+
+2. UMBRIA, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the
+valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was separated on
+the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on the south by the
+Æsis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sabines.
+
+3. PICENUM extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the Æsis to
+that of the Matrinus and inland as far as the central ridge of the
+Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the south by the
+Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sabini. Its inhabitants, the
+Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is mentioned below.
+
+4. The SABINI inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the central chain
+of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Latium, and
+the country of the Marsi and Vestini. They were one of the most ancient
+races of Italy, and the progenitors of the far more numerous tribes
+which, under the names of Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread
+themselves to the east and south. Modern writers have given the general
+name of _Sabellians_ to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other
+mountaineers, were brave, hardy, and frugal; and even the Romans looked
+up to them with admiration on account of their proverbial honesty and
+temperance.
+
+5. The MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, and MARRUCINI inhabited the valleys of
+the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being probably all of
+Sabine origin. The MARSI dwelt inland around the basin of the Lake
+Fucinus, which is about thirty miles in circumference, and the only
+one of any extent in the central Apennines. The PELIGNI also occupied an
+inland district east of the MARSI. The VESTINI dwelt east of the
+Sabines, and possessed on the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space
+between the mouth of the Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of
+about six miles. The MARRUCINI inhabited a narrow strip of country on
+the Adriatic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the
+Vestini and on the south by the Frentani.
+
+6. The FRENTANI dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the frontiers
+of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded on the west by
+the Samnites, from whom they were originally descended, but they appear
+in Roman history as an independent people.
+
+7. LATIUM was used in two senses. It originally signified only the land
+of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded by the Tiber
+on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the sea on the west, and
+by the Alban Hills on the south. But after the conquest of the
+Volscians, Hernici, Æquians, and other tribes, originally independent,
+the name of Latium was extended to all the country which the latter had
+previously occupied. It was thus applied to the whole region from the
+borders of Etruria to those of Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris.
+The original abode of the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban
+Mountains are a great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have
+been filled with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban Lake is one of
+the most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the
+_Campagna_, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating tract,
+intersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep
+channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is composed.
+The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient times. The malaria
+of the Campagna renders Rome itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn;
+and the Pontine Marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of
+Latium for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential.
+
+8. CAMPANIA extended along the coast from the Liris, which separated it
+from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the boundary of Lucania. It is
+the fairest portion of Italy. The greater part of it is an unbroken
+plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in modern times for its
+extraordinary beauty and fertility. The _Bay of Naples_--formerly called
+Sinus Cumanus and Puteolanus, from the neighboring cities of Cumæ and
+Puteoli--is one of the most lovely spots in the world; and the softness
+of its climate, as well as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the
+Roman nobles, who had numerous villas along its coasts.
+
+9. SAMNIUM was an inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi and
+Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the west by Latium
+and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It is a mountainous country,
+being entirely filled with the masses of the Apennines. Its inhabitants,
+the Samnites, were of Sabine origin, as has been already mentioned, and
+they settled in the country at a comparatively late period. They were
+one of the most warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce
+struggle with the Romans.
+
+10. APULIA extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the Frentani on
+the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded on the west by the
+Apennines, which separated it from Samnium and Lucania. It consists
+almost entirely of a great plain, sloping down from the Apennines to the
+sea.
+
+11. CALABRIA formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, and
+surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no mountains, and
+only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines running to the southwest
+through Lucania and the Bruttii.
+
+12. LUCANIA was bounded on the north by Campania and Samnium, on the
+east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The Apennines run
+through the province in its whole extent. The Lucanians were a branch of
+the Samnite nation, which separated from the main body of that people,
+and pressed on still farther to the south.
+
+13. The BRUTTII[2] inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, lying
+south of Lucania; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed
+throughout by the chain of the Apennines.
+
+Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. The
+lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its shores on
+both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to
+adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest
+parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of the Apennines corn is
+produced in abundance; olives flourish on the southern slopes of the
+mountains; and the vine is cultivated in every part of the peninsula,
+the vineyards of northern Campania being the most celebrated in
+antiquity.
+
+The early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great
+classes--the _Italians_ proper, the _Iapygians_, and the _Etruscans_,
+who are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective
+languages.
+
+(1.) The _Italians_ proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. They
+were divided into two branches, the _Latins_ and the _Umbro-Sabellians_,
+including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their numerous colonies.
+The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabellians, though marked by
+striking differences, still show clearest evidence of a common origin,
+and both are closely related to the Greek. It is evident that at some
+remote period a race migrated from the East, embracing the ancestors of
+both the Greeks and Italians--that from it the Italians branched
+off--and that they again were divided into the Latins on the west and
+the Umbrians and Sabellians on the east.
+
+(2.) The _Iapygians_ dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast corner
+of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here been discovered,
+clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to a different race from
+those whom we have designated as the Italians. They were doubtless the
+oldest inhabitants of Italy, who were driven toward the extremity of the
+peninsula as the Latins and Sabellians pressed farther to the south.
+
+(3.) The _Etruscans_, or, as they called themselves, _Rasena_, form a
+striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the Greeks.
+Their language is radically different from the other languages of Italy;
+and their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people
+originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races. Their
+religion was of a gloomy character, delighting in mysteries and in wild
+and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. Most ancient writers relate
+that the Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to
+Italy; but this is very improbable, and it is now more generally
+believed that the Etruscans descended into Italy from, the Rhætian Alps.
+It is expressly stated by ancient writers that the Rhætians were
+Etruscans, and that they spoke the same language; while their name is
+perhaps the same as that of Rasena, the native name of the Etruscans. In
+more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans inhabited
+not only the country called Etruria, but also the great plain of the Po,
+as far as the foot of the Alps. Here they maintained their ground till
+they were expelled or subdued by the invading Gauls. The Etruscans, both
+in the north of Italy and to the south of the Apennines, consisted of a
+confederacy of twelve cities, each of which was independent, possessing
+the power of even making war and peace on its own account. In Etruria
+proper Volsinii was regarded as the metropolis.
+
+Besides these three races, two foreign races also settled in the
+peninsula in historical times. These are the _Greeks_ and the Gauls.
+
+(4.) The _Greeks_ planted so many colonies upon the coasts of southern
+Italy that they gave to that district the name of Magna Græcia. The most
+ancient, and, at the same time, the most northerly Greek city in Italy,
+was Cumæ in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies were situated
+farther to the south, where many of them attained to great power and
+opulence. Of these, some of the most distinguished were Tarentum,
+Sybaris, Croton, and Metapontum.
+
+(5.) The _Gauls_, as we have already said, occupied the greater part of
+northern Italy, and were so numerous and important as to give to the
+whole basin of the Po the name of Gallia Cisalpina. They were of the
+same race with the Gauls who inhabited the country beyond the Alps, and
+their migration and settlement in Italy were referred by the Roman
+historian to the time of the Tarquins.
+
+[Illustration: Gate of Arpinum.]
+
+[Footnote 1: The description which follows in the text must be compared
+with the map of Italy given in this work.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The name "Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers
+on ancient geography, is not found in any classical author.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Alban Hills.]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
+
+
+The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only a few
+miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominions at first over
+Italy and then over the civilized world. The city lay in the central
+part of the peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and about fifteen
+miles from its mouth. Its situation was upon the borders of three of the
+most powerful races in Italy, the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Though
+originally a Latin town, it received at an early period a considerable
+Sabine population, which left a permanent impression upon the sacred
+rites and religious institutions of the people. The Etruscans exercised
+less influence upon Rome, though it appears nearly certain that a part
+of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the two Tarquins
+represent the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome. The
+population of the city may therefore be regarded as one of mixed origin,
+consisting of the three elements of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, but
+the last in much smaller proportion than the other two. That the Latin
+element predominated over the Sabine is also evident from the fact that
+the language of the Romans was a Latin and not a Sabellian dialect.
+
+The early history of Rome is given in an unbroken narrative by the Roman
+writers, and was received by the Romans themselves as a faithful record
+of facts. But it can no longer be regarded in that light. Not only is it
+full of marvelous tales and poetical embellishments, of contradictions
+and impossibilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all
+history must be based. The reader, therefore, must not receive the
+history of the first four centuries of the city as a statement of
+undoubted facts, though it has unquestionably preserved many
+circumstances which did actually occur. It is not until we come to the
+war with Pyrrhus that we can place full reliance upon the narrative as a
+trustworthy statement of facts. With this caution we now proceed to
+relate the celebrated legends of the foundation and early history of
+Home.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Æneas, son of Anchises and Venus, fled after the fall of Troy to seek a
+new home in a foreign land. He carried with him his son Ascanius, the
+Penates or household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.[3] Upon reaching
+the coast of Latium he was kindly received by Latinus, the king of the
+country, who gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. Æneas now built
+a city, which he named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. But Lavinia had
+been previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. This
+youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. He was
+slain, however, by the hands of Æneas; but in a new war which broke out
+three years afterward the Trojan hero disappeared amid the waters of the
+River Numicius, and was henceforward worshiped under the name of Jupiter
+Indiges, or "god of the country."
+
+Ascanius, who was also called Iulus, removed from Lavinium thirty years
+after its foundation, and built Alba Longa, or the "Long White City," on
+a ridge of the Alban Mount about fifteen miles southeast of Rome. It
+became the most powerful city in Latium, and the head of a confederacy
+of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the family of Æneas succeeded Ascanius.
+The last of these, named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius.
+Amulius, the younger, seized the kingdom; and Numitor, who was of a
+peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. Amulius,
+fearing lest the children of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his
+usurpation, caused his only son to be murdered, and made his daughter,
+Rhea Silvia, one of the vestal virgins, who were compelled to live and
+die unmarried. But the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of
+twins. She was, in consequence, put to death, because she had broken
+her vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the river. The Tiber
+had overflowed its banks far and wide; and the cradle in which the babes
+were placed was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on
+the root of a wild fig-tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the
+stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them; and when
+they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred to Mars, brought
+it to them. At length, this marvelous spectacle was seen by Faustulus,
+the king's shepherd, who took the children home to his wife, Acca
+Larentia. They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew up along with the
+sons of their foster-parents on the Palatine Hill.
+
+A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled
+their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aventine. Remus was taken by
+a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor. His age and noble bearing made
+Numitor think of his grandsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the
+tale of the marvelous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterward
+Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor; suspicion was
+changed into certainty, and the old man recognized them as his
+grandsons. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had
+suffered. With the help of their faithful comrades they slew Amulius,
+and placed Numitor on the throne.
+
+Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left Alba to
+found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute arose between the
+brothers where the city should be built, and after whose name it should
+be called. Romulus wished to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the
+Aventine. It was agreed that the question should be decided by the gods;
+and each took his station on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the
+pleasure of the gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and
+as the day was dawning Remus saw six vultures; but at sunrise, when
+these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each
+claimed the augury in his own favor; but the shepherds decided for
+Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield.
+
+1. REIGN OF ROMULUS, B.C. 753-716.--Romulus now proceeded to mark out
+the boundaries of his city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a plow,
+and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine. This formed the sacred limits
+of the city, and was called the _Pomoerium_. To the original city on
+the Palatine was given the name of _Roma Quadrata_, or Square Rome, to
+distinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over the seven
+hills.
+
+Rome is said to have been founded on the 21st of April, 753 years before
+the Christian era.
+
+On the line of the Pomoerium Romulus began to raise a wall. One day
+Remus leapt over it in scorn; whereupon Romulus slew him, exclaiming,
+"So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my walls." Romulus now found
+his people too few in numbers. Accordingly, lie set apart on the
+Capitoline Hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which homicides and
+runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus became filled with men,
+but they wanted women, and the inhabitants of the neighboring cities
+refused to give their daughters to such an outcast race. Romulus
+accordingly resolved to obtain by force what he could not obtain by
+treaty. He proclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the
+god Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the
+festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers with their wives
+and children, but the Roman youths rushed upon their guests and carried
+off the virgins. The parents returned home and prepared for vengeance.
+The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, Cænina, Antemnæ and
+Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were defeated by the
+Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand Acron, king of Cænina, and
+dedicated his arms and armor, as _spolia opima_, to Jupiter. These were
+offered when the commander of one army slew with his own hand the
+commander of another, and were only gained twice afterward in Roman
+history. At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of
+the Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great that
+Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to retire into
+the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus had also fortified
+the top of the Capitoline Hill, which he intrusted to the care of
+Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia, dazzled by the golden bracelets of
+the Sabines, promised to betray the hill to them "if they would give her
+what they wore on their left arms." Her offer was accepted. In the
+night-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when she claimed
+her reward they threw upon her the shields "which they wore on their
+left arms," and thus crushed her to death. One of the heights of the
+Capitoline Hill preserved her name, and it was from the Tarpeian Rock
+that traitors were afterward hurled down. On the next day the Romans
+endeavored to recover the hill. A long and desperate battle was fought
+in the valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the
+Romans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed a temple to
+Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon his men took courage and
+returned again to the combat. At length the Sabine women, who were the
+cause of the war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and
+fathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard; the two people not
+only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. The Romans dwelt on
+the Palatine under their king Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline
+under their king Titus Tatius.[4] The two kings and their senates met
+for deliberation in the valley between the two hills, which was hence
+called _Comitium_, or the place of meeting, and which afterward became
+the Roman Forum. But this union did not last long. Titus Tatius was
+slain at Lavinium by some Latins to whom he had refused satisfaction for
+outrages committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled alone over
+both Romans and Sabines. He reigned, in all, thirty-seven years. One
+day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus Martius, near the
+Goat's Fool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, and a dreadful storm
+dispersed the people. When daylight returned Romulus had disappeared,
+for his father Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot.
+Shortly afterward he appeared in more than mortal beauty to the senator
+Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell the Romans to worship him under the
+name of the god Quirinus.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of the City of Romulus.]
+
+As Romulus was regarded as the founder of Rome, its most ancient
+political institutions and the organization of the people were ascribed
+to him by the popular belief.
+
+(i.) The Roman people consisted only of _Patricians_ and their
+_Clients_. The Patricians formed the Populus Romanus, or sovereign
+people. They alone had political rights; the Clients were entirely
+dependent upon them. A Patrician had a certain number of Clients
+attached to him personally. To these he acted as a _Patronus_ or Patron.
+He was bound to protect the interests of the Client both in public and
+private, while the Client had to render many services to his patron.
+
+(ii.) The Patricians were divided by Romulus into _three Tribes_; the
+Ramnes, or Romans of Romulus; the Tities, or Sabines of Titus Tatius;
+and the Luceres, or Etruscans of Cæles, a Lucumo or Etruscan noble, who
+assisted Romulus in the war against the Sabines. Each tribe was divided
+into 10 curiæ, and each curiæ into 10 gentes. The 30 curiæ formed the
+_Comitia Curiata_, a sovereign assembly of the Patricians. This assembly
+elected the king, made the laws, and decided in all cases affecting the
+life of a citizen.
+
+To assist him in the government Romulus selected a number of aged men,
+forming a _Senate_, or Council of Elders, who were called Patres, or
+Senators. It consisted at first of 100 members, which number was
+increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated in the state. The 20
+curiæ of the Ramnes and Tities each sent 10 members to the senate, but
+the Luceres were not yet represented.
+
+(iii.) Each of the three tribes was bound to furnish 1000 men for the
+infantry and 100 men for the cavalry. Thus 3000 foot-soldiers and 300
+horse-soldiers formed the original army of the Roman state, and were
+called a _Legion_.
+
+2. REIGN OF NUMA POMPILIUS, B.C. 716-673.--On the death of Romulus, the
+Senate, at first, would not allow the election of a new king. The
+Senators enjoyed the royal power in rotation as Inter-reges, or
+between-kings. In this way a year passed. But the people at length
+insisted that a king should be chosen, and the Senate were obliged to
+give way. The choice fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a
+native of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of Tatius. The
+forty-three years of Numa's reign glided away in quiet happiness without
+any war or any calamity.
+
+As Romulus was the founder of the political institutions of Rome, so
+Numa was the author of the religious institutions. Instructed by the
+nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia, he instituted
+the Pontiffs, four in number, with a Pontifex Maximus at their head, who
+had the general superintendence of religion; the Augurs, also four in
+number, who consulted the will of the gods on all occasions, both
+private and public; three Flamens, each of whom attended to the worship
+of separate deities--Jupiter,[5] Mars, and Quirinus; four Vestal
+Virgins, who kept alive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba
+Longa; and twelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the
+sacred shields.[6] Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture,
+and marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed under the
+care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple of Janus, a god
+represented with two heads looking different ways. The gates of this
+temple were to be open during war and closed in time of peace.
+
+[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia.]
+
+3. REIGN OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS, B.C. 673-641.--Upon the death of Numa an
+interregnum again followed; but soon afterward Tullus Hostilius, a
+Roman, was elected king. His reign was as warlike as that of Numa had
+been peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the destruction of Alba
+Longa. A quarrel having arisen between the two cities, and their armies
+having been drawn up in array against each other, the princes determined
+to avert the battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army.
+There were in the Roman army three brothers, born at the same birth,
+named Horatii; and in the Alban army, in like manner, three brothers,
+born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The two sets of brothers
+were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the people to whom the
+conquerors belonged should rule the other. Two of the Horatii were
+slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius,
+who was unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend with
+the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of them
+separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three opponents at
+unequal distances. Suddenly turning round, he slew, first one, then the
+second, and finally the third. The Romans were declared the conquerors,
+and the Albans their subjects. But a tragical event followed. As
+Horatius was entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met
+him, and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii,
+her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that the anger
+of her brother was kindled, and, stabbing her with his sword, he
+exclaimed, "So perish every Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this
+murder he was condemned by the two judges of blood to be hanged upon the
+fatal tree, but he appealed to the people, and they gave him his life.
+
+Shortly afterward Tullus Hostilius made war against the Etruscans of
+Fidenæ and Veii. The Albans, under their dictator Mettius Fuffetius,
+followed him to the war as the subjects of Rome. In the battle against
+the Etruscans, the Alban dictator, faithless and insolent, withdrew to
+the hills, but when the Etruscans were defeated he descended to the
+plain, and congratulated the Roman king. Tullus pretended to be
+deceived. On the following day he summoned the two armies to receive
+their praises and rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were
+surrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their sentence. Their
+dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses driven opposite ways; their
+city was to be razed to the ground; and they themselves, with their
+wives and children, transported to Rome. Tullus assigned to them the
+Cælian Hill for their habitation. Some of the noble families of Alba
+were enrolled among the Roman patricians, but the great mass of the
+Alban people were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling class.
+They were the origin of the Roman _Plebs_, who were thus quite distinct
+from the Patricians and their Clients. The Patricians still formed
+exclusively the Populus, or Roman people, properly so called. The Plebs
+were a subject-class without any share in the government.
+
+After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and sought to win
+the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, by prayers and divination. But
+Jupiter was angry with him, and smote him and his whole house with fire
+from heaven. Thus perished Tullus, after a reign of thirty-two years.
+
+4. REIGN OF ANCUS MARCIUS, B.C. 640-616.--Ancus Marcius, the successor
+of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son of Numa's daughter. He
+sought to tread in the footsteps of his grandfather by reviving the
+religious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect; but a war with the
+Latins called him from the pursuits of peace. He conquered several of
+the Latin cities, and removed many of the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+assigned them the Aventine for their habitation. Thus the number of the
+Plebeians was greatly enlarged. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, whose
+duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state when any dispute
+arose, to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
+commenced, and to perform the proper religious rites on the declaration
+of war. He also founded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber,
+built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans,
+and united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called the
+Pons Sublicius, because it was made of wooden piles, and erected a
+prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign of twenty-four
+years.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Volaterræ.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was
+said to have fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Rome with the most
+sacred care.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The Sabines were called _Quirites_, and this name was
+afterward applied to the Roman people in their civil capacity.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis.]
+
+[Footnote 6: These shields were called _Ancilia_. One of these shields
+is said to have fallen from heaven; and Numa ordered eleven others to be
+made exactly like it, that it might not be known and stolen.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina.]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC DOWN
+TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.
+
+
+5. REIGN OF LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, or the ELDER TARQUIN, B.C.
+616-578.--The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan by birth, but a Greek
+by descent. His father Demaratus was a wealthy citizen of Corinth, who
+settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, where he married an Etruscan
+wife. Their son married Tanaquil, who belonged to one of the noblest
+families in Tarquinii, and himself became a Lucumo or a noble in the
+state. But he aspired to still higher honors; and, urged on by his wife,
+who was an ambitious woman, he resolved to try his fortune at Rome.
+Accordingly, he set out for this city, accompanied by a large train of
+followers. When he had reached the Janiculum an eagle seized his cap,
+and, after carrying it away to a great height, placed it again upon his
+head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade
+her husband hope for the highest honors. Her predictions were soon
+verified. He took the name of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and gained the
+favor both of Ancus Marcius and the people. Ancus appointed the stranger
+guardian of his children; and, when he died, the senate and the people
+unanimously elected Tarquin to the vacant throne.
+
+The reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in war and by
+great works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and took their town
+Collatia, which he placed under his nephew Egerius, who was thence
+called Collatinus. He also captured many of the Latin towns, and became
+the ruler of all Latium; but the important works which he executed in
+peace have rendered his name still more famous. The great cloacæ, or
+sewers, by which he drained the lower parts of the city, still remain,
+after so many ages, with not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus
+Maximus, and instituted the great or Roman games performed in the
+circus. He also made some changes in the constitution of the state. He
+added to the Senate 100 new members, taken from the Luceres, the third
+tribe, and called _patres minorum gentium_, to distinguish them from the
+old Senators, who were now termed _patres majorum gentium_. To the three
+centuries of equites established by Romulus he wished to add three new
+centuries, and to call them after himself and two of his friends. But
+his plan was opposed by the augur Attus Navius, who said that the gods
+forbade it. The tale runs that the king, to test the augur, asked him to
+divine whether what he was thinking of could be done. After consulting
+the heavens, the augur replied that it could; whereupon the king said,
+"I was thinking that thou shouldst cut this whetstone with a razor."
+Navius, without a moment's hesitation, took a razor and cut it in twain.
+In consequence of this miracle, Tarquin gave up his design of
+establishing new centuries; but with each of the former centuries he
+associated another under the same name, so that henceforth there were
+the first and second Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. The number of Vestal
+Virgins was also increased from four to six, the two new vestals being
+probably taken from the Luceres.
+
+[Illustration: Cloaca Maxima.]
+
+Tarquin had a favorite, Servius Tullius, said to have been the son of a
+female slave taken at the capture of the Latin town Corniculum. His
+infancy was marked by prodigies which foreshadowed his future greatness.
+On one occasion a flame played around his head, as he was asleep,
+without harming him. Tanaquil foresaw the greatness of the boy, and from
+this time he was brought up as the king's child. Tarquin afterward gave
+him his daughter in marriage, and left the government in his hands. But
+the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin should transmit the
+crown to his son-in-law, hired two countrymen to assassinate the king.
+These men, feigning to have a quarrel, came before the king to have
+their dispute decided, and while he was listening to the complaint of
+one, the other gave him a deadly wound with his axe. But the sons of
+Ancus did not reap the fruit of their crime; for Tanaquil, pretending
+that the king's wound was not mortal, told them that he would soon
+return, and that he had, meantime, appointed Servius to act in his
+stead. Servius forthwith proceeded to discharge the duties of king,
+greatly to the satisfaction of the people; and when the death of Tarquin
+could no longer be concealed, he was already in firm possession of the
+regal power. Tarquin had reigned thirty-eight years.
+
+6. SERVIUS TULLIUS, B.C. 578-534.--Servius thus succeeded to the throne
+without being elected by the Senate and the Assembly of the Curiæ. The
+reign of this king is almost as barren of military exploits as that of
+Numa. His great deeds were those of peace; and he was regarded by
+posterity as the author of the later Roman constitution, just as Romulus
+was of the earlier. Three important acts are assigned to Servius by
+universal tradition. Of these the greatest was:
+
+I. The reform of the Roman Constitution. In this reform his two main
+objects were to give the Plebeians political rights, and to assign to
+property that influence in the state which had previously belonged
+exclusively to birth. To carry his purpose into effect he made a twofold
+division of the Roman people, one territorial and the other according to
+property.
+
+_a._ It must be recollected that the only existing political
+organization was that of the Patricians into 3 tribes, 30 curiæ, and 300
+gentes; but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory into _Thirty
+Tribes_, and, as this division was simply local, these tribes contained
+Plebeians as well as Patricians. But, though the institution of the
+Thirty Tribes gave the Plebeians a political organization, it conferred
+upon them no political power, nor any right to take part in the
+elections, or in the management of public affairs. At a later time the
+tribes assembled in the forum for the transaction of business, and were
+hence called _Comitia Tributa_. The Patricians were then excluded from
+this assembly, which was summoned by the Tribunes of the Plebs, and was
+entirely Plebeian.
+
+_b._ The means by which Servius gave the Plebeians a share in the
+government was by establishing a new Popular Assembly, in which
+Patricians and Plebeians alike voted. It was so arranged that the
+wealthiest persons, whether Patricians or Plebeians, possessed the chief
+power. In order to ascertain the property of each citizen, Servius
+instituted the _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and
+their property. All Roman citizens possessing property to the amount of
+12,500 asses and upward[7] were divided into five great _Classes_. The
+First Class contained the richest citizens, the Second Class the next in
+point of wealth, and so on. The whole arrangement was of a military
+character. Each of the five Classes was divided into a certain number of
+Centuries or Companies, half of which consisted of Seniores from the age
+of 46 to 60, and half of Juniores from the age of 17 to 45. All the
+Classes had to provide their own arms and armor, but the expense of the
+equipment was in proportion to the wealth of each Class. The Five
+_Classes_ formed the infantry. To these five Classes were added two
+centuries of smiths and carpenters, and two of trumpeters and
+horn-blowers. These four centuries voted with the Classes. Those persons
+whose property did not amount to 12,500 asses were not included in the
+Classes, and formed a single century.
+
+At the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These consisted
+of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician Equites, as founded
+by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius Priscus, and the other twelve
+being chosen from the chief plebeian families.[8]
+
+The Centuries formed the new National Assembly. They mustered as an army
+in the Campus Martius, or the Field of Mars, on the banks of the Tiber,
+outside the city. They voted by Centuries, and were hence called the
+_Comitia Centuriata_. Each Century counted as one vote, but did not
+consist of the same number of men. On the contrary, in order to give the
+preponderance to wealth, the first or richest class contained a far
+greater number of Centuries than any of the other classes (as will be
+seen from the table below), although they must at the same time have
+included a much smaller number of men. The Equites and First Class alone
+amounted to 100 Centuries, or more than half of the total number; so
+that, if they agreed to vote the same way, they possessed at once an
+absolute majority. An advantage was also given to age; for the Seniores,
+though possessing an equal number of votes, must of course have been
+very inferior in number to the Juniores.
+
+Servius made the Comitia Centuriata the sovereign assembly of the
+nation; and he accordingly transferred to it from the Comitia Curiata
+the right of electing kings and the higher magistrates, of enacting and
+repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal from the sentence of
+a judge. But he did not dare to abolish the old Patrician assembly, and
+was even obliged to enact that no vote of the Comitia Centuriata should
+be valid till it had received the sanction of the Comitia Curiata.
+
+Thus, in consequence of the legislation, we shall find that Rome
+subsequently possessed three sovereign assemblies: 1. The _Comitia
+Centuriata_, consisting of both Patricians and Plebeians, and voting
+according to Centuries; 2. The _Comitia Curiata_, consisting exclusively
+of Patricians, and voting according to Curiæ; 3. The _Comitia Tributa_,
+exclusively of Plebeians, and voting according to Tribes.
+
+II. The second great work of Servius was the extension of the
+Pomoerium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the completion of the
+city by incorporating with it the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline
+Hills.[9] He surrounded the whole with a stone wall, called after him
+the wall of Servius Tullius; and from the Porta Collina to the Esquiline
+Gate, where the hills sloped gently to the plain, he constructed a
+gigantic mound nearly a mile in length, and a moat 100 feet in breadth
+and 30 in depth, from which the earth of the mound was dug. Rome thus
+acquired a circumference of five miles, and this continued to be the
+legal extent of the city till the time of the emperors, although suburbs
+were added to it.
+
+III. An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome and the cities
+of Latium became the members of one great league, was one of the great
+events which distinguished the reign of Servius.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven
+Hills.]
+
+Servius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons of Tarquinius
+Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a quiet and gentle wife;
+Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and ambitious woman. The character of
+the two brothers was the very opposite of the wives who had fallen to
+their lot; for Lucius was proud and haughty, but Aruns unambitious and
+quiet. The wife of Aruns, enraged at the long life of her father, and
+fearing that at his death her husband would tamely resign the
+sovereignty to his elder brother, resolved to murder both her father and
+husband. Her fiendish spirit put into the heart of Lucius thoughts of
+crime which he had never entertained before. Lucius made way with his
+wife, and the younger Tullia with her husband; and the survivors,
+without even the show of mourning, were straightway joined in
+unhallowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband to murder
+her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he so ardently coveted.
+Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the Patricians, who were enraged at the
+reforms of Servius; and when the plot was ripe he entered the forum
+arrayed in the kingly robes, seated himself in the royal chair, in the
+senate-house, and ordered the senators to be summoned to him as their
+king. At the first news of the commotion Servius hastened to the
+senate-house, and, standing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to come down
+from the throne; but Tarquin sprang forward, seized the old man, and
+flung him down the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king hastened
+home; but, before he reached it, he was overtaken by the servants of
+Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house and greeted her
+husband as king; but her transports of joy struck even him with horror.
+He bade her go home; and, as she was returning, her charioteer pulled up
+and pointed out the corpse of her father lying in his blood across the
+road. She commanded him to drive on; the blood of her father spirted
+over the carriage and on her dress; and from that day forward the place
+bore the name of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied; for Tarquin
+said, scoffingly, "Romulus too went without burial;" and this impious
+mockery is said to have given rise to his surname of Superbus, or the
+Proud. Servius had reigned forty-four years.
+
+7. Reign of LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, or, THE PROUD, B.C.
+534-510.--Tarquin commenced his reign without any of the forms of
+election. One of his first acts was to abolish all the privileges which
+had been conferred upon the Plebeians by Servius. He also compelled the
+poor to work at miserable wages upon his magnificent buildings, and the
+hardships which they suffered were so great that many put an end to
+their lives. But he did not confine his oppressions to the poor. All the
+senators and patricians whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted,
+were put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself with a
+body-guard, by whose means he was enabled to carry out his designs. But,
+although a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great influence and
+power among the surrounding nations, partly by his alliances and partly
+by his conquests. He gave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius,
+of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latins, by whose means he acquired
+great influence in Latium. Any Latin chiefs like Turnus Herdonius, who
+attempted to resist him, were treated as traitors, and punished with
+death. At the solemn meeting of the Latins at the Alban Mount, Tarquin
+sacrificed the bull on behalf of all the allies, and distributed the
+flesh to the people of the league.
+
+Strengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarquin turned his arms against the
+Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils
+of which he commenced the erection of a magnificent temple on the
+Capitoline Hill, which his father had vowed. This temple was dedicated
+to the three gods of the Latin and Etruscan religions, Jupiter, Juno,
+and Minerva. A human head (_caput_), fresh, bleeding and undecayed, is
+said to have been found by the workmen as they were digging the
+foundations, and being accepted as a sign that the place was destined to
+become the head of the world, the name of CAPITOLIUM was given to the
+temple, and thence to the hill. In a stone vault beneath were deposited
+the Sibylline books, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. One day a
+Sibyl, a prophetess from Cumæ, appeared before the king and offered to
+sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to buy them she went away and
+burned three, and then demanded the same sum for the remaining six as
+she had asked for the nine. But the king laughed, whereupon she again
+burnt three and then demanded the same sum as before for the remaining
+three. Wondering at this strange conduct, the king purchased the books.
+They were placed under the care of two patricians, and were consulted
+when the state was in danger.
+
+Tarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which refused to
+enter into the league. Unable to take the city by force, he had recourse
+to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill, treated by his
+father, and covered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The
+infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the command of their troops;
+and when he had obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he
+sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the city
+into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden when the
+messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking off the heads of the
+tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put to death or
+banished, on false charges, all the leading men of the place, and then
+had no difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father.
+
+In the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a strange
+portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the royal palace, and
+seized on the entrails of the victim. The king, in fear, sent his two
+sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle at Delphi. They were
+accompanied by their cousin L. Junius Brutus. One of the sisters of
+Tarquin had been married to M. Brutus, a man of great wealth, who died,
+leaving two sons under age.[10] Of these the elder was killed by
+Tarquin, who coveted their possessions; the younger escaped his
+brother's fate only by feigning idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus
+propitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick inclosed in a
+hollow staff. After executing the king's commission, Titus and Aruns
+asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after their father. The
+priestess replied, whichsoever should first kiss his mother. The princes
+agreed to keep the matter secret from Sextus, who was at Rome, and to
+cast lots between themselves. Brutus, who better understood the meaning
+of the oracle, fell, as if by chance, when they quitted the temple, and
+kissed the earth, the mother of them all.
+
+Soon afterward Tarquin laid siege to Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. The
+place could not be taken by force, and the Roman army lay encamped
+beneath the walls. Here, as the king's sons, and their cousin Tarquinius
+Collatinus, were feasting together, a dispute arose about the virtue of
+their wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they mounted their
+horses to visit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where
+they surprised the king's daughters at a splendid banquet. They then
+hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late in the night, they
+found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. The
+beauty and virtue of Lucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. A few
+days after he returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably received by
+Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of night he entered her
+chamber with a drawn sword, threatening that, if she did not yield to
+his desires, he would kill her and lay by her side a slave with his
+throat cut, and would declare that he had killed them both taken in
+adultery. Fear of such a shame forced Lucretia to consent; but, as soon
+as Sextus had departed, she sent for her husband and father. Collatinus
+came, accompanied by L. Brutus, her father, Lucretius, brought with him
+P. Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them what
+had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dishonor, and then stabbed
+herself to the heart. They all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off his
+assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their head. They carried the
+corpse into the market-place of Collatia. There the people took up arms,
+and renounced the Tarquins. A number of young men attended the funeral
+procession to Rome. Brutus summoned the people, and related the deed of
+shame. All classes were inflamed with the same indignation. A decree was
+passed deposing the king, and banishing him and his family from the
+city. Brutus now set out for the army at Ardea. Tarquinius meantime had
+hastened to Rome, but found the gates closed against him. Brutus was
+received with joy at Ardea; and the army renounced their allegiance to
+the tyrant. Tarquin, with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at
+Cæré, in Etruria. Sextus fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after
+murdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death.
+
+Tarquin had reigned 22 years when he was driven out of Rome. In memory
+of this event an annual festival was celebrated on the 24th of February,
+called the _Regifugium_ or _Fugalia_.
+
+THE REPUBLIC.--Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Tarquin the Proud had made
+the name of king so hateful that the people resolved to intrust the
+kingly power to two men, who were only to hold office for a year. In
+later times they were called _Consuls_, but at their first institution
+they were named _Prætors_. They were elected by the Comitia Curiata, and
+possessed the same honors as the king had had. The first consuls were L.
+Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus (B.C. 509). But the people so hated the
+very name and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus was obliged to resign his
+office and retire from Rome. P. Valerius was elected consul in his
+place.
+
+Meantime embassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking that his private
+property should be given up to him. The demand seemed just to the Senate
+and the People; but, while the embassadors were making preparation for
+carrying away the property, they formed a conspiracy among the young
+Roman nobles for the restoration of the royal family. The plot was
+discovered by means of a slave, and among the conspirators were found
+the two sons of Brutus himself. But the consul would not pardon his
+guilty children, and ordered the lictors[11] to put them to death with
+the other traitors. The agreement to surrender the property was made
+void by this attempt at treason. The royal goods were given up to the
+people to plunder.
+
+As the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavored to recover the throne by
+arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused the cause of their
+Etruscan kinsmen, and marched against Rome. The two Consuls advanced to
+meet them. When Aruns, the king's son, saw Brutus at the head of the
+Roman cavalry, he spurred his horse to the charge. Brutus did not shrink
+from the combat; and both fell from their horses mortally wounded by
+each other's spears. A desperate battle between the two armies now
+followed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was heard in
+the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had conquered, as the
+Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed at this, the Etruscans fled;
+and Valerius, the surviving Consul, returned to Rome, carrying with him
+the dead body of Brutus. The matrons mourned for Brutus a whole year,
+because he had revenged the death of Lucretia.
+
+This was the first war for the restoration of Tarquin.
+
+Valerius was now left without a colleague; and as he began to build a
+house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked down upon the forum,
+the people feared that he was aiming at kingly power. Thereupon Valerius
+not only pulled down the house, but, calling an assembly of the people,
+he ordered the lictors to lower the fasces before them, as an
+acknowledgment that their power was superior to his. He likewise brought
+forward a law enacting that every citizen who was condemned by a
+magistrate should have a right of appeal to the people. Valerius became,
+in consequence, so popular that he received the surname of _Publicola_,
+or "The People's Friend."
+
+Valerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a successor to
+Brutus, and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius, however, lived only a
+few days, and M. Horatius was elected consul in his place. It was
+Horatius who had the honor of consecrating the temple on the Capitol,
+which Tarquin had left unfinished when he was driven from the throne.
+
+The second year of the republic (B.C. 508) witnessed the second attempt
+of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now applied for help to Lars
+Porsena, the powerful ruler of the Etruscan town of Clusium, who marched
+against Rome at the head of a vast army. The Romans could not meet him
+in the field; and Porsena seized without opposition the Janiculum, a
+hill immediately opposite the city, and separated from it only by the
+Tiber. Rome was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans would have
+entered the city by the Sublician bridge had not Horatius Cocles, with
+two comrades, kept the whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans broke
+down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way he sent back his two
+companions, and withstood alone the attacks of the foe till the cracks
+of the falling timbers and the shouts of his countrymen told him that
+the bridge had fallen. Then praying, "O Father Tiber, take me into thy
+charge and bear me up!" he plunged into the stream and swam across in
+safety, amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a statue in his
+honor, and allowed him as much land as he could plow round in one day.
+Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gallant deed
+of Horatius, and Roman writers loved to tell
+
+    "How well Horatius kept the bridge
+      In the brave days of old."
+
+The Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon began
+to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mucius,
+resolved to deliver his country by murdering the invading king. He
+accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp; but, ignorant of the person
+of Porsena, killed the royal secretary instead. Seized and threatened
+with torture, he thrust his right hand into the fire on the altar, and
+there let it burn, to show how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his
+courage, the king bade him depart in peace; and Mucius, out of
+gratitude, advised him to make peace with Rome, since three hundred
+noble youths, he said, had sworn to take the life of the king, and he
+was the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucius was henceforward
+called Scævola, or the _Left-handed_, because his right hand had been
+burnt off. Porsena, alarmed for his life, which he could not secure
+against so many desperate men, forthwith offered peace to the Romans on
+condition of their restoring to the Veientines the land which they had
+taken from them. These terms were accepted, and Porsena withdrew his
+troops from the Janiculum after receiving ten youths and ten maidens as
+hostages from the Romans. Cloelia, one of the maidens, escaped from
+the Etruscan camp, and swam across the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back
+by the Romans to Porsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not
+only set her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of the
+hostages whom she pleased.
+
+Thus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by force.[12]
+
+After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his son-in-law,
+Octavius Mamilius, of Tusculum. The thirty Latin cities now espoused the
+cause of the exiled king, and declared war against Rome. The contest was
+decided by the battle of the Lake Regillus, which was long celebrated
+in Roman story, and the account of which resembles one of the battles in
+the Iliad. The Romans were commanded by the Dictator,[13] A. Postumius,
+and by T. Æbutius, the Master of the Horse; at the head of the Latins
+were Tarquin and Octavius Mamilius. The struggle was fierce and bloody,
+but the Latins at length fled. Almost all the chiefs on either side fell
+in the conflict, or were grievously wounded. Titus, the son of Tarquin,
+was killed; and the aged king was wounded, but escaped with his life. It
+was related in the old tradition that the Romans gained this battle by
+the assistance of the gods Castor and Pollux, who were seen charging the
+Latins at the head of the Roman cavalry, and who afterward carried to
+Rome the tidings of the victory. A temple was built in the forum on the
+spot where they appeared, and their festival was celebrated yearly.
+
+This was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins. The Latins
+were completely humbled by this victory. Tarquinius Superbus had no
+other state to which he could apply for assistance. He had already
+survived all his family; and he now fled to Cumæ, where he died a
+wretched and childless old man (B.C. 496).
+
+[Illustration: Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by
+Lictors.]
+
+[Footnote 7: The _As_ was originally a pound weight of copper of 12
+ounces.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The following table will show the census of each class, and
+the number of centuries which each contained:
+
+_Equites._--Centuriæ                                   18
+_First Class._--Census 100,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriæ Seniorum                           40 \
+  Centuriæ Juniorum                           40  >    82
+  Centuriæ Fabrum (smiths and carpenters)      2 /
+_Second Class._--Census, 75,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriæ Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriæ Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Third Class._--Census, 50,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriæ Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriæ Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Fourth Class._--Census, 25,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriæ Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriæ Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Fifth Class._--Census, 12,500 asses and upward.
+  Centuriæ Seniorum                           15 \
+  Centuriæ Juniorum                           15  >    32
+  Centuriæ cornicinum, tubicinum               2 /
+  Centuriæ capita censorum                              1
+                                                      ---
+  Sum total of the centuriæ                           198
+]
+
+[Footnote 9: The celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the
+Palatine, Aventine, Capitoline, Cælian, Quirinal, Viminal, and
+Esquilian. The Mons Pincius was not included within the Servian Wall.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The following genealogical table exhibits the relationship
+of the family:
+
+                             Demaratus of Corinth.
+                                       |
+                     ----------------------------------------
+                     |                                      |
+              TARQUINIUS PRISCUS.                         Aruns.
+                     |                                      |
+       --------------------------------------------         |
+       |               |              |           |         |
+   Tarquinia,      Tarquinia,   L. TARQUINIUS   Aruns.   Egerius,
+    married         married       SUPERBUS.            commander of
+Servius Tullius.   M. Brutus.         |                  Collatia.
+                     |                |                     |
+       -----------------        ------------------          |
+       |               |        |       |        |          |
+    M. Brutus,   L. Brutus,   Titus.  Sextus.  Aruns.    Tarquinius
+      put to        the                                  Collatinus,
+     death by      Consul.                                married
+    Tarquinius.                                           Lucretia.
+]
+
+[Footnote 11: The _Lictors_ were public officers who attended upon the
+Roman magistrate. Each consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon
+their shoulders _fasces_, which were rods bound in the form of a bundle,
+and containing an axe in the middle.]
+
+[Footnote 12: There is, however, reason to believe that these brilliant
+stories conceal one of the earliest and greatest disasters of the city.
+It appears that Rome was really conquered by Porsena, and lost all the
+territory which the kings had gained on the right side of the Tiber.
+Hence we find the thirty tribes, established by Servius Tullius, reduced
+to twenty after the war with Porsena.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The _Dictator_ was an extraordinary magistrate appointed
+by one of the Consuls in seasons of great peril. He possessed absolute
+power. Twenty-four lictors attended him, bearing the axes in the fasces,
+even in the city; and from his decision there was no appeal. He could
+not hold the office longer than six months, and he usually laid it down
+much sooner. He appointed a _Magister Equitum_, or Master of the Horse,
+who acted as his lieutenant. From the time of the appointment of the
+Dictator, all the other magistrates, even the Consuls, ceased to
+exercise any power.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Campagna of Rome.]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 498-451.
+
+
+The history of Rome for the next 150 years consists internally of the
+struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians, and externally of the
+wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, Æquians, and other tribes in the
+immediate neighborhood of Rome.
+
+The internal history of Rome during this period is one of great
+interest. The Patricians and Plebeians formed two distinct orders in the
+state. After the banishment of the kings the Patricians retained
+exclusive possession of political power. The Plebeians, it is true,
+could vote in the Comitia Centuriata, but, as they were mostly poor,
+they were outvoted by the Patricians and their clients. The Consuls and
+other magistrates were taken entirely from the Patricians, who also
+possessed the exclusive knowledge and administration of the law. In one
+word, the Patricians were a ruling and the Plebeians a subject class.
+But this was not all. The Patricians formed not only a separate
+_class_, but a separate _caste_, not marrying with the Plebeians, and
+worshiping the gods with different religious rites. If a Patrician man
+married a Plebeian wife, or a Patrician woman a Plebeian husband, the
+state refused to recognize the marriage, and the offspring was treated
+as illegitimate.
+
+The Plebeians had to complain not only of political, but also of private
+wrongs. The law of debtor and creditor was very severe at Rome. If the
+borrower did not pay the money by the time agreed upon, his person was
+seized by the creditor, and he was obliged to work as a slave.[14] Nay,
+in certain cases he might even be put to death by the creditor; and if
+there were more than one, his body might be cut in pieces and divided
+among them. The whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the
+Plebeians; and what rendered the case still harder was, that they were
+frequently compelled, through no fault of their own, to become
+borrowers. They were small landholders, living by cultivating the soil
+with their own hands; but as they had to serve in the army without pay,
+they had no means of engaging laborers in their absence. Hence, on their
+return home, they were left without the means of subsistence or of
+purchasing seed for the next crop, and borrowing was their only
+resource.
+
+Another circumstance still farther aggravated the hardships of the
+Plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land called _Ager
+Publicus_, or the "Public Land." This land originally belonged to the
+kings, being set apart for their support; and it was constantly
+increased by conquest, as it was the practice on the subjugation of a
+people to deprive them of a certain portion of their land. This public
+land was let by the state subject to a rent; but as the Patricians
+possessed the political power, they divided the public land among
+themselves, and paid for it only a nominal rent. Thus the Plebeians, by
+whose blood and unpaid toil much of this land had been won, were
+excluded from all participation in it.
+
+It was not to be expected that the Plebeians would submit to such
+grievous injustice. The contest was twofold. It was a struggle of a
+subject against a ruling class, and of rich against poor. The Plebeians
+strove to obtain an equal share not only in the political power, but
+also in the public land.
+
+The cruelty of the Patrician creditors was the most pressing evil, and
+led to the first reform. In B.C. 494 the Plebeians, after a campaign
+against the Volscians, instead of returning to Rome, retired to the
+Sacred Mount, a hill about two miles from the city, near the junction
+of the Arno and the Tiber. Here they determined to settle and found a
+new town, leaving Rome to the Patricians and their clients. This event
+is known as the _Secession to the Sacred Mount_. The Patricians,
+alarmed, sent several of their number to persuade the Plebeians to
+return. Among the deputies was the aged Menenius Agrippa, who had great
+influence with the Plebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of
+the Belly and the Members.
+
+"Once upon a time," he said, "the Members refused to work any longer for
+the Belly, which led a lazy life, and grew fat upon their toils. But
+receiving no longer any nourishment from the Belly, they soon began to
+pine away, and found that it was to the Belly they owed their life and
+strength."
+
+The fable was understood, and the Plebeians agreed to treat with the
+Patricians. It was decided that existing debts should be canceled, and
+that all debtors in bondage should be restored to freedom. It was
+necessary, however, to provide security for the future, and the
+Plebeians therefore insisted that two of their own number should be
+elected annually, to whom the Plebeians might appeal for assistance
+against the decisions of the Patrician magistrates. These officers were
+called _Tribunes of the Plebs_. Their persons were declared sacred and
+inviolate; they were never to quit the city during their year of office;
+and their houses were to remain open day and night, that all who were in
+need of help might apply to them. Their number was soon afterward
+increased to five, and at a later time to ten. They gradually gained
+more and more power, and obtained the right of putting a veto[15] upon
+any public business.[16] At the Sacred Mount the Plebeians also obtained
+the privilege of having two Ædiles of their order appointed. These
+officers had at a later time the care of the public buildings and roads,
+and the superintendence of the police of the city.
+
+Emboldened by this success, the Plebeians now demanded a share in the
+public land. And in this they found an unexpected supporter among the
+Patricians themselves. Sp. Cassius, one of the most distinguished men in
+the state, who had formed the league between the Romans, Latins, and
+Hernicans, brought forward in his third consulship a law, by which a
+portion of the public land was to be divided among the Plebeians (B.C.
+486). This was the first Agrarian Law mentioned in Roman history. It
+must be recollected that all the Agrarian laws dealt only with the
+public land, and never touched the property of private persons.
+Notwithstanding the violent opposition of the Patricians, the law was
+passed; but it was never carried into execution, and the Patricians soon
+revenged themselves upon its author. In the following year he was
+accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned to death. He was
+scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground.
+
+We now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the kings Rome had
+risen to a superiority over her neighbors, and had extended her dominion
+over the southern part of Etruria and the greater part of Latium. The
+early history of the republic presents a very different spectacle. For
+the next 100 years she is engaged in a difficult and often dubious
+struggle with the Etruscans on the one hand, and the Volscians and
+Æquians on the other. It would be unprofitable to relate the details of
+these petty campaigns; but there are three celebrated legends connected
+with them which must not be passed over.
+
+1. CORIOLANUS AND THE VOLSCIANS, B.C. 488.--C. Marcius, surnamed
+Coriolanus, from his valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli,
+was a brave but haughty Patrician youth. He was hated by the Plebeians,
+who refused him the consulship. This inflamed him with anger; and
+accordingly, when the city was suffering from famine, and a present of
+corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus advised the Senate not to distribute
+it among the Plebeians unless they gave up their Tribunes. Such
+insolence enraged the Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on
+the spot had not the tribunes summoned him before the Comitia of the
+Tribes. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but defiance; and his
+kinsmen and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned to
+exile. He now turned his steps to Antium, the capital of the Volscians,
+and offered to lead them against Rome. Attius Tullius, king of the
+Volscians, persuaded his countrymen to appoint Coriolanus their general.
+Nothing could check his victorious progress; town after town fell before
+him; and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging the lands
+of the Plebeians, but sparing those of the Patricians. The city was
+filled with despair. The ten first men in the Senate were sent in hopes
+of moving his compassion. But they were received with the utmost
+sternness, and told that the city must submit to his absolute will. Next
+day the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and all the priests, came in their
+robes of office, and in vain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed
+lost; but Rome was saved by her women. Next morning the noblest matrons,
+headed by Veturia, the aged mother of Corolanus, and by his wife
+Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to his tent.
+Their lamentations turned him from his purpose. "Mother," he said,
+bursting into tears, "thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He then
+led the Volscians home, but they put him to death because he had spared
+Rome. Others relate that he lived among the Volscians to a great age,
+and was often heard to say that "none but an old man can feel how
+wretched it is to live in a foreign land."
+
+[Illustration: The Environs of Rome.]
+
+2. THE FABIA GENS AND THE VEIENTINES, B.C. 477.--The Fabii were one of
+the most powerful of the Patrician houses. For seven successive years
+one of the Consuls was always a Fabius. The Fabii had been among the
+leading opponents of the Agrarian Law; and Kæso Fabius had taken an
+active part in obtaining the condemnation of Sp. Cassius. But shortly
+afterward we find this same Kæso the advocate of the popular rights, and
+proposing that the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into
+effect. He was supported in his new views by his powerful house, though
+the reasons for their change of opinion we do not know. But the Fabii
+made no impression upon the great body of the Patricians, and only
+earned for themselves the hearty hatred of their order. Finding that
+they could no longer live in peace at Rome, they determined to leave the
+city, and found a separate settlement, where they might still be useful
+to their native land. One of the most formidable enemies of the republic
+was the Etruscan city of Veii, situated about twelve miles from Rome.
+Accordingly, the Fabian house, consisting of 306 males of full age,
+accompanied by their wives and children, clients and dependents, marched
+out of Rome by the right-hand arch of the Carmental Gate, and proceeded
+straight to the Cremera, a river which flows into the Tiber below Veii.
+On the Cremera they established a fortified camp, and, sallying thence,
+they laid waste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained
+the whole weight of the Veientine war; and all the attempts of the
+Veientines to dislodge them proved in vain. But at length they were
+enticed into an ambuscade, and were all slain. The settlement was
+destroyed, and no one of the house survived except a boy who had been
+left behind at Rome, and who became the ancestor of the Fabii, afterward
+so celebrated in Roman history. The Fabii were sacrificed to the hatred
+of the Patricians; for the consul T. Menenius was encamped a short way
+off at the time, and he did nothing to save them.
+
+3. CINCINNATUS AND THE ÆQUIANS, B.C. 458.--The Æquians in their numerous
+attacks upon the Roman territory generally occupied Mount Algidus, which
+formed a part of the group of the Alban Hills in Latium. It was
+accordingly upon this mount that the battles between the Romans and
+Æquians most frequently took place. In the year 458 B.C. the Roman
+consul L. Minucius was defeated on the Algidus, and surrounded in his
+camp. Five horsemen, who made their escape before the Romans were
+completely encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The Senate
+forthwith appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator.
+
+L. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story. When the
+deputies of the Senate came to him to announce his elevation to the
+dictatorship they found him driving a plow, and clad only in his tunic
+or shirt. They bade him clothe himself, that he might hear the commands
+of the Senate. He put on his toga, which his wife Racilia brought him.
+The deputies then told him of the peril of the Roman army, and that he
+had been made Dictator. The next morning, before daybreak, he appeared
+in the forum, and ordered all the men of military age to meet him in the
+evening in the Field of Mars, with food for five days, and each with
+twelve stakes. His orders were obeyed; and with such speed did he march,
+that by midnight he reached Mount Algidus. Placing his men around the
+Æquian camp, he told them to raise the war-cry, and at the same time to
+begin digging a trench and raising a mound, on the top of which the
+stakes were to be driven in. The other Roman army, which was shut in,
+hearing the war-cry, burst forth from their camp, and fought with the
+Æquians all night. The Dictator's troops thus worked without
+interruption, and completed the intrenchment by the morning. The Æquians
+found themselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced to
+surrender. The Dictator made them pass under the yoke, which was formed
+by two spears fixed upright in the ground, while a third was fastened
+across them. Cincinnatus entered Rome in triumph only twenty-four hours
+after he had quitted it, having thus saved a whole Roman army from
+destruction.
+
+In reading the wars of the early Republic, it is important to recollect
+the League formed by Spurius Cassius, the author of the Agrarian Law
+between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans. This League, to which
+allusion has been already made, was of the most intimate kind, and the
+armies of the three states fought by each other's sides. It was by means
+of this League that the Æquians and Volscians were kept in check, for
+they were two of the most warlike nations in Italy, and would have been
+more than a match for the unsupported arms of Rome.
+
+[Footnote 14: Debtors thus given over to their creditors were called
+_Addicti_.]
+
+[Footnote 15: This was called the right of _intercession_, from
+_intercedo_, "to come between."]
+
+[Footnote 16: The Tribunes were originally elected at the Comitia of the
+Centuries, where the influence of the Patricians was predominant; but by
+the Publilian Law, proposed by the tribune Publilius Volero, and passed
+B.C. 471, the election was transferred to the Comitia of the Tribes, by
+which means the Plebeians obtained the uncontrolled election of their
+own officers.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tarpeian Rock.]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.
+
+
+From the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of the Decemvirs
+was a period of more than thirty years. During the whole of this time
+the struggle between the Patricians and the Plebeians was increasing.
+The latter constantly demanded, and the former as firmly refused, the
+execution of the Agrarian Law of Cassius. But, though the Plebeians
+failed in obtaining this object, they nevertheless made steady progress
+in gaining for themselves a more important position in the city. In B.C.
+471 the Publilian Law was carried, by which the election of the Tribunes
+and Plebeian Ædiles was transferred from the Comitia of the Centuries to
+those of the Tribes.[17] From this time the Comitia of the Tribes may be
+regarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, ranking with
+those of the Centuries and the Curies. But the Patricians still retained
+exclusive possession of the administrative and judicial powers, and
+there were no written laws to limit their authority and to regulate
+their decisions. Under these circumstances, the Tribune C. Terentilius
+Arsa proposed, in B.C. 462, that a commission of Ten Men (Decemviri)
+should be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by which a check might be
+put to the arbitrary power of the Patrician magistrates. This
+proposition, as might have been expected, met with the most vehement
+opposition from the Patricians. But the Plebeians were firm, and for
+five successive years the same Tribunes were re-elected. It was during
+this struggle that an attempt was made upon the Capitol by Herdonius, a
+Sabine chief, with a band of outlaws and slaves. It was a turbulent
+period, and the Patricians had recourse even to assassination. At
+length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was effected, and
+it was arranged that Three Commissioners (Triumviri) were to be sent
+into Greece to collect information respecting the laws of Solon at
+Athens, as well as of the other Greek states. After an absence of two
+years the three commissioners returned to Rome (B.C. 452), and it was
+now resolved that a Council of Ten, or Decemvirs, should be appointed to
+draw up a code of laws, and, at the same time, to carry on the
+government and administer justice. All the other magistrates were
+obliged to abdicate, and no exception was made even in favor of the
+Tribunes. The Decemvirs were thus intrusted with supreme power in the
+state. They entered upon their office at the beginning of B.C. 451. They
+were all Patricians. At their head stood Appius Claudius and T.
+Genucius, who had been already appointed consuls for the year. They
+discharged the duties of their office with diligence, and dispensed
+justice with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day
+in succession, and the fasces were carried only before the one who
+presided for the day. They drew up a Code of Ten Tables, in which equal
+justice was dealt out to both orders. The Ten Tables received the
+sanction of the Comitia of the Centuries, and thus became law.
+
+On the expiration of their year of office all parties were so well
+satisfied with the manner in which the Decemvirs had discharged their
+duties that it was resolved to continue the same form of government for
+another year, more especially as some of them said that their work was
+not finished. A new Council of Ten was accordingly elected, of whom
+Appius Claudius alone belonged to the former body. He had so carefully
+concealed his pride and ambition during the previous year that he had
+been the most popular member of the council, and the Patricians, to
+prevent his appointment for another year, had ordered him to preside at
+the Comitia for the elections, thinking that he would not receive votes
+for himself. But Appius set such scruples at defiance, and not only
+returned himself as elected, but took care that his nine colleagues
+should be subservient to his views. He now threw off the mask he had
+hitherto worn, and acted as the tyrant of Rome. Each Decemvir was
+attended by twelve lictors, who earned the fasces with the axes in them,
+so that 120 lictors were seen in the city instead of 12. The Senate was
+rarely summoned. No one was now safe, and many of the leading men
+quitted Rome. Two new Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in
+all; but these new laws were of the most oppressive kind, and confirmed
+the Patricians in their most odious privileges.
+
+When the year came to a close the Decemvirs neither resigned nor held
+Comitia for the election of successors, but continued to hold their
+power in defiance of the Senate and of the People. Next year (B.C. 449)
+the Sabines and Æquians invaded the Roman territory, and two armies were
+dispatched against them, commanded by some of the Decemvirs. Appius
+remained at Rome to administer justice. But the soldiers fought with no
+spirit under the command of men whom they detested, and two acts of
+outrageous tyranny caused them to turn their arms against their hated
+masters. In the army fighting against the Sabines was a centurion named
+L. Sicinius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had fought in 120
+battles; he had slain eight of the enemy in single combat; had received
+40 wounds, all in front; he had accompanied the triumphs of nine
+generals; and had war-crowns and other rewards innumerable. As Tribune
+of the Plebs four years before, he had taken an active part in opposing
+the Patricians, and was now suspected of plotting against the Decemvirs.
+His death was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a company of
+soldiers as if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. But in a lonely spot
+they fell upon him and slew him, though not until he had destroyed most
+of the traitors. His comrades, who were told that he had fallen in an
+ambush of the enemy, discovered the foul treachery that had been
+practiced when they saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers who had
+evidently been slain by him. The Decemvirs prevented an immediate
+outbreak only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, but the troops were
+ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation.
+
+In the other army sent against the Æquians there was a well-known
+centurion named Virginius. He had a beautiful daughter, betrothed to L.
+Icilius, an eminent leader of the Plebeian order. The maiden had
+attracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius Claudius. He at first tried
+bribes and allurements, but when these failed he had recourse to an
+outrageous act of tyranny. One morning, as Virginia, attended by her
+nurse, was on the way to her school, which was in one of the booths
+surrounding the forum, M. Claudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the
+damsel and claimed her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help
+brought a crowd around them, and all parties went before the Decemvir.
+In his presence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that
+Virginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been imposed
+upon Virginius by his wife, who was childless. He farther stated that he
+would prove this to Virginius as soon as he returned to Rome, and he
+demanded that the girl should meantime be handed over to his custody.
+Appius, fearing a riot, said that he would let the cause stand over till
+the next day, but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he
+should know how to maintain the laws. Straightway two friends of the
+family made all haste to the camp, which they reached the same evening.
+Virginius immediately obtained leave of absence, and was already on his
+way to Rome, when the messenger of Appius arrived, instructing his
+colleagues to detain him. Early next morning Virginius and his daughter
+came into the forum with their garments rent. The father appealed to the
+people for aid, and the women in their company sobbed aloud. But, intent
+upon the gratification of his passions, Appius cared not for the misery
+of the father and the girl, and hastened to give sentence, by which he
+consigned the maiden to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a
+large body of patricians and their clients, ordered his lictors to
+disperse the mob. The people drew back, leaving Virginius and his
+daughter alone before the judgment-seat. All help was gone. The unhappy
+father then prayed the Decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to the
+nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was
+really his daughter. The request was granted. Virginius drew them both
+aside, and, snatching up a butcher's-knife from one of the stalls,
+plunged it into his daughter's breast, exclaiming, "There is no way but
+this to keep thee free." In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The
+crowd made way for him, and, holding his bloody knife on high, he rushed
+to the gate of the city and hastened to the army. His comrades espoused
+his cause, expelled their commanders, and marched toward Rome. They were
+soon joined by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius had
+carried the tidings. The Plebeians in the city flocked to them, and they
+all resolved to retire once more to the Sacred Mount.
+
+This second secession extorted from the Patricians the second great
+charter of the Plebeian rights. The Patricians compelled the Decemvirs
+to resign, and sent L. Valerius and M. Horatius, two of the most eminent
+men of their order, to negotiate with the Plebeians. It was finally
+agreed that the Tribunes should be restored, that the authority of the
+Comitia Tributa should be recognized, and that the right of appeal to
+the people against the power of the supreme magistrates should be
+confirmed. The Plebeians now returned to the city, and elected, for the
+first time, ten Tribunes instead of five, a number which remained
+unchanged down to the latest times. Virginius, Icilius, and Numitorius
+were among the new Tribunes.
+
+Two Consuls were elected in place of the Decemvirs, and the choice of
+the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius and Horatius. The
+new Consuls now redeemed their promises to the Plebeians by bringing
+forward the laws which are called after them, the Valerian and Horatian
+Laws. These celebrated laws enacted:
+
+1. That every Roman citizen should have the right of appeal against the
+sentence of the supreme magistrate. This was, in fact, a solemn
+confirmation of the old law of Valerius Publicola, passed in the first
+year of the republic. It was enacted again a third time in B.C. 300, on
+the proposal of M. Valerius, the Consul. These repeated enactments gave
+a still farther sanction to the law. In the same way the Great Charter
+of England was ratified several times.
+
+2. That the _Plebiscita_, or resolutions passed by the Plebeians in the
+Comitia Tributa, should have the force of laws, and should be binding
+alike upon Patricians and Plebeians.
+
+3. That the persons of the Tribunes, Ædiles, and other Plebeian
+magistrates should be sacred, and whoever injured them should be sold as
+a slave.
+
+Virginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into prison to
+await his trial. But the proud Patrician, seeing that his condemnation
+was certain, put an end to his own life. Oppius, another of the
+Decemvirs, and the personal friend of Appius, was condemned and
+executed. The other Decemvirs were allowed to go into exile, but they
+were all declared guilty, and their property confiscated to the state.
+
+The Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation of the Roman
+law, and long continued to be held in the highest estimation. But they
+probably did little more than fix in a written form a large body of
+customary law, though even this was a benefit to the Plebeians, as they
+were no longer subject to the arbitrary decisions of the Patrician
+magistrates. The Patricians still retained their exclusive privileges;
+and the eleventh table even gave the sanction of law to the old custom
+which prohibited all intermarriage (_connuubium_) between the two
+orders.
+
+[Footnote 17: See note on p. 31. (Footnote 16 of this
+e-text--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: View in the neighborhood of Veii.]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. B.C. 448-390.
+
+
+The efforts of the leaders of the Plebeians were now directed to two
+subjects, the removal of the prohibition of intermarriage between the
+two orders, and the opening of the Consulship to their own order. They
+attained the first object four years after the Decemvirate by the Lex
+Canuleia, proposed by Canuleius, one of the Tribunes (B.C. 445). But
+they did not carry this law without a third secession, in which they
+occupied the Janiculum. At the same time a compromise was effected with
+respect to the Consulship. The Patricians agreed that the supreme power
+in the state should be intrusted to new officers bearing the title of
+_Military Tribunes with Consular Power_, who might be chosen equally
+from Patricians and Plebeians. Their number varied in different years
+from three to six. In B.C. 444 three Military Tribunes were nominated
+for the first time. In the following year (443) two new magistrates,
+called _Censors_, were appointed. They were always to be chosen from the
+Patricians; and the reason of the institution clearly was to deprive
+the Military Tribunes of some of the most important functions, which had
+been formerly discharged by the Consuls. The Censors originally held
+office for a period of five years, which was called a _lustrum_; but
+their tenure was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
+its institution (B.C. 443), by a law of the Dictator Mamercus Æmilius,
+though they continued to be appointed only once in five years.[18]
+
+Though the Military Tribunes could from their first institution be
+chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the Patricians
+in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till B.C. 400, or nearly
+forty years afterward, that any Plebeians were actually elected. In B.C.
+421 the Quæstorship was also thrown open to them. The Quæstors were the
+paymasters of the state; and as the Censors had to fill up vacancies in
+the Senate from those who had held the office of Quæstor, the Plebeians
+thus became eligible for the Senate.
+
+During these struggles between the two orders an event took place which
+is frequently referred to by later writers. In the year 440 B.C. there
+was a great famine at Rome. Sp. Mælius, one of the richest of the
+Plebeian knights, expended his fortune in buying up corn, which he sold
+to the poor at a small price, or distributed among them gratuitously.
+The Patricians thought, or pretended to think, that he was aiming at
+kingly power: and in the following year (439) the aged Quintius
+Cincinnatus, who had saved the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was
+appointed Dictator. He nominated C. Servilius Ahala his Master of the
+Horse. During the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were
+garrisoned by the Patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus appeared in
+the forum with a strong force, and summoned Mælius to appear before his
+tribunal. But seeing the fate which awaited him, he refused to go,
+whereupon Ahala rushed into the crowd and struck him dead upon the spot.
+His property was confiscated, and his house was leveled to the ground.
+The deed of Ahala is frequently mentioned by Cicero and other writers in
+terms of the highest admiration, but it was regarded by the Plebeians at
+the time as an act of murder. Ahala was brought to trial, and only
+escaped condemnation by a voluntary exile.
+
+In their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful, and, aided
+by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made steady progress in
+driving back their old enemies the Volscians and Æquians. About this
+time they planted several colonies in the districts which they
+conquered. These Roman colonies differed widely from those of ancient
+Greece and of modern Europe. They were of the nature of garrisons
+established in conquered towns, and served both to strengthen and extend
+the power of Rome. The colonists received a portion of the conquered
+territory, and lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who
+retained the use of the land.
+
+The Romans now renewed their wars with the Etruscans; and the capture of
+the important city of Veii was the first decisive advantage gained by
+the Republic. The hero of this period was Camillus, who stands out
+prominently as the greatest general of the infant Republic, who saved
+Rome from the Gauls, and whom later ages honored as a second Romulus.
+
+Veii, however, was only taken after a long and severe struggle. It was
+closely allied with Fidenæ, a town of Latium, not more than five or six
+miles from Rome. The two cities frequently united their arms against
+Rome, and in one of these wars Lars Tolumnius, the king of Veii, was
+slain in single combat by A. Cornelius Cossus, one of the Military
+Tribunes, and his arms dedicated to Jupiter, the second of the three
+instances in which the _Spolia Opima_ were won (B.C. 437). A few years
+afterward Fidenæ was taken and destroyed (B.C. 426), and at the same
+time a truce was granted to the Veientines for twenty years. At the
+expiration of this truce the war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to
+subdue Veii as they had done Fidenæ. The siege of Veii, like that of
+Troy, lasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as
+marvelous as the wooden horse by which Troy was taken. The waters of the
+Alban Lake rose to such a height as to deluge the neighboring country.
+An oracle declared that Veii could not be taken until the waters of the
+lake found a passage to the sea. This reached the ears of the Romans,
+who thereupon constructed a tunnel to carry off its superfluous
+waters.[19] The formation of this tunnel is said to have suggested to
+the Romans the means of taking Veii. M. Furius Camillus, who was
+appointed Dictator, commenced digging a mine beneath the city, which was
+to have its outlet in the citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian
+deity of Veii. When the mine was finished, the attention of the
+inhabitants was diverted by feigned assaults against the walls.
+Camillus led the way into the mine at the head of a picked body of
+troops. As he stood beneath the temple of Juno, he heard the soothsayer
+declare to the king of the Veientines that whoever should complete the
+sacrifice he was offering would be the conqueror. Thereupon the Romans
+burst forth and seized the flesh of the victim, which Camillus offered
+up. The soldiers who guarded the walls were thus taken in the rear, the
+gates were thrown open, and the city soon filled with Romans. The booty
+was immense, and the few citizens who escaped the sword were sold as
+slaves. The image of Juno was carried to Rome, and installed with great
+pomp on Mount Aventine, where a temple was erected to her. Camillus
+entered Rome in a chariot drawn by four white horses. Rome had never yet
+seen so magnificent a triumph (B.C. 396).
+
+One circumstance, which occurred during the siege of Veii, deserves
+notice. As the Roman soldiers were obliged to pass the whole year under
+arms, in order to invest the city during the winter as well as the
+summer, they now, for the first time, received pay.
+
+Veii was a more beautiful city than Rome, and, as it was now without
+inhabitants, many of the Roman people wished to remove thither. At the
+persuasion of Camillus the project was abandoned; but the territory of
+Veii was divided among the Plebeians.
+
+Falerii was almost the only one of the Etruscan cities which had
+assisted Veii, and she was now exposed single-handed to the vengeance of
+the Romans. It is related that, when Camillus appeared before Falerii, a
+schoolmaster of the town treacherously conducted the sons of the noblest
+families into the Roman camp, but that Camillus, scorning the baseness
+of the man, ordered his arms to be tied behind him, and the boys to flog
+him back into the town; whereupon the inhabitants, overcome by such
+generosity, gave up their arms, and surrendered to the Romans (B.C.
+394).
+
+Camillus was one of the proudest of the Patricians; and he now incurred
+the hatred of the Plebeians by calling upon every man to refund a tenth
+of the booty taken at Veii; because he had made a vow to consecrate to
+Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He was accused of having appropriated the
+great bronze gates at Veii, and was impeached by one of the Tribunes.
+Seeing that his condemnation was certain, he went into exile, praying as
+he left the walls that the Republic might soon have cause to regret him
+(B.C. 491). His prayer was heard, for the Gauls had already crossed the
+Apennines, and next year Rome was in ashes.
+
+[Footnote 18: The Censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the
+state, with the exception of the Dictatorship. The duties of the Censors
+were numerous and important. They not only took the _census_--or the
+register of the citizens and their property--hut they also chose the
+members of the Senate, exercised a superintendence over the whole public
+and private life of the citizens, and, in addition, had the
+administration of the finances of the state.]
+
+[Footnote 19: This remarkable work, which, after the lapse of more than
+two thousand years, still continues to serve the purpose for which it
+was originally designed, is cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which
+the Alban Hill is composed. The length of the tunnel is about 6000 feet,
+and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored.]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE TWO
+ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.
+
+
+The Gauls or Celts were in ancient times spread over the greater part of
+Western Europe. They inhabited Gaul and the British isles, and had in
+the time of the Tarquins crossed the Alps and taken possession of
+Northern Italy. But they now spread farther south, crossed the
+Apennines, and laid waste with fire and sword the provinces of Central
+Italy. Rome fell before them, and was reduced to ashes; but the details
+of its capture are clearly legendary. The common story runs as follows:
+
+The Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, led by their chief Brennus, laid
+siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan city over which Lars Porsena
+once reigned. Such reputation had Rome gained through her conquests in
+Etruria, that Clusium applied to her for aid (B.C. 391). The Senate sent
+three embassadors, sons of the chief pontiff, Fabius Ambustus, to warn
+the barbarians not to touch an ally of Rome. But the Gauls treated their
+message with scorn; and the embassadors, forgetting their sacred
+character, fought in the Clusine ranks. One of the Fabii slew with his
+own hands a Gallic chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off his
+armor. Brennus therefore sent to Rome to demand satisfaction. The Roman
+people not only refused to give it, but elected the three Fabii as
+Military Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this insult, the
+Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened southward toward Rome.
+All the inhabitants fled before them into the towns. They pursued their
+course without injuring any one, crying to the guards upon the walls of
+the towns they passed, "Our way lies for Rome." On the news of their
+approach the Roman army hurried out of the city, and on the 16th of July
+(B.C. 300), a day ever after regarded as disastrous, they met the Gauls
+on the Allia, a small river which flows into the Tiber, on its left
+bank, about eleven miles from Rome. Brennus attacked the Romans on the
+flank, and threw them into confusion. A general panic seized them: they
+turned and fled. Some escaped across the Tiber to Veii, and a few
+reached Rome, but the greater number were slain by the Gauls.
+
+The loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were not left to
+guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved that those in the
+vigor of their age should withdraw to the Capitol, taking with them all
+the provisions in the city; that the priests and Vestal Virgins should
+convey the objects of religious reverence to Cæré; and that the rest of
+the population should disperse among the neighboring towns. But the aged
+senators, who had been Consuls or Censors, seeing that their lives were
+no longer of any service to the state, sat down in the forum on their
+curule thrones awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the city they
+found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on, without seeing a human
+being till they came to the forum. Here they beheld the aged senators
+sitting immovable, like beings of another world. For some time they
+gazed in awe at this strange sight, till at length one of the Gauls
+ventured to go up to M. Papirius and stroke his white beard. The old man
+struck him on the head with his ivory sceptre; whereupon the barbarian
+slew him, and all the rest were massacred. The Gauls now began
+plundering the city; fires broke out in several quarters; and with the
+exception of a few houses on the Palatine, which the chiefs kept for
+their own residence, the whole city was burnt to the ground.
+
+The Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only one steep way
+leading up to it, and all the assaults of the besiegers were easily
+repelled. They thereupon turned the siege into a blockade, and for seven
+months were encamped amid the ruins of Rome. But their numbers were soon
+thinned by disease, for they had entered Rome in the most unhealthy time
+of the year, when fevers have always prevailed. The failure of
+provisions obliged them to ravage the neighboring countries, the people
+of which began to combine for defense against the marauders. Meantime
+the scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veii, and here
+resolved to recall Camillus from banishment, and appoint him Dictator.
+In order to obtain the consent of the Senate, a daring youth, named
+Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across the Tiber and climb the
+Capitol. He reached the top unperceived by the enemy, obtained the
+approval of the Senate to the appointment of Camillus, and returned
+safely to Veii. But next day some Gauls observed the traces of his
+steps, and in the dead of night they climbed up the same way. The
+foremost of them had already reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels
+and the dogs, when the cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from sleep.
+These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared notwithstanding the
+gnawings of hunger; and the Romans were now rewarded for their piety. M.
+Manlius thrust down the Gaul who had clambered up, and gave the alarm.
+The Capitol was thus saved; and down to latest times M. Manlius was
+honored as one of the greatest heroes of the early Republic.
+
+Still no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol. The
+Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay the barbarians
+1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their quitting the city and its
+territory. Brennus brought false weights, and, when the Romans exclaimed
+against this injustice, the Gallic chief threw his sword also into the
+scale, crying, "Woe to the vanquished!" But at this very moment Camillus
+marched into the forum, ordered the gold to be taken away, and drove the
+Gauls out of the city. Another battle was fought on the road to Gabii,
+in which the Gauls were completely destroyed, and their leader Brennus
+taken prisoner. This tale, however, is an invention of Roman vanity. We
+learn from other sources that the Gauls retreated because their
+settlements in Northern Italy were attacked by the Venetians; and there
+can be little doubt that their departure was hastened by a present of
+Roman gold. The Gauls frequently repeated their inroads, and for many
+years to come were the constant dread of the Romans.
+
+When the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was once their city
+their hearts sank within them. The people shrank from the expense and
+toil of rebuilding their houses, and loudly demanded that they should
+all remove to Veii, where the private dwellings and public buildings
+were still standing. But Camillus and the Patricians strongly urged them
+not to abandon the homes of their fathers, and they were at length
+persuaded to remain. The state granted bricks, and stones were fetched
+from Veii. Within a year the city rose from its ashes; but the streets
+were narrow and crooked; the houses were frequently built over the
+sewers; and the city continued to show, down to the great fire of Nero,
+evident traces of the haste and irregularity with which it had been
+rebuilt. Rome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her
+territory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins and
+Hernicans dissolved the League with the Romans, and wars broke out on
+every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillus was the soul of
+the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman legions against their
+enemies, and always with success. The rapidity with which the Romans
+recovered their power after so terrible a disaster would seem
+unaccountable but for the fact that the other nations had also suffered
+greatly from the inroads of the Gauls, who still continued to ravage
+Central Italy. Two of their invasions of the Roman territory are
+commemorated by celebrated legends, which may be related here, though
+they belong to a later period.
+
+In B.C. 361 the Gauls and Romans were encamped on either bank of the
+Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the ranks and insultingly
+challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius, a Roman youth, obtained
+permission from his general to accept the challenge, slew the giant, and
+took from the dead body the golden chain (_torques_) which the barbarian
+wore around his neck. His comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus,
+which he handed down to his descendants.
+
+In B.C. 349 another distinguished Roman family earned its surname from a
+single combat with a Gaul. Here again a Gallic warrior of gigantic size
+challenged any one of the Romans to single combat. His challenge was
+accepted by M. Valerius, upon whose helmet a raven perched; and as they
+fought, the bird flew into the face of the Gaul, striking at him with
+its beak and flapping his wings. Thus Valerius slew the Gaul, and was
+called in consequence "Corvus," or the "Raven."
+
+It is now necessary to revert to the internal history of Rome. Great
+suffering and discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined homes and
+ravaged lands, the poor citizens had been obliged to borrow money to
+rebuild their houses and cultivate their farms. The law of debtor and
+creditor at Rome, as we have already seen, was very severe, and many
+unfortunate debtors were carried away to bondage. Under these
+circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, came forward as
+the patron of the poor. This distinguished man had been bitterly
+disappointed in his claims to honor and gratitude. While Camillus, his
+personal enemy, who had shared in none of the dangers of the siege, was
+repeatedly raised to the highest honors of the state, he, who had saved
+the Capitol, was left to languish in a private station. Neglected by his
+own order, Manlius turned to the Plebeians. One day he recognized in the
+forum a soldier who had served with him in the field, and whom a
+creditor was carrying away in fetters. Manlius paid his debt upon the
+spot, and swore that, as long as he had a single pound, he would not
+allow any Roman to be imprisoned for debt. He sold a large part of his
+property, and applied the proceeds to the liberation of his
+fellow-citizens from bondage. Supported now by the Plebeians, he came
+forward as the accuser of his own order, and charged them with
+appropriating to their own use the gold which had been raised to ransom
+the city from the Gauls. The Patricians in return accused him, as they
+had accused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he was brought
+to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries in the Campus Martius, he
+proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors whom he had slain, the
+forty military distinctions which he had won in battle, and the
+innumerable scars upon his breast, and then turning toward the Capitol
+he prayed the immortal gods to remember the man who had saved their
+temples from destruction. After such an appeal, his condemnation was
+impossible, and his enemies therefore contrived to break up the
+assembly. Shortly afterward he was arraigned on the same charges before
+the Comitia of the Curies in the Peteline Grove. Here he was at once
+condemned, and was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. His house, which was
+on the Capitol, was razed to the ground (B.C. 384).
+
+The death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check to the
+Plebeian cause. A few years afterward the contest came to a crisis. In
+B.C. 376 C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L. Sextius, being Tribunes of
+the Plebs, determined to give the Plebeians an equal share in the
+political power, to deprive the Patricians of the exclusive use of the
+public land, and to remove the present distress of the Plebeians. For
+this purpose they brought forward three laws, which are celebrated in
+history under the name of THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS.[20] These were:
+
+I. That in future Consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be
+appointed, and that one of the two Consuls _must_ be a Plebeian.
+
+II. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugera[21] of the
+public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures more than 100 head
+of large and 500 of small cattle, under penalty of a heavy fine.
+
+III. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should be
+deducted from the principal, and that the remainder should be repaid in
+three yearly instalments.
+
+These great reforms naturally excited the most violent opposition, and
+the Patricians induced some of the Plebeians to put their veto upon the
+measures of their colleagues. But Licinius and Sextius were not to be
+baffled in this way, and they exercised their veto by preventing the
+Comitia of the Centuries from electing any magistrates for the next
+year. Hence no Consuls, Military Tribunes, Censors, or Quæstors could be
+appointed; and the Tribunes of the Plebs and the Ædiles, who were
+elected by the Comitia of the Tribes, were the only magistrates in the
+state. For five years did this state of things continue. C. Licinius and
+L. Sextius were re-elected annually, and prevented the Comitia of the
+Centuries from appointing any magistrates. At the end of this time they
+allowed Military Tribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with the
+Latins; but so far were they from yielding any of their demands, that to
+their former Rogations they now added another: That the care of the
+Sibylline books, instead of being intrusted to two men (duumviri), both
+Patricians, should be given to ten men (decemviri), half of whom should
+be Plebeians.
+
+Five years more did the struggle last; but the firmness of the Tribunes
+at length prevailed. In B.C. 367 the Licinian Rogations were passed, and
+L. Sextius was elected the first Plebeian Consul for the next year. But
+the Patricians made one last effort to evade the law. By the Roman
+constitution, the Consuls, after being elected by the Comitia
+Centuriata, received the Imperium, or sovereign power, from the Comitia
+Curiata. The Patricians thus had it in their power to nullify the
+election of the Centuries by refusing the Imperium. This they did when
+L. Sextius was elected Consul; and they made Camillus, the great
+champion of their order, Dictator, to support them in their new
+struggle. But the old hero saw that it was too late, and determined to
+bring about a reconciliation between the two orders. A compromise was
+effected. The Imperium was conferred upon L. Sextius; but the judicial
+duties were taken away from the Consuls, and given to a new magistrate
+called _Prætor_. Camillus vowed to the goddess Concord a temple for his
+success.
+
+The long struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians was thus brought
+to a virtual close. The Patricians still clung obstinately to the
+exclusive privileges which they still possessed; but when the Plebeians
+had once obtained a share in the Consulship, it was evident that their
+participation in the other offices of the state could not be much longer
+delayed. We may therefore anticipate the course of events by narrating
+in this place that the first Plebeian Dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus in
+B.C. 356; that the same man was the first Plebeian Censor five years
+afterward (B.C. 351); that the Prætorship was thrown open to the
+Plebeians in B.C. 336; and that the Lex Ogulnia in B.C. 300, which
+increased the number of the Pontiffs from four to eight, and that of the
+Augurs from four to nine, also enacted that four of the Pontiffs and
+five of the Augurs should be taken from the Plebeians.
+
+About thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another important
+reform, which abridged still farther the privileges of the Patricians,
+was effected by the PUBLILIAN LAWS, proposed by the Dictator Q.
+Publilius Philo in B.C. 339. These were:
+
+I. That the Resolutions of the Plebs should be binding on all the
+Quirites,[22] thus giving to the Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the
+Tribes the same force as the Laws passed at the Comitia of the
+Centuries.
+
+II. That all laws passed at the Comitia of the Centuries should receive
+previously the sanction of the Curies; so that the Curies were now
+deprived of all power over the Centuries.
+
+III. That one of the Censors must be a Plebeian.
+
+The first of these laws seems to be little move than a re-enactment of
+one of the Valerian and Horatian laws, passed after the expulsion of the
+Decemvirs;[23] but it is probable that the latter had never been really
+carried into effect. Even the Publilian Law upon this subject seems to
+have been evaded; and it was accordingly enacted again by the Dictator
+Q. Hortensius in B.C. 286. In this year the last Secession of the
+Plebeians took place, and the LEX HORTENSIA is always mentioned as the
+law which gave to Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the Tribes the
+full power of laws binding upon the whole nation. From this time we hear
+of no more civil dissensions till the times of the Gracchi, a hundred
+and fifty years afterward, and the Lex Hortensia may therefore be
+regarded as the termination of the long struggle between the two orders.
+
+[Footnote 20: _A Rogatio_ differed from a _Lex_, as a _Bill_ from an
+_Act_ of Parliament. A Rogatio was a law submitted to the assembly of
+the people, and only became a Lex when enacted by them.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A _Jugerum_ was rather more than half an acre.]
+
+[Footnote 22: _Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent._]
+
+[Footnote 23: See p. 40. (The end of Chapter V.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Ruins at Capua.]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS. B.C.
+367-290.
+
+
+United at home, the Romans were now prepared to carry on their foreign
+wars with more vigor; and their conquests of the Samnites and Latins
+made them the virtual masters of Italy. But the years which immediately
+followed the Licinian laws were times of great suffering. A pestilence
+raged in Rome, which carried off many of the most distinguished men, and
+among others the aged Camillus (B.C. 362). The Tiber overflowed its
+banks, the city was shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in
+the forum. The soothsayers declared that the gulf could never be filled
+up except by throwing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The
+tale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods could mean, a
+noble youth named M. Curtius came forward, and, declaring that Rome
+possessed nothing so valuable as her brave citizens, mounted his steed
+and leaped into the abyss in full armor, whereupon the earth closed over
+him. This event is assigned to the year 362 B.C.
+
+During the next few years the Gauls renewed their inroads, of which we
+have already spoken, and in the course of which Manlius Torquatus and
+Valerius Corvus gained such glory. The Romans steadily extended their
+dominion over the southern part of Etruria and the country of the
+Volscians, and the alliance with the Latins was renewed. Fifty years had
+elapsed since the capture of the city by the Gauls, and Rome was now
+strong enough to enter into a contest with the most formidable enemy
+which her arms had yet encountered. The SAMNITES were at the height of
+their power, and the contest between them and the Romans was virtually
+for the supremacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have already seen, were
+a people of Sabine origin, and had emigrated to the country which they
+inhabited at a comparatively late period. They consisted of four
+different tribes or cantons, the Pentri, Hirpini, Caraceni, and Caudini,
+of whom the two former were the most important. They inhabited that part
+of the Apennines which lies between Campania and Lucania, but they were
+not contented with their mountain-homes, and overran the rich plains
+which lay at their feet. They became the masters of Campania and
+Lucania, and spread themselves almost to the southern extremity of
+Italy. But the Samnites of Campania and Lucania had in course of time
+broken off all connection with the parent nation, and sometimes were
+engaged in hostilities with the latter. It was a contest of this kind
+that led to the war between the Romans and the Samnites of the
+Apennines. On the borders of Campania and Samnium dwelt a people, called
+the Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their independence. Being
+attacked by the Samnites, this people implored the assistance of the
+Campanians, which was readily granted. Thereupon the Samnites turned
+their arms against the Campanians, and, after occupying Mount Tifata,
+which overlooks the city of Capua, they descended into the plain, and
+defeated the Campanians in a pitched battle at the very gates of Capua.
+The Campanians, being shut up within the city, now applied for
+assistance to Rome, and offered to place Capua in their hands. The
+Romans had only a few years previously concluded an alliance with the
+Samnites; but the bait of the richest city and the most fertile soil in
+Italy was irresistible, and they resolved to comply with the request.
+Thus began the Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace,
+lasted 53 years.
+
+FIRST SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 343-341.--The Romans commenced the war by
+sending two consular armies against the Samnites; and the first battle
+between the rival nations was fought at the foot of Mount Gaurus, which
+lies about three miles from Cumæ. The Samnites were defeated with great
+loss; and it has been justly remarked that this battle may be regarded
+as one of the most memorable in history, since it was a kind of omen of
+the ultimate issue of the great contest which had now begun between the
+Samnites and Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained two
+other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city in triumph.
+But two causes prevented the Romans from prosecuting their success. In
+the first place, the Roman army, which had been wintering in Capua, rose
+in open mutiny; and the poorer Plebeians in the city, who were oppressed
+by debt, left Rome and joined the mutineers. In the second place, the
+increasing disaffection of the Latins warned the Romans to husband their
+resources for another and more terrible struggle. The Romans, therefore,
+abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians, concluded a treaty of peace and
+alliance with the Samnites in B.C. 341, so that in the great Latin war,
+which broke out in the following year, the Samnites fought on the side
+of the Romans.
+
+THE LATIN WAR, B.C. 340-338.--The Latins had, as already stated, renewed
+their league with Rome in B.C. 356, and consequently their troops had
+fought along with the Romans in the war against the Samnites. But the
+increasing power of Rome excited their alarm; and it became evident to
+them that, though nominally on a footing of equality, they were, in
+reality, becoming subject to Rome. This feeling was confirmed by the
+treaty of alliance which the Romans had formed with the Samnites. The
+Latins, therefore, determined to bring matters to a crisis, and sent two
+Prætors, who were their chief magistrates, to propose to the Romans that
+the two nations should henceforth form one state; that half of the state
+should consist of Latins, and that one of the two Consuls should be
+chosen from Latium. These requests excited the greatest indignation at
+Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. The Senate met in the
+Temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive the Latin deputation, and,
+after hearing their proposals, the Consul, T. Manlius Torquatus, the
+same who had slain the Gaul in single combat, declared that, if the
+Republic should cowardly yield to these demands, he would come into the
+senate-house sword in hand and cut down the first Latin he saw there.
+The tale goes on to say that in the discussion which followed, when both
+parties were excited by anger, the Latin Prætor defied the Roman
+Jupiter; that thereupon an awful peal of thunder shook the building; and
+that, as the impious man hurried down the steps from the temple, he fell
+from top to bottom, and lay there a corpse.
+
+War was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were made on both
+sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome should become a Latin
+town, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The Romans had elected to the
+consulship two of their most distinguished men. The Patrician Consul
+was, as already mentioned, T. Manlius Torquatus; his Plebeian colleague
+was P. Decius Mus, who had gained great renown in the recent war against
+the Samnites. The two Consuls marched through Samnium into Campania, and
+threatened Capua, thus leaving Rome exposed to the attacks of the
+Latins. But the Consuls foresaw that the Latins would not abandon Capua,
+their great acquisition; and the event proved their wisdom. The contest
+was thus withdrawn from the territory of Rome and transferred to
+Campania, where the Romans could receive assistance from the neighboring
+country of their Samnite allies. It was at the foot of Mount Vesuvius
+that the two armies met, and here the battle was fought which decided
+the contest. It was like a civil war. The soldiers of the two armies
+spoke the same language, had fought by each others' sides, and were well
+known to one another. Under these circumstances, the Consuls published a
+proclamation that no Roman should engage in single combat with a Latin
+on pain of death. But the son of Torquatus, provoked by the insults of a
+Tusculan officer, accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and
+carried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. The Consul had
+within him the heart of Brutus; he would not pardon this breach of
+discipline, and ordered the unhappy youth to be beheaded by the lictor
+in the presence of the assembled army.
+
+In the night before the battle a vision appeared to each Consul,
+announcing that the general of one side and the army of the other were
+doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the one whose wing first began
+to waver should devote himself and the army of the enemy to the gods of
+the lower world. Decius commanded the left wing; and when it began to
+give way, he resolved to fulfill his vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus,
+he repeated after him the form of words by which he devoted himself and
+the army of the enemy to the gods of the dead and the mother earth; then
+leaping upon his horse, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and
+was slain. The Romans gained a signal victory. Scarcely a fourth part of
+the Latins escaped (B.C. 340).
+
+This victory made the Romans masters of Campania, and the Latins did
+not dare to meet them again in the field. The war continued two years
+longer, each city confining itself to the defense of its own walls, and
+hoping to receive help from others in case of an attack. But upon the
+capture of Pedum in B.C. 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and
+garrisons were placed in their towns. The Romans were now absolute
+masters of Latium, and their great object was to prevent the Latin
+cities from forming any union again. For this purpose not only were all
+general assemblies forbidden, but, in order to keep the cities
+completely isolated, the citizens of one town could not marry or make a
+legal contract of bargain or sale with another.[24] Tibur and Præneste,
+the two most powerful cities of the League, which had taken the most
+active part in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but
+were allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving their own
+laws, and renewing from time to time their treaties with Rome. The
+inhabitants of several other towns, such as Tusculum and Lanuvium,
+received the Roman franchise; their territory was incorporated in that
+of the Republic; and two new tribes were created to carry these
+arrangements into effect. Many of the most distinguished Romans sprung
+from these Latin towns.
+
+Twelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and the
+commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this time the Roman arms
+continued to make steady progress. One of their most important conquests
+was that of the Volscian town of Privernum in B.C. 329, from which time
+the Volscians, so long the formidable enemies of Rome, disappear as an
+independent nation. The extension of the Roman power naturally awakened
+the jealousy of the Samnites; and the assistance rendered by them to the
+Greek cities of Palæopolis and Neapolis was the immediate occasion of
+the Second Samnite War. These two cities were colonies of the
+neighboring Cumæ, and were situated only five miles from each other. The
+position of Palæopolis, or the "Old City," is uncertain; but Neapolis,
+or the "New City," stands on the site of a part of the modern Naples.
+The Romans declared war against the two cities in B.C. 327, and sent the
+Consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce them to subjection. The Greek
+colonists had previously formed an alliance with the Samnites, and now
+received powerful Samnite garrisons. Publilius encamped between the
+cities; and as he did not succeed in taking them before his year of
+office expired, he was continued in the command with the title of
+_Proconsul_, the first time that this office was created. At the
+beginning of the following year Palæopolis was taken; and Neapolis only
+escaped the same fate by concluding an alliance with the Romans.
+Meanwhile the Romans had declared war against the Samnites.
+
+SECOND OR GREAT SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 326-304.--The Second Samnite War
+lasted 22 years, and was by far the most important of the three wars
+which this people waged with Rome. During the first five years (B.C.
+326-322) the Roman arms were generally successful. The Samnites became
+so disheartened that they sued for peace, but obtained only a truce for
+a year. It was during this period that the well-known quarrel took place
+between L. Papirius Cursor and Q. Fabius Maximus, the two most
+celebrated Roman generals of the time, who constantly led the armies of
+the Republic to victory. In B.C. 325 L. Papirius was Dictator, and Q.
+Fabius his Master of the Horse. Recalled to Rome by some defect in the
+auspices, the Dictator left the army in charge of Fabius, but with
+strict orders not to venture upon an engagement. Compelled or provoked
+by the growing boldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked and defeated them
+with great loss. But this victory was no extenuation for his offense in
+the eyes of the Dictator. Papirius hastened back to the camp, burning
+with indignation that his commands had been disobeyed, and ordered his
+lictors to seize Fabius and put him to death. The soldiers, whom Fabius
+had led to victory, rose in his defense; and in the night he escaped to
+Rome, to implore the protection of the Senate. He was stating the case
+to the Fathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house, followed by his
+lictors, and demanded that the offender should be given up for
+execution. But the Senate, the people, and the aged father of Maximus
+interceded so strongly for his life, that the Dictator was obliged to
+give way and to grant an ungracious pardon.
+
+The year's truce had not expired when the Samnites again took up arms,
+and for the next seven years (B.C. 321-315) the balance of success
+inclined to their side. This appears to have been mainly owing to the
+military abilities of their general C. Pontius, who deserves to be
+ranked among the chief men of antiquity. In the first year of his
+command he inflicted upon the Romans one of the severest blows they ever
+sustained in the whole course of their history.
+
+In B.C. 321 the two Consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, marched into
+Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum. Near the town of Caudium
+they entered the celebrated pass called the CAUDINE FORKS (Furculæ
+Caudinæ). It consisted of two narrow defiles or gorges, between which
+was a tolerably spacious plain, but shut in on each side by mountains.
+The Romans, thinking the Samnites to be far distant, had marched through
+the first pass and the plain; but when they came to the second they
+found it blocked up by works and trunks of trees, so as to be quite
+impassable. Retracing their steps to the pass by which they had
+entered, they found that the enemy had meantime taken possession of this
+also. They were thus blocked up at either end, and, after making vain
+attempts to force their way through, were obliged to surrender at
+discretion. Thus both Consuls and four legions fell into the hands of
+the Samnites. C. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. He agreed
+to dismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore the ancient
+alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and to give up all the
+places which they had conquered during the war. The Consuls and the
+other superior officers swore to these terms in the name of the
+Republic, and six hundred Roman knights were given as hostages. The
+whole Roman army was now allowed to depart, and each Roman soldier
+marched out singly under the yoke.
+
+When the news of this disaster reached Rome the Senate refused to ratify
+the peace, and resolved that the two Consuls and all the officers who
+had sworn to the peace should be delivered up to the Samnites as persons
+who had deceived them. They were conducted to Caudium by a Fetialis; and
+when they appeared before the tribunal of C. Pontius, Postumius, with
+superstitious folly, struck the Fetialis with his foot, saying that he
+was now a Samnite citizen, and that war might be renewed with justice by
+the Romans, since a Samnite had insulted the sacred envoy of the Roman
+people. But Pontius refused to accept the persons who were thus offered,
+and told them, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the
+army to the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions returned to
+Rome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the hands of the Samnites.
+
+The disaster of Caudium shook the fate of many of the Roman allies, and
+the fortune of war was for some years in favor of the Samnites. But in
+B.C. 314 the tide of success again turned, and the decisive victory of
+the Consuls in that year opened the way into the heart of Samnium. From
+this time the Romans were uniformly successful; and it seemed probable
+that the war was drawing to a close, when the Etruscans created a
+powerful diversion by declaring war against Rome in B.C. 311. But the
+energy and ability of Q. Fabius Maximus averted this new danger. He
+boldly carried the war into the very heart of Etruria, and gained a
+decisive victory over the forces of the League. The Samnites also were
+repeatedly defeated; and after the capture of Bovianum, the chief city
+of the Pentri, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was granted them
+in B.C. 304, on condition of their acknowledging the supremacy of Rome.
+
+At the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the Æquians and Hernicans
+were reduced to subjection after a brief struggle. A part of the Æquian
+territory was incorporated in that of Rome by the addition of two new
+tribes, and two colonies were planted in the other portion. The Marsi,
+Marrucini, Peligni, and other nations of Central Italy, entered into a
+league with the Romans on equal terms. Thus, in B.C. 300, the power of
+Rome seemed firmly established in Central Italy. But this very power
+awakened the jealousy of the surrounding nations, and the Samnites
+exerted themselves to form a new and formidable coalition. The Etruscans
+and Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and called in the
+assistance of the Senonian Gauls.
+
+THIRD SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 298-290.--As soon as the Etruscans and Umbrians
+were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded Lucania. The Lucanians
+invoked the assistance of the Romans, who forthwith declared war against
+the Samnites. The Republic had now to contend at one and the same time
+against the Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls, and Samnites; but she carried on
+the struggle with the utmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians,
+and Gauls in the north, and the Samnites in the south. At length, in
+B.C. 295, the Samnites joined their confederates in Umbria. In this
+country, near the town of Sentinum, a desperate battle was fought, which
+decided the fortune of the war. The two Roman Consuls were the aged Q.
+Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus. The victory was long doubtful. The
+wing commanded by Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the
+Gauls, when he determined to imitate the example of his father, and to
+devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death gave fresh
+courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete and decisive victory.
+Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, who had taken the most active
+part in forming the coalition, was slain. But, though the League was
+thus broken up, the Samnites continued the struggle for five years
+longer. During this period C. Pontius, who had defeated the Romans at
+the Caudine Forks, again appeared, after twenty-seven years, as the
+leader of the Samnites, but was defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great
+loss and taken prisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as
+the triumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol (B.C. 292). This
+shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest stains on
+the Roman annals. Two years afterward the Samnites were unable to
+continue any longer the hopeless struggle, and became the subjects of
+Rome. The third and last Samnite war was brought to a close in B.C. 290.
+
+[Footnote 24: According to the Roman expression, the _Jus Connubii_ and
+_Jus Commercii_ were forbidden.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Pyrrhus.]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY. B.C.
+290-265.
+
+
+Ten years elapsed from the conclusion of the third Samnite war to the
+arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the Etruscans and Gauls
+renewed the war in the north, but were defeated with great slaughter
+near the Lake Vadimo. This decisive battle appears to have completely
+crushed the Etruscan power; and it inflicted so severe a blow upon the
+Gauls that we hear no more of their ravages for the next sixty years.
+
+In the south the Lucanians also rose against Rome. The extension of the
+Roman dominion in the south of the peninsula had brought the state into
+connection with the Greek cities, which at one period were so numerous
+and powerful as to give to this part of Italy the name of Magna
+Græcia.[25] Many of these cities had now fallen into decay through
+internal dissensions and the conquests of the Lucanians and other
+Sabellian tribes; but Tarentum, originally a Lacedæmonian colony, still
+maintained her former power and splendor. The Tarentines naturally
+regarded with extreme jealousy the progress of the Roman arms in the
+south of Italy, and had secretly instigated the Etruscans and Lucanians
+to form a new coalition against Rome. But the immediate cause of the war
+between the Lucanians and Romans was the assistance which the latter had
+rendered to the Greek city of Thurii. Being attacked by the Lucanians,
+the Thurians applied to Rome for aid, and the Consul C. Fabricius not
+only relieved Thurii, but defeated the Lucanians and their allies in
+several engagements (B.C. 252). Upon the departure of Fabricius a Roman
+garrison was left in Thurii. The only mode now of maintaining
+communication between Rome and Thurii was by sea; but this was virtually
+forbidden by a treaty which the Romans had made with Tarentum nearly
+twenty years before, in which treaty it was stipulated that no Roman
+ships of war should pass the Lacinian promontory. But circumstances were
+now changed, and the Senate determined that their vessels should no
+longer be debarred from the Gulf of Tarentum. There was a small squadron
+of ten ships in those seas under the command of L. Valerius; and one
+day, when the Tarentines were assembled in the theatre, which looked
+over the sea, they saw the Roman squadron sailing toward their harbor.
+This open violation of the treaty seemed a premeditated insult, and a
+demagogue urged the people to take summary vengeance. They rushed down
+to the harbor, quickly manned some ships, and gained an easy victory
+over the small Roman squadron. Only half made their escape, four were
+sunk, one taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this the Tarentines
+marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants to dismiss the Roman
+garrison, and then plundered the town.
+
+The Senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these outrages and
+to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, was introduced with his colleagues into the theatre, to state
+to the assembled people the demands of the Roman Senate. He began to
+address them in Greek, but his mistakes in the language were received
+with peals of laughter from the thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a
+hearing, much less an answer, Postumius was leaving the theatre, when a
+drunken buffoon rushed up to him and sullied his white robe in the most
+disgusting manner. The whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and
+clapping of hands, which became louder and louder when Postumius held up
+his sullied robe and showed it to the people. "Laugh on now," he cried,
+"but this robe shall be washed in torrents of your blood."
+
+War was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an embassy to
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him, in the name of all the Italian
+Greeks, to cross over into Italy in order to conduct the war against the
+Romans. They told him that they only wanted a general, and that all the
+nations of Southern Italy would flock to his standard. Pyrrhus needed no
+persuasion to engage in an enterprise which realized the earliest dreams
+of his ambition. The conquest of Italy would naturally lead to the
+sovereignty of Sicily and Africa, and he would then be able to return to
+Greece with the united forces of the West to overcome his rivals and
+reign as master of the world. But as he would not trust the success of
+his enterprise to the valor and fidelity of Italian troops, he began to
+make preparations to carry over a powerful army. Meantime he sent Milo,
+one of his generals, with a detachment of 3000 men, to garrison the
+citadel of Tarentum. Pyrrhus himself crossed over from Epirus toward the
+end of B.C. 281, taking with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, and 20
+elephants.
+
+Upon reaching Tarentum he began to make preparations to carry on the war
+with activity. The Tarentines soon found they had obtained a master
+rather than an ally. He shut up the theatre and all other public places,
+and compelled their young men to serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all
+his activity, the Romans were first in the field. The Consul M. Valerius
+Lævinus marched into Lucania; but as the army of Pyrrhus was inferior to
+that of the Romans, he attempted to gain time by negotiation in order
+that he might be joined by his Italian allies. He accordingly wrote to
+the Consul, offering to arbitrate between Rome and the Italian states;
+but Lævinus bluntly told him to mind his own business and retire to
+Epirus. Fearing to remain inactive any longer, although he was not yet
+joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the Romans with his
+own troops and the Tarentines. He took up his position between the towns
+of Pandosia and Heraclea, on the River Siris. The Romans, who were
+encamped on the other side of the river, were the first to begin the
+battle. They crossed the river, and were immediately attacked by the
+cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led them to the charge in person, and
+distinguished himself as usual by the most daring acts of valor. The
+Romans, however, bravely sustained the attack; and Pyrrhus, finding that
+his cavalry could not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance.
+The battle was still contested most furiously: seven times did both
+armies advance and retreat; and it was not till Pyrrhus brought forward
+his elephants, which bore down every thing before them, that the Romans
+took to flight, leaving their camp to the conqueror (B.C. 280).
+
+This battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he had
+undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the Romans forming their
+line as they crossed the river, he said to his officers, "In war, at any
+rate, these barbarians are not barbarous;" and afterward, as he saw the
+Roman dead lying upon the field with all their wounds in front, he
+exclaimed, "If these were my soldiers, or if I were their general, we
+should conquer the world." And, though his loss had been inferior to
+that of the Romans, still so large a number of his officers and best
+troops had fallen, that he said, "Another such victory, and I must
+return to Epirus alone." He therefore resolved to avail himself of this
+victory to conclude, if possible, an advantageous peace. He sent his
+minister Cineas to Rome with the proposal that the Romans should
+recognize the independence of the Greeks in Italy, restore to the
+Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians, and Bruttians all the possessions which
+they had lost in war, and make peace with himself and the Tarentines.
+As soon as peace was concluded on these terms he promised to return all
+the Roman prisoners without ransom. Cineas, whose persuasive eloquence
+was said to have won more towns for Pyrrhus than his arms, neglected no
+means to induce the Romans to accept these terms. The prospects of the
+Republic seemed so dark and threatening that many members of the Senate
+thought it would be more prudent to comply with the demands of the king;
+and this party would probably have carried the day had it not been for
+the patriotic speech of the aged Ap. Claudius Caucus, who denounced the
+idea of a peace with a victorious foe with such effect that the Senate
+declined the proposals of the king, and commanded Cineas to quit Rome
+the same day.
+
+Cineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for nothing from
+negotiation; that the city was like a temple of the gods, and the Senate
+an assembly of kings. Pyrrhus now advanced by rapid marches toward Rome,
+ravaging the country as he went along, and without encountering any
+serious opposition. He at length arrived at Præneste, which fell into
+his hands. He was now only 24 miles from Rome, and his outposts advanced
+six miles farther. Another march would have brought him under the walls
+of the city; but at this moment he learned that peace was concluded with
+the Etruscans, and that the other Consul had returned with his army to
+Rome. All hope of compelling the Romans to accept the peace was now
+gone, and he therefore resolved to retreat. He retired slowly into
+Campania, and from thence withdrew into winter quarters to Tarentum.
+
+As soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the Romans sent an
+embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom or exchange of prisoners. The
+embassadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most distinguished manner;
+and his interviews with C. Fabricius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, form one of the most famous stories in Roman history. Fabricius
+was a fine specimen of the sturdy Roman character. He cultivated his
+farm with his own hands, and, like his contemporary Curius, was
+celebrated for his incorruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain
+to work upon his cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large
+sums of money offered by Pyrrhus; and when an elephant, concealed behind
+him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius remained
+unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that Pyrrhus attempted to
+persuade him to enter into his service and accompany him to Greece. The
+object of the embassy failed. The king refused to exchange the
+prisoners; but, to show them his trust in their honor, he allowed them
+to go to Rome in order to celebrate the Saturnalia, stipulating that
+they were to return to Tarentum if the Senate would not accept the terms
+which he had previously offered through Cineas. The Senate remained firm
+in their resolve, and all the prisoners returned to Pyrrhus, the
+punishment of death having been denounced against those who should
+remain in the city.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 279) the war was renewed, and a battle was
+fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their camp, which was so near to
+the field of battle that not more than 6000 fell, while Pyrrhus lost
+more than half this number. The victory yielded Pyrrhus little or no
+advantage, and he was obliged to retire to Tarentum for the winter
+without effecting any thing more during the campaign. In the last
+battle, as well as in the former, the brunt of the action had fallen
+almost exclusively upon his Greek troops; and the state of Greece, which
+this year was overrun by the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect
+any re-enforcements from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard
+his surviving Greeks by another campaign with the Romans, and
+accordingly lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily,
+who begged him to come to their assistance against the Carthaginians. It
+was necessary, however, first to suspend hostilities with the Romans,
+who were likewise anxious to get rid of so formidable an opponent, that
+they might complete the subjugation of Southern Italy without farther
+interruption. When both parties had the same wishes it was not difficult
+to find a fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion. This was
+afforded at the beginning of the following year (B.C. 278) by one of the
+servants of Pyrrhus deserting to the Romans, and proposing to the
+Consuls to poison his master. They sent back the deserter to the king,
+saying that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. Thereupon
+Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome with all the Roman
+prisoners, without ransom and without conditions; and the Romans granted
+him a truce.
+
+Leaving Milo with part of his troops in possession of Tarentum, Pyrrhus
+now crossed over into Sicily. He remained there upward of two years. At
+first he met with brilliant success, and deprived the Carthaginians of a
+great part of the island. Subsequently, however, he received a severe
+repulse in an attempt which he made upon the impregnable town of
+Lilybæum. The fickle Greeks now began to form cabals and plots against
+him. This led to retaliation on his part, and he soon became as anxious
+to abandon the island as he had been before to leave Italy. Accordingly,
+when his Italian allies again begged him to come to their assistance, he
+readily complied with their request, and arrived in Italy in the autumn
+of B.C. 276. His troops were now almost the same in number as when he
+first landed in Italy, but very different in quality. The faithful
+Epirots had for the most part fallen, and his present soldiers consisted
+chiefly of mercenaries, whom he had levied in Italy. One of his first
+operations was the recovery of Locri, which had revolted to the Romans;
+and as he here found himself in great difficulties for want of money to
+pay his troops, he was induced to take possession of the treasures of
+the Temple of Proserpine in that town; but the ships conveying the money
+were wrecked. This circumstance deeply affected the mind of Pyrrhus; he
+ordered the treasures which were saved to be restored to the temple, and
+from this time became haunted by the idea that the wrath of Proserpine
+was pursuing him, and dragging him down to ruin.
+
+The following year (B.C. 274) closed the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. The
+Consul M'. Curius marched into Samnium, and his colleague into Lucania.
+Pyrrhus advanced against Curius, who was encamped in the neighborhood of
+Beneventum, and resolved to fight with him before he was joined by his
+colleague. As Curius did not wish to risk a battle with his own army
+alone, Pyrrhus planned a night-attack upon his camp. But he
+miscalculated the time and the distance; the torches burnt out, the men
+missed their way, and it was already broad daylight when he reached the
+heights above the Roman camp. Still their arrival was quite unexpected;
+but, as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led out his men. The troops
+of Pyrrhus, exhausted by fatigue, were easily put to the rout; two
+elephants were killed and eight more taken. Encouraged by this success,
+Curius no longer hesitated to meet the king in the open plain, and
+gained a decisive victory. Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum with only a few
+horsemen. Shortly afterward he crossed over to Greece, leaving Milo with
+a garrison at Tarentum. Two years afterward he perished in an attack
+upon Argos, ingloriously slain by a tile hurled by a woman from the roof
+of a house.
+
+The departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian tribes
+exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless continued the
+hopeless struggle a little longer; but in B.C. 272 Tarentum fell into
+the hands of Rome, and in a few years afterward every nation in Italy,
+to the south of the Macra and the Rubicon, owned the supremacy of Rome.
+She had now become one of the first powers in the ancient world. The
+defeat of Pyrrhus attracted the attention of the nations of the East;
+and in B.C. 273, Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, sent an embassy to
+Rome, and concluded a treaty with the Republic.
+
+The dominion which Rome had acquired by her arms was confirmed by her
+policy. She pursued the same system which she had adopted upon the
+subjugation of Latium, keeping the cities isolated from one another, but
+at the same time allowing them to manage their own affairs. The
+population of Italy was divided into three classes. _Cives Romani_,
+_Nomen Latinum_, and _Socii_.
+
+I. CIVES ROMANI, or ROMAN CITIZENS.--These consisted: (1.) Of the
+citizens of the thirty-three Tribes into which the Roman territory was
+now divided, and which extended north of the Tiber a little beyond Veii,
+and southward as far as the Liris; though even in this district there
+were some towns, such as Tibur and Prænesté, which did not possess the
+Roman franchise. (2.) Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in
+different parts of Italy. (3.) Of the citizens of municipal towns upon
+whom the Roman franchise was conferred. In some cases the Roman
+franchise was granted without the right of voting in the Comitia
+(_civitas sine suffragio_), but in course of time this right also was
+generally conceded.
+
+II. NOMEN LATINUM, or the LATIN NAME.--This term was applied to the
+colonies founded by Rome which did not enjoy the rights of Roman
+citizenship, and which stood in the same position with regard to the
+Roman state as had been formerly occupied by the cities of the Latin
+League. The name originated at a period when colonies were actually sent
+out in common by the Romans and Latins, but similar colonies continued
+to be founded by the Romans alone long after the extinction of the Latin
+League. In fact, the majority of the colonies planted by Rome were of
+this kind, the Roman citizens who took part in them voluntarily
+resigning their citizenship, in consideration of the grants of land
+which they obtained. But the citizen of any Latin colony might emigrate
+to Rome, and be enrolled in one of the Roman tribes, provided he had
+held a magistracy in his native town. These Latin colonies--the _Nomen
+Latinum_--were some of the most flourishing towns in Italy.
+
+III. SOCII, or ALLIES, included the rest of Italy. Each of the towns
+which had been conquered by Rome had formed a treaty (_foedus_) with
+the latter, which determined their rights and duties. These treaties
+were of various kinds, some securing nominal independence to the towns,
+and others reducing them to absolute subjection.
+
+The political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the Latin wars,
+have been already in great part anticipated. Appius Claudius, afterward
+named Cæcus, or the Blind, introduced a dangerous innovation in the
+constitution during the Second Samnite War. Slavery existed at Rome, as
+among the other nations of antiquity; and as many slaves, from various
+causes, acquired their liberty, there gradually sprung up at Rome a
+large and indigent population of servile origin. These Freedmen were
+Roman citizens, but they could only be enrolled in the four city-tribes,
+so that, however numerous they might become, they could influence only
+the votes of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his Censorship (B.C.
+312), when making out the lists of citizens, allowed the Freedmen to
+enroll themselves in any tribe they pleased; but this dangerous
+innovation was abolished by the Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius
+Mus (B.C. 304), who restored all the Freedmen to the four city-tribes.
+The Censorship of Appius is, however, memorable for the great public
+works which he executed. He made the great military road called the
+Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome to Capua, a distance of 120
+miles, which long afterward was continued across the Apennines to
+Brundusium. He also executed the first of the great aqueducts (Aqua
+Appia) which supplied Rome with such an abundance of water.
+
+Cn. Flavius, the son of a Freedman, and Secretary to Appius Claudius,
+divulged the forms and times to be observed in legal proceedings. These
+the Patricians had hitherto kept secret; they alone knew the days when
+the courts would be held, and the technical pleadings according to which
+all actions must proceed. But Flavius, having become acquainted with
+these secrets, by means of his patron, published in a book a list of the
+formularies to be observed in the several kinds of actions, and also set
+up in the forum a whited tablet containing a list of all the days on
+which the courts could be held. In spite of his ignominious birth, he
+was made a Senator by Appius Claudius, and was elected Curule Ædile by
+the people.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.)]
+
+[Footnote 25: See p. 6. (The end of Chapter I.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Mount Ercta in Sicily.]
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.
+
+
+Rome, now mistress of Italy, entered upon a long and arduous straggle
+with Carthage, which ruled without a rival the western waters of the
+Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was founded by the
+Phoenicians[26] of Tyre in B.C. 814, according to the common
+chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a branch of the Semitic
+race, to which the Hebrews also belonged. Carthage rose to greatness by
+her commerce, and gradually extended her empire over the whole of the
+north of Africa, from the Straits of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene.
+Her Libyan subjects she treated with extreme harshness, and hence they
+were always ready to revolt against her so soon as a foreign enemy
+appeared upon her soil.
+
+The two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually out of a few
+of the chief families, and were called _Suffetes_.[27] There was a
+Senate of Three Hundred members, and also a smaller Council of One
+Hundred, of which the latter were the most powerful, holding office for
+life, and exercising an almost sovereign sway over the other authorities
+in the state. The government was a complete oligarchy; and a few old,
+rich, and powerful families divided among themselves the influence and
+power of the state. These great families were often opposed to each
+other in bitter feuds, but concurred in treating with contempt the mass
+of the people.
+
+In her foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops, which her
+great wealth enabled her to procure in abundance from Spain, Italy, and
+Greece, as well as from Libya. Sardinia and Corsica were among her
+earliest conquests, and Sicily was also one of the first objects of her
+military enterprise. The Phoenician colonies in this island came under
+her dominion as the power of Tyre declined; and having thus obtained a
+firm footing in Sicily, she carried on a long struggle for the supremacy
+with the Greek cities. It was here that she came into contact with the
+Roman arms. The relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been
+peaceful, and a treaty, concluded between the two states in the first
+years of the Roman republic, had been renewed more than once. But the
+extension of Roman dominion had excited the jealousy of Carthage, and
+Rome began to turn longing eyes to the fair island at the foot of her
+empire. It was evident that a struggle was not far distant, and Pyrrhus
+could not help exclaiming, as he quitted Sicily, "How fine a
+battle-field are we leaving to the Romans and Carthaginians!"
+
+The city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide Sicily from
+Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. They were a body of
+Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian origin, who had served under
+Agathocles, and after the death of that tyrant (B.C. 289) were marched
+to Messana, in order to be transported to Italy. Being hospitably
+received within the city, they suddenly rose against the inhabitants,
+massacred the male population, and made themselves masters of their
+wives and property. They now took the name of Mamertini, or "Children of
+Mars," from Mamers, a Sabellian name for that deity. They rapidly
+extended their power over a considerable portion of the north of Sicily,
+and were formidable enemies to Syracuse. Hiero, having become king of
+Syracuse, determined to destroy this nest of robbers, advanced against
+them with a large army, defeated them in battle, and shut them up within
+Messana. The Mamertines were obliged to look out for help; one party
+wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and the other to invoke the
+assistance of Rome. The latter ultimately prevailed, and an embassy was
+sent to implore immediate aid. The temptation was strong, for the
+occupation of Messana by a Carthaginian garrison might prove dangerous
+to the tranquillity of Italy. Still the Senate hesitated; for only six
+years before Hiero had assisted the Romans in punishing the Campanian
+mercenaries, who had seized Rhegium in the same way as the Mamertines
+had made themselves masters of Messana. The voice of justice prevailed,
+and the Senate declined the proposal. But the Consuls, thirsting for
+glory, called together the popular assembly, who eagerly voted that the
+Mamertines should be assisted; in other words, that the Carthaginians
+should not be allowed to obtain possession of Messana. The Consul App.
+Claudius, the son of the blind Censor, was to lead an army into Sicily.
+But during this delay the Carthaginian party in Messana had obtained the
+ascendency, and Hanno, with a Carthaginian garrison, had been admitted
+into the citadel. Hiero had concluded peace with the Mamertines through
+the mediation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer even a
+pretext for the interference of the Romans. But a legate of the Consul
+App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded the Mamertines to
+expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and the Carthaginians now
+proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea and land, and the Romans no
+longer hesitated to declare war against Carthage. Such was the
+commencement of the first Punic War (B.C. 264).
+
+The Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, while the
+Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. But the Consul App.
+Claudius, having contrived to elude the Carthaginian squadron, landed
+near the town of Messana, and defeated in succession the forces of
+Syracuse and Carthage. In the following year (263) the Romans followed
+up their success against Hiero. The two Consuls advanced to the walls of
+Syracuse, ravaging the territory of the city and capturing many of its
+dependent towns. The king became alarmed at the success of the Romans;
+and thinking that they would prove more powerful than the Carthaginians,
+he concluded a peace with Rome. From this time till his death, a period
+of nearly fifty years, Hiero remained the firm and steadfast ally of the
+Romans.
+
+The Romans, now freed from the hostility of Syracuse, laid siege to
+Agrigentum, the second of the Greek cities in Sicily, which had espoused
+the cause of the Carthaginians at the commencement of the war. The siege
+lasted seven months, and numbers perished on both sides. But at length
+the Romans gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian army which
+had been sent to raise the siege, and obtained possession of the town
+(B.C. 262).
+
+The first three years of the war had already made the Romans masters of
+the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy were exposed to the
+ravages of the Carthaginian fleet, and the Romans saw that they could
+not hope to bring the war to a successful termination so long as
+Carthage was mistress of the sea. They had only a small number of
+triremes, galleys with three banks of oars, and were quite unable to
+cope with the quinqueremes, or large vessels with five banks of oars, of
+which the Carthaginian navy consisted. The Senate, with characteristic
+energy, determined to build a fleet of these larger vessels. A
+Carthaginian quinquereme, which had been wrecked upon the coast of
+Italy, served as a model; and in the short space of sixty days from the
+time the trees were felled, 130 ships were launched. While the ships
+were building, the rowers were trained on scaffolds placed upon the land
+like benches of ships at sea. We can not but feel astonished at the
+daring of the Romans, who, with ships thus hastily and clumsily built,
+and with crews imperfectly trained, sailed to attack the navy of the
+first maritime state in the world. This was in the fifth year of the war
+(B.C. 260). One of the Consuls, Cn. Cornelius, first put to sea with
+only 17 ships, but was surprised near Lipara, and taken prisoner with
+the whole of his squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, now took the
+command of the rest of the fleet. He saw that the only means of
+conquering the Carthaginians by sea was to deprive them of all the
+advantages of manoeuvring, and to take their ships by boarding. For
+this purpose, every ship was provided with a boarding-bridge 36 feet in
+length, which was pulled up by a rope and fastened to a mast in the fore
+part of the ship. As soon as an enemy's ship came near enough, the rope
+was loosened, the bridge fell down, and became fastened by means of an
+iron spike in its under side. The boarders then poured down the bridge
+into the enemy's ship. Thus prepared, Duilius boldly sailed out to meet
+the fleet of the enemy. He found them off the Sicilian coast, near Mylæ.
+The Carthaginians hastened to the fight as if to a triumph, but their
+ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges, and when it came to a
+close fight their crews were no match for the veteran soldiers of Rome.
+The victory of Duilius was complete. Thirty-one of the enemy's ships
+were taken, and fourteen destroyed; the rest only saved themselves by an
+ignominious flight. On his return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a
+magnificent triumph. Public honors were conferred upon him; he was to be
+escorted home in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and
+the sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of the
+conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata, was set up in
+the forum.[28]
+
+[Illustration: Columna Rostrata.]
+
+For the next few years the war languished, and nothing of importance was
+effected on either side; but in the ninth year of the struggle (B.C.
+256) the Romans resolved by strenuous exertions to bring it to a
+conclusion. They therefore made preparations for invading Africa with a
+great force. The two Consuls, M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius, set
+sail with 330 ships, took the legions on board in Sicily, and then put
+out to sea in order to cross over to Africa. The Carthaginian fleet,
+consisting of 350 ships, met them near Ecnomus, on the southern coast of
+Sicily. The battle which ensued was the greatest sea-fight that the
+ancient world had yet seen. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again
+annihilated all the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was
+decisive. They lost only 24 ships, while they destroyed 30 of the
+enemy's vessels, and took 64 with all their crews. The passage to Africa
+was now clear, and the remainder of the Carthaginian fleet hastened home
+to defend the capital. The Romans landed near the town of Clupea, or
+Aspis, which they took, and there established their head-quarters. From
+thence they laid waste the Carthaginian territory with fire and sword,
+and collected an immense booty from the defenseless country. On the
+approach of winter, Manlius, one of the Consuls, by order of the Senate,
+returned to Rome with half of the army, while Regulus remained with the
+other half to prosecute the war. He carried on his operations with the
+utmost vigor, and was greatly assisted by the incompetency of the
+Carthaginian generals. The enemy had collected a considerable force,
+which they intrusted to three commanders, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and
+Hamilcar; but these generals avoided the plains, where their cavalry and
+elephants would have given them an advantage over the Roman army, and
+withdrew into the mountains. There they were attacked by Regulus, and
+utterly defeated with great loss; 15,000 men were killed in battle, and
+5000 men, with 18 elephants, were taken. The Carthaginian troops retired
+within the walls of the capital, and Regulus now overran the country
+without opposition. Many towns fell into the power of the Romans, and
+among others Tunis, which was at the distance of only 20 miles from
+Carthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering their
+independence, and their roving bands completed the devastation of the
+country. The Carthaginians, in despair, sent a herald to Regulus to
+solicit peace; but the Roman general, intoxicated with success, would
+only grant it on such intolerable terms that the Carthaginians resolved
+to continue the war and hold out to the last. In the midst of their
+distress and alarm, succor came to them from an unexpected quarter.
+Among the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage was a
+Lacedæmonian of the name of Xanthippus. He pointed out to the
+Carthaginians that their defeats were owing to the incompetency of their
+generals, and not to the superiority of the Roman arms; and he inspired
+such confidence in the government, that he was forthwith placed at the
+head of their troops. Relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants,
+Xanthippus boldly marched into the open country to meet the enemy,
+though his forces were very inferior in number to the Romans. Regulus
+readily accepted battle thus offered; but it ended in his total
+overthrow. Thirty thousand Romans were slain; scarcely 2000 escaped to
+Clupea, and Regulus himself, with 500 more, was taken prisoner. This was
+in the year B.C. 255.
+
+Another disaster awaited the Romans in this year. Their fleet, which had
+been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of the army of Regulus, had
+not only succeeded in their object, but had gained a victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet. They were returning home when they were overtaken
+off Camarina, in Sicily, by a fearful storm. Nearly the entire fleet was
+destroyed, and the coast was strewed for miles with wrecks and corpses.
+
+The Romans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to work to build a
+new fleet, and in less than three months 220 ships were ready for sea.
+But the same fate awaited them. In B.C. 253 the Consuls had ravaged the
+coasts of Africa, but, on their return, were again surprised by a
+fearful storm off Cape Palinurus. A hundred and fifty ships were
+wrecked. This blow, coming so soon after the other, damped the courage
+even of the Romans; they determined not to rebuild the fleet, and to
+keep only 60 ships for the defense of the coast of Italy and the
+protection of the transports.
+
+The war was now confined to Sicily; but, since the defeat of Regulus,
+the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the elephants, that
+their generals did not venture to attack the Carthaginians. At length,
+in B.C. 250, the Roman proconsul, L. Metellus, accepted battle under the
+walls of Panormus, and gained a decisive victory. The Carthaginians lost
+20,000 men; 13 of their generals adorned the triumph of Metellus; and
+104 elephants were also led in the triumphal procession. This was the
+most important battle that had been yet fought in Sicily, and had a
+decisive influence upon the issue of the contest. It so raised the
+spirits of the Romans that they determined once more to build a fleet of
+200 sail. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring
+the war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome to propose an
+exchange of prisoners, and to offer terms of peace.
+
+Regulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed to
+accompany the embassadors, with the promise that he would return to
+Carthage if their proposals were declined. This embassy is the subject
+of one of the most celebrated stories in the Roman annals. The orators
+and poets relate how Regulus at first refused to enter the city as a
+slave of the Carthaginians; how afterward he would not give his opinion
+in the Senate, as he had ceased by his captivity to be a member of that
+illustrious body; how, at length, when induced by his countrymen to
+speak, he endeavored to dissuade the Senate from assenting to a peace,
+or even to an exchange of prisoners; and when he saw them wavering, from
+their desire to redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the
+Carthaginians had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate
+his life; and how, finally, when the Senate, through his influence,
+refused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the
+persuasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to Carthage,
+where a martyr's death awaited him. It is related that he was placed in
+a barrel covered over with iron nails, and thus perished. Other writers
+state, in addition, that, after his eyelids had been cut off, he was
+first thrown into a dark dungeon, and then suddenly exposed to the full
+rays of a burning sun. When the news of the barbarous death of Regulus
+reached Rome, the Senate is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, two
+of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who
+revenged themselves by putting them to death with cruel torments.
+
+Regulus was one of the favorite characters of early Roman story. Not
+only was he celebrated for his heroism in giving the Senate advice which
+secured him a martyr's death, but also on account of his frugality and
+simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius, he lived on his
+hereditary farm, which he cultivated with his own hands; and subsequent
+ages loved to tell how he petitioned the Senate for his recall from
+Africa when he was in the full career of victory, as his farm was going
+to ruin in his absence, and his family was suffering from want.
+
+The Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the northwestern
+corner of the island, and Lilybæum and Drepanum were the only two towns
+remaining in their hands. Lilybæum, situated upon a promontory at the
+western extremity of the island, was the strong-hold of the Carthaginian
+power; and accordingly the Romans determined to concentrate all their
+efforts, and to employ the armies of both Consuls in attacking this
+city. This siege, which is one of the most memorable in ancient history,
+commenced in B.C. 250, and lasted till the termination of the war. In
+the second year of the siege (B.C. 249), the Consul P. Claudius, who lay
+before Lilybæum, formed the design of attacking the Carthaginian fleet
+in the neighboring harbor of Drepanum. In vain did the auguries warn
+him. The keeper of the sacred chickens told him that they would not
+eat. "At any rate," said he, "let them drink;" and he ordered them to be
+thrown overboard. His impiety met with a meet reward. He was defeated
+with great loss; 93 of his ships were taken or destroyed, and only 30
+escaped. Great was the indignation at Rome. He was recalled by the
+Senate, ordered to appoint a Dictator, and then to lay down his office.
+Claudius, in scorn, named M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his
+freedmen. But the Senate would not brook this insult; they deprived the
+unworthy man of the honor, and appointed in his place A. Atilius
+Calatinus.
+
+The other Consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He was sailing
+along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800 vessels, intended to
+relieve the wants of the army at Lilybæum, when he was overtaken by one
+of those terrible storms which had twice before proved so fatal to the
+Roman fleets. The transports were all dashed to pieces, and of his 105
+ships of war only two escaped. Thus the Roman fleet was a third time
+destroyed. These repeated misfortunes compelled the Romans to abandon
+any farther attempts to contest the supremacy of the sea.
+
+About this time a really great man was placed at the head of the
+Carthaginian army--a man who, at an earlier period of the war, might
+have brought the struggle to a very different termination. This was the
+celebrated Hamilcar Barca,[29] the father of the still more celebrated
+Hannibal. He was still a young man at the time of his appointment to the
+command in Sicily (B.C. 247). His very first operations were equally
+daring and successful. Instead of confining himself to the defense of
+Lilybæum and Drepanum, with which the Carthaginian commanders had been
+hitherto contented, he made descents upon the coast of Italy, and then
+suddenly landed on the north of Sicily, and established himself, with
+his whole army, on a mountain called Herctè (the modern _Monte
+Pellegrino_), which overhung the town of Panormus (the modern
+_Palermo_), one of the most important of the Roman possessions. Here he
+maintained himself for nearly three years, to the astonishment alike of
+friends and foes, and from hence he made continual descents into the
+enemy's country, and completely prevented them from making any vigorous
+attacks either upon Lilybæum or Drepanum. All the efforts of the Romans
+to dislodge him were unsuccessful; and he only quitted Herctè in order
+to seize Eryx, a town situated upon the mountain of this name, and only
+six miles from Drepanum. This position he held for two years longer; and
+the Romans, despairing of driving the Carthaginians out of Sicily so
+long as they were masters of the sea, resolved to build another fleet.
+In B.C. 242 the Consul Lutatius Catulus put to sea with a fleet of 200
+ships, and in the following year he gained a decisive victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet, commanded by Hanno, off the group of islands called
+the Ægates.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Mount Ercta. A. Ercta, now _Monte Pellegrino_. B.
+Panormus, the modern _Palermo_.]
+
+This victory gave the Romans the supremacy by sea. Lilybæum, Drepanum,
+and Eryx might now be reduced by famine. The Carthaginians were weary of
+the war, and indisposed to make any farther sacrifices. They therefore
+sent orders to Hamilcar to make peace on the best terms he could. It was
+at length concluded on the following conditions: that Carthage should
+evacuate Sicily and the adjoining islands; that she should restore the
+Roman prisoners without ransom, and should pay the sum of 3200 talents
+within the space of ten years (B.C. 241). All Sicily, with the exception
+of the territory of Hiero, now became a portion of the Roman dominions,
+and was formed into a Province, governed by a Prætor, who was sent
+annually from Rome.
+
+[Footnote 26: The Phoenicians were called by the Latins _Poeni_,
+whence the adjective _punicus_, like _munire_ from _moenia_, and
+_punire_ from _poena_.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Probably the same as the Hebrew _Shofetim_, i.e., Judges.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The inscription upon this column, or, at any rate, a very
+ancient copy of it, is still preserved in the Capitoline Museum at
+Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Barca_ is the same as the Hebrew word _Barak_,
+"lightning."]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Carthage.]
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-210.
+
+
+Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. The
+power of Carthage, though crippled, was not destroyed; and Hamilcar
+returned home, burning with hatred against Rome, and determined to renew
+the war upon a favorable opportunity. But a new and terrible danger
+threatened Carthage upon her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had
+been transported from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war,
+being unable to obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny. Their
+leaders were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and Matho, a Libyan.
+They were quickly joined by the native Libyans, and brought Carthage
+almost to the brink of destruction. They laid waste the whole country
+with fire and sword, made themselves masters of all the towns except the
+capital, and committed the most frightful atrocities. Carthage owed her
+safety to the genius and abilities of Hamilcar. The struggle was fierce
+and sanguinary, but was at length brought to a successful issue, after
+it had lasted more than three years, by the destruction of all the
+mercenaries. It was called the War without Peace, or the Inexpiable War
+(B.C. 238).
+
+The Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition of Carthage to
+demand from her the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and the payment of
+a farther sum of 1200 talents. The mercenary troops in Sardinia, who had
+also revolted, had applied to Rome for assistance; and the Senate
+menaced her rival with war unless she complied with these unjust
+demands. Resistance was impossible, and Sardinia and Corsica were now
+formed into a Roman province, governed, like Sicily, by a Prætor sent
+annually from Rome (B.C. 238). This act of robbery added fresh fuel to
+the implacable animosity of Hamilcar against the grasping Republic. He
+now departed for Spain, where for many years he steadily worked to lay
+the foundation of a new empire, which might not only compensate for the
+loss of Sicily and Sardinia, but enable him at some time to renew
+hostilities against Rome.
+
+Rome was now at peace, and in B.C. 235 the Temple of Janus, which had
+remained open since the days of Numa, was closed for a second time. Two
+new tribes were added to the Roman territory, thus making their total
+number thirty-five.
+
+The Temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The Illyrians, who dwelt
+near the head of the Adriatic upon its eastern side, were a nation of
+pirates, who ravaged the coasts of this sea. The Senate having sent
+embassadors to the Illyrian queen, Teuta, to complain of these outrages,
+she not only refused to attend to their complaints, but caused one of
+the embassadors to be murdered. War was straightway declared, and a
+Roman army for the first time crossed the Adriatic (B.C. 229). Demetrius
+of Pharos, an unprincipled Greek, who was the chief counselor of Teuta,
+deserted his mistress, and surrendered to the Romans the important
+island of Corcyra. Teuta was obliged to yield to the Romans every thing
+they demanded, and promised that the Illyrians should not appear south
+of Lissa with more than two vessels. The suppression of piracy in the
+Adriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Grecian states, and deserves
+notice as the first occasion upon which the Romans were brought into
+immediate contact with Greece. The Consul Postumius, who had wintered in
+Illyria, sent envoys to Athens, Corinth, and other Grecian cities, to
+explain what had been done. The envoys were received with honor, and
+thanks were returned to Rome (B.C. 228).
+
+The Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end when they
+became involved in a formidable struggle with their old enemies the
+Gauls. Since the conquest of the Senones in B.C. 289, and of the Boii in
+B.C. 283, the Gauls had remained quiet. The Romans had founded the
+colony of Sena after the subjugation of the Senones; and in B.C. 268
+they had still farther strengthened their dominion in those parts by
+founding the colony of Ariminum. But the greater part of the soil from
+which the Senones were ejected became Public Land. In B.C. 232 the
+Tribune C. Flaminius carried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this
+portion of the public land, known by the name of the "Gallic Land,"[30]
+should be distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii,
+who dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the
+assistance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined by
+them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the Alps, they set
+out for Rome.
+
+All Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of the disaster
+of the Allia. The Sibylline Books being consulted, declared that Rome
+must be twice occupied by a foreign foe; whereupon the Senate ordered
+that two Gauls and a Grecian woman should be buried alive in the forum.
+The allies eagerly offered men and supplies to meet a danger which was
+common to the whole peninsula. An army of 150,000 foot and 6000 horse
+was speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near Telamon in
+Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the armies of the two Consuls.
+As many as 40,000 of their men were slain, and 10,000 taken prisoners
+(B.C. 225). The Romans followed up their success by invading the country
+of the Boii, who submitted in the following year (B.C. 224).
+
+In B.C. 223 the Romans for the first time crossed the Po, and the Consul
+C. Flaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. The Consuls
+of the next year, Cn. Cornelius Scipio and M. Claudius Marcellus,
+continued the war against the Insubres, who called in to their aid a
+fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcellus slew with his own hand
+Viridomarus, the chief of the Insubrian Gauls, and thus gained the third
+_Spolia Opima_. At the same time Scipio took Mediolanum (Milan), the
+chief town of the Insubres. This people now submitted without
+conditions, and the war was brought to an end. To secure their recent
+conquests, the Romans determined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at
+Placentia and Cremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded
+in B.C. 218, and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia, a road
+constructed by C. Flaminius during his consulship (B.C. 220), from Rome
+to Ariminum, secured the communication with the north of Italy.
+
+While the Romans were engaged in the Gallic wars, the traitor Demetrius
+of Pharos had usurped the chief power in Illyria, and had ventured upon
+many acts of piracy. In B.C. 219 the Consul L. Æmilius Paullus crossed
+the Adriatic, and soon brought this second Illyrian war to an end.
+Demetrius fled to Philip of Macedon, where we shall shortly afterward
+see him prompting this king to make war against Rome. The greater part
+of Illyria was restored to the native chiefs; but the Romans retained
+possession of Corcyra, and of the important towns of Apollonia and
+Oricum on the coast.
+
+Meanwhile Hamilcar had been steadily pursuing his conquests in Spain.
+The subjugation of this country was only a means to an end. His great
+object, as already stated, was to obtain the means of attacking, and, if
+possible, crushing that hated rival who had robbed his country of
+Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. His implacable animosity against Rome is
+shown by the well-known tale that, when he crossed over to Spain in B.C.
+235, taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years old, he made
+him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. During the eight years
+that Hamilcar continued in Spain he carried the Carthaginian arms into
+the heart of the country. While he conquered several states in war, he
+gained over others by negotiation, and availed himself of their services
+as allies or mercenaries. He fell in battle in B.C. 229, and was
+succeeded in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. His plans were
+ably carried out by his successor. The conciliatory manners of Hasdrubal
+gained him the affections of the Spaniards; and he consolidated the
+Carthaginian empire in Spain by the foundation of New Carthage, now
+Cartagena, in a situation admirably chosen on account of its excellent
+harbor and easy communication with Africa, as well as from its proximity
+to the silver mines, which supplied him with the means of paying his
+troops. The conduct of his warlike enterprises was intrusted to the
+youthful Hannibal, who had been trained in arms under the eye of his
+father, and who already displayed that ability for war which made him
+one of the most celebrated generals in ancient or modern times. The
+successes of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal could not fail to attract the notice
+of the Romans, and in B.C. 227 they concluded a treaty with the latter,
+by which the River Iberus (Ebro) was fixed as the northern boundary of
+the Carthaginian empire in Spain.
+
+Hasdrubal was assassinated in B.C. 221 by a slave whose master he had
+put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such a remarkable ascendency
+over the army that the soldiers unanimously proclaimed him
+commander-in-chief, and the government at Carthage hastened to ratify an
+appointment which they had not, in fact, the power to prevent. Hannibal
+was at this time in the 26th year of his age. There can be no doubt that
+he already looked forward to the invasion and conquest of Italy as the
+goal of his ambition; but it was necessary for him first to complete the
+work which had been so ably begun by his two predecessors, and to
+establish the Carthaginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. This he
+accomplished in two campaigns, in the course of which he brought all the
+nations south of the Iberus into subjection to Carthage.
+
+Early in the spring of B.C. 219 he proceeded to lay siege to Saguntum, a
+city of Greek origin, founded by the Zacynthians. Though situated to the
+south of the Iberus, and therefore not included under the protection of
+the treaty between Hasdrubal and the Romans, Sagantum had concluded an
+alliance with the latter people. There could be little doubt, therefore,
+that an attack upon this city would inevitably bring on a war with Rome;
+but for this Hannibal was prepared, or, rather, it was unquestionably
+his real object. The immediate pretext of his invasion was the same of
+which the Romans so often availed themselves--some injury inflicted by
+the Saguntines upon one of the neighboring tribes, who invoked the
+assistance of Hannibal. But the resistance of the city was long and
+desperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly eight months that
+he made himself master of the place. During all this period the Romans
+sent no assistance to their allies. They had, indeed, as soon as they
+heard of the siege, dispatched embassadors to Hannibal, but he referred
+them for an answer to the government at home, and they could obtain no
+satisfaction from the Carthaginians, in whose councils the war-party had
+now a decided predominance. A second embassy was sent, after the fall of
+Saguntum, to demand the surrender of Hannibal, in atonement for the
+breach of the treaty. After much discussion, Q. Fabius, one of the Roman
+embassadors, holding up a fold of his toga, said, "I carry here peace
+and war; choose ye which ye will." "Give us which you will," was the
+reply. "Then take war," said Fabius, letting fall his toga. "We accept
+the gift," cried the Senators of Carthage. Thus commenced the Second
+Punic War.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Hiero.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Gallicus ager.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Lake Trasimenus.]
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNÆ. B.C.
+218-216.
+
+
+The Second Punic War was not so much a contest between the powers of two
+great nations--between Carthage and Rome--as between the individual
+genius of Hannibal on one hand, and the combined energies of the Roman
+people on the other. The position of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar.
+His command in Spain, and the powerful army there, which was entirely at
+his own disposal, rendered him in great measure independent of the
+government at Carthage, and the latter seemed disposed to devolve all
+responsibility upon him. Even now they did little themselves to prepare
+for the impending contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after the
+conquest of Saguntum, had returned once more to New Carthage for the
+winter, and was there actively engaged in preparations for transporting
+the scene of war in the ensuing campaign from Spain into Italy. At the
+same time he did not neglect to provide for the defense of Spain and
+Africa during his absence. In the former country he placed his brother
+Hasdrubal, with a considerable army, great part of which was composed of
+Africans, while he sent over a large body of Spanish troops to
+contribute to the defense of Africa, and even of Carthage itself.
+
+All his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted his winter
+quarters at New Carthage in the spring of B.C. 218, and crossed the
+Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. The tribes between
+that river and the Pyrenees offered at first a vigorous resistance, and,
+though they were quickly subdued, Hannibal thought it necessary to leave
+behind him a force of 11,000 men under Hanno to maintain this
+newly-acquired province. His forces were farther thinned by desertion
+during the passage of the Pyrenees, which obliged him to send home a
+large body of his Spanish troops. With a greatly diminished army, but
+one on which he could securely rely, he now continued his march from the
+foot of the Pyrenees to the Rhone without meeting with any opposition;
+for the Gaulish tribes through which he passed were favorably disposed
+to him, or had been previously gained over by his enemies.
+
+The Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed to Spain, but
+various causes had detained him in Italy, and upon landing at Massilia
+(Marseilles) he found that Hannibal was already advancing toward the
+Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian general effected his passage across the
+river, notwithstanding the opposition of the Gauls; and when Scipio
+marched up the left bank of the river he found that Hannibal had
+advanced into the interior of Gaul, and was already three days in
+advance of him. Despairing, therefore, of overtaking Hannibal, he
+determined to sail back to Italy and await him in Cisalpine Gaul; but as
+the Republic had already an army in that province, he sent the greater
+part of his own forces into Spain under the command of his brother Cn.
+Scipio. This prudent step probably saved Rome; for if the Carthaginians
+had maintained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have
+concentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italy, and have
+sent him such strong re-enforcements after the battle of Cannæ as would
+have compelled Rome to submit.
+
+Hannibal, after crossing the Rhone, continued his march up the left bank
+of the river as far as its confluence with the Isère. Here he interposed
+in a dispute between two rival chiefs of the Allobroges, and, by lending
+his aid to establish one of them firmly on the throne, secured the
+co-operation of an efficient ally, who greatly facilitated his farther
+progress. But in his passage across the Alps he was attacked by the
+barbarians, and as he struggled through the narrow and dangerous defiles
+the enemy destroyed numbers of his men. It was some days before he
+reached the summit of the pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from
+hostile attacks, but the descent was difficult and dangerous. The
+natural difficulties of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season
+(the beginning of October, at which time the snows had already commenced
+in the high Alps), caused him almost as much loss as the opposition of
+the barbarians on the other side of the mountains. So heavy were his
+losses from these combined causes, that, when he at length emerged from
+the valley of Aosta into the plains of the Po and encamped in the
+friendly country of the Insubres, he had with him no more than 20,000
+foot and 6000 horse.[31] Such were the forces with which he descended
+into Italy to attempt the overthrow of a power that a few years before
+was able to muster a disposable force of above 700,000 fighting men.
+
+Five months had been employed in the march from New Carthage to the
+plains of Italy, of which the actual passage of the Alps had occupied
+fifteen days. Hannibal's first care was now to recruit the strength of
+his troops, exhausted by the hardships and fatigues they had undergone.
+After a short interval of repose, he turned his arms against the
+Taurinians (a tribe bordering on, and hostile to, the Insubrians), whom
+he quickly reduced, and took their principal city (Turin). The news of
+the approach of P. Scipio next obliged him to turn his attention toward
+a more formidable enemy. In the first action, which took place in the
+plains westward of the Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops of
+the two armies were alone engaged, and the superiority of Hannibal's
+Numidian horse at once decided the combat in his favor. The Romans were
+completely routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded; in consequence
+of which he hastened to retreat beyond the Ticinus and the Po, under the
+walls of Placentia. Hannibal crossed the Po higher up, and, advancing to
+Placentia, offered battle to Scipio; but the latter declined the combat,
+and withdrew to the hills on the left bank of the Trebia. Here he was
+soon after joined by the other Consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus, who had
+hastened from Ariminum to his support. Their combined armies were
+greatly superior to that of the Carthaginians, and Sempronius was eager
+to bring on a general battle, of which Hannibal, on his side, was not
+less desirous, notwithstanding the great inferiority of his force. The
+result was decisive; the Romans were completely defeated, with heavy
+loss; and the remains of their shattered army, together with the two
+Consuls, took refuge within the walls of Placentia. The battles of the
+Ticinus and Trebia had been fought in December, and the winter had
+already begun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal's troops suffered
+severely from cold, and all his elephants perished except one. But his
+victory had caused all the wavering tribes of the Gauls to declare in
+his favor, and he was now able to take up his winter quarters in
+security, and to levy fresh troops among the Gauls while he awaited the
+approach of spring.
+
+[Illustration: Coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the History of
+the Punic.]
+
+As soon as the season permitted the renewal of military operations (B.C.
+217), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian tribes, who had
+lately declared in his favor, and descended by the valley of the Macra
+into the marshes on the banks of the Arno. He had apparently chosen this
+route in order to avoid the Roman armies, which guarded the more obvious
+passes of the Apennines; but the hardships and difficulties which he
+encountered in struggling through the marshes were immense; great
+numbers of his horses and beasts of burden perished, and he himself lost
+the sight of one eye by a violent attack of ophthalmia. At length,
+however, he reached Fæsulæ in safety, and was able to allow his troops a
+short interval of repose.
+
+The Consuls for this year were Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius. The
+latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which occasioned
+the Gallic War, and in his first consulship he had gained a great
+victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. 79)(Sixth paragraph of Chapter
+XI.--Transcriber). He had been raised to his second consulship by
+popular favor, in spite of the opposition of the Senate; and he hurried
+from Rome before the Ides of March,[32] lest the Senate might throw any
+obstacle in the way of his entering upon his consulship. He was a man of
+great energy, but headstrong and reckless. When Hannibal arrived at
+Fæsulæ, Flaminius was with his army at Arretium. It was always the
+object of Hannibal to bring the Roman commanders to a battle, and
+therefore, in moving from Fæsulæ, he passed by the Roman general, and
+advanced toward Perugia, laying waste the fertile country on his line of
+march. Flaminius immediately broke up his camp, and, following the
+traces of Hannibal, fell into the snare which was prepared for him. His
+army was attacked under the most disadvantageous circumstances, where it
+was hemmed in between rocky heights, previously occupied by the enemy,
+and the Lake of Trasimenus. Its destruction was almost complete.
+Thousands fell by the sword, among whom was the Consul himself;
+thousands more perished in the lake, and no less than 15,000 prisoners
+fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his side is said to have lost
+only 1500 men. Hannibal's treatment of the captives on this occasion, as
+well as after the battle of the Trebia, was marked by the same policy
+on which he afterward uniformly acted; the Roman citizens alone were
+retained as prisoners, while their Italian allies were dismissed without
+ransom to their respective homes. By this means he hoped to excite the
+nations of Italy against their Roman masters, and to place himself in
+the position of the leader of a national movement rather than that of a
+foreign invader. It was probably in order to give time for this feeling
+to display itself that he did not, after so decisive a victory, push on
+toward Rome itself; but, after an unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman
+colony of Spoletium, he turned aside through the Apennines into Picenum,
+and thence into the northern part of Apulia. Here he spent a great part
+of the summer, and was able effectually to refresh his troops, who had
+suffered much from the hardships of their previous marches; but no
+symptoms appeared of the insurrections he had looked for among the
+Italians.
+
+Meantime the Romans had collected a fresh army, which they placed under
+the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had been elected Dictator by the
+Comitia of the Centuries. Fabius formed a different plan for the
+campaign. He determined to keep the heights, and not to risk a battle,
+but at the same time to watch the Carthaginian army, cut off its
+supplies, and harass and annoy it in every possible way. From pursuing
+this policy he received the surname of _Cunctator_, or the _Lingerer_.
+
+Hannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the rich plains of
+Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that fertile territory.
+But he was unable either to make himself master of any of the towns, or
+to draw the wary Fabius to a battle. The Roman general contented himself
+with occupying the mountain passes leading from Samnium into Campania,
+by which Hannibal must of necessity retreat, and believed that he had
+caught him, as it were, in a trap; but Hannibal eluded his vigilance by
+an ingenious stratagem, passed the defiles of the Apennines without
+loss, and established himself in the plains of Apulia, where he
+collected supplies from all sides, in order to prepare for the winter.
+Meantime the Romans, having become impatient at the inactivity of
+Fabius, raised Minucius, the Master of the Horse, to an equality in
+command with Fabius. His rashness very nearly gave Hannibal the
+opportunity, for which he was ever on the watch, to crush the Roman army
+by a decisive blow; but Fabius was able to save his colleague from
+destruction; and Hannibal, after obtaining only a partial advantage,
+took up his winter quarters at the small town of Geronium. Minucius
+acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master of the Horse.
+
+During the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing an
+unusually large force into the field. The people thought that it needed
+only a man of energy and decision at the head of an overwhelming force
+to bring the war to a close. They therefore raised to the consulship C.
+Terentius Varro, said to have been the son of a butcher, who had been
+for some time regarded as the champion of the popular party. The Senate
+regarded this election with dismay, as Varro possessed no military
+experience; and they therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his
+colleague L. Æmilius Paullus, who had distinguished himself by the way
+in which he had conducted the Illyrian war during his consulship.
+
+Hannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (B.C. 216), when,
+compelled to move by the want of provisions, he surprised the Roman
+magazines at Cannæ, a small town of Apulia, and established his
+head-quarters there until the harvest could be got in. Meanwhile the two
+Roman Consuls arrived at the head of an army of little less than 90,000
+men. To this mighty host Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the right
+bank of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cannæ. We have no statement
+of the numbers of his army, but it is certain that it must have been
+greatly inferior to that of the enemy; notwithstanding which, the
+excellence of his cavalry, and the disciplined valor of his African and
+Spanish infantry, gave him the most decisive victory. The immense army
+of the Romans was not only defeated, but annihilated, and between forty
+and fifty thousand men are said to have fallen in the field, among whom
+was the Consul Æmilius Paullus, both the Consuls of the preceding year,
+the late Master of the Horse, Minucius, above eighty senators, and a
+multitude of the wealthy knights who composed the Roman cavalry. The
+other Consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small
+band of resolute men forced their way from the Roman camp to Canusium;
+all the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal has
+been generally blamed for not following up his advantage at once, after
+so decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon Rome itself--a
+measure which was strongly urged upon him by Maharbal. "Only send me on
+with the cavalry," said this officer, "and within five days thou shalt
+sup in the Capitol." Whatever may be the motives that deterred Hannibal
+from marching upon Rome, we can not but be surprised at his apparent
+inactivity after the battle. He probably expected that so brilliant a
+success would immediately produce a general rising among the nations of
+Italy, and remained for a time quietly in Apulia, until they should have
+had time to declare themselves. Nor were his hopes disappointed; the
+Hirpinians, all the Samnites (except the Pentrian tribe), and almost all
+the Apulians, Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favor of Carthage.
+But, though the whole of the south of Italy was thus apparently lost to
+the Romans, yet the effect of this insurrection was not so decisive as
+it would at first appear; for the Latin colonies, which still, without
+exception, remained faithful, gave the Romans a powerful hold upon the
+revolted provinces; and the Greek cities on the coast, though mostly
+disposed to join the Carthaginians, were restrained by the presence of
+Roman garrisons. Hence it became necessary to support the insurrection
+in the different parts of Italy with a Carthaginian force. Hannibal
+marched first into Samnium, and from thence into Campania, where he
+obtained possession of the important city of Capua, the gates of which
+were opened to him by the popular party. Here he established his army in
+winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war, in which
+Hannibal had met with uninterrupted success. Three great victories in
+three years, followed by the revolt of a city scarcely inferior to Rome
+itself in importance, seemed to promise a speedy termination of the war.
+
+[Illustration: Route of Hannibal. (See p. 90.) (After footnote
+32--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 31: The pass of the Alps which Hannibal crossed was probably
+the Graian Alps, or _Little St. Bernard_. See note "On the Passage of
+Hannibal across the Alps" at the end of this chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 32: At this time the Consuls entered upon their office on the
+Ides of March. It was not till B.C. 153 that the consulship commenced on
+the Kalends of January.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS.
+
+(See p. 84.)(Fourth paragraph of Chapter XII.--Transcriber)
+
+
+The narrative in the text is taken from that of the Greek historian
+Polybius, which is certainly by far the most trustworthy that has
+descended to us; but that author has nowhere clearly stated by which of
+the passes across the Alps Hannibal effected his march; and this
+question has given rise to much controversy both in ancient and modern
+times. Into this discussion our limits will not allow us to enter, but
+the following may be briefly stated as the general results: 1. That
+after a careful examination of the text of Polybius, and comparison of
+the different localities, his narrative will be found, on the whole, to
+agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed the Graian Alps,
+or _Little St. Bernard_; though it can not be denied that there are some
+difficulties attending this line, especially in regard to the descent
+into Italy. 2. That Cælius Antipater certainly represented him as taking
+this route (Liv., xxi., 38); and as he is known to have followed the
+Greek history of Silenus, who is said to have accompanied Hannibal in
+many of his campaigns, his authority is of the greatest weight. 3. That
+Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose him to have crossed the
+Cottian Alps, or _Mont Genèvre_. But the main argument that appears to
+have weighed with Livy, as it has done with several modern writers on
+the subject, is the assumption that Hannibal descended in the first
+instance into the country of the Taurinians, which is opposed to the
+direct testimony of Polybius, who says expressly that he descended among
+the Insubrians, and _subsequently_ mentions his attack on the
+Taurinians. 4. That, as according to Livy himself (xxi., 29), the
+Gaulish emissaries who acted as Hannibal's guides were Boians, it was
+natural that these should conduct him by the passage that led directly
+into the territory of their allies and brothers-in-arms, the Insubrians,
+rather than into that of the Taurinians, a Ligurian tribe, who were at
+this very time in a state of hostility with the Insubrians. And this
+remark will serve to explain why Hannibal chose apparently a longer
+route, instead of the more direct one of Mont Genèvre. Lastly, it is
+remarkable that Polybius, though he censures the exaggerations and
+absurdities with which earlier writers had encumbered their narrative,
+does not intimate that any doubt was entertained as to the line of
+march; and Pompey, in a letter to the Senate, written in 73 B.C.,
+alludes to the route of Hannibal across the Alps as something well
+known. Hence it appears clear that the passage by which he crossed them
+must have been one of those frequented in subsequent times by the
+Romans. This argument seems decisive against the claims of _Mont Cenis_,
+which have been advocated by some modern writers, that pass having
+apparently never been used till the Middle Ages--See _Dict. of Greek and
+Roman Biography_, vol. ii., p. 334, 335.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Plain of Cannæ.]
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE BATTLE
+OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.
+
+
+Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, and the enervating
+effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal became a favorite
+theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later ages. The futility of such
+declamations is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that the
+superiority of that army in the field remained as decided as ever. Still
+it may be truly said that the winter spent at Capua (B.C. 216-215) was
+in great measure the turning-point of Hannibal's fortune, and from this
+time the war assumed an altered character. The experiment of what he
+could effect with his single army had now been fully tried, and,
+notwithstanding all his victories, it had decidedly failed; for Rome was
+still unsubdued, and still provided with the means of maintaining a
+protracted contest. But Hannibal had not relied on his own forces alone,
+and he now found himself, apparently at least, in a condition to
+commence the execution of his long-cherished plan--that of arming Italy
+itself against the Romans, and crushing the ruling power by means of her
+own subjects. It was to this object that his attention was henceforth
+mainly directed. From this time, also, the Romans changed their plan of
+operations, and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one great army in the
+field, they hemmed in his movements on all sides, guarded all the most
+important towns with strong garrisons, and kept up an army in every
+province of Italy to thwart the operations of his lieutenants and check
+the rising disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to follow in
+detail the complicated operations of the subsequent campaigns, during
+which Hannibal himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions,
+appearing suddenly wherever his presence was called for, and astonishing
+and often baffling the enemy by the rapidity of his marches. All that we
+can do is to notice very briefly the leading events which distinguished
+each successive campaign.
+
+The campaign of B.C. 215 was not marked by any decisive events. The
+Consuls were Q. Fabius Maximus (whose plan of conducting the war had
+been fully vindicated by the terrible defeat of Cannæ) and Tiberius
+Sempronius Gracchus. With the advance of spring Hannibal took up his
+camp on Mount Tifata, where, while awaiting the arrival of
+re-enforcements from Carthage, he was at hand to support his partisans
+in Campania and oppose the Roman generals in that province. But his
+attempts on Cumæ and Neapolis were foiled, and even after he had been
+joined by a force from Carthage (very inferior, however, to what he had
+expected), he sustained a repulse before Nola, which was magnified by
+the Romans into a defeat. As the winter approached he withdrew into
+Apulia, and took up his quarters in the plains around Arpi. But other
+prospects were already opening before him. In his camp on Tifata he had
+received embassies from Philip, king of Macedon, and Hieronymus of
+Syracuse, both of which he had eagerly welcomed, and thus sowed the
+seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two formidable enemies against
+the Roman power.
+
+These two collateral wars in some degree drew off the attention of both
+parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans still opposed to the
+Carthaginian general a chain of armies which fettered all his
+operations; and though Hannibal was ever on the watch for the
+opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign of B.C. 214 was still less
+decisive than that of the preceding year. Fabius was again elected
+Consul, and Marcellus was appointed his colleague. Early in the summer
+Hannibal advanced from Apulia to his former station on Mount Tifata to
+watch over the safety of Capua; from thence he had descended to the Lake
+Avernus, in hopes of making himself master of Puteoli, when a prospect
+was held out to him of surprising the important city of Tarentum.
+Thither he hastened by forced marches, but arrived too late; Tarentum
+had been secured by a Roman force. After this his operations were of
+little importance, until he again took up his winter quarters in Apulia.
+
+During the following summer (B.C. 213), while all eyes were turned
+toward the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost wholly inactive in
+the neighborhood of Tarentum, the hopes he still entertained of making
+himself master of that important city rendering him unwilling to quit
+that quarter of Italy. Before the close of the ensuing winter he was
+rewarded with the long-looked-for prize, and Tarentum was betrayed into
+his hands by two of its citizens. The advantage, however, was
+incomplete, for a Roman garrison still held possession of the citadel,
+from which he was unable to dislodge them. The next year (B.C. 212) was
+marked by important events in Sicily and Spain, to which we must now
+direct our attention.
+
+Hiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the battle
+of Cannæ (B.C. 216), and was succeeded by his grandson Hieronymus, a
+vain youth, who abandoned the alliance of Rome for that of Carthage. But
+he was assassinated after a reign of fifteen months, and a republican
+form of government was established in Syracuse. A contest ensued between
+the Roman and Carthaginian parties in Syracuse, but the former
+ultimately prevailed, and Epicydes and Hippocrates, two brothers whom
+Hannibal had sent to Syracuse to espouse his interests, had to quit the
+city, and took refuge at Leontini. Such was the state of affairs when
+the Consul Marcellus arrived in Sicily (B.C. 214). He forthwith marched
+against Leontini, which Epicydes and Hippocrates defended with a
+considerable force. He took the city by storm, and, though he spared the
+inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Roman deserters whom he found
+among the troops that had formed the garrison. This sanguinary act at
+once alienated the minds of the Sicilians, and alarmed the mercenary
+troops in the service of Syracuse. The latter immediately joined
+Hippocrates and Epicydes, who had made their escape to Herbessus; the
+gates of Syracuse were opened to them by their partisans within the
+walls, and the party hostile to Rome was thus established in the
+undisputed command of that city. Marcellus now appeared before Syracuse
+at the head of his army, and, after a fruitless summons to the
+inhabitants, proceeded to lay siege to the city both by sea and land.
+His attacks were vigorous and unremitting, and were directed especially
+against the quarter of Achradina[33] from the side of the sea; but,
+though he brought many powerful military engines against the walls,
+these were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and science
+of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of the besieged. All the
+efforts of the assailants were baffled; and the Roman soldiers were
+inspired with so great a dread of Archimedes and his engines,[34] that
+Marcellus was compelled to give up all hopes of carrying the city by
+open force, and to turn the siege into a blockade. The siege was
+prolonged far on into the summer of B.C. 212, nor did there appear any
+prospect of its termination, as the communications of the besieged by
+sea were almost entirely open. In this state of things Marcellus
+fortunately discovered a part of the walls more accessible than the
+rest; and, having prepared scaling ladders, effected an entrance at this
+point during the night which followed a great festival, and thus made
+himself master of Epipolæ. The two quarters called Tyché and Neapolis
+were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder; but Epicydes still
+held the island-citadel and the important quarter of Achradina, which
+formed two separate and strong fortresses. Marcellus, however, made
+himself master of the fort of Euryalus, and had closely invested
+Achradina, when the Carthaginian army under Himilco and Hippocrates
+advanced to the relief of the city. Their efforts were, however, in
+vain; all their attacks on the camp of Marcellus were repulsed, and they
+were unable to effect a junction with Epicydes and the Syracusan
+garrison. The unhealthiness of the country soon gave rise to a
+pestilence which carried off both the Carthaginian generals and led to
+the entire break-up of the army. Shortly afterward the treachery of a
+leader of Spanish mercenaries in the Syracusan service opened to
+Marcellus the gates of Achradina, and in the general attack that ensued
+he made himself master of the island of Ortygia also. The city was given
+up to plunder, and Archimedes was slain by a Roman soldier, being so
+intent upon a mathematical problem at the time that he did not answer a
+question that was asked him. He was deeply regretted by Marcellus, who
+gave orders for his burial, and befriended his surviving relatives.[35]
+
+The booty found in the captured city was immense: besides the money in
+the royal treasury, which was set apart for the coffers of the state,
+Marcellus carried off many of the works of art with which the city had
+been adorned, to grace his own triumph and the temples at Rome. This was
+the first instance of a practice which afterward became so general; and
+it gave great offense not only to the Greeks of Sicily, but to a large
+party at Rome itself.
+
+The fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately, by the
+subjugation of the whole island by the Romans; but these successes were
+counterbalanced by the defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain. We
+have already seen that P. Scipio, when he landed at Massilia and found
+himself unable to overtake Hannibal in Gaul, sent his brother Cneius
+with the army into Spain, while he himself returned to Italy. In the
+following year (B.C. 217) Publius himself crossed over into Spain, where
+he found that his brother had already obtained a firm footing. They
+continued in Spain for several years, during which they gained many
+victories, and prevented Hasdrubal from marching into Italy to support
+his victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled to Africa to oppose
+Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, who was carrying on war against
+Carthage, the Scipios availed themselves of his absence to strengthen
+their power still farther. They gained over new tribes to the Roman
+cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians into their pay, and felt themselves so
+strong in B.C. 212 that they resolved to cross the Iberus and to make a
+vigorous effort to drive the Carthaginians out of Spain. They
+accordingly divided their forces; but the result was fatal. Publius was
+destroyed, with the greater part of his troops; and Cneius was also
+defeated, and fell in battle, twenty-nine days after the death of his
+brother. These victories seemed to establish the superiority of Carthage
+in Spain, and open the way for Hasdrubal to join his brother in Italy.
+
+In Italy (B.C. 212) the two Consuls Appius Claudius and Q. Fulvius began
+to draw together their forces for the purpose of besieging Capua.
+Hannibal advanced to relieve it, and compelled the Consuls to withdraw;
+but he was unable to force either of them to fight. Shortly afterward he
+returned again to the south to urge on the siege of the citadel of
+Tarentum, which still held out; and he spent the winter and the whole of
+the ensuing spring (B.C. 211) in its immediate neighborhood. But during
+his absence the Consuls had renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted
+it with such activity, that they had succeeded in surrounding the city
+with a double line of intrenchments. The pressing danger once more
+summoned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented himself before
+the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from without, while the
+garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous sally from the walls. Both
+attacks were however repulsed, and Hannibal, foiled in his attempt to
+raise the siege by direct means, determined on the bold manoeuvre of
+marching directly upon Rome itself, in hopes of thus compelling the
+Consuls to abandon their designs upon Capua, in order to provide for the
+defense of the city. But this daring scheme was again frustrated; the
+appearance of Hannibal before the gates of Rome for a moment struck
+terror through the city; but a considerable body of troops was at the
+time within the walls; and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of
+Hannibal's march, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from
+Capua, while he still left with the other Consul a force amply
+sufficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed in the
+main object of his advance, and he had no means of effecting any thing
+against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius confined themselves
+strictly to the defensive, allowing him to ravage the whole country
+without opposition, up to the very walls of Rome. Nothing therefore
+remained for him but to retreat, and he accordingly recrossed the Anio,
+and marched slowly and sullenly through the land of the Sabines and
+Samnites, ravaging the country which he traversed. From thence he
+retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua to its fate. The city soon after
+surrendered to the Romans. Its punishment was terrible. All the leaders
+of the insurrection were beheaded; the chief men were imprisoned; and
+the rest of the people were sold. The city and its territory were
+confiscated, and became part of the Roman domain.
+
+The commencement of the next season (B.C. 210) was marked by the fall of
+Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to Marcellus; but this
+loss was soon avenged by the total defeat and destruction of the army of
+the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. The Consul Marcellus, on his
+part, carefully avoided an action for the rest of the campaign, while he
+harassed his opponent by every possible means. Thus the rest of that
+summer too wore away without any important results. But this state of
+comparative inactivity was necessarily injurious to the cause of
+Hannibal; the nations of Italy that had espoused that cause when
+triumphant now began to waver in their attachment; and in the course of
+the following summer (B.C. 209) the Samnites and Lucanians submitted to
+Rome, and were admitted to favorable terms. A still more disastrous blow
+to the Carthaginian cause was the loss of Tarentum, which was betrayed
+into the hands of Fabius, as it had been into those of Hannibal. In vain
+did the latter seek to draw the Roman general into a snare; the wary
+Fabius eluded his toils. The recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit
+in the military life of the aged Fabius, and was a noble completion to
+his long list of achievements. From the time of the battle of Cannæ he
+had directed almost exclusively the councils of his country, and his
+policy had been pre-eminently successful; but the times now demanded
+bolder measures, and something else was necessary than the caution of
+the Lingerer to bring the war to a close.
+
+After the fall of Tarentum Hannibal still traversed the open country
+unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies. Yet we can not
+suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate success from any efforts
+of his own; his object was doubtless now only to maintain his ground in
+the south until his brother Hasdrubal should appear in the north of
+Italy, an event to which he had long anxiously looked forward. Yet the
+following summer (B.C. 208) was marked by some brilliant achievements.
+The two Consuls, Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to Hannibal
+in Lucania, allowed themselves to be led into an ambush, in which
+Marcellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally wounded. Marcellus was one
+of the ablest of the Roman generals. Hannibal displayed a generous
+sympathy for his fate, and caused due honors to be paid to his remains.
+
+The following year (B.C. 207) decided the issue of the war in Italy. The
+war in Spain during the last few years had been carried on with
+brilliant success by the young P. Scipio, of whose exploits we shall
+speak presently. But in B.C. 208, Hasdrubal, leaving the two other
+Carthaginian generals to make head against Scipio, resolved to set out
+for Italy to the assistance of his brother. As Scipio was in undisputed
+possession of the province north of the Iberus, and had secured the
+passes of the Pyrenees on that side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains
+near their western extremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul. After
+spending a winter in that country, he prepared to cross the Alps in the
+spring of B.C. 207, and to descend into Italy. The two Consuls for this
+year were C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius. Nero marched into Southern
+Italy to keep a watch upon Hannibal; Livius took up his quarters at
+Ariminum to oppose Hasdrubal. The latter experienced little loss or
+difficulty in crossing the Alps. The season of the year was favorable,
+and the Gauls were friendly to his cause. But instead of pushing on at
+once into the heart of Italy, he allowed himself to be engaged in the
+siege of Placentia, and lost much precious time in fruitless efforts to
+reduce that colony. When at length he abandoned the enterprise, he sent
+messengers to Hannibal to apprize him of his movements, and concert
+measures for their meeting in Umbria. But his dispatches fell into the
+hands of the Consul Nero, who formed the bold resolution of instantly
+marching with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, and fall
+upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal could receive
+any information of his brother's movements. Nero executed his design
+with equal secrecy and rapidity. Hannibal knew nothing of his departure,
+and in a week's time Nero marched 250 miles to Sena, where his colleague
+was encamped in presence of Hasdrubal. He entered the camp of Livius in
+the night, that his arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians.
+After a day's rest the two Consuls proceeded to offer battle; but
+Hasdrubal, perceiving the augmented numbers of the Romans, and hearing
+the trumpet sound twice, felt convinced that the Consuls had united
+their forces, and that his brother had been defeated. He therefore
+declined the combat, and in the following night commenced his retreat
+toward Ariminum. The Romans pursued him, and he found himself compelled
+to give them battle on the right bank of the Metaurus. On this occasion
+Hasdrubal displayed all the qualities of a consummate general; but his
+forces were greatly inferior to those of the enemy, and his Gaulish
+auxiliaries were of little service. The gallant resistance of the
+Spanish and Ligurian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the Romans;
+but all was of no avail, and seeing the battle irretrievably lost, he
+rushed into the midst of the enemy, and fell, sword in hand, in a manner
+worthy of the son of Hamilcar and the brother of Hannibal. The Consul
+Nero hastened back to Apulia almost as speedily as he had come, and
+announced to Hannibal the defeat and death of his brother by throwing
+into his camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. "I recognize," said
+Hannibal, sadly, "the doom of Carthage."
+
+The victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, decisive of
+the fate of the war in Italy, and the conduct of Hannibal shows that he
+felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned all thoughts of
+offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons from Metapontum and
+other towns that he still held in Lucania, collected together his forces
+within the peninsula of the Bruttii. In the fastnesses of that wild and
+mountainous region he maintained his ground for nearly four years, while
+the towns that he still possessed on the coast gave him the command of
+the sea.
+
+[Footnote 33: See the map in the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 34: The story that Archimedes set the Roman ships on fire by
+the reflected rays of the sun is probably a fiction, though later
+writers give an account of this burning mirror.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Upon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed
+in a cylinder. When Cicero was Quæstor in Sicily (B.C. 75), he found his
+tomb near one of the gates of the city, almost hid among briers, and
+forgotten by the Syracusans.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Hannibal.]
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+SECOND PUNIC WAR. THIRD PERIOD: FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE
+CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
+
+
+After the battle of the Metaurus, the chief interest of the war was
+transferred to Spain and Africa. The Roman armies were led by a youthful
+hero, perhaps the greatest man that Rome ever produced, with the
+exception of Julius Cæsar. The remaining period of the war is little
+more than the history of P. Scipio. This extraordinary man was the son
+of P. Scipio, who fell in Spain in B.C. 212, as already related. In his
+early years he acquired, to an extraordinary extent, the confidence and
+admiration of his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe
+that he was a special favorite of heaven; and he never engaged in any
+public or private business without first going to the Capitol, where he
+sat some time alone, enjoying communion with the gods. For all he
+proposed or executed he alleged the divine approval: he believed himself
+in the revelations which he asserted had been vouchsafed to him; and the
+extraordinary success which attended all his enterprises deepened this
+belief.
+
+P. Scipio is first mentioned in B.C. 218 at the battle of the
+Ticinus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father,
+though he was then only 17 years of age. He fought at Cannæ two years
+afterward (B.C. 216), when he was already a tribune of the soldiers, and
+was one of the few Roman officers who survived that fatal day. He was
+chosen along with Appius Claudius to command the remains of the army,
+which had taken refuge at Canusium; and it was owing to his youthful
+heroism and presence of mind that the Roman nobles, who had thought of
+leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their rash
+project into effect. He had already gained the favor of the people to
+such an extent that he was unanimously elected Ædile in B.C. 212. On
+this occasion he gave indications of the proud spirit, and of the
+disregard of all the forms of law, which distinguished him throughout
+life; for when the tribunes objected to the election, because he was not
+of the legal age, he haughtily replied, "If all the Quirites wish to
+make me Ædile, I am old enough." After the death of Scipio's father and
+uncle, C. Nero was sent out as Proprætor to supply their place; but
+shortly afterward the Senate resolved to increase the army in Spain, and
+to place it under the command of a Proconsul to be elected by the
+people. But when they were assembled for this purpose, none of the
+generals of experience ventured to apply for so dangerous a command. At
+length Scipio, who was then barely twenty-four, to the surprise of every
+one, offered himself as a candidate. But the confidence which he felt in
+himself he communicated to the people, and he was accordingly chosen
+with enthusiasm to take the command.
+
+Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of B.C. 210. He found that the
+three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal, son of Barca, Hasdrubal, son of
+Gisco, and Mago, were not on good terms, and were at the time engaged in
+separate enterprises in distant parts of the peninsula. Instead of
+attacking any of them singly, he formed the project of striking a deadly
+blow at the Carthaginian power by a sudden and unexpected attack upon
+New Carthage. He gave the command of the fleet to his intimate friend
+Lælius, to whom alone he intrusted the secret of the expedition, while
+he led the land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The
+project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian garrison did
+not amount to more than a thousand men, and before any succor could
+arrive New Carthage was taken by assault. The hostages who had been
+given by the various Spanish tribes to the Carthaginians had been placed
+for security in the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who
+treated them with kindness; and the hostages of those people who
+declared themselves in favor of the Romans were restored without ransom.
+Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines of arms, corn, and other
+necessaries, for the Carthaginians had there deposited their principal
+stores.
+
+The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. Many of
+the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause; and when Scipio
+took the field in the following year (B.C. 209) Mandonius and Indibilis,
+two of the most powerful and hitherto the most faithful supporters of
+Carthage, quitted the camp of Hasdrubal Barca, and awaited the arrival
+of the Roman commander. Hasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near
+the town of Bæcula, in the upper valley of the Bætis (Guadalquiver),
+where he was attacked and defeated by Scipio. He succeeded, however, in
+making good his retreat, and retired into northern Spain. He
+subsequently crossed the Pyrenees, and marched into Italy to the
+assistance of his brother Hannibal, as already narrated.
+
+In B.C. 207 Scipio gained possession of nearly the whole of Spain, by a
+decisive victory near a place variously called Silpia or Elinga, but the
+position of which is quite uncertain.
+
+Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and Mago, took refuge within the walls of
+Gades, which was almost the only place that now belonged to the
+Carthaginians; and all the native chiefs hastened to acknowledge the
+supremacy of Rome. But the victories of Scipio had had but a small share
+in winning Spain. His personal influence had won far more people than
+his arms had conquered. He had gained such an ascendency over the
+Spaniards by his humanity and courage, his courtesy and energy, that
+they were ready to lay down their lives for him, and wished to make him
+their king.
+
+The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a means to an
+end. He had formed the project of transferring the war to Africa, and
+thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. He
+therefore resolved, before returning to Rome, to cross over into Africa,
+and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of some of the
+native princes. His personal influence had already secured the
+attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the Massylians, or
+Western Numidians, who was serving in the Carthaginian army in Spain;
+and he trusted that the same personal ascendency might gain the more
+powerful support of Syphax, the king of the Massæsylians, or Eastern
+Numidians. With only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province
+and repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old adversary,
+Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, who had crossed over from Gades for the same
+purpose; and the two generals spent several days together in friendly
+intercourse. Scipio made a great impression upon Syphax; but the charms
+of Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in
+marriage to Syphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax
+married her, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally of
+the Carthaginians.
+
+During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection had broken
+out in Spain; but on his return it was speedily put down, and terrible
+vengeance was inflicted upon the town of Illiturgis, which had taken the
+principal share in the revolt. Scarcely had this danger passed away when
+Scipio was seized with a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman
+soldiers, discontented with not having received their usual pay, availed
+themselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny; but Scipio
+quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy. He crushed the last
+remains of the insurrection in Spain; and to crown his other successes,
+Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. Mago had quitted Spain, and
+crossed over into Liguria, to effect a diversion in favor of his brother
+Hannibal, and there was therefore now no longer any enemy left in Spain.
+
+Scipio returned to Rome in B.C. 206, and immediately offered himself as
+a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for the following year
+(B.C. 205) by the unanimous votes of all the centuries, although he had
+not yet filled the office of Prætor, and was only 30 years of age. His
+colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus, who could not,
+therefore, leave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on
+abroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. The
+latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the contest to
+an end at the gates of Carthage; but the older members of the Senate,
+and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed the project, partly through
+timidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All that
+Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permission to
+invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage of the Republic;
+but the Senate resolutely refused him an army, thus making the
+permission of no practical use. The allies had a truer view of the
+interests of Italy than the Roman Senate; from all the towns of Italy
+volunteers flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. The Senate
+could not refuse to allow him to enlist these volunteers; and such was
+the enthusiasm in his favor that he was able to cross over to Sicily
+with an army and a fleet, contrary to the expectations and even the
+wishes of the Senate. While busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent
+over Lælius to Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of
+co-operation with Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly
+succeeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had no authority
+in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of Locri, and after the
+conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius in command. The latter had
+been guilty of such acts of excesses against the inhabitants, that they
+sent an embassy to Rome to complain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus
+eagerly availed himself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against
+the conduct of Scipio, and to urge his immediate recall. Scipio's
+magnificent style of living, and his love of Greek literature and art,
+were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations upon old Roman
+manners and frugality. It was asserted that the time which ought to be
+given to the exercise and the training of his troops was wasted in the
+Greek gymnasia or in literary pursuits. Though the Senate lent a willing
+ear to these attacks, they did not venture upon his immediate recall,
+but sent a commission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army.
+During the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations;
+and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his army
+and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners were
+astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to return to Rome,
+they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as possible.
+
+Accordingly, in B.C. 204, Scipio, who was now Proconsul, sailed from
+Lilybæum and landed in Africa, not far from Utica. He was immediately
+joined by Masinissa, who rendered him the most important services in the
+war. He commenced the campaign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his
+quarters on a projecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot
+which long bore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the
+Carthaginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under the
+command of Hasdrubal, son of Cisco, Scipio's old opponent in Spain; and
+Syphax came to their assistance with a great force.
+
+In the beginning of B.C. 203 Scipio planned a night-attack upon the two
+camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With the assistance of
+Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with success: the two camps were
+burned to the ground, and only a few of the enemy escaped the fire and
+the sword. Among these, however, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax; the
+former fled to Carthage, where he persuaded the Senate to raise another
+army, and the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he
+likewise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again
+defeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his appearance
+again in Carthage, and Syphax once more fled into Numidia. Scipio did
+not give the Numidian prince any repose; he was pursued by Lælius and
+Masinissa, and finally taken prisoner. Among the captives who fell into
+their hands was Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long
+loved, and had expected to marry when she was given to his rival.
+Masinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity, but, to
+prevent her falling into the hands of the Romans, determined to marry
+her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly celebrated without delay;
+but Scipio, fearful of the influence which she might exercise over his
+ally, sternly upbraided him with his weakness, and insisted on the
+immediate surrender of the princess. Unable to resist this command,
+Masinissa spared her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl
+of poison, which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to
+her own life.
+
+These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that they resolved
+to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted Italy in B.C. 203, to the
+great joy of the Romans. For more than 15 years had he carried on the
+war in that country, laying it waste from one extremity to another; and
+during all this period his superiority in the field had been
+uncontested. The Romans calculated that in these 15 years their losses
+in the field alone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men; a
+statement which will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the
+continued combats in which they were engaged by their ever-watchful foe.
+
+As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Carthaginians
+revived, and they looked forward to a favorable termination of the war.
+Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of the real state of affairs;
+he saw that the loss of a battle would be the ruin of Carthage, and he
+was therefore anxious to conclude a peace before it was too late.
+Scipio, who was eager to have the glory of bringing the war to a close,
+and who feared lest his enemies in the Senate might appoint him a
+successor, was equally desirous of a peace. The terms, however, which
+the Roman general proposed seemed intolerable to the Carthaginians; and
+as Hannibal, at a personal interview with Scipio, could not obtain any
+abatement of the hard conditions, he was forced, against his will, to
+continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which are related
+very differently, our limits will not permit us to enter. The decisive
+battle was at length fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, on the
+Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama; and Hannibal, according to the
+express testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occasion all the
+qualities of a consummate general. But he was now particularly deficient
+in that formidable cavalry which had so often decided the victory in his
+favor; his elephants, of which he had a great number, were rendered
+unavailing by the skillful management of Scipio; and the battle ended in
+his complete defeat, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran
+infantry. Twenty thousand of his men fell on the field of battle, as
+many were made prisoners, and Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped
+the pursuit of Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first
+to admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the
+impossibility of the farther prosecution of the war. The terms, however,
+now imposed by Scipio were much more severe than before. Carthage had
+no alternative but submission; but the negotiations were continued for
+some time, and a final treaty was not concluded till the following year
+(B.C. 201). By this treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to
+preserve their independence and territory in Africa, but to give up all
+claims to any foreign possessions; that they were to surrender all
+prisoners and deserters, all their ships of war except ten triremes, and
+all their elephants; that they were not to make war in Africa, or out of
+Africa, without the consent of Rome; that they were to acknowledge
+Masinissa as king of Numidia; that they were to pay 10,000 talents in
+silver in the course of fifty years.
+
+Scipio returned to Italy in B.C. 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He
+was received with universal enthusiasm; the surname of Africanus was
+conferred upon him, and the people, in their gratitude, were anxious to
+distinguish him with the most extraordinary marks of honor. It is
+related that they wished to make him Consul and Dictator for life, and
+to erect his statue in the Comitia, the Senate-house, and even in the
+Capitol, but that he prudently declined all these invidious
+distinctions.
+
+[Illustration: The Capitoline Wolf.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antiochus the Great.]
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WARS IN THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS. B.C.
+214-188.
+
+
+The Second Punic War made the Romans undisputed masters of the western
+shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica were Roman
+provinces; Spain owned the Roman supremacy; Carthage was completely
+humbled, and her powerful neighbor Masinissa was the steadfast ally of
+Rome. The Roman Republic was now the most powerful state in the ancient
+world. Her legions had been trained to war by long struggles with Gauls,
+Spaniards, and Africans, and were superior to all other troops in
+discipline, experience, and valor. She now naturally turned her eyes
+toward the East, whose effeminate nations seemed to offer an easy
+conquest.
+
+The Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of Alexander the
+Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The mighty kingdom of SYRIA,
+which had once extended from the Indus to the Ægean Sea, had now lost
+some of its fairest provinces. The greater part of Asia Minor no longer
+owned the authority of the Syrian kings. PONTUS was governed by its own
+rulers. A large body of Gauls had settled in the northern part of
+Phrygia, which district was now called GALATIA after them. A new kingdom
+was founded in Mysia, to which the name of PERGAMUS was given from its
+chief city; and Attalus, who was king of Pergamus during the Second
+Punic War, formed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Syria
+and Macedonia. The king of Syria at this time was Antiochus III., who,
+from his victory over the Parthians, had received the surname of the
+Great.
+
+EGYPT was governed by the Greek monarchs who bore the name of Ptolemy.
+They had, even as early as the time of Pyrrhus, formed an alliance with
+Rome (see p. 66)(Fourteenth paragraph of Chapter IX.--Transcriber). The
+kingdom had since declined in power, and upon the death of Ptolemy IV.,
+surnamed Philopator, in B.C. 205, the ministers of his infant son
+Ptolemy Epiphanes, dreading the ambitious designs of the Macedonian and
+Syrian kings, placed him under the protection of the Roman Senate, who
+consented to become his guardians.
+
+The Republic of RHODES was the chief maritime power in the Ægean Sea. It
+extended its dominion over a portion of the opposite coasts of Caria and
+Lycia, and over several of the neighboring islands. Like the king of
+Pergamus, the Rhodians had formed an alliance with Rome as a protection
+against Macedonia.
+
+MACEDONIA was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time by Philip
+V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended the throne in B.C.
+220, at the early age of seventeen. His dominion extended over the
+greater part of Greece; but two new powers had sprung up since the death
+of Alexander, which served as some counterpoise to the Macedonian
+supremacy. Of these the most important was the ACHÆAN LEAGUE, which
+embraced Corinth, Arcadia, and the greater part of the Peloponnesus.[36]
+The ÆTOLIAN LEAGUE included at this time a considerable portion of
+Central Greece. ATHENS and SPARTA still retained their independence, but
+with scarcely a shadow of their former greatness and power.
+
+Such was the state of the Eastern world when it came into contact with
+the arms of Rome.
+
+We have already seen that during the Second Punic War Philip had been
+engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic. Demetrius of Pharos, who
+had been driven by the Romans from his Illyrian dominions,[37] had taken
+refuge at the court of Philip, and soon acquired unbounded influence
+over the mind of the young king. This wily Greek urged him to take up
+arms against the grasping Republic; and the ambition of Philip was still
+farther excited by the victories of Hannibal. After the battle of Cannæ
+(B.C. 216) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal; but, instead of
+supporting the Carthaginian army and fleet, his proceedings were marked
+by an unaccountable degree of hesitation and delay. It was not till B.C.
+214 that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, and laid siege to
+Oricus and Apollonia, which the Romans had retained possession of at the
+close of the Illyrian war.[37] He succeeded in taking Oricus; but the
+arrival of a small Roman force, under the command of M. Valerius
+Lævinus, compelled him to raise the siege of Apollonia, and to burn his
+own ships to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. For the
+next three years the war was carried on with unaccountable slackness on
+both sides; but in B.C. 211 it assumed a new character in consequence of
+the alliance which the Romans formed with the Ætolian League. Into the
+details of the campaigns which followed it is unnecessary to enter; but
+the attention of the Romans was soon afterward directed to affairs in
+Spain, and the Ætolians were left almost alone to cope with Philip. The
+Achæans also joined Philip against the Ætolians, and the latter people
+were so hard pressed that they were glad to make peace with the
+Macedonian king. Shortly afterward the Romans, who were desirous of
+turning their undivided attention to the invasion of Africa, also
+concluded peace with him (B.C. 205).
+
+The peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War, was probably
+regarded by both parties as little more than a suspension of
+hostilities. Philip even went so far as to send to the Carthaginians in
+Africa a body of 4000 men, who fought at Zama under the command of
+Hannibal. At the same time he proceeded to carry out his plans for his
+own aggrandizement in Greece, with out any regard to the Roman alliances
+in that country. In order to establish his naval supremacy in the Ægean
+Sea, he attacked the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, both of
+whom were allies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with
+Antiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian
+monarchy, which was placed under the guardianship of the Roman people.
+
+It was impossible for the Senate to pass over these acts of hostility,
+and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of the Second Punic
+War, the Consul P. Sulpicius Galba proposed to the Comitia of the
+Centuries that war should be declared against Philip. But the people
+longed for repose, and rejected the proposition by the almost unanimous
+vote of every century. It was only by the most earnest remonstrance, and
+by representing to them that, unless they attacked Philip in Greece, he
+would invade Italy, like Hannibal, that they were induced to reverse
+their decision and declare war (B.C. 200).
+
+Philip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which had joined
+Attalus and the Rhodians. The Consul Galba crossed over to Epirus, and
+Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet; but before he withdrew, Philip,
+prompted by anger and revenge, displayed his barbarism by destroying the
+gardens and buildings in the suburbs, including the Lyecum and the
+tombs of the Attic heroes; and in a second incursion which he made with
+large re-enforcements he committed still greater excesses. For some
+time, however, the war lingered on without any decided success on
+either side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in B.C. 199,
+effected nothing of importance, and it was not till the appointment of
+the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to the command that the war was
+earned on with energy and vigor (B.C. 198). He forced his way through
+the passes of Antigonea, which were occupied by the enemy, invaded
+Thessaly, and took up his winter quarters in Phocis and Locris. In the
+following year (B.C. 197) the struggle was brought to a termination by
+the battle of Cynoscephalæ (Dogs' Heads), a range of hills near
+Scotussa, in Thessaly. The Roman legions gained an easy victory over the
+once formidable Macedonian phalanx: 8000 Macedonians were killed and
+5000 taken prisoners, while Flamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was
+obliged to sue for peace, and in the following year (B.C. 196) a treaty
+was ratified by which the Macedonians were compelled to renounce their
+supremacy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian towns, to
+surrender their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the
+war, half at once, and half by annual instalments in the course of ten
+years. Thus ended the SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.
+
+At the ensuing Isthmian games, which were celebrated at Corinth in the
+summer of this year, Flamininus was present, and a herald at his command
+solemnly proclaimed the independence and freedom of Greece. This
+unexpected news was received with overwhelming gratitude and joy; the
+throngs of people that crowded round Flamininus to catch a sight of
+their liberator, or to touch his garment, were so enormous as almost to
+endanger his life. Flamininus remained two years longer in Greece in
+order to settle the affairs of the country. He seems to have been
+actuated by a sincere desire to restore the internal peace and welfare
+of Greece; and whenever his actions appear at variance with this object,
+he was under the influence of the policy of the Republic. Thus, though
+he made war upon Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and deprived him of the
+southern portion of Laconia, he did not expel him from Sparta, that he
+might serve as a useful check upon the Achæans. When Flamininus returned
+to Italy in B.C. 194, he withdrew the Roman garrisons from all the
+Grecian towns, even from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, the three
+strongest fortresses in the country, which were called the Fetters of
+Greece. On his departure he convoked an assembly of the Greeks at
+Corinth, in which he exhorted them to use their freedom wisely, and to
+remain faithful to Rome. Flamininus had been absent five years. His
+reputation was second only to that of Scipio Africanus. His triumph,
+which was most magnificent, lasted three days.
+
+It has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an alliance with
+Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great, for the dismemberment
+of the Egyptian monarchy. During the war between Philip and the Romans,
+Antiochus had occupied Asia Minor, and was preparing to cross into
+Greece. Upon the conclusion of this war, Flamininus sternly forbade him
+to set foot in Europe, and for a time he shrank from a contest with the
+victorious arms of Rome. But the Ætolians, who had fought on the Roman
+side, were discontented with the arrangements of Flamininus. Their
+arrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory of
+Cynoscephalæ, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the spoils of
+the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before the Ætolians
+endeavored to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antiochus to enter into a
+league against the Romans. Philip at once refused, but Nabis took up
+arms, and Antiochus willingly entered into the designs of the Ætolians.
+At this time Hannibal appeared as an exile at the Syrian court. After
+the Second Punic War he had set himself to work, like his father
+Hamilcar at the end of the previous war, to prepare means for renewing
+the contest at no distant period. He introduced various reforms in the
+constitution, and seems to have deprived the Oligarchy of their
+exclusive power; but they avenged themselves by denouncing him to the
+Romans as engaged in negotiations with Antiochus to induce him to take
+up arms against Rome. The Senate sent envoys to Carthage to inquire into
+these charges; and Hannibal, seeing that his enemies were too strong for
+him, secretly took flight, and reached the court of Antiochus in safety.
+He was received with the highest honors, and urged the king to place an
+army at his disposal with which he might invade Italy. But Antiochus was
+persuaded by the Ætolians to cross over into Greece, and accordingly
+landed at Demetrias in Thessaly in B.C. 192. The Romans now declared war
+against Antiochus, and in the following year (B.C. 191) the Consul
+Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly. The king had intrenched himself
+in the passes of Thermopylæ, that he might prevent the Romans from
+penetrating into Central Greece. But there was, as is well known, a
+difficult passage across Mount Oeta, by which the Persians had
+descended to fight with Leonidas. This passage was now forced by M.
+Cato, who was serving as one of the Consul's lieutenants, and as soon as
+he appeared in the rear of the Syrian army they fled in confusion, and
+the battle was won. Antiochus now hastened back to Asia, abandoning all
+farther hopes of conquest in Greece. As soon as he had placed the sea
+between himself and the Romans he thought that he was safe; but
+Hannibal warned him of his error, and said that he wondered that the
+Romans had not already followed him.
+
+Next year (B.C. 190) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the great
+Africanus, and C. Lælius, the intimate friend of the latter, were
+Consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the command of the war against
+Antiochus; but the Senate had not much confidence in his ability, and it
+was only in consequence of his brother Africanus offering to serve under
+him as his lieutenant that he obtained the command which he desired.
+Meantime Antiochus had collected a vast army from all parts of his
+dominions, and, advancing northward from Ephesus, laid waste the kingdom
+of Pergamus. But upon the approach of the Roman army, which entered Asia
+by crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus retreated southward; and the
+decisive battle was fought near Magnesia, at the foot of Mount Sipylus.
+The Romans obtained an easy and bloodless victory over the vast but
+disorderly rabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 Romans fell, while
+Antiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave up the contest in despair,
+and humbly sued for peace. The conditions were hard. He had to cede all
+his dominions west of Mount Taurus (that is, the whole of Asia Minor),
+to pay 15,000 Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his
+elephants and ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans Hannibal and
+some others who had taken refuge at his court. Hannibal foresaw his
+danger, and made his escape to Crete, from whence he afterward repaired
+to the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia.
+
+L. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing with him
+enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he assumed the surname
+of ASIATICUS.
+
+The Romans were now at leisure to punish the Ætolians, who had to make
+head against the Romans by themselves. The Consul M. Fulvius Nobilior
+(B.C. 189) took their chief town, Ambracia, after an obstinate
+resistance, and compelled them to sue for peace. This was granted, but
+on the most humiliating conditions. They were required to acknowledge
+the supremacy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests they had recently
+made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid
+the Romans in their wars. The power of the Ætolian league was thus
+forever crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till
+a much later period.
+
+The colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Vulso, who had
+received Asia as his province, that he might conclude the peace which
+his predecessor, Scipio Asiaticus, had made with Antiochus, and arrange
+the affairs of Asia. But Manlius was not content with the subordinate
+part allotted to him; and being anxious for booty as much as for glory,
+he attacked the Galatians in Asia Minor, without waiting for any
+instructions from the Senate, and in direct opposition to the ten
+commissioners who had been sent to arrange conjointly with him the
+affairs of Asia. This was the first instance in which a Roman general
+had made war without the authority of the Senate or the People; a
+dangerous precedent, which was afterward only too faithfully followed.
+The Galatians were, as has been already said, a body of Gauls, who,
+after laying waste a great part of Asia Minor, had settled in the north
+of Phrygia. They had fought in the army of Antiochus at Magnesia, and
+this supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching against them. He
+defeated them in two battles, and compelled them to sue for peace. The
+campaign greatly enriched Manlius and his legions, as the Gauls had
+accumulated enormous wealth by their many conquests in Asia.
+
+Manlius remained another year (B.C. 188) in the East as Proconsul, and,
+in conjunction with the ten commissioners, formally concluded the peace
+with Antiochus, and settled the affairs of Asia. Eumenes, the king of
+Pergamus, received Mysia, Lydia, and part of Caria. The Rhodians
+obtained the remaining portion of Caria, together with Lycia and
+Pisidia. Manlius returned to Rome in B.C. 187, and his triumph, like
+that of Scipio Asiaticus, was most magnificent. But his soldiers, like
+that of Scipio, introduced into the city the luxuries of the East. These
+campaigns, as we shall presently see, exercised a most injurious
+influence upon the character of the Roman nobles and people, teaching
+them to love war for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them to
+acts of robbery and rapine.
+
+[Footnote 36: See the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 214.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See p. 79. (Eighth paragraph of Chapter
+XI.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)]
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+WARS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. B.C. 200-175.
+
+
+While the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth and winning
+easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the West were carrying
+on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls, Ligurians, and Spaniards.
+The Romans had hardly concluded the Second Punic War when they received
+intelligence that Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, had excited several
+tribes in Northern Italy to take up arms against Rome. These were the
+Gauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardy
+mountaineers, inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime Alps. They
+commenced the war in B.C. 200 by the capture and destruction of the
+Roman colony of Placentia, and by laying siege to that of Cremona, the
+two strong-holds of the Roman dominion in Northern Italy. The Romans now
+set themselves to work, with the characteristic stubbornness of their
+nation, to subdue thoroughly these tribes. The Insubres and the
+Cenomani, to the north of the Po, were the first to yield; but the Boii
+resisted for some years all the efforts of the Romans, and it was not
+till B.C. 191 that the Consul P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their
+final submission. He slaughtered the Boii without mercy, and made it one
+of the claims of his triumph that he had left only children and old men
+alive. This warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from
+henceforth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and gradually adopted
+the language and customs of Rome. The submission of the people was
+secured by the foundation of new colonies and the formation of military
+roads. In B.C. 190 a colony was established at Bononia, now Bologna, in
+the country of the Boii, and six years afterward others were also
+founded at Mutina (Modena) and Parma. A military road made by M. Æmilius
+Lepidus, Consul for B.C. 180, and called the Via Æmilia, was a
+continuation of the Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past Placentia,
+Mutina, and Parma to Placentia. The subjugation of the Ligurians was a
+longer and more difficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued the
+war, with intermissions, for a period of eighty years. The Romans, after
+penetrating into the heart of Liguria, were seldom able to effect more
+than to compel the enemy to disperse, and take refuge in their villages
+and castles, of which the latter were mountain fastnesses, in which they
+were generally able to defy their pursuers. But into the details of
+these long-protracted and inglorious hostilities it is unnecessary to
+enter.
+
+The conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Carthaginians out of
+Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in that country. Accordingly,
+soon after the end of the Second Punic War (about B.C. 198), the Romans
+proceeded to consolidate their dominion in Spain by dividing it into two
+provinces, each governed by a Prætor, which were called Hispania
+Citerior, or Hither Spain, and Hispania Ulterior, or Farther Spain, and
+divided from each other by the Iberus or the Ebro. But it was little
+more than the eastern part of the peninsula that was really subject to
+Rome. The powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the
+Lusitanians in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gallæcians in the
+northwest, still maintained their independence. The division of the
+country into two provinces showed that the Romans intended to occupy it
+permanently, and occasioned a general insurrection.
+
+The Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more fully presently,
+was sent to put down this insurrection (B.C. 195). The whole country was
+in arms; but his military genius and indefatigable industry soon
+re-established the superiority of Rome. He gained several decisive
+victories, contrived to set tribe against tribe, and took native
+mercenaries into his pay. The details of his campaign are full of
+horrors. We read of the wholesale slaughter of men who had laid down
+their arms, of multitudes sold as slaves, and of many more who had put
+themselves to death to escape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel
+any compunctions of conscience in the performance of what he considered
+a rigorous public task. He boasted of having destroyed more towns in
+Spain than he had spent days in that country. When he had reduced the
+whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, and temporary submission, he
+returned to Rome, and was rewarded with a triumph.
+
+The severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. They again
+took up arms, and continued to resist the Roman Prætors for the next
+sixteen years, till Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the father of the
+celebrated tribunes, after gaining several brilliant victories over the
+Celtiberians, granted them an honorable peace. By his wise measures and
+conciliatory conduct he won the affections of the natives, and induced
+them to submit to the Roman supremacy (B.C. 179).
+
+It remains to mention two other wars in the West. The Sardinians and
+Corsicans revolted, and held out for two years against the Conqueror of
+Spain (B.C. 177-175). But Gracchus effected their complete subjugation,
+and brought to Rome so large a number of captives for sale as to give
+rise to the proverb "Sardi venales" for any thing that was cheap and
+worthless.
+
+The Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been conquered by
+the Romans just before the Second Punic War. But their complete
+subjugation was now necessary, on account of their proximity to the
+newly-formed province of Cisalpine Gaul. Accordingly, the Consuls
+invaded Istria in B.C. 178, and in the following year the whole people
+was reduced to submission.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a Coin.)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Lictors.]
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.
+
+
+The career of foreign conquest upon which the Republic had now entered
+continued with little or no interruption till the establishment of the
+Empire. We may here pause to take a brief survey of the form of
+government, as well as of the military organization by which these
+conquests were effected.
+
+The earlier history of the Roman constitution has been already related.
+We have seen how, after a long struggle, the Plebeians acquired complete
+political equality with the Patricians. In the Second Punic War, the
+antagonism between the two orders had almost disappeared, and the only
+mark of separation between them in political matters was the regulation
+that, of the two Consuls and two Censors, one must be a Patrician and
+the other a Plebeian. Even this fell into disuse upon the rise of the
+new Nobility, of which we shall speak in the next chapter. The
+Patricians gradually dwindled away, and it became the custom to elect
+both Consuls and Censors from the Plebeians.[38]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. THE MAGISTRATES.--Every Roman citizen who aspired to the consulship
+had to pass through a regular gradation of public offices, and the
+earliest age at which he could become a candidate for them was fixed by
+a law passed in B.C. 179, and known by the name of the Lex Annalis. The
+earliest age for the Quæstorship, which was the first of these
+magistracies, was 27 years; for the Ædileship, 37; for the Prætorship,
+40; and for the Consulship, 43.
+
+All magistrates at Rome were divided into _Curules_ and those who were
+not Curules. The Curule Magistrates were the Dictators, Censors,
+Consuls, Prætors, and Curule Ædiles, and were so called because they had
+the right of sitting upon the _Sella Curulis_, originally an emblem of
+kingly power, imported, along with other insignia of royalty, from
+Etruria.
+
+1. The _Quæstors_ were the paymasters of the state. It was their duty to
+receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary payments for the
+military and civil services. There were originally only two Quæstors,
+but their number was constantly increased with the conquests of the
+Republic. Besides two Quæstors who always remained at Rome, every Consul
+or Prætor who conducted a war or governed a province was attended by one
+of these magistrates.
+
+2. The _Ædileship_ was originally a Plebeian office, instituted at the
+same time as the Tribuneship of the Plebs.[39] To the two Plebeian
+Ædiles two Curule Ædiles were added in B.C. 365. The four Ædiles in
+common had the charge of the public buildings,[40] the care of the
+cleansing and draining of the city, and the superintendence of the
+police. They had also the regulation of the public festivals; and the
+celebration of the Ludi Magni, or Great Games, was their especial
+function. Originally they received a sum of money from the state to
+defray the expenses of these games, but the grant was withdrawn about
+the time of the First Punic War; a measure attended with important
+consequences, since the higher magistracies were thus confined to the
+wealthy, who alone could defray the charges of these costly
+entertainments. After the Macedonian and Syrian wars, the Curule Ædiles
+often incurred a prodigious expense, with the view of pleasing the
+people, and securing their votes in future elections.
+
+3. The institution of the _Prætorship_ in B.C. 366 has been already
+narrated. There was originally only one Prætor, subsequently called
+Prætor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the administration of justice. In
+B.C. 246 a second Prætor was added, who had to decide cases in which
+foreigners were concerned, and who was hence called Prætor Peregrinus.
+When the territories of the state extended beyond Italy, new Prætors
+were created to govern the provinces. Two Prætors were appointed to
+take the administration of Sicily and Sardinia (B.C. 227), and two more
+were added when the two Spanish provinces were formed (B.C. 197). There
+were thus six Prætors, two of whom staid in the city and the other four
+went abroad. Each Prætor was attended by six Lictors.
+
+4. The _Consuls_ were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome, and were
+at the head both of the state and the army. They convoked the Senate and
+the Assembly of the Centuries; they presided in each, and had to see
+that the resolutions of the Senate and the People were carried into
+effect. They had the supreme command of the armies in virtue of the
+Imperium conferred upon them by a special vote of the People. At the
+head of the army, they had full power of life and death over their
+soldiers. They were preceded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of
+power was enjoyed by them month by month in turn.
+
+The magistrates above-mentioned were elected annually, but it was the
+practice frequently to prolong the command of the Consuls or Prætors in
+the provinces under the titles of Proconsuls or Proprætors. In the later
+times of the Republic it was usual for both Consuls and several Prætors
+to remain at Rome during their year of office, and at its close to take
+the command of provinces, with the titles of Proconsuls or Proprætors.
+
+5. The _Dictatorship_, which occurs so often in the early history of the
+Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic War. As the
+Republic became powerful, and had no longer to dread any enemies in
+Italy, there was no necessity for such an extraordinary magistracy as
+the Dictatorship, but whenever internal dangers seemed to require a
+stronger executive, the Senate invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power.[41]
+
+6. The _Censors_ were two in number, elected every five years, but they
+held their office for a year and a half. They were taken, as a general
+rule, from those who had been previously Consuls, and their office was
+regarded as the highest dignity in the state. Their duties, which were
+very extensive and very important, may be divided into three classes,
+all of which, however, were closely connected.
+
+(_a_). Their first and most important duty was to take the Census. This
+was not simply a list of the population, according to the modern use of
+the word, but a valuation of the property of every Roman citizen. This
+valuation was necessary, not only for the assessment of the
+property-tax, but also for determining the position of every citizen in
+the state, which was regulated, in accordance with the constitution of
+Servius Tullius, by the amount of his property. Accordingly, the Censors
+had to draw up lists of the Classes and Centuries. They also made out
+the lists of the Senators and Equites, striking out the names of all
+whom they deemed unworthy, and filling up all vacancies in the Senate.
+
+(_b._) The Censors possessed a general control over the conduct and
+morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important power they
+were not guided by any rules of law, but simply by their own sense of
+duty. They punished acts of private as well as public immorality, and
+visited with their censure not only offenses against the laws, but every
+thing opposed to the old Roman character and habits, such as living in
+celibacy, extravagance, luxury, etc. They had the power of degrading
+every citizen to a lower rank, of expelling Senators from the Senate, of
+depriving the Equites of their horses, and of removing ordinary citizens
+from their tribes, and thus excluding them from all political rights.
+
+(_c._) The Censors also had the administration of the finances of the
+state, under the direction of the Senate. They let out the taxes to the
+highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five years.[42] They
+likewise received from the Senate certain sums of money to keep the
+public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in repair,[43] and to construct
+new public works in Rome and other parts of Italy. Hence we find that
+many of the great public roads, such as the Via Appia and Via Flaminia,
+were made by Censors.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. THE SENATE.--The Senate was in reality the executive government of
+Rome, and the Magistrates, of whom we have been speaking, were only its
+ministers. The Senate consisted of Three Hundred members, who held the
+dignity for life unless expelled by the Censors for reasons already
+mentioned, but they could not transmit the honor to their sons. All
+vacancies in the body were filled up by the Censors every five years
+from those who had held the Quæstorship or any higher magistracy. The
+Censors were thus confined in their selection to those who had already
+received the confidence of the people, and no one could therefore enter
+the Senate unless he had some experience in political affairs.
+
+The power of the Senate was very great. It exercised a control over
+legislation, since no law could be proposed to the Assemblies of the
+People unless it had first received the approval of the Senate. In many
+cases "Senatus consulta"[44] were passed, which had the force of laws
+without being submitted to the Popular Assemblies at all. This was
+especially the case in matters affecting religion, police,
+administration, the provinces, and all foreign relations.
+
+In foreign affairs the authority of the Senate was absolute, with the
+exception of declaring war and making peace, which needed the sanction
+of the Centuries. The Senate assigned the provinces into which the
+Consuls and Prætors were to be sent; they determined the manner in which
+a war was to be conducted, and the number of troops to be levied; they
+prolonged the command of a general or superseded him at their pleasure,
+and on his return they granted or refused him a triumph; they alone
+carried on negotiations with foreign states, and all embassadors to
+foreign powers were appointed by the Senate from their own body.
+
+In home affairs they had the superintendence in all matters of religion.
+They had also the entire administration of the finances. When the
+Republic was in danger the Senate had the power of suspending the laws
+by the appointment of a Dictator, or by investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power, as already mentioned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES.--1. The _Comitia Curiata_, the Patrician
+assembly, had become a mere form as early as the First Punic War. The
+gradual decline of its power has been already traced. It continued to
+meet for the transaction of certain matters pertaining to the Patrician
+gentes, but was represented simply by 30 lictors.
+
+2. The constitution of the _Comitia Centuriata_, as established by
+Servius Tullius,[45] had undergone a great change between the time of
+the Licinian Rogations and the Punic Wars, but both the exact time and
+nature of this change are unknown. It appears, however, that its object
+was to give more power and influence to the popular element in the
+state. For this purpose the 35 tribes were taken as the basis of the new
+Constitution of the Centuries. Each tribe was probably divided into five
+property Classes, and each Classis was subdivided into two Centuries,
+one of Seniores and the other of Juniores. Each tribe would thus contain
+10 Centuries, and, consequently, the 35 tribes would have 350 Centuries,
+so that, with the 18 Centuries of the Knights, the total number of the
+Centuries would be 368.
+
+The Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the higher
+magistrates, the power of enacting laws, of declaring war and making
+peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accusations for treason
+were brought before the Centuries, and in all criminal matters every
+Roman citizen could appeal to them.[46] But, notwithstanding these
+extensive powers, their influence in the state was gradually superseded
+by the Assembly of the Tribes.
+
+3. The _Comitia Tributa_ obtained its superior influence and power
+mainly through its Tribunes. The Assembly of the Centuries, being
+summoned and presided over by the Consuls, was, to a great extent, an
+instrument in the hands of the Senate, while that of the Tribes, being
+guided by its own magistrates, and representing the popular element, was
+frequently opposed to the Senate, and took an active part in the
+internal administration of the state. The increasing power of the
+Tribunes naturally led to a corresponding increase in the power of the
+Tribes. The right of Intercession[47] possessed by the Tribunes was
+extended to all matters. Thus we find the Tribunes preventing the
+Consuls from summoning the Senate and from proposing laws to the Comitia
+of the Centuries. As the persons of the Tribunes were sacred, the Senate
+could exercise no control over them, while they, on the contrary, could
+even seize a Consul or a Censor, and throw him into prison. The only
+effective check which the Senate had upon the proceedings of the
+Tribunes was, that one Tribune could put his veto upon the acts of his
+colleagues. Consequently, by securing the support of one member of the
+body, the Senate were able to prevent the other Tribunes from carrying
+out their plans.
+
+The _Plebiscita_ enacted by the Tribes had the same force as the _Leges_
+of the Centuries.[48] There were thus two sovereign assemblies at Rome,
+each independent of the other; that of the Tribes, as already observed,
+was the most important at the period which we have now reached.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IV. FINANCES.--The ordinary expenditure of the Roman state was not
+large. All the magistrates discharged their duties without pay; and the
+allied troops, which formed so large a portion of a Roman army, were
+maintained by the allies themselves. The expenses of war were defrayed
+by a property-tax called _Tributum_, which was usually one in a
+thousand, or one tenth per cent., but after the last war with Macedonia
+the treasury received such large sums from the provinces that the
+tributum was abolished. From this time the expenses of the state were
+almost entirely defrayed by the taxes levied in the provinces. The other
+revenues of the state, which bore the general name of _Vectigalia_, may
+be dismissed with a few words. They consisted of the rents arising from
+the public lands, of the customs' duties, of the taxes upon mines, salt,
+etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+V. THE ARMY.--The Roman army was originally called _Legio_; and this
+name, which is coeval with the foundation of Rome, continued down to the
+latest times. The Legion was therefore not equivalent to what we call a
+regiment, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms, infantry,
+cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively employed, artillery
+also. The number of soldiers who, at different periods, were contained
+in a legion, does not appear to have been absolutely fixed, but to have
+varied within moderate limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000
+foot-soldiers. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
+the Second Punic War the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
+infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
+ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries after Marius
+the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally approaching to the
+higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard to the infantry, 300
+horsemen formed the regular complement of the legion. The organization
+of the legion differed at different periods.
+
+1. _First Period. Servius Tullius._--The legion of Servius is so closely
+connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
+discussed,[49] and it is only necessary to state here that it was a
+phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the front ranks being furnished
+with a complete suit of armor, their weapons being long spears, and
+their chief defense the round Argolic shield (_clipeus_).
+
+2. _Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340.--The legion in B.C.
+340 had almost entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now
+drawn up in three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The
+soldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of youths in the
+first bloom of manhood, distributed into 15 companies or maniples
+(_manipuli_), a moderate space being left between each. The maniple
+contained 60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a
+standard-bearer (_vexillarius_). The second line, the Principes, was
+composed of men in the full vigor of life, divided in like manner into
+15 maniples, all heavily armed. The two lines of the Hastati and
+Principes taken together amounted to 30 maniples, and formed the
+Antepilani. The third line, the Triarii, composed of tried veterans, was
+also in 15 divisions, but each of these was triple, containing 3
+maniples. In these triple maniples the veterans, or Triarii proper,
+formed the front ranks; immediately behind them stood the Rorarii,
+inferior in age and prowess, while the Accensi, or supernumeraries, less
+trustworthy than either, were posted in the extreme rear.
+
+3. _Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio._--Under
+ordinary circumstances four legions were levied yearly, two being
+assigned to each Consul. It must be observed that a regular consular
+army no longer consisted of Roman legions only, but, as Italy became
+gradually subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
+bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies usually exceeded
+that of the citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly distinct, both
+in the camp and in the battle-field.
+
+The men belonging to each legion were separated into four divisions. 1.
+1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart to form the Velites, the
+light-armed troops or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next
+in age (or who were of the same age with the preceding, but more
+wealthy) formed the Hastati. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full
+vigor of manhood, formed the Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most
+experienced formed the Triarii. When the number of soldiers in the
+legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
+proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the same.
+The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into 10 companies,
+called Maniples. The Velites were not divided into companies, but were
+distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. Each
+maniple was subdivided into two centuries, commanded by a centurion.
+Each legion had six superior officers, called Tribuni Militum. The
+legion was also divided into 10 cohorts; and as the cohorts were all
+equal to each other, the strength of the cohort varied from time to time
+with the strength of the legion, and thus at different periods ranged
+between the limits of 300 and 600.
+
+Three hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion, divided
+into 10 troops (_turmæ_), out of which three officers were chosen named
+Decuriones.
+
+The infantry furnished by the Socii was for the most part equal in
+number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as numerous,
+and the whole were divided equally between the two consular armies. Each
+Consul named 12 superior officers, who were termed Præfecti Sociorum,
+and corresponded by the Legionary Tribunes.
+
+_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall of the
+Republic._[50]--After the times of the Gracchi the following changes in
+military affairs may be noticed: In the first consulship of Marius the
+legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades, without distinction
+of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were armed and equipped in the
+same manner, all being now furnished with the pilum. The legionaries,
+when in battle-order, were no longer arranged in three lines, each
+consisting of ten maniples with an open space between each maniple, but
+in two lines, each consisting of five cohorts, with a space between each
+cohort. The younger soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in
+reserve, the van being composed of veterans. As a necessary result of
+the above arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, Principes, and
+Triarii ceased to exist. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
+included under the general term Levis Armatura, consisted for the most
+part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in the use of some
+national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers, the Cretan archers
+(_sagittarii_), and the Moorish dartmen. When operations requiring great
+activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by mere
+skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, and
+marched without baggage for these special services.[51] The cavalry of
+the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous to that which
+took place with regard to the light-armed troops. The Roman Equites
+attached to the army were very few in number, and were chiefly employed
+as aids-de-camp and on confidential missions. The bulk of the cavalry
+consisted of foreigners, and hence we find the legions and the cavalry
+spoken of as completely distinct from each other. After the termination
+of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants of Italy became Roman
+citizens, the ancient distinction between the Legiones and the Socii
+disappeared, and all who had served as Socii became incorporated with
+the Legiones.
+
+In the course of the history the Triumphs granted to victorious generals
+have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief description of
+them may appropriately close this sketch of the Roman army. A Triumph
+was a solemn procession, in which a victorious general entered the city
+in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was preceded by the captives and
+spoils taken in war, was followed by his troops, and, after passing in
+state along the Via Sacra, ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in
+the Temple of Jupiter. From the beginning of the Republic down to the
+extinction of liberty a Triumph was recognized as the summit of military
+glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman general.
+After any decisive battle had been won, or a province subdued by a
+series of successful operations, the general forwarded to the Senate a
+laurel-wreathed dispatch containing an account of his exploits. If the
+intelligence proved satisfactory the Senate decreed a public
+thanksgiving.[52] After the war was concluded, the general, with his
+army, repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a given
+day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the Senate was held
+without the walls, that he might have an opportunity of urging his
+pretensions in person, and these were then scrutinized and discussed
+with the most jealous care. If the Senate gave their consent, they at
+the same time voted a sum of money toward defraying the necessary
+expenses, and one of the Tribunes applied for a plebiscitum to permit
+the Imperator to retain his imperium on the day when he entered the
+city. This last form could not be dispensed with, because the imperium
+conferred by the Comitia did not include the city itself; and
+accordingly the military power of the general ceased as soon as he
+re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been previously
+suspended by a special enactment.
+
+[Illustration: A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: Two Plebeian Consuls were first appointed in B.C. 172, and
+two Plebeian Censors in B.C. 131.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See p. 31. (Eighth paragraph of Chapter IV.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 40: Hence their name, from _Ædes_, a temple.]
+
+[Footnote 41: This was done by the well-known formula "Videant," or
+"Dent operam Consules, ne quid res publica detriment capiat."]
+
+[Footnote 42: These farmers of the public revenue were called
+_Publicani_.]
+
+[Footnote 43: It is not easy to define with accuracy the respective
+duties of the Censors and Ædiles in relation to the public buildings;
+but it may be stated in general that the superintendence of the Ædiles
+was more in the way of police, while that of the Censors had reference
+to all financial matters.]
+
+[Footnote 44: A _Senatus consultum_ was so called because the Consul who
+brought a matter before the Senate was said _Senatum consulere_.]
+
+[Footnote 45: See p. 19.(Ninth paragraph of Chapter III.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 46: The technical word for this appeal was _Provocatio_. The
+word _Appellatio_ signified an appeal from one magistrate to another.]
+
+[Footnote 47: See p. 31.(Eighth paragraph of Chapter IV.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 48: See p. 40.(Eighth paragraph of Chapter V.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 49: See p. 19.(Ninth paragraph of Chapter III.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 50: We anticipate the course of events in order to give under
+one view the history of the Roman legion.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as
+_expediti_, _expediti milites_, _expeditæ cohortes_, and even _expeditæ
+legiones_.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Called _Supplicatio_.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Scipio Africanus.]
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND
+SCIPIO.
+
+
+The conquests of the Romans in the East had exercised a most pernicious
+influence upon the national character. They were originally a hardy,
+industrious, and religious race, distinguished by unbending integrity
+and love of order. They lived with great frugality upon their small
+farms, which they cultivated with their own hands; but they were stern
+and somewhat cruel, and cared little or nothing for literature and the
+arts. Upon such a people the sudden acquisition of wealth produced its
+natural effects. They employed it in the gratification of their
+appetites, and in coarse sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles,
+such as Scipio Africanus, Flamininus (the conqueror of Philip), and
+others, acquired a love for Greek literature and art; but the great mass
+of the nation imitated only the vices of the Greeks. Cooks, who had
+formerly been the cheapest kind of slaves at Rome, now became the most
+valuable. A love of luxury and a general depravity gradually spread
+through all classes of society. A striking instance of the growing
+licentiousness of the times was brought to light in B.C. 186. It was
+discovered that the worship of Bacchus had been introduced from Southern
+Italy into Rome and other towns, and that secret societies were formed,
+which, under the cloak of this worship, indulged in the most abominable
+vices. A stringent inquiry was made into these practices; the most
+guilty were put to death; and a decree of the Senate was passed,
+forbidding the worship of Bacchus in Rome and throughout Italy.
+
+Another circumstance will illustrate the manners of the times. L.
+Flamininus, the brother of the conqueror of Philip, and Consul in B.C.
+192, took with him into Cisalpine Gaul a beautiful Carthaginian boy, to
+whom he was attached. The youth complained of leaving Rome just before
+the exhibition of the games of the gladiators. Shortly after reaching
+the province, when Flamininus was feasting with his favorite, a Boian
+chief came into the Consul's tent to implore his protection. Flamininus
+seized this opportunity to please the boy, and, telling him that he
+should be rewarded for not seeing the gladiators, he ordered an
+attendant to stab the Gaul, that his favorite might enjoy the dying
+agonies of the man.
+
+The increasing love of gladiatorial combats was another indication of
+the national character. These brutalizing sports are said to have taken
+their origin from the Etruscans, who were accustomed to kill slaves and
+captives at the funerals of their relatives. They were first exhibited
+at Rome in the beginning of the First Punic War (B.C. 264). At first
+confined to funerals, they were afterward exhibited by the Ædiles at the
+public games, with the view of pleasing the people. The passion for this
+brutalizing amusement rose to a great height toward the end of the
+Republic and under the Empire. Great pains were taken with the training
+of gladiators, who were divided into different classes according to
+their arms and modes of fighting.
+
+Among many other important consequences of these foreign wars, two
+exercised an especial influence upon the future fate of the Republic.
+The nobles became enormously rich, and the peasant proprietors almost
+entirely disappeared. The wealthy nobles now combined together to keep
+in their own families the public offices of the state, which afforded
+the means of making such enormous fortunes. Thus a new Nobility was
+formed, resting on wealth, and composed alike of plebeian and patrician
+families. Every one whose ancestry had not held any of the curule
+magistracies[53] was called a New Man, and was branded as an
+upstart.[54] It became more and more difficult for a New Man to rise to
+office, and the Nobles were thus almost an hereditary aristocracy in the
+exclusive possession of the government. The wealth they had acquired in
+foreign commands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious expense in
+the celebration of the public games in their ædileship, with the view of
+gaining the votes of the people at future elections, but also to spend
+large sums of money in the actual purchase of votes. The first law
+against bribery[55] was passed in B.C. 181, a sure proof of the growth
+of the practice.
+
+The decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable consequence of
+these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the earlier times the
+citizen-soldier, after a few weeks' campaign, returned home to cultivate
+his land; but this became impossible when wars were carried on out of
+Italy. Moreover, the soldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found
+life in the camp more pleasant than the cultivation of the ground. He
+was thus as ready to sell his land as the nobles were anxious to buy it.
+But money acquired by plunder is soon squandered. The soldier, returning
+to Rome, swelled the ranks of the poor; and thus, while the nobles
+became richer and richer, the lower classes became poorer and poorer. In
+consequence of the institution of slavery there was little or no demand
+for free labor, and as prisoners taken in war were sold as slaves, the
+slave-market was always well supplied. The estates of the wealthy were
+cultivated by large gangs of slaves; and even the mechanical arts, which
+give employment to such large numbers in the modern towns of Europe,
+were practiced by slaves, whom their masters had trained for the
+purpose. The poor at Rome were thus left almost without resources; their
+votes in the popular assembly were nearly the only thing they could turn
+into money, and it is therefore not surprising that they were ready to
+sell them to the highest bidder.
+
+Many distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman virtues
+disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corruptions of the
+national character. Of this party the most conspicuous member was M.
+Porcius Cato, who may be taken as a type of the old Roman character. He
+was born at Tusculum in B.C. 234. When a young man, the death of his
+father put him in possession of a small hereditary estate in the Sabine
+territory, at a distance from his native town. It was here that he
+passed the greater part of his boyhood, hardening his body by healthful
+exercise, and superintending and sharing the operations of the farm.
+Near his estate was an humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after
+three triumphs, by its owner M. Curius Dentatus, whose warlike exploits
+and simple character were often talked of with admiration in the
+neighborhood. The ardor of the youthful Cato was kindled. He resolved to
+imitate the character, and hoped to rival the glory, of Dentatus.
+Opportunity was not wanting. He took his first military lessons in the
+campaigns against Hannibal, and gained the favor and friendship of
+Fabius Maximus. He was also patronized by L. Valerius Flaccus, a Roman
+noble in his neighborhood, and a warm supporter of the old Roman
+manners, who had observed Cato's eloquence, as well as his martial
+spirit. Encouraged by Fabius and Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for
+office, and was elected Quæstor in B.C. 204. He followed P. Scipio
+Africanus to Sicily, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation
+between Cato and Scipio which ought to subsist between a Quæstor and his
+Proconsul. Fabius had opposed the permission given to Scipio to carry
+the attack into the enemy's home, and Cato, whose appointment was
+intended to operate as a check upon Scipio, adopted the views of his
+friend. Cato was Prætor in Sardinia in B.C. 198, where he took the
+earliest opportunity of illustrating his principles by his practice. He
+diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a single
+attendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and restrained
+usury with unsparing severity. He had now established a reputation for
+pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue. He was looked upon as the
+living type and representative of the ideal ancient Roman. To the
+advancement of such a man opposition was vain. In B.C. 195 he was
+elected Consul with his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus.
+During his consulship a strange scene took place peculiarly illustrative
+of Roman manners. In B.C. 215, at the height of the Punic War, a law had
+been passed, proposed by the Tribune Oppius, that no woman should
+possess more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a garment of divers
+colors, nor drive a carriage with horses within a mile of the city,
+except for the purpose of attending the public celebration of religious
+rites. Now that Hannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded with
+Carthaginian wealth, there being no longer any necessity for women to
+contribute toward the exigencies of an impoverished treasury the savings
+spared from their ornaments and pleasures, two Tribunes thought it time
+to propose the abolition of the Oppian law; but they were opposed by two
+of their colleagues. The most important affairs of state excited far
+less interest and zeal than this singular contest. The matrons blockaded
+every avenue to the forum, and intercepted their husbands as they
+approached, beseeching them to restore the ancient ornaments of the
+Roman matrons. Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague Cato was
+inexorable. Finally, the women carried the day. Worn out by their
+importunity, the two Tribunes withdrew their opposition, and the hated
+law was abolished by the suffrage of all the tribes.
+
+Cato's campaign in Spain during his Consulship, which added greatly to
+his military reputation, has been already related. He afterward served
+in Greece under M. Glabrio, where he distinguished himself at the battle
+of Thermopylæ fought against Antiochus (B.C. 191).
+
+The victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first man in the
+Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies. But the party of
+Fabius still cherished their old animosity against him, and Cato
+inherited the hatred of his friend and patron. After the return of P.
+Scipio and his brother Lucius from the war against Antiochus, they were
+charged with having been bribed to let off the Syrian monarch too
+leniently, and of having appropriated to their own use a portion of the
+money which had been paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. The first
+blow was directed against Lucius Scipio. At the instigation of Cato, the
+two Petillii Tribunes of the people required Lucius to render an account
+of all sums of money which he had received from Antiochus. Lucius
+accordingly prepared his accounts; but, as he was in the act of
+delivering them up, the proud conqueror of Hannibal indignantly snatched
+them out of his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying "it was unworthy
+to call to account for a few thousands a man who had paid millions into
+the treasury." But this haughty conduct appears to have produced an
+unfavorable impression, and his brother, when brought to trial in the
+course of the tame year, was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a
+heavy fine. The Tribune ordered him to be dragged to prison, and there
+detained till the money was paid; whereupon Africanus, still more
+enraged at this fresh insult to his family, and setting himself above
+the laws, rescued his brother from the hands of the Tribune's officer.
+The contest would probably have been attended with fatal results had not
+Tib. Gracchus, the father of the celebrated Tribune, and then Tribune
+himself, had the prudence, although he disapproved of the violent
+conduct of Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from the sentence of
+imprisonment.
+
+The successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened his enemies
+to bring the great Africanus himself before the people. His accuser was
+the Tribune M. Nævius. When the trial came on, Scipio did not condescend
+to say a single word in refutation of the charges that had been brought
+against him, but descanted long and eloquently upon the signal services
+he had rendered to the commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the
+trial was adjourned till the following day. Early next morning, when the
+Tribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was
+summoned, he proudly reminded the people that this was the anniversary
+of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal at Zama, and called upon
+them to neglect all disputes and lawsuits, and follow him to the
+Capitol, there to return thanks to the immortal gods, and pray that they
+would grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a
+chord which vibrated in every heart; their veneration for the hero
+returned; and he was followed by such crowds to the Capitol that the
+Tribunes were left alone in the rostra. Having thus set all the laws at
+defiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to his country
+seat at Liternum. The Tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but
+Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never returned to
+Rome. He would neither submit to the laws, nor aspire to the sovereignty
+of the state, and he therefore resolved to expatriate himself forever.
+He passed his remaining days in the cultivation of his estate at
+Liternum, and at his death is said to have requested that his body might
+be buried there, and not in his ungrateful country (B.C. 183).
+
+Hannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent. Scipio was the
+only member of the Senate who opposed the unworthy persecution which the
+Romans employed against their once dreaded foe. Each of these great men,
+possessing true nobility of soul, could appreciate the other's merits. A
+story is told that Scipio was one of the embassadors sent to Antiochus
+at Ephesus, at whose court Hannibal was then residing, and that he there
+had an interview with the great Carthaginian, who declared him the
+greatest general that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a manner
+the most flattering to Scipio. The latter had asked, "Who was the
+greatest general?" "Alexander the Great," was Hannibal's reply. "Who was
+the second?" "Pyrrhus." "Who was the third?" "Myself," replied the
+Carthaginian. "What would you have said, then, if you had conquered me?"
+asked Scipio, in astonishment. "I should then have placed myself above
+Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all other generals."
+
+After the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already seen, took
+up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there found for some
+years a secure asylum. But the Romans could not be at ease so long as
+Hannibal lived, and T. Flamininus was at length dispatched to the court
+of Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. The Bithynian king
+was unable to resist; but Hannibal, who had long been in expectation of
+such an event, took poison to avoid falling into the hands of his
+implacable foes.
+
+We now return to Cato, whose Censorship (B.C. 184) was a great epoch in
+his life. He applied himself strenuously to the duties of his office,
+regardless of the enemies he was making. He repaired the water-courses,
+paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the rents paid by the
+publicani for farming the taxes, and diminished the contract-prices
+disbursed by the state to the undertakers of public works. There can be
+no doubt that great abuses existed in the management of the public
+finances, with which nothing but the undaunted courage and
+administrative abilities of Cato could have successfully grappled. He
+was disturbing a nest of hornets, and all his future life was troubled
+by their buzz, and their attempts to sting. But, though he was accused
+no fewer than forty-four times during the course of his life, it was
+only once that his enemies prevailed against him. His enactments against
+luxury were severe and stringent. He levied a heavy tax upon expensive
+slaves and costly furniture and dress. He justly degraded from the
+Senate L. Flamininus for the act of abominable cruelty in Gaul which has
+been already narrated.[56]
+
+The strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminished in
+force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old age to the
+study of Greek literature, with which in youth he had no acquaintance,
+although he was not ignorant of the Greek language. Himself an historian
+and orator, the excellences of Demosthenes and Thucydides made a deep
+impression upon his kindred mind. But throughout life his conduct was
+guided by prejudices against classes and nations whose influence he
+deemed to be hostile to the simplicity of the old Roman character. When
+Eumenes, king of Pergamus, visited Rome after the war with Antiochus,
+and was received with honor by the Senate, and splendidly entertained by
+the nobles, Cato was indignant at the respect paid to the monarch,
+refused to go near him, and declared that "kings were naturally
+carnivorous animals." He had an antipathy to physicians, because they
+were mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted with Roman lives.
+He loudly cautioned his eldest son against them, and dispensed with
+their attendance. When Athens sent three celebrated philosophers,
+Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaüs, to Rome, in order to negotiate a
+remission of the 500 talents which the Athenians had been awarded to pay
+to the Oropians, Carneades excited great attention by his philosophical
+conversation and lectures, in which he preached the pernicious doctrine
+of an expediency distinct from justice, which he illustrated by the
+example of Rome herself: "If Rome were stripped of all that she did not
+justly gain, the Romans might go back to their huts." Cato, offended
+with his principles, and jealous of the attention paid to the Greek,
+gave advice which the Senate followed: "Let these deputies have an
+answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible."
+
+Cato was an unfeeling and cruel master. His conduct toward his slaves
+was detestable. The law held them to be mere chattels, and he treated
+them as such, without any regard to the rights of humanity. After supper
+he often severely chastised them, thong in hand, for trifling acts of
+negligence, and sometimes condemned them to death. When they were worn
+out, or useless, he sold them, or turned them out of doors. He treated
+the lower animals no better. His war-horse, which bore him through his
+campaign in Spain, he sold before he left the country, that the state
+might not be charged with the expenses of its transport. As years
+advanced he sought gain with increasing eagerness, but never attempted
+to profit by the misuse of his public functions. He accepted no bribes;
+he reserved no booty to his own use; but he became a speculator, not
+only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial waters, and
+pleasure-grounds. In this, as in other points, he was a representative
+of the old Romans, who were a money-getting and money-loving people.
+
+[Footnote 53: See p. 117.(Third paragraph of Chapter XVII.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 54: The _Nobiles_ were distinguished from the _Ignobiles_. The
+outward distinction of the former was the _Jus Imaginum_. These Imagines
+were figures with painted masks of wax, representing the ancestors who
+had held any of the curule magistracies. They were placed in cases in
+the atrium or reception-hall of the house, and were carried in the
+funeral procession of a member of the family. Any one who first obtained
+a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobility of his family.
+Such a person was himself neither a _Nobilis_ nor an _Ignobilis_. He was
+termed a _Novus Homo_, or a new man.]
+
+[Footnote 55: The Latin word for bribery is _ambitus_, literally
+canvassing. It must not be confounded with _repetundæ_, the offense of
+extortion or pecuniary corruption committed by magistrates in the
+provinces or at Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 56: See p. 127.(Second paragraph of Chapter
+XVIII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian
+Bridges.]
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHÆAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.
+
+
+In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, the last
+monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of Philip had been
+spent in preparations for a renewal of the war, which he foresaw to be
+inevitable; and when Perseus ascended the throne, he found himself amply
+provided with men and money for the impending contest. But, whether from
+a sincere desire of peace, or from irresolution of character, he sought
+to avert an open rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts
+of his reign was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the treaty which
+they had concluded with his father. It is probable that neither party
+was sincere in the conclusion of this peace, at least neither could
+entertain any hope of its duration; yet a period of seven years elapsed
+before the mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into open
+hostilities. Meanwhile, Perseus was not idle; he secured the attachment
+of his subjects by equitable and popular measures, and formed alliances
+not only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but also with the
+Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which surrounded his dominions.
+The Romans naturally viewed these proceedings with jealousy and
+suspicion; and at length, in 172, Perseus was formally accused before
+the Roman Senate by Eumenes, king of Pergamus, in person, of
+entertaining hostile designs against the Roman power. The murder of
+Eumenes near Delphi, on his return homeward, of which Perseus was
+suspected, aggravated the feeling against him at Rome, and in the
+following year war was declared.
+
+Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army, but of
+all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians, ventured to support
+him against so formidable a foe. Yet the war was protracted three years
+without any decisive result; nay, the balance of success seemed on the
+whole to incline in favor of Perseus, and many states, which before were
+wavering, now showed a disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed
+parsimony restrained him from taking advantage of their offers, and in
+B.C. 168 the arrival of the Consul L. Æmilius Paullus completely changed
+the aspect of affairs. Perseus was driven from a strong position which
+he had taken up on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna,
+and, finally, to accept an engagement near that town. At first the
+serried ranks of the phalanx seemed to promise superiority; but its
+order having been broken by the inequalities of the ground, the Roman
+legionaries penetrated the disordered mass, and committed fearful
+carnage, to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to
+Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the sacred
+island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to surrender himself to
+a Roman squadron. He was treated with courtesy, but was reserved to
+adorn the triumph of his conqueror. Such was the end of the Macedonian
+empire. The Senate decreed that Macedonia should be divided into four
+districts, each under the jurisdiction of an oligarchical council.
+
+Before leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the Senate to inflict a
+terrible punishment upon the Epirotes, because they had favored Perseus.
+Having placed garrisons in the seventy towns of Epirus, he razed them
+all to the ground in one day, and carried away 150,000 inhabitants as
+slaves. Epirus never recovered from this blow. In the time of Augustus
+the country was still a scene of desolation, and the inhabitants had
+only ruins and villages to dwell in.
+
+Paullus arrived in Italy toward the close of B.C. 167. The booty which
+he brought with him from Macedonia, and which he paid into the Roman
+treasury, was of enormous value; and his triumph, which lasted three
+days, was the most splendid that Rome had yet seen. Before his triumphal
+car walked the captive monarch of Macedonia, and behind it, on
+horseback, were his two eldest sons, Q. Fabius Maximus, and P. Scipio
+Africanus the younger, both of whom had been adopted into other
+families. But his glory was darkened by the death of his two younger
+sons, one dying a few days before, and the other a few days after his
+triumph.
+
+After the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but, in consequence
+of the intercession of Paullus, he was released, and permitted to end
+his days in an honorable captivity at Pella. His son Alexander learned
+the Latin language, and became a public clerk at Rome.
+
+The fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real mistress of the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The most haughty monarchs trembled
+before the Republic. Antiochus Epiphanes had invaded Egypt, and was
+marching upon Alexandria, when he was met by three Roman commissioners,
+who presented him with a decree of the Senate, commanding him to abstain
+from hostilities against Egypt. The king, having read the decree,
+promised to take it into consideration with his friends, whereupon
+Popillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping forward, drew a
+circle round the king with his staff, and told him that he should not
+stir out of it till he had given a decisive answer. The king was so
+frightened by this boldness that he immediately promised to withdraw his
+troops. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, whose conduct during the war with
+Perseus had excited the suspicion of the Senate, hastened to make his
+submission in person, but was not allowed to enter Rome. Prusias, king
+of Bithynia, had the meanness to appear at Rome with his head shaven,
+and in the dress of a liberated slave. The Rhodians, who had offered
+their mediation during the war with Perseus, were deprived of Lycia and
+Caria. In Greece itself the Senate acted in the same arbitrary manner.
+It was evident that they meant to bring the whole country under their
+sway. In these views they were assisted by various despots and traitors
+in the Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a man of great
+influence among the Achæans, who for many years had lent himself as the
+base tool of the Romans. He now denounced more than a thousand Achæans
+as having favored the cause of Perseus. Among them were the historian
+Polybius, and the most distinguished men in every city of the League.
+They were all apprehended and sent to Italy, where they were distributed
+among the cities of Etruria, without being brought to trial. Polybius
+alone was allowed to reside at Rome in the house of Æmilius Paullus,
+where he became the intimate friend of his son Scipio Africanus the
+younger. The Achæan League continued to exist, but it was really subject
+to Callicrates. The Achæan exiles languished in confinement for
+seventeen years. Their request to be allowed to return to their native
+land had been more than once refused; but the younger Scipio Africanus
+at length interceded on their behalf, and prevailed upon Cato to
+advocate their return. The conduct of the aged Senator was kinder than
+his words. He did not interpose till the end of a long debate, and then
+simply asked, "Have we nothing better to do than to sit here all day
+long debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to
+their graves here or in Achaia?" A decree of the Senate gave the exiles
+permission to return; but, when Polybius was anxious to obtain from the
+Senate restoration to their former honors, Cato bade him, with a smile,
+beware of returning to the Cyclops' den to fetch away any trifles he had
+left behind him.
+
+The Achæan exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from 1000 to 300,
+landed in Greece (B.C. 151) with feelings exasperated by their long
+confinement, and ready to indulge in any rash enterprise against Rome.
+Polybius, who had returned with the other exiles, in vain exhorted them
+to peace and unanimity, and to avoid a hopeless struggle with the Roman
+power. Shortly afterward an adventurer laid claim to the throne of
+Macedonia (B.C. 149). He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but
+he pretended to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name of
+Philippus. At first he met with some success, and defeated the Roman
+Prætor Juventius, but, after reigning scarcely a year, he was conquered
+and taken prisoner by Q. Metellus.
+
+The temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war-party in the
+Achæan League. Polybius had quitted the country to join his friend
+Scipio in Africa; and Diæus and Critolaüs, the most violent enemies of
+Rome, had now undisputed sway in the League. Diæus incited the Achæans
+to attack Sparta, on the ground that, instead of appealing to the League
+respecting a boundary question, as they ought to have done, they had
+violated its laws by sending a private embassy to Rome. The Spartans,
+feeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to the
+Romans for assistance; and in B.C. 147 two Roman commissioners were sent
+to Greece to settle these disputes. The commissioners decided that not
+only Sparta, but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of
+Achaia, should be restored to independence. Their decision occasioned
+serious riots at Corinth. All the Spartans in the town were seized, and
+even the Roman commissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return
+to Rome a fresh embassy was dispatched to demand satisfaction for these
+outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Critolaüs, then
+Strategus of the League, rendered all attempts at accommodation
+fruitless, and, after the return of the embassadors, the Senate declared
+war against the League. The cowardice and incompetence of Critolaüs as a
+general were only equaled by his previous insolence. On the approach of
+the Romans from Macedonia under Metellus he did not even venture to make
+a stand at Thermopylæ; and, being overtaken by them near Scarphea, in
+Locris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Diæus, who
+succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage,
+and made preparations to defend Corinth. Metellus had hoped to have had
+the honor of bringing the war to a conclusion, and had almost reached
+Corinth, when the Consul L. Mummius landed on the Isthmus and assumed
+the command. The struggle was soon brought to a close. Diæus was
+defeated in battle; and Corinth was immediately evacuated, not only by
+the troops of the League, but also by the greater part of the
+inhabitants. On entering the city, Mummius put to the sword the few
+males who remained, sold the women and children as slaves, and, having
+earned away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (B.C. 146).
+Corinth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art; but Mummius was so
+insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with those who
+contracted to convey them to Italy that, if any were lost in the
+passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value! Mummius then
+employed himself in chastising and regulating the whole of Greece; and
+ten commissioners were sent from Rome to settle its future condition.
+The whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was formed
+into a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, derived from that
+confederacy which had made the last struggle for political existence.
+The Roman commissioners then proceeded northward, and also formed
+Macedonia into a province. Polybius, who had hastened to Greece
+immediately after the capture of Corinth, exerted all his influence to
+alleviate the misfortunes of his countrymen, and to procure for them
+favorable terms. As a friend of Scipio he was received by the Roman
+commissioners with great distinction, and obtained from them a
+relaxation of some of the most severe enactments which had been made
+against the Achæans.
+
+Metellus and Mummius both triumphed on their return to Rome, the former
+taking the surname of Macedonicus, the latter that of Achaicus.
+
+Carthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same year as
+Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the battle of Zama had
+restored some degree of prosperity to the state; and, though the Roman
+party obtained the supremacy after he had been compelled to fly to
+Antiochus, the commercial activity of the Carthaginians restored to the
+city much of its former influence. Rome looked with a jealous eye upon
+its reviving power, and encouraged Masinissa to make repeated
+aggressions upon its territory. At length the popular party, having
+obtained more weight in the government, made a stand against these
+repeated encroachments of Masinissa. Thereupon Cato recommended an
+instant declaration of war against Carthage; but this met with
+considerable opposition in the Senate, and it was at length arranged
+that an embassy should be sent to Africa to gain information as to the
+real state of affairs. The ten embassadors, of whom Cato was the chief,
+offered their arbitration, which was accepted by Masinissa, but rejected
+by the Carthaginians, who had no confidence in Roman justice. The
+deputies accurately observed the warlike preparations and the defenses
+of the frontier. They then entered the city, and saw the strength and
+population it had acquired since the Second Punic War. Upon their return
+Cato was the foremost in asserting that Rome would never be safe as long
+as Carthage was so powerful, so hostile, and so near. One day he drew a
+bunch of early ripe figs from beneath his robe, and, throwing it upon
+the floor of the Senate-house, said to the assembled fathers, who were
+astonished at the freshness and fineness of the fruit, "Those figs were
+gathered but three days ago at Carthage; so close is our enemy to our
+walls." From that time forth, whenever he was called upon for his vote
+in the Senate, though the subject of debate bore no relation to
+Carthage, his words were, "Delenda est Carthago," "Carthage must be
+destroyed."[57]
+
+Cato's opinion prevailed, and the Senate only waited for a favorable
+opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred. The popular party
+having driven into exile the powerful partisans of Masinissa, the old
+Numidian king invaded the Carthaginian territory, and defeated the army
+which had been raised to oppose him (B.C. 150). This led to a change in
+the government, and the aristocratical party, once more restored to
+power, hastened to make their submission to Rome. But the Romans had
+resolved upon war, and, when the Carthaginian embassadors arrived at
+Rome, the two Consuls were already levying troops. The embassadors,
+knowing that resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger of the
+Senate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to send 300 youths
+of the noblest families to meet the Consuls at Lilybæum, and were told
+that the Consuls would acquaint them with the farther orders of the
+Senate. At Lilybæum the Consuls found the hostages awaiting them, and
+then promised the Carthaginian envoys that the decision of the Senate
+should be announced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica, which
+surrendered to them in despair, the Consuls informed the Carthaginians
+that, as their state would henceforth be under the protection of Rome,
+they had no longer any occasion for arms, and must surrender all the
+munitions of war. Even this demand was complied with, and the Roman
+commissioners who were sent to Carthage brought to the Roman camp
+200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 catapults. The Consuls, thinking that
+the state was now defenseless, threw off the mask, and announced the
+final resolution of the Senate: "That Carthage must be destroyed, and
+that its inhabitants must build another city ten miles distant from the
+coast." When this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage
+seized all the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than submit to
+so perfidious a foe. All the Italians within the walls were massacred;
+the members of the former government took to flight, and the popular
+party once more obtained the power. Almost superhuman efforts were made
+to obtain means of defense; corn was collected from every quarter; arms
+were manufactured day and night; the women cut off their long hair to be
+made into strings for the catapults, and the whole city became one vast
+work-shop. The Consuls now saw that it would be necessary to have
+recourse to force; but they had no military ability, and their attacks
+were repulsed with great loss. The younger Scipio Africanus, who was
+then serving in the army as military tribune, displayed great bravery
+and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army from
+destruction. Still no permanent success was gained, and Scipio returned
+to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the soldiers that he would come
+back as their commander. In the following year (B.C. 148) the new Consul
+L. Calpurnius Piso was even less successful than his predecessors. The
+soldiers became discontented; the Roman Senate and people, who had
+anticipated an easy conquest, were indignant at their disappointment,
+and all eyes were turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became a
+candidate for the ædileship for the ensuing year (B.C. 147), he was
+unanimously elected Consul, though he was only thirty-seven years old,
+and had not, therefore, attained the legal age for the office.
+
+This remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son of L. Æmilius
+Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was adopted by P. Scipio, the
+son of the great Africanus, and is therefore called Scipio Africanus
+Minor, to distinguish him from his grandfather by adoption. To these
+names that of Æmilianus is sometimes added to mark the family of his
+birth, so that his full designation was P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus
+Æmilianus. His intimacy with the historian Polybius has been already
+mentioned. He appears from his earliest years to have devoted himself
+with ardor to the study of literature; and he eagerly availed himself of
+the superior knowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary
+pursuits. He was accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all his
+campaigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, lost no
+opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature and
+philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did he neglect
+the literature of his own country, for Terence was admitted to his
+intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted him in the composition of
+his comedies. His friendship with Lælius, whose tastes and pursuits were
+so congenial to his own, has been immortalized by Cicero's celebrated
+treatise "On Friendship."
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Carthage.
+
+A. Inner Port. B. Outer Port. C. Outlet to Sea. D. Scipio's Mole. E. New
+Outlet to Sea, cut by the Carthaginians.]
+
+Scipio landed in Africa in B.C. 147. His first step was to restore
+discipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb of
+Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a work across the entrance of
+the harbor to cut off the city from all supplies by sea. But the
+Carthaginians defended themselves with a courage and an energy rarely
+paralleled in history. While Scipio was engaged in this laborious task,
+they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner port, and cut a new
+channel communicating with the sea. Hence, when Scipio at length
+succeeded in blocking up the entrance of the harbor, he found all his
+labor useless, as the Carthaginians sailed out to sea by the new outlet.
+But this fleet was destroyed after an obstinate engagement which lasted
+three days. At length, in the following year (B.C. 146), Scipio had made
+all his preparations for the final assault. The Carthaginians defended
+themselves with the courage of despair. They fought from street to
+street, and from house to house, and the work of destruction and
+butchery went on for six days. The fate of this once magnificent city
+moved Scipio to tears; and, anticipating that a similar catastrophe
+might one day befall Rome, he is said to have repeated the lines of the
+Iliad over the flames of Carthage: "The day shall come when sacred Troy
+shall perish, and Priam and his people shall be slain."
+
+Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a splendid
+triumph on account of his victory. The surname of Africanus, which he
+had inherited by adoption, had now been acquired by his own exploits.
+
+A portion of the dominions of Carthage was assigned to Utica. The
+remainder was formed into a Roman province under the name of Africa.
+Carthage itself was leveled to the ground, and a curse pronounced upon
+any who should rebuild the city. C. Gracchus, however, only twenty-four
+years afterward, attempted to found a new city upon the ancient site
+under the name of Junonia; but evil prodigies at its foundation, and the
+subsequent death of Gracchus, interrupted this design. The project was
+revived by Julius Cæsar, and was carried into effect by Augustus; and
+Roman Carthage, built at a short distance from the former city, became
+the capital of Africa, and one of the most flourishing cities in the
+ancient world. In the fifth century it was taken by Genseric, and made
+the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It was retaken by
+Belisarius, but was finally captured and destroyed by the Arabs in A.D.
+647. Its site is now desolate, marked only by a few ruins.
+
+[Footnote 57: This story must appear to strange to those who know not
+that it was a custom for Roman Senators, when called upon for their
+vote, to express--no matter what the question--any opinion which they
+deemed of great importance to the welfare of the state.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Personification of the River Tiber.]
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.
+
+
+The generous policy of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in B.C. 179[58] had
+secured for Spain a long period of tranquillity. But in B.C. 153, the
+inhabitants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the walls of their
+town, which was forbidden by one of the articles in the treaty of
+Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many years. The
+Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, and the Consul Q.
+Fabius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign against them. His
+successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, grandson of the Marcellus
+who was celebrated in the Second Punic War, carried on the war with
+vigor, and concluded a peace with the enemy on very fair terms (B.C.
+152). The Consul of the following year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding
+the Celtiberians at peace, turned his arms against the Vaccæi, Cantabri,
+and other nations as yet unknown to the Romans. At the same time the
+Prætor Ser. Sulpicius Galba invaded Lusitania, but, though he met with
+some advantage at first, he was subsequently defeated with great loss,
+and escaped with only a few horsemen. In the following year (B.C. 150)
+he again invaded the country from the south, while Lucullus attacked it
+from the north. The Lusitanians therefore sent embassadors to Galba to
+make their submission. He received them with kindness, lamented the
+poverty of their country, and promised to assign them more fertile
+lands, if they would meet him in three bodies, with their wives and
+children, in three places which he fixed upon. The simple people
+believed him. But he meditated one of the most atrocious acts of
+treachery and cruelty recorded in history. He fell upon each body
+separately, and butchered them, men, women, and children, without
+distinction. Among the very few who escaped was Viriathus, the future
+avenger of his nation. Galba was brought to trial on his return to Rome
+on account of this outrage; and Cato, then in the 85th year of his age,
+inveighed against his treachery and baseness. But Galba was eloquent and
+wealthy, and the liberal employment of his money, together with the
+compassion excited by his weeping children and ward, obtained his
+acquittal.
+
+Viriathus appears to have been one of those able guerrilla chiefs whom
+Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is said to have
+been first a shepherd and afterward a robber, but he soon acquired
+unbounded influence over the minds of his countrymen. After the massacre
+of Galba, those Lusitanians who had not left their homes rose as a man
+against the rule of such treacherous tyrants. Viriathus at first avoided
+all battles in the plains, and waged an incessant predatory warfare in
+the mountains; and he met with such continued good fortune, that numbers
+flocked to his standard. The aspect of affairs seemed at length so
+threatening that in B.C. 145 the Romans determined to send the Consul Q.
+Fabius Maximus into the country. In the following year Fabius defeated
+Viriathus with great loss; but this success was more than
+counterbalanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest and most
+noble-minded of the Spaniards. The war is usually known by the name of
+the Numantine, from Numantia, a town on the River Douro, and the capital
+of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian tribes.
+
+Henceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one in the north
+against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south against Viriathus
+and the Lusitanians. The war against the Lusitanians was at first
+brought to a conclusion. In B.C. 141 Viriathus surprised the Proconsul
+Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where escape was impossible. He
+used his victory with moderation, and suffered the Romans to depart
+uninjured, on condition of their allowing the Lusitanians to retain
+undisturbed possession of their own territory, and recognizing him as a
+friend and ally of Rome. This treaty was ratified by the Roman people;
+but the Consul Q. Servilius Cæpio, who succeeded Fabius in the command
+in southern Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and
+renewed the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to Cæpio to
+propose fresh terms of peace; but the Roman Consul persuaded them, by
+promises of large rewards, to murder their general. On their return they
+assassinated him in his own tent, and made their escape to the Roman
+camp before the Lusitanians were aware of the death of their chief. But,
+when the murderers claimed their reward, the Consul coolly told them
+that the Romans did not approve of the murder of a general by his own
+soldiers. The Lusitanians continued in arms a little longer, but the war
+virtually terminated by the death of Viriathus. Their country was
+finally reduced to subjection by the Consul D. Junius Brutus in B.C.
+138, who also crossed the rivers Douro and Minho, and received the
+surname of Callaïcus in consequence of his receiving the submission of
+the Callaïci, or Gallæci, a people in the northwest of Spain.
+
+The war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with success by
+the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his Prætorship had
+defeated the pretender to the Macedonian throne. But the successors of
+Metellus experienced repeated disasters, and at length, in B.C. 137, the
+Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus, being entirely surrounded by the
+Celtiberians, was obliged to sign a peace with them, in which he
+recognized their independence. He only obtained these terms on condition
+that his Quæstor, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, who was greatly respected by
+the Spaniards for his father's sake, should become responsible for the
+execution of the treaty. The Senate refused to ratify it, and went
+through the hypocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus, bound and
+naked, to the enemy. But the Numantines, like the Samnites in a similar
+case, declined to accept the offering.
+
+The Numantine war continued in the same disastrous manner to the Roman
+arms, and the people now called upon Scipio Africanus to bring it to a
+conclusion. We have already traced the career of this eminent man till
+the fall of Carthage. In B.C. 142 he was Censor with L. Mummius. In the
+administration of the duties of his office he followed in the footsteps
+of Cato, and attempted to repress the growing luxury and immorality of
+his contemporaries; but his efforts were thwarted by his colleague. He
+vainly wished to check in the people the appetite for foreign conquests;
+and in the solemn prayer which he offered at the conclusion of the
+lustrum he changed the usual supplication for the enlargement of the
+Republic into one for its preservation. He was now elected Consul a
+second time, and was sent into Spain in B.C. 134. His first efforts were
+directed, as in Africa, to the restoration of discipline in the army,
+which had become disorganized and demoralized by every kind of
+indulgence. Two remarkable men served under Scipio in this war. Marius,
+afterward seven times Consul, and the Numidian prince Jugurtha. Having
+brought his troops into an effective condition, Scipio, in the following
+year, proceeded to lay siege to Numantia. The town was defended by its
+inhabitants with the courage and perseverance which has pre-eminently
+distinguished the Spaniards in all ages in the defense of their walled
+towns. It was not till they had suffered the most dreadful extremities
+of famine, eating even the bodies of the dead, that they surrendered the
+place (B.C. 133). Fifty of the principal inhabitants were selected to
+adorn Scipio's triumph; the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was
+leveled to the ground. He now received the surname of Numantinus, in
+addition to that of Africanus.
+
+During the Numantine war Rome was menaced by a new danger, which
+revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic. We have already had
+occasion to describe the decay of the free population in Italy, and the
+great increase in the number of slaves from the foreign conquests of the
+state.[59] As slaves were cheap, in consequence of the abundant supply,
+the masters did not care for their lives, and treated them with great
+barbarity. A great part of the land in Italy was turned into
+sheep-walks. The slaves were made responsible for the sheep committed to
+their care, and were left to supply themselves with food as they best
+could. It was an aggravation of their wretched lot, that almost all
+these slaves had once been freemen, and were not distinguished from
+their masters by any outward sign, like the negroes in the United
+States. In Sicily the free population had diminished even more than in
+Italy; and it was in this island that the first Servile War broke out.
+Damophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna, had treated his slaves with
+excessive barbarity. They entered into a conspiracy against their cruel
+master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name of Eunus, who belonged
+to another master. This Eunus pretended to the gift of prophecy, and
+appeared to breathe flames of fire from his mouth. He not only promised
+them success, but joined in the enterprise himself. Having assembled to
+the number of about 400 men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and, being
+joined by their fellow-citizens within the town, quickly made themselves
+masters of it. Great excesses were committed, and almost all the freemen
+were put to death with horrid tortures. Eunus had, while yet a slave,
+prophesied that he should become king. He now assumed the royal diadem,
+and the title of King Antiochus. Sicily was at this time swarming with
+slaves, a great proportion of them Syrians, who flocked to the standard
+of their countryman and fellow-bondsman. The revolt now became general,
+and the island was delivered over to the murderous fury of men maddened
+by oppression, cruelty, and insult. The Prætors, who first led armies
+against them, were totally defeated; and in B.C. 134 it was thought
+necessary to send the Consul C. Fulvius Flaccus to subdue the
+insurrection. But neither he, nor the Consul of the following year,
+succeeded in this object; and it was not till B.C. 132 that the Consul
+P. Rupilius brought the war to an end by the capture of Tauromenium and
+Enna, the two strong-holds of the insurgents. The life of Eunus was
+spared, probably with the intention of carrying him to Rome, but he died
+in prison at Morgantia.
+
+About the same time died Attalus Philometor, the last king of Pergamus,
+leaving no children (B.C. 133). He beqeuathed his kingdom and treasures
+to the Roman people; but Aristonicus, a natural son of Eumenes, the
+father of Attalus, laid claim to the crown. He even defeated the Consul
+P. Licinius Crassus, who fell in the engagement (B.C. 131), but he was
+himself defeated and taken prisoner in the following year. The kingdom
+of Pergamus was formed into a Roman province under the name of Asia
+(B.C. 129).
+
+The foreign dominions of Rome now comprised the ten following provinces,
+to which is added the date of the formation of each: 1. Sicily, B.C.
+241. 2. Sardinia and Corsica, B.C. 238. 3, 4. The two Spains, Citerior
+and Ulterior, B.C. 205. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, B.C. 191. 6. Macedonia,
+B.C. 146. 7. Illyricum, probably formed at the same time as Macedonia.
+8. Achaia, that is, Southern Greece, virtually a province after the
+capture of Corinth, B.C. 146, though the exact date of its formation is
+unknown. 9. Africa, consisting of the dominions of Carthage, B.C. 146.
+10. Asia, including the kingdom of Pergamus, B.C. 129. To these an
+eleventh was added in B.C. 118 by the conquest of the southern portion
+of Transalpine Gaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with
+the other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the
+"Provincia," a name which has been retained in the modern Provence.
+
+[Footnote 58: See p. 115.(The end of Chapter XVI.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 59: See p. 128.(Fifth paragraph of Chapter XVIII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Stairs of the modern Capitol.]
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.
+
+
+The more thoughtful Romans had foreseen the dangers with which Rome was
+menaced by the impoverishment of her free population, and the alarming
+increase in the number of slaves. It is said that Lælius, the friend of
+the elder Scipio Africanus, had at the close of the Second Punic War
+meditated some reforms to arrest the growing evil, but had given them up
+as impracticable. The Servile War in Sicily had lately revealed the
+extent of the peril to which the Republic was exposed. It must have been
+felt by many that the evil would never have reached its present height
+if the Livinian Law had been observed, if men had been appointed to
+watch over its execution, and if the newly-acquired public lands had
+from time to time been distributed among the people. But the nobles,
+from long possession, had come to regard the public land as their own;
+many had acquired their portions by purchase, inheritance, or marriage;
+and every one shrank from interfering with interests supported by long
+prescription and usage. Still, unless something was done, matters would
+become worse; the poor would become poorer, and the slaves more
+numerous, and the state would descend more rapidly into the yawning
+abyss beneath it. Under these circumstances, two young men, belonging to
+one of the noblest families in Rome, came forward to save the Republic,
+but perished in the attempt. Their violent death may be regarded as the
+beginning of the Civil Wars, which ended in the destruction of freedom,
+and the establishment of the despotism of the Empire.
+
+Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus,
+whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for so many years.[60]
+They lost their father at an early age, but they were educated with the
+utmost care by their mother, Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus
+the elder, who had inherited from her father a love of literature, and
+united in her person the severe virtue of the ancient Roman matron with
+the superior knowledge and refinement which then prevailed in the higher
+classes at Rome. She engaged for her sons the most eminent Greek
+teachers; and it was mainly owing to the pains she took with their
+education that they surpassed all the Roman youths of their age.
+Tiberius was nine years older than his brother Caius. The latter had
+more ability, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and won all hearts by
+the simplicity of his demeanor and his graceful and persuasive
+eloquence. So highly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he reached
+the age of manhood he was elected Augur, and at the banquet given at his
+installation Appius Claudius, then Chief of the Senate, offered him his
+daughter in marriage. When Appius returned home and informed his wife
+that he had just betrothed their daughter, she exclaimed, "Why in such a
+hurry, unless you have got Tib. Gracchus for her husband?" Sempronia,
+the only sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Scipio
+Africanus. Tiberius was thus, by birth and marriage, connected with the
+noblest families in the Republic--the grandson of the conqueror of
+Hannibal--the son-in-law of the Chief of the Senate--and the
+brother-in-law of the destroyer of Carthage.
+
+Tiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the first
+who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was Quæstor in B.C. 137, and
+accompanied the Consul C. Hostilius to Spain, where he saved the army by
+obtaining a treaty with the Numantines, which the Senate refused to
+ratify.[61] In passing through Etruria, on his way to Spain, Tiberius
+had observed with grief and indignation the deserted state of that
+fertile country. Thousands of foreign slaves were tending the flocks
+and cultivating the soil of the wealthy landowners, while Roman
+citizens, thus thrown out of employment, could scarcely procure their
+daily bread, and had not a clod of earth to call their own. He now
+conceived the design of applying a remedy to this state of things, and
+with this view became a candidate for the Tribunate, and was elected for
+the year B.C. 133.
+
+Tiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure which he
+brought forward had previously received the approbation of some of the
+wisest and noblest men in the state; of his own father-in-law Appius
+Claudius; of P. Mucius Scævola, the great jurist, who was then Consul;
+and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It was proposed to re-enact the
+Licinian Law of B.C. 364--which had, in fact, never been repealed--but
+with some modifications and additions. As in the Licinian Law, no one
+was to be allowed to possess more than 500 jugera of public land; but,
+to relax the stringency of this rule, every possessor might hold in
+addition 250 jugera for each of his sons. All the rest of the public
+land was to be taken away from them and distributed among the poor
+citizens, who were not to be permitted to alienate these lots, in order
+that they might not be again absorbed into the estate of the wealthy. An
+indemnity was to be given from the public treasury for all buildings
+erected upon lands thus taken away. Three commissioners (Triumviri) were
+to be elected by the tribes in order to carry this law into execution.
+
+The Law affected only Public Lands, but it was no less a revolutionary
+measure. It is true that no prescription can, as a general rule, be
+pleaded against the rights of the state, but the possessors of the
+public lands had enjoyed them without question for so long a period that
+they had come to regard these lands as their private property. In many
+cases, as we have already said, they had been acquired by _bonâ fide_
+purchase, and the claim of the state, now advocated by Gracchus, was
+regarded as downright robbery. Attacks upon property have produced the
+greatest convulsions in all states, and the Roman landowners were ready
+to have recourse to any measures to defeat the law. But the thousands
+who would be benefited by it were determined to support Tiberius at any
+risk. He told them that "the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and
+holes, and hiding-places, while the men who fought and bled in defense
+of Italy wandered about with their wives and children without a spot of
+ground to rest upon." It was evident that the law would be carried, and
+the landowners therefore resorted to the only means left to them. They
+persuaded M. Octavius, one of the Tribunes, to put his veto upon the
+measure of his colleague. This was a fatal and unexpected obstacle. In
+vain did Tiberius implore Octavius to withdraw his veto. The contest
+between the Tribunes continued for many days. Tiberius retaliated by
+forbidding the magistrates to exercise any of their functions, and by
+suspending, in fact, the entire administration of the government. But
+Octavius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to depose him
+from his office. He summoned an Assembly of the People and put the
+question to the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had
+already voted for the deposition of Octavius, and the addition of one
+tribe would reduce him to a private condition, when Tiberius stopped the
+voting, anxious, at the last moment, to prevent the necessity of so
+desperate a measure. Octavius, however, would not yield. "Complete what
+you have begun," was his only answer to the entreaties of his colleague.
+The eighteenth tribe voted, and Tiberius ordered him to be dragged from
+the rostra. Octavius had only exercised his undoubted rights, and his
+deposition was clearly a violation of the Roman constitution. This gave
+the enemies of Gracchus the handle which they needed. They could now
+justly charge him not only with revolutionary measures, but with
+employing revolutionary means to carry them into effect.
+
+The Agrarian Law was passed without farther opposition, and the three
+commissioners elected to put it in force were Tiberius himself, his
+father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother Caius, then a youth of
+twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Numantia. About the same time news
+arrived of the death of Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamus, who had
+bequeathed his kingdom and treasures to the Republic. Tiberius therefore
+proposed that these treasures should be distributed among the people who
+had received assignments of lands, to enable them to stock their farms
+and to assist them in their cultivation. He even went so far as to
+threaten to deprive the Senate of the regulation of the new province,
+and to bring the subject before the Assembly of the People. The
+exasperation of the Nobility was intense. They tried every means to
+blacken the character of the Tribune, and even spread a report that he
+had received, a diadem and a purple robe from the envoy from Pergamus,
+and that he meditated making himself King of Rome. It was evident that
+his life would be no longer safe when he ceased to be protected by the
+sanctity of the Tribune's office. Accordingly, he became a candidate for
+the Tribunate for the following year. The Tribunes did not enter upon
+their office till December, but the election took place in June, at
+which time the country people, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged
+in getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had already voted in his
+favor, when the nobility interrupted the election by maintaining that
+it was illegal, since no man could be chosen Tribune for two consecutive
+years. After a violent debate the Assembly was adjourned till the
+following day. Tiberius now became alarmed lest his enemies should get
+the upper hand, and he went round the forum with his child, appealing to
+the sympathy of the people and imploring their aid. They readily
+responded to his appeal, escorted him home, and a large crowd kept watch
+around his house all night.
+
+Next day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the open space in
+front of the Temple of Jupiter. The Senate also assembled in the Temple
+of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica, the leader of the more violent party
+in the Senate, called upon the Consul Mucius Scævola to stop the
+re-election, but the Consul declined to interfere. Fulvius Flaccus, a
+Senator, and a friend of Tiberius, hastened to inform him of the speech
+of Nasica, and told him that his death was resolved upon. Thereupon the
+friends of Tiberius prepared to resist force by force; and as those at a
+distance could not hear him, on account of the tumult and confusion, the
+Tribune pointed with his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was
+in danger. His enemies exclaimed that he was asking for the crown. The
+news reached the Senate. Nasica appealed to the Consul to save the
+Republic, but as Scævola still refused to have recourse to violence,
+Nasica sprung up and exclaimed, "The Consul is betraying the Republic!
+let those who wish to save the state follow me." He then rushed out of
+the Senate-house, followed by many of the Senators. The people made way
+for them; and they, breaking up the benches, armed themselves with
+sticks, and rushed upon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to
+the Temple of Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, and
+in his flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising he
+received the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was quickly
+dispatched. Upward of 300 of his partisans were slain on the same day.
+Their bodies were thrown into the Tiber. This was the first blood shed
+at Rome in civil strife since the expulsion of the kings.
+
+Notwithstanding their victory, the Nobles did not venture to propose the
+repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new Commissioner was chosen in the
+place of Tiberius. The popular indignation was so strongly excited
+against Scipio Nasica that his friends advised him to withdraw from
+Italy, though he was Pontifex Maximus, and therefore ought not to have
+quitted the country. He died shortly afterward at Pergamus.
+
+All eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned to Rome in
+B.C. 132. When Scipio received at Numantia the news of the death of
+Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed in the verse of Homer[62]--
+
+    "So perish all who do the like again."
+
+The people may have thought that the brother-in-law of Tiberius would
+show some sympathy with his reforms and some sorrow for his fate. They
+were, however, soon undeceived. Being asked in the Assembly of the
+Tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, the Tribune, who was now the leader of the
+popular party, what he thought of the death of Tiberius, he boldly
+replied that "he was justly slain." The people, who had probably
+expected a different answer, loudly expressed their disapprobation;
+whereupon Scipio, turning to the mob, bade them be silent, since Italy
+was only their step-mother.[63] The people did not forget this insult;
+but such was his influence and authority that the Nobility were able to
+defeat the bill of Carbo by which the Tribunes might be re-elected as
+often as the people pleased. Scipio was now regarded as the acknowledged
+leader of the Nobility, and the latter resolved to avail themselves of
+his powerful aid to prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from being
+carried into effect. The Italians were alarmed at the prospect of losing
+some of their lands, and Scipio skillfully availed himself of the
+circumstance to propose in the Senate (B.C. 129) that all disputes
+respecting the lands of the Italians should be taken out of the hands of
+the Commissioners and transferred to the Consuls. This would have been
+equivalent to an abrogation of the law, and accordingly the three
+Commissioners offered the most vehement opposition to his proposal. In
+the forum he was attacked by Carbo, with the bitterest invectives, as
+the enemy of the people; and upon his again expressing his approval of
+the death of Tiberius, the people shouted out, "Down with the tyrant!"
+In the evening he went home accompanied by the Senate and a great number
+of the Italians. He retired to his sleeping-room with the intention of
+composing a speech for the following day. Next morning Rome was thrown
+into consternation by the news that Scipio was found dead in his room.
+The most contradictory rumors were circulated respecting his death, but
+it was the general opinion that he was murdered. Suspicion fell upon
+various persons, but Carbo was most generally believed to have been the
+murderer. There was no inquiry into the cause of his death (B.C. 129).
+
+Scipio was only 56 at the time of his death. To the Republic his loss
+was irreparable. By his last act he had come forward as the patron of
+the Italians. Had he lived he might have incorporated them in the Roman
+state, and by forming a united Italy have saved Rome from many of the
+horrors and disasters which she afterward suffered.
+
+The leaders of the popular party perceived the mistake they had made in
+alienating the Italians from their cause, and they now secured their
+adhesion by offering them the Roman citizenship if they would support
+the Agrarian Law. As Roman citizens they would, of course, be entitled
+to the benefits of the law, while they would, at the same time, obtain
+what they had so long desired--an equal share in political power. But
+the existing citizens, who saw that their own importance would be
+diminished by an increase in their numbers, viewed such a proposal with
+the utmost repugnance. So strong was their feeling that, when great
+numbers of the Italians had flocked to Rome in B.C. 126, the Tribune M.
+Junius Pennus carried a law that all aliens should quit the city. Caius
+Gracchus spoke against this law, and his friends still remained faithful
+to the cause of the Italians. In the following year (B.C. 125), M.
+Fulvius Flaccus, who was then Consul, brought forward a Reform Bill,
+granting the Roman citizenship to all the Italian allies. But it was
+evident that the Tribes would reject this law, and the Senate got rid of
+the proposer by sending him into Transalpine Gaul, where the Massilians
+had implored the assistance of Rome against the Salluvians. In the
+previous year Caius Gracchus had gone to Sardinia as Quæstor, so that
+the Senate had now removed from Rome two of their most troublesome
+opponents, and the Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons.
+Bitter was the disappointment of the Italians. Fregellæ, a town of
+Latium, and one of the eighteen Latin colonies which had remained
+faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War, took up arms, but its
+example was not followed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of the
+unequal contest. It was quickly reduced by the Prætor L. Opimius; the
+city was utterly destroyed; and the insurrection, which a slight success
+would have made universal, was thus nipped in its bud (B.C. 125).
+
+[Illustration: The Forum in its present state.]
+
+Caius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs since his
+brother's death. He had spoken only twice in public: once in favor of
+the law of Carbo for the re-election of Tribunes, and a second time in
+opposition to the Alien Act of Junius Pennus, as already mentioned. But
+the eyes of the people were naturally turned toward him. His abilities
+were known, and the Senate dreaded his return to Rome. He had been
+already two years in Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him
+there another year by sending fresh troops to the province, and by
+commanding the Proconsul to remain in the island. But Caius suddenly
+appeared at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (B.C. 124). His enemies
+brought him before the Censors to account for his conduct, but he
+defended himself so ably that not only was no stigma put upon him, but
+he was considered to have been very badly used. He showed that he had
+served in the army twelve years, though required to serve only ten; that
+he had acted as Quæstor two years, though the law demanded only one
+year's service; and he added that he was the only soldier who took out
+with him a full purse and brought it back empty.
+
+Exasperated by the persecution of the Senate, Caius determined to become
+a candidate for the Tribuneship, and to reform the Roman constitution.
+He was elected for the year B.C. 123, and lost no time in bringing
+forward a number of important measures which are known as the Sempronian
+Laws. His legislation was directed to two objects: the amelioration of
+the condition of the poor, and the weakening of the power of the Senate.
+Caius was the greatest orator of all his contemporaries; the contagion
+of his eloquence was irresistible, and the enthusiasm of the people
+enabled him to carry every thing before him.
+
+I. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people were:
+
+1. The extension of the Agrarian Law of his brother by planting new
+colonies in Italy and the provinces.
+
+2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that corn should be sold to
+every citizen at a price much below its market value. This was the first
+of the _Leges Frumentariæ_, which were attended with the most injurious
+effects. They emptied the treasury, at the same time that they taught
+the poor to become state paupers, instead of depending upon their own
+exertions for a living.
+
+3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped at the
+expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted from their pay,
+as had hitherto been the case.
+
+II. The most important laws designed to diminish the power of the Senate
+were:
+
+1. The law by which the Judices were to be taken only from the Equites,
+and not from the Senators, as had been the custom hitherto. This was a
+very important enactment, and needs a little explanation. All offenses
+against the state were originally tried in the Popular Assembly; but
+when special enactments were passed for the trial of particular
+offenses, the practice was introduced of forming a body of Judices for
+the trial of these offenses. This was first done upon the passing of the
+Calpurnian Law (B.C., 149) for the punishment of provincial magistrates
+for extortion in their government (_De Repetendis_). Such offenses had
+to be tried before the Prætor and a jury of Senators; but as these very
+Senators either had been or hoped to be provincial magistrates, they
+were not disposed to visit with severity offenses of which they
+themselves either had been or were likely to be guilty. By depriving the
+Senators of this judicial power, and by transferring it to the Equites,
+Gracchus also made the latter a political order in the state apart from
+their military character. The name of Equites was now applied to all
+persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as Judices, whether
+they served in the army or not. From this time is dated the creation of
+an _Ordo Equestris_, whose interests were frequently opposed to those of
+the Senate, and who therefore served as a check upon the latter.
+
+2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings of the
+Senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the Senate had
+assigned the provinces to the Consuls after their election, and thus had
+had it in their power to grant wealthy governments to their partisans,
+or unprofitable ones to those opposed to them. It was now enacted that,
+before the election of the Consuls, the Senate should determine the two
+provinces which the Consuls should have; and that they should,
+immediately after election, settle between themselves, by lot or
+otherwise, which province each should take.
+
+These laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he became
+for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re-elected Tribune for the
+following year (B.C. 122), though he did not offer himself as a
+candidate. M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had been Consul in B.C. 125, was also
+chosen as one of his colleagues. Flaccus, it will be recollected, had
+proposed in his consulship to give the Roman franchise to the Italian
+allies, and it was now determined to bring forward a similar measure.
+Caius therefore brought in a bill conferring the citizenship upon all
+the Latin colonies, and making the Italian allies occupy the position
+which the Latins had previously held. This wise measure was equally
+disliked in the forum and the Senate. Neither the influence nor the
+eloquence of Gracchus could induce the people to view with satisfaction
+the admission of the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with
+themselves. The Senate, perceiving that the popularity of Gracchus had
+been somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his colleague, M. Living
+Drusus--who was noble, well-educated, wealthy, and eloquent--to
+undermine his influence with the people. With the sanction of the
+Senate, Drusus now endeavored to outbid Gracchus. He played the part of
+a demagogue in order to supplant the true friend of the people. He gave
+to the Senate the credit of every popular law which he proposed, and
+gradually impressed the people with the belief that the Nobles were
+their best friends. Gracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum
+and Capua, and named among the founders some of the most respectable
+citizens. Drusus introduced a law for establishing no fewer than twelve
+colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each. Gracchus, in the
+distribution of the public land, reserved a rent payable to the public
+treasury. Drusus abolished even this payment. He also gained the
+confidence of the people by asking no favor for himself; he took no part
+in the foundation of colonies, and left to others the management of
+business in which any money had to be expended. Gracchus, on the other
+hand, superintended every thing in person; and the people, always
+jealous in pecuniary matters, began to suspect his motives. During his
+absence in Africa, whither he had gone as one of the three Commissioners
+for founding a colony upon the ruins of Carthage, Drusus was able to
+weaken his popularity still farther. On his return he endeavored in vain
+to reorganize his party and recover his power. Both he and Flaccus
+failed in being re-elected Tribunes; while L. Opimius and Q. Fabius, two
+personal enemies of Gracchus, were raised to the Consulship. The two new
+Consuls had no sooner entered upon office (B.C. 121) than they resolved
+to drive matters to extremities. One of the first measures of Opimius
+was a proposal to repeal the law for colonizing Carthage, because it had
+been established upon the site which Scipio had cursed. It was evident
+that a pretext was only sought for taking the life of Gracchus, and
+Flaccus urged him to repel violence by force. Caius shrunk from this
+step, but an accident gave his enemies the pretext which they longed
+for. The tribes had assembled at the Capitol to decide upon the colony
+at Carthage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against
+Gracchus, insolently cried out, "Make way for honest men, you rascals."
+Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look, and the man was
+immediately stabbed by an unknown hand. The assembly immediately broke
+up, and Gracchus returned home, foreseeing the advantage which this
+unfortunate occurrence would give to his enemies. The Senate declared
+Gracchus and Flaccus public enemies, and invested the Consuls with
+dictatorial powers. During the night Opimius took possession of the
+Temple of Castor and Pollux, which overlooked the forum; summoned a
+meeting of the Senate for the following morning, and ordered all the
+partisans of the Senate to be present, each with two armed slaves.
+Flaccus seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine, and distributed arms
+to his followers: here he was joined by Gracchus. Civil war was thus
+declared. After some fruitless attempts at negotiation, the Consul
+proceeded to attack the Aventine. Little or no resistance was made, and
+Flaccus and Gracchus took to flight, and crossed the Tiber by the
+Sublician bridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of the Furies,
+accompanied only by a single slave. When the pursuers reached the spot
+they found both of them dead. The slave had first killed his master and
+then himself. The head of Gracchus was cut off, and carried to Opimius,
+who gave to the person who brought it its weight in gold. Flaccus was
+also put to death, together with numbers of his party. Their corpses
+were thrown into the Tiber, their houses demolished, and their property
+confiscated. Even their widows were forbidden to wear mourning. After
+the bloody work had been finished, the Consul, by order of the Senate,
+dedicated a temple to Concord!
+
+At a later time statues of the two Gracchi were set up in public places,
+and the spots on which they fell were declared holy ground; but for the
+present no one dared to show any sympathy for their fate. Their mother
+Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she was visited by the most
+distinguished men. She loved to recount to her guests the story of her
+noble sons, and narrated their death without showing sorrow or shedding
+tears, as if she had been speaking of heroes of the olden time.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Saturn at Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 60: See p. 115.(The end of Chapter XVI.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 61: See p. 146.(Fifth paragraph of Chapter XX.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 62: _Od._, i. 47.]
+
+[Footnote 63: It must be recollected that the mob at Rome consisted
+chiefly of the four city tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could
+be enrolled in these four tribes alone.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A Roman Trophy.]
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.
+
+
+The murder of C. Gracchus and his adherents left the Nobility undisputed
+masters of the state, till their scandalous conduct in the Jugurthan War
+provoked a reaction against them, and raised to power a more terrible
+opponent than the Gracchi had ever been. This man, who took such signal
+vengeance upon the Nobility, was the lowborn MARIUS. He was a native of
+Arpinum, and was said to have worked for wages as a common peasant
+before he entered the ranks of the army. He first served in Spain, and
+was present at the siege of Numantia in B.C. 134. Here he distinguished
+himself so much that he attracted the notice of Scipio Africanus, and
+received from him many marks of honor. Scipio indeed admitted him to his
+table; and on a certain occasion, when one of the guests asked Scipio
+where the Roman people would find such another general after his death,
+he is said to have laid his hand on the shoulder of Marius, and said,
+"Perhaps here." The name of Marius does not occur again for many years,
+but he doubtless continued to serve in the army, and became so
+distinguished that he was at length raised to the Tribunate of the Plebs
+in B.C. 119, though not till he had attained the mature age of 38. Only
+two years had elapsed since the death of C. Gracchus; and the Nobles,
+flushed with victory, resolved to put down with a high hand the least
+invasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had the boldness to
+propose a law for the purpose of giving greater freedom at elections;
+and when the Senate attempted to overawe him, he ordered one of his
+officers to carry the Consul Metellus to prison. Marius now became a
+marked man. He lost his election to the Ædileship, and with difficulty
+obtained the Prætorship (B.C. 115); but he added to his influence by his
+marriage with Julia, the sister of C. Julius Cæsar, the father of the
+future ruler of Rome. His military abilities recommended him to the
+Consul Metellus (B.C. 100), who was anxious to restore discipline in the
+army and to retrieve the glory of the Roman name, which had been
+tarnished by the incapacity and corruption of the previous generals in
+the Jugurthan War, which now requires our attention.
+
+Masinissa, the ruler of Numidia, and so long the faithful ally of the
+Romans, had died in B.C. 149, at the advanced age of 90, leaving three
+sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa, among whom his kingdom was
+divided by Scipio Africanus, according to the dying directions of the
+old king. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in their brother's lifetime,
+Micipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was a bastard son of Mastanabal; but
+Micipsa brought him up with his own sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal.
+Jugurtha distinguished himself so much that he began to excite the
+jealousy of Micipsa. In order to remove him to a distance, and not
+without a hope that he might perish in the war, Micipsa sent him, in
+B.C. 134, with an auxiliary force, to assist Scipio against Numantia;
+but this only proved to the young man a fresh occasion of distinction.
+By his zeal, courage, and ability he gained the favor not only of his
+commander, but of all the leading nobles in the Roman camp, by many of
+whom he was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes for
+acquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia; and notwithstanding the
+contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk deep into the
+mind of Jugurtha. On his return he was received with every demonstration
+of honor by Micipsa; nor did he allow his ambitious projects to break
+forth during the lifetime of the old man. Micipsa, on his death-bed,
+though but too clearly foreseeing what would happen, commended the two
+young princes to the care of Jugurtha; but at the very first interview
+which took place between them after his decease (B.C. 118) their
+dissensions broke out with the utmost fierceness. Shortly afterward
+Jugurtha found an opportunity to surprise and assassinate Hiempsal;
+whereupon Adherbal and his partisans rushed to arms, but were defeated
+in battle by Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to the Roman
+province, from whence he hastened to Rome to lay his cause before the
+Senate. Jugurtha had now the opportunity, for the first time, of putting
+to the test that which he had learnt in the camp before Numantia of the
+venality and corruption of the Roman nobility. He sent embassadors to
+Rome to counteract, by a lavish distribution of bribes, the effect of
+the just complaints of Adherbal, and by these means succeeded in
+averting the indignation of the Senate. A decree was, however, passed
+for the division of the kingdom of Numidia between the two competitors,
+and a committee of Senators sent to enforce its execution; but as soon
+as these arrived in Africa, Jugurtha succeeded in gaining them over by
+the same unscrupulous methods, and obtained, in the partition of the
+kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauritania, by far the larger
+and richer portion of the two (B.C. 117). But this advantage was far
+from contenting him, and shortly afterward he invaded the territories of
+his rival with a large army. Adherbal was defeated in the first
+engagement, his camp taken, and he himself with difficulty made his
+escape to the strong fortress of Cirta. Here he was closely blockaded by
+Jugurtha. The garrison surrendered on a promise of their lives being
+spared; but these conditions were shamefully violated by Jugurtha, who
+immediately put to death Adherbal and all his followers (B.C. 112).
+
+Indignation was now loud at Rome against the Numidian king; yet so
+powerful was the influence of those whose favor he had gained by his
+gold, that he would probably have prevailed upon the Senate to overlook
+all his misdeeds, had not one of the Tribunes, C. Memmius, by bringing
+the matter before the people, compelled the Senators to give way. War
+was accordingly declared against him, and one of the Consuls, L.
+Calpurnius Bestia, landed in Africa with a large army, and immediately
+proceeded to invade Numidia (B.C. 111). But Jugurtha easily bribed
+Bestia and M. Scaurus, who acted as his principal lieutenant, to grant
+him a favorable peace, on condition only of a pretended submission,
+together with the surrender of thirty elephants and a small sum of
+money. As soon as the tidings of this disgraceful transaction reached
+Rome, the indignation excited was so great that, on the proposition of
+C. Memmius, it was agreed to send the Prætor L. Cassius, a man of the
+highest integrity, to Numidia, in order to prevail on the king to
+repair in person to Rome, the popular party hoping to be able to convict
+the leaders of the Nobility by means of his evidence. The safe-conduct
+granted him by the state was religiously observed; but the scheme failed
+of its effect, for, as soon as Jugurtha was brought forward in the
+assembly of the people to make his statement, one of the Tribunes, who
+had been previously gained over by the friends of Scaurus and Bestia,
+forbade him to speak. He nevertheless remained at Rome for some time
+longer, and engaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been
+ultimately crowned with success had he not in the mean time ventured to
+assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting in a claim to the
+Numidian throne. It was impossible to overlook so daring a crime,
+perpetrated under the very eyes of the Senate. Jugurtha was ordered to
+quit Italy without delay. It was on this occasion that he is said, when
+leaving Rome, to have uttered the memorable words, "A city for sale, and
+destined to perish quickly, if it can find a purchaser."
+
+War was now inevitable; but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius Albinus, who
+arrived to conduct it (B.C. 110), and still more that of his brother
+Aulus, whom he left to command in his absence, when called away to hold
+the elections at Rome, proved as favorable to Jugurtha as the corruption
+of their predecessors. Aulus, having penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia, suffered himself to be surprised in his camp; great part of his
+army was cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the
+ignominy of passing under the yoke. But Jugurtha had little reason to
+rejoice in this success, great as it might at first appear; for the
+disgrace at once roused all the spirit of the Roman people; the treaty
+concluded by Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions made to
+raise troops, and one of the Consuls for the new year (B.C. 109), Q.
+Cæcilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the honor of the
+Roman arms. But this did not satisfy the people. The scandalous conduct
+of so many of the Nobles had given fresh life to the popular party; and
+the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill for the appointment of three
+Commissioners to inquire into the conduct of all of those who had
+received bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, though one of the most guilty,
+managed to be put upon the Commission. But he dared not shield his
+confederates. Many men of the highest rank were condemned, among whom
+were Bestia, Albinus, and Opimius. The last named was the Opimius who
+acted with such ferocity toward Caius Gracchus and his party. He died in
+exile at Dyrrhachium some years afterward, in great poverty.
+
+The Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of the strictest
+integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his lieutenant, in B.C. 109.
+As soon as Jugurtha discovered the character of the new commander he
+began to despair of success, and made overtures for submission in
+earnest. These were apparently entertained by Metellus, while he sought
+in fact to gain over the adherents of the king, and induce them to
+betray him to the Romans, at the same time that he continued to advance
+into the enemy's territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his
+designs, attacked him suddenly on his march with a numerous force, but
+was, after a severe struggle, repulsed, and his army totally routed.
+Metellus ravaged the greater part of the country, but failed in taking
+the important town of Zama before he withdrew into winter quarters. But
+he had produced such an effect upon the Numidian king, that Jugurtha was
+induced, in the course of the winter, to make offers of unqualified
+submission, and even surrendered all his elephants, with a number of
+arms and horses, and a large sum of money, to the Roman general; but
+when called upon to place himself personally in the power of Metellus,
+his courage failed him, he broke off the negotiation, and once more had
+recourse to arms. Marius had greatly distinguished himself in the
+preceding campaign. The readiness with which he shared the toils of the
+common soldiers, eating of the same food, and working at the same
+trenches with them, had endeared him to them, and through their letters
+to their friends at Rome his praises were in everybody's mouth. His
+increasing reputation and popularity induced him to aspire to the
+Consulship. His hopes were increased by a circumstance which happened to
+him at Utica. While sacrificing at this place the officiating priest
+told him that the victims predicted some great and wonderful events, and
+bade him execute whatever purpose he had in his mind. Marius thereupon
+applied to Metellus for leave of absence, that he might proceed to Rome
+and offer himself as a candidate. The Consul, who belonged to a family
+of the highest nobility, at first tried to dissuade Marius from his
+presumptuous attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure; and when
+he could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he civilly evaded
+his request by pleading the exigencies of the public service, which
+required his presence and assistance. But, as Marius still continued to
+press him for leave of absence, Metellus said to him on one occasion,
+"You need not be in such a hurry to go to Rome; it will be quite time
+enough for you to apply for the Consulship along with my son." The
+latter, who was then serving with the army, was a youth of only twenty
+years of age, and could not, therefore, become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the next twenty years. This insult was never forgotten by
+Marius. He now began to intrigue against his general, and to represent
+that the war was purposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own
+vanity and love of military power. He openly declared that with one half
+of the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains; and as all his
+remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people began to regard him
+as the only person competent to finish the war. Metellus at last allowed
+him to leave Africa, but only twelve days before the election. Meeting
+with a favorable wind, he arrived at Rome in time, and was elected
+Consul with an enthusiasm which bore down all opposition. He received
+from the people the province of Numidia, although the Senate had
+previously decreed that Metellus should continue in his command. The
+exultation of Marius knew no bounds. In his speeches to the public, he
+gloried in his humble origin. He upbraided the Nobles with their
+effeminacy and licentiousness; he told them that he looked upon the
+Consulship as a trophy of his conquest over them; and he proudly
+compared his own wounds and military experience with their indolence and
+ignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the people and a great
+humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made them drink to the dregs
+the bitter cup. While engaged in these attacks upon the Nobility, he at
+the same time carried on a levy of troops with great activity, and
+enrolled any persons who chose to offer for the service, however poor
+and mean, instead of taking them from the five classes according to
+ancient custom.[64]
+
+Meantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as Proconsul
+(B.C. 108). But the campaign was not productive of such decisive results
+as might have been expected. Jugurtha avoided any general action, and
+eluded the pursuit of Metellus by the rapidity of his movements. Even
+when driven from Thala, a strong-hold which he had deemed inaccessible
+from its position in the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among
+the Gætulians, and quickly succeeded in raising among those wild tribes
+a fresh army, with which he once more penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia. A still more important accession was that of Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, who had been prevailed upon to raise an army, and advance to
+the support of Jugurtha. Metellus, however, having now relaxed his own
+efforts, from disgust at hearing that C. Marius had been appointed to
+succeed him in the command, remained on the defensive, while he sought
+to amuse the Moorish king by negotiation. The arrival of Marius (B.C.
+107) infused fresh vigor into the Roman arms. He quickly reduced in
+succession almost all the strong-holds that still remained to Jugurtha,
+in some of which the king had deposited his principal treasures; and
+the latter, seeing himself thus deprived step by step of all his
+dominions, at length determined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his
+fortunes by one grand effort. He with difficulty prevailed on the
+wavering Bocchus, by the most extensive promises in case of success, to
+co-operate with him in this enterprise; and the two kings, with their
+united forces, attacked Marius on his march, when he was about to retire
+into winter quarters. Though the Roman general was taken by surprise for
+a moment, his consummate skill and the discipline of his troops proved
+again triumphant; the Numidians were repulsed, and their army, as usual
+with them in case of a defeat, dispersed in all directions. Jugurtha
+himself, after displaying the greatest courage in the action, cut his
+way almost alone through a body of Roman cavalry, and escaped from the
+field of battle. He quickly again gathered round him a body of Numidian
+horse; but his only hope of continuing the war now rested on Bocchus.
+The latter was for some time uncertain what course to adopt, but was at
+length gained over by Sulla, the Quæstor of Marius, to the Roman cause,
+and joined in a plan for seizing the person of the Numidian king.
+Jugurtha fell into the snare; he was induced, under pretense of a
+conference, to repair with only a few followers to meet Bocchus, when he
+was instantly surrounded, his attendants cut to pieces, and he himself
+made prisoner, and delivered in chains to Sulla, by whom he was conveyed
+directly to the camp of Marius. This occurred early in the year B.C.
+106.
+
+L. Cornelius Sulla, the Quæstor of Marius, who afterward plays such a
+distinguished part in Roman history, was descended from a Patrician
+family which had been reduced to great obscurity. But his means were
+sufficient to secure him a good education. He studied the Greek and
+Roman writers with diligence and success, and early imbibed that love of
+literature and art by which he was distinguished throughout his life.
+But he was also fond of pleasure, and was conspicuous even among the
+Romans for licentiousness and debauchery. He was in every respect a
+contrast to Marius. He possessed all the accomplishments and all the
+vices which the old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he
+was one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek profligacy
+who had since Cato's time become more and more common among the Roman
+Nobles. But Sulla's love of pleasure did not absorb all his time, nor
+enfeeble his mind; for no Roman during the latter days of the Republic,
+with the exception of Julius Cæsar, had a clearer judgment, a keener
+discrimination of character, or a firmer will. Upon his arrival in
+Africa, Marius was not well pleased that a Quæstor had been assigned to
+him who was only known for his profligacy, and who had had no
+experience in war; but the zeal and energy with which Sulla attended to
+his new duties soon rendered him a useful and skillful officer, and
+gained for him the unqualified approbation of his commander,
+notwithstanding his previous prejudices against him. He was equally
+successful in winning the affections of the soldiers. He always
+addressed them with the greatest kindness, seized every opportunity of
+conferring favors upon them, was ever ready to take part in all the
+jests of the camp, and at the same time never shrank from sharing in all
+their labors and dangers. It is a curious circumstance that Marius gave
+to his future enemy and the destroyer of his family and party the first
+opportunity of distinguishing himself. The enemies of Marius claimed for
+Sulla the glory of the betrayal of Jugurtha, and Sulla himself took the
+credit of it by always wearing a signet ring representing the scene of
+the surrender.
+
+Marius continued more than a year in Africa after the capture of
+Jugurtha. He entered Rome on the first of January, B.C. 104, leading
+Jugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was then thrown into a dungeon,
+and there starved to death. Marius, during his absence, had been elected
+Consul a second time, and he entered upon his office on the day of his
+triumph. The reason of this unprecedented honor will be related in the
+following chapter.
+
+[Illustration: Soldiers blowing Tubæ and Cornua. (From Column of
+Trajan.)]
+
+[Footnote 64: On this important change in the Roman army, see p. 124.
+(The end of Chapter XVII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Caius Marius.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101.--SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
+B.C. 103-101.
+
+
+A greater danger than Rome had experienced since the time of Hannibal
+now threatened the state. Vast numbers of barbarians, such as spread
+over the south of Europe in the later times of the Roman Empire, had
+collected together on the northern side of the Alps, and were ready to
+pour down upon Italy. The two leading nations of which they consisted
+are called Cimbri and Teutones, of whom the former were probably Celts
+and the latter Germans, but the exact parts of Europe from which they
+came can not be ascertained. The whole host is said to have contained
+300,000 fighting men, besides a much larger number of women and
+children. The alarm at Rome was still farther increased by the ill
+success which had hitherto attended the arms of the Republic against
+these barbarians. Army after army had fallen before them. The Cimbri
+were first heard of in B.C. 113, in Noricum, whence they descended into
+Illyricum, and defeated a Roman army under the command of Cn. Papirius
+Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzerland, where they were
+joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones. They next poured over Gaul,
+which they plundered and ravaged in every direction. The Romans sent
+army after army to defend the southwestern part of the country, which
+was now a Roman province; but all in vain. In B.C. 109 the Consul M.
+Junius Silanus was defeated by the Cimbri; in B.C. 107 the Tigurini cut
+in pieces, near the Lake of Geneva, the army of the Consul L. Cassius
+Longinus, the colleague of Marias, who lost his life in the battle; and
+shortly afterward M. Aurelius Scaurus was also defeated and taken
+prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was still to come. In B.C. 105 two
+consular armies, commanded by the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
+Proconsul Cn. Servilius Cæpio, consisting of 80,000 men, were completely
+annihilated by the barbarians: only two men are said to have escaped the
+slaughter.
+
+These repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one at Rome
+felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the state, and he
+was accordingly elected Consul by the unanimous votes of all parties
+while he was still absent in Africa. He entered Rome in triumph, as we
+have already said, on the 1st of January, B.C. 104, which was the first
+day of his second Consulship. Meantime the threatened danger was for a
+while averted. Instead of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy,
+as had been expected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged
+for the next two or three years. This interval was advantageously
+employed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming them to
+hardships and toil. It was probably during this time that he introduced
+the various changes into the organization of the Roman army which are
+usually attributed to him. Notwithstanding the sternness and severity
+with which he punished the least breach of discipline, he was a favorite
+with his new soldiers, who learned to place implicit confidence in their
+general, and were delighted with the strict impartiality with which he
+visited the offenses of the officers as well as of the privates. As the
+enemy still continued in Spain, Marius was elected Consul a third time
+for the year B.C. 103, and also a fourth time for the following year,
+with Q. Lutatius Catulus as his colleague. It was in this year (B.C.
+102) that the long-expected barbarians arrived. The Cimbri, who had
+returned from Spain, united their forces with the Teutones. Marius first
+took up his position in a fortified camp upon the Rhone, probably in the
+vicinity of the modern Arles; and as the entrance of the river was
+nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his soldiers in digging a
+canal from the Rhone to the Mediterranean, that he might the more easily
+obtain his supplies from the sea.[65] Meantime the barbarians had
+divided their forces. The Cimbri marched round the northern foot of the
+Alps, in order to enter Italy by the northeast, crossing the Tyrolese
+Alps by the defiles of Tridentum (_Trent_). The Teutones and Ambrones,
+on the other hand, marched against Marius, intending, as it seems, to
+penetrate into Italy by Nice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious
+to accustom his soldiers to the savage and strange appearance of the
+barbarians, would not give them battle at first. The latter resolved to
+attack the Roman camp; but as they were repulsed in this attempt, they
+pressed on at once for Italy. So great were their numbers, that they are
+said to have been six days in marching by the Roman camp. As soon as
+they had advanced a little way, Marius followed them; and thus the
+armies continued to march for a few days, the barbarians in the front
+and Marius behind, till they came to the neighborhood of Aquæ Sextiæ
+(_Aix_). Here the decisive battle was fought. An ambush of 3000
+soldiers, which Marius had stationed in the rear of the barbarians, and
+which fell upon them when they were already retreating, decided the
+fortune of the day. Attacked both in front and rear, and also dreadfully
+exhausted by the excessive heat of the weather, they at length broke
+their ranks and fled. The carnage was dreadful; the whole nation was
+annihilated, for those who escaped put an end to their lives, and their
+wives followed their example. Immediately after the battle, as Marius
+was in the act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which was
+intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to him, and
+greeted him with the news of his being elected Consul for the fifth
+time.
+
+The Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy. The
+colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of defending the
+passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a strong position on the Athesis
+(Adige); but, in consequence of the terror of his soldiers at the
+approach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat even beyond the
+Po, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of Lombardy exposed to
+their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled to Rome. The Senate offered
+him a triumph for his victory over the Teutones, which he declined while
+the Cimbri were in Italy, and proceeded to join Catulus, who now
+commanded as Proconsul (B.C. 101). The united armies of the Consul and
+Proconsul crossed the Po, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, whom
+they found to the westward of Milan, near Vercellæ, searching for the
+Teutones, of whose destruction they had not yet heard. The Cimbri met
+with the same fate as the Teutones; the whole nation was annihilated;
+and the women, like those of the Tentones, put an end to their lives.
+Marius was hailed as the savior of the state; his name was coupled with
+the gods in the libations and at banquets; and he received the title of
+third founder of Rome. He celebrated his victories by a brilliant
+triumph, in which, however, he allowed Catulus to share.
+
+During the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been exposed to the
+horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection broke out in the east
+of the island, where the slaves elected as their king one Salvius, a
+soothsayer. He displayed considerable abilities, and in a short time
+collected a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse. After defeating a Roman
+army he assumed all the pomp of royalty, and took the surname of
+Tryphon, which had been borne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The
+success of Salvius led to an insurrection in the western part of the
+island, where the slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio,
+who joined Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the death of
+Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had now assumed such a
+formidable aspect that, in B.C. 101, the Senate sent the Consul M.
+Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded in subduing the insurgents, and
+killed Athenio with his own hand. The survivors were sent to Rome, and
+condemned to fight with wild beasts; but they disdained to minister to
+the pleasures of their oppressors, and slew each other with their own
+hands in the amphitheatre.
+
+[Illustration: Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)]
+
+[Footnote 65: This canal continued to exist long afterward, and bore the
+name of _Fossa Mariana_.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Metella Cæcilia.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES TO
+THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.
+
+
+The career of Marius had hitherto been a glorious one, and it would have
+been fortunate for him if he had died on the day of his triumph. The
+remainder of his life is full of horrors, and brings out into prominent
+relief the worst features of his character. As the time for the consular
+elections approached, Marius became again a candidate for the
+Consulship. He wished to be first in peace as well as in war, and to
+rule the state as well as the army. But he did not possess the qualities
+requisite for a popular leader at Rome; he had no power of oratory, and
+lost his presence of mind in the noise and shouts of the popular
+assemblies. In order to secure his election, he entered into close
+connection with two of the worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome,
+Saturninus and Glaucia. The former was a candidate for the Tribunate,
+and the latter for the Prætorship; and by their means, as well as by
+bribing the Tribes, Marius secured his election to the Consulship for
+the sixth time. Glaucia also obtained the Prætorship, but Saturninus was
+not equally successful. He lost his election chiefly through the
+exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in his stead. But Nonius paid
+dearly for the honor, for on the evening of his election he was murdered
+by the emissaries of Saturninus and Glaucia, and next morning, at an
+early hour, before the forum was full, Saturninus was chosen to fill up
+the vacancy.
+
+As soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (B.C. 100) he brought
+forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the soldiers of Marius the
+lands in Gaul which had been lately occupied by the Cimbri. He added to
+the law a clause that, if it was enacted by the people, every Senator
+should swear obedience to it within five days, and that whoever refused
+to do so should be expelled from the Senate, and pay a fine of twenty
+talents. This clause was specially aimed at Metellus, who, it was well
+known, would refuse to obey the requisition. In order to insure a
+refusal on the part of Metellus, Marius rose in the Senate, and declared
+that he would never take the oath, and Metellus made the same
+declaration; but when the law had been passed, and Saturninus summoned
+the Senators to the rostra to comply with the demands of the law,
+Marius, to the astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and
+advised the Senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused
+compliance; and on the following day Saturninus sent his beadle to drag
+him out of the Senate-house. Not content with this victory, Saturninus
+brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. The friends of Metellus
+were ready to take up arms in his defense; but he declined their
+assistance, and withdrew privately from the city. Saturninus brought
+forward other popular measures, of which our information is very scanty.
+He proposed a _Lex Frumentaria_, by which the state was to sell corn to
+the people at a very low price; and also a law for founding new colonies
+in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. In the election of the magistrates for
+the following year Saturninus was again chosen Tribune. Glaucia was at
+the same time a candidate for the Consulship, the two other candidates
+being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of Antonius was certain,
+and the struggle lay between Glaucia and Memmius. As the latter seemed
+likely to carry his election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired some
+ruffians, who murdered him openly in the comitia. All sensible people
+had previously become alarmed at the mad conduct of Saturninus and his
+partisans, and this last act produced a complete reaction against them.
+The Senate felt themselves now sufficiently strong to declare them
+public enemies, and invested the Consuls with dictatorial power. Marius
+was unwilling to act against his associates, but he had no alternative,
+and his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of others. Driven out
+of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the Quæstor Saufeius took refuge
+in the Capitol, but the partisans of the Senate cut off the pipes which
+supplied the citadel with water before Marius began to move against
+them. Unable to hold out any longer, they surrendered to Marius. The
+latter did all he could to save their lives: as soon as they descended
+from the Capitol, he placed them, for security, in the Curia Hostilia;
+but the mob pulled off the tiles of the Senate-house, and pelted them
+till they died. The Senate gave their sanction to the proceeding by
+rewarding with the citizenship a slave of the name of Scæva, who claimed
+the honor of having killed Saturninus.
+
+Marius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself with such
+unprincipled adventurers. In the following year (B.C. 99) he left Rome,
+in order that he might not witness the return of Metellus from exile, a
+measure which he had been unable to prevent. He set sail for Cappadocia
+and Galatia under the pretense of offering sacrifices which he had vowed
+to the Great Mother. He had, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these
+countries. Finding that he was losing his popularity while the Republic
+was at peace, he was anxious to recover his lost ground by gaining fresh
+victories in war, and accordingly repaired to the court of Mithridates,
+in hopes of rousing him to attack the Romans.
+
+The mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which Marius had
+fallen, had given new strength to the Senate. They judged the
+opportunity favorable for depriving the Equites of the judicial power
+which they had enjoyed, with only a temporary cessation, since the time
+of C. Gracchus. The Equites had abused their power, as the Senate had
+done before them. They were the capitalists who farmed the public
+revenues in the provinces, where they committed peculation and extortion
+with habitual impunity. When accused, they were tried by accomplices and
+partisans. Their unjust condemnation of Rutilius Rufus had shown how
+unfit they were to be intrusted with judicial duties. Rutilius was a man
+of spotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucius
+Scævola, Proconsul of Asia in B.C. 95, he displayed so much honesty and
+firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers of the taxes, that
+he became an object of fear and hatred to the whole body. Accordingly,
+on his return to Rome, a charge of malversation was trumped up against
+him, he was found guilty, and compelled to withdraw into banishment
+(B.C. 92).
+
+The following year (B.C. 91) witnessed the memorable Tribunate of M.
+Livius Drusus. He was the son of the celebrated opponent of C. Gracchus.
+He was a man of boundless activity and extraordinary ability. Like his
+father, he was an advocate of the party of the Nobles. He took up arms
+against Saturninus, and supported the Senate in the dispute for the
+possession of the judicial power. His election to the Tribunate was
+hailed by the Nobles with delight, and for a time he possessed their
+unlimited confidence. He gained over the people to the party of the
+Senate by various popular measures, such as the distribution of corn at
+a low price, and the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily. He
+was thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform of the judicia,
+which were, that the Senate should be increased from 300 to 600 by the
+addition of an equal number of Equites, and that the Judices should be
+taken from the Senate thus doubled in numbers. Drusus seems to have been
+actuated by a single-minded desire to do justice to all, but the measure
+was acceptable to neither party. The Senators viewed with dislike the
+elevation to their own rank of 300 Equites, while the Equites had no
+desire to transfer to a select few of their own order the profitable
+share in the administration of justice which they all enjoyed.
+
+Another measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular with the
+people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian allies the promise
+of the Roman franchise. Some of the most eminent men of Rome had long
+been convinced of the necessity of this reform. It had been meditated by
+the younger Scipio Africanus, and proposed by C. Gracchus. The Roman
+people, however, always offered it the most violent opposition. But
+Drusus still had many partisans. The Italian allies looked up to him as
+their leader, and loudly demanded the rights which had been promised
+them. It was too late to retreat; and, in order to oppose the formidable
+coalition against him, Drusus had recourse to sedition and conspiracy. A
+secret society was formed, in which the members bound themselves by a
+solemn oath to have the same friends and foes with Drusus, and to obey
+all his commands. The ferment soon became so great that the public peace
+was more than once threatened. The Allies were ready to take up arms at
+the first movement. The Consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator,
+resolved to meet his plots by counterplots. But he knew his danger, and
+whenever he went into the city kept a strong body-guard of attendants
+close to his person. The end could not much longer be postponed; and the
+civil war was on the point of breaking out, when one evening Drusus was
+assassinated in his own house, while dismissing the crowds who were
+attending him. A leather-cutter's knife was found sticking in his loins.
+Turning round to those who surrounded him, he asked them, as he was
+dying, "Friends and neighbors, when will the Commonwealth have a
+citizen like me again?"
+
+Even in the lifetime of Drusus the Senate had repealed all his laws.
+After his death the Tribune Q. Varius brought forward a law declaring
+all persons guilty of high treason who had assisted the cause of the
+Allies. Many eminent men were condemned under this law. This measure,
+following the assassination of Drusus, roused the indignation of the
+Allies to the highest pitch. They clearly saw that the Roman people
+would yield nothing except upon compulsion.
+
+[Illustration: Beneventum in Samnium.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of
+Federation.]
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.
+
+
+Rome had never been exposed to greater danger than at this time. Those
+who had been her bravest defenders now rose against her; and she would
+probably have perished had the whole Italian people taken part in the
+war. But the insurrection was confined almost exclusively to the
+Sabellians and their kindred races. The Etruscans and Umbrians stood
+aloof, while the Sabines, Volscians, and other tribes who already
+possessed the Roman franchise, supported the Republic, and furnished the
+materials of her armies. The nations which composed the formidable
+conspiracy against Rome were eight in number--the Marsians, Pelignians,
+Marrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samnites, Apulians, and Lucanians.
+Of these the Marsians were particularly distinguished for their courage
+and skill in war; and from the prominent part which they took in the
+struggle, it was frequently termed the Marsic as well as the Social War.
+
+The war broke out at Asculum in Picenum. The Proconsul Q. Servilius, who
+had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing that the inhabitants of
+Asculum were organizing a revolt, entered the town, and endeavored to
+persuade them to lay aside their hostile intentions. But he was
+murdered, together with his legate, by the exasperated citizens, and all
+the Romans in the place were likewise put to death. The insurrection now
+became general. The Allies entered upon the war with feelings of bitter
+hatred against their former rulers. They resolved to destroy Rome, and
+fixed upon Corfinium, a strong city of the Peligni, to which they gave
+the name of Italica, as the new capital of the Italian Confederation.
+The government of the new Republic was borrowed from that of Rome. It
+was to have two Consuls, twelve Prætors, and a Senate of 500 members. Q.
+Pompædius Silo, a Marsian, one of the chief instigators of the war, and
+C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, who cherished the hereditary hatred of his
+countrymen against the Romans, were chosen Consuls. Under them were many
+able lieutenants, who had learned the art of war under the best Roman
+generals. The soldiers had also served, in the Roman armies, and were
+armed and disciplined in the same way, so that the contest partook of
+all the characters of a civil war. But the Romans had the great
+advantage which a single state always possesses over a confederation.
+
+Of the details of the war our information is meagre and imperfect. But
+in the military operations we clearly see that the Allies formed two
+principal groups: the one composed of the Marsians, with their neighbors
+the Marrucinians, Pelignians, Vestinians, and Picentines; the other of
+the Samnites, with the Lucanians and Apulians. The two Consuls, L.
+Julius Cæsar and P. Rutilius Lupus, took the field with powerful armies,
+and under them served Marius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals
+of the time. The Romans were fully aware of the formidable nature of the
+struggle, which was one for existence, and not for victory. In the first
+campaign the advantage was on the side of the Allies. The Samnites,
+under their Consul Papius, overran Campania, took most of the towns, and
+laid siege to Acerræ, into which Cæsar threw himself. Pompædius Silo was
+still more successful. He defeated the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus
+with great slaughter, Rutilius himself being slain in the battle. This
+disaster was to some extent repaired by Marius, who commanded a separate
+army in the neighborhood, and compelled the victorious Allies to retire.
+The old general then intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither
+the stratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him from his
+advantageous position. "If you are a great general," said Pompædius,
+"come down and fight;" to which the veteran replied, "Nay, do _you_, if
+you are a great general, compel me to fight against my will." The Romans
+considered that Marius was over-cautious and too slow; and Plutarch says
+that his age and corpulence rendered him incapable of enduring the
+fatigue of very active service. But it is more probable that he was not
+very willing to destroy the Allies, who had been among his most active
+partisans, and to whom he still looked for support in his future
+struggles with the Nobility.
+
+The Romans now saw the necessity of making some concessions. The Lex
+Julia, proposed by the Consul Julius Cæsar, granted the franchise to all
+the Latin colonies, and to those of the Allies who had remained faithful
+to Rome, or had laid down their arms. The effects of this concession
+were immediately seen. Several of the Allies hastened to avail
+themselves of it, and disunion and distrust were produced among the
+rest.
+
+The next campaign (B.C. 89) was decidedly favorable to the Romans. The
+Consuls were Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of the celebrated Triumvir,
+and L. Porcius Cato. The latter, it is true, was slain at the
+commencement of the campaign; but his loss was more than compensated by
+his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in consequence, the supreme command. He
+carried on the war with the utmost vigor, and completely eclipsed his
+old commander Marius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued the
+Hirpini, and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium. Here he
+defeated Papius Mutilus, the Samnite Consul, and followed up his victory
+by the capture of the strong town of Bovianum.
+
+Meanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in the north.
+Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate siege. The Marrucinians,
+Vestinians, Pelignians, and finally the Marsians, laid down their arms
+before the end of the year. Their submission was facilitated by the Lex
+Plautia Papiria, proposed by the Tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C.
+Papirius Carbo (B.C. 89), which completed the arrangements of the Lex
+Julia, and granted, in fact, every thing which the Allies had demanded
+before the war. All citizens of a town in alliance with Rome could
+obtain, by this law, the Roman franchise, provided they were at the time
+resident in Italy, and registered their names with the Prætor within
+sixty days.[66]
+
+The war was thus virtually brought to a conclusion within two years, but
+300,000 men, the flower of Rome and Italy, perished in this short time.
+The only nations remaining in arms were the Samnites and Lucanians, who
+still maintained a guerrilla warfare in their mountains, and continued
+to keep possession of the strong fortress of Nola, in Campania, from
+which all the efforts of Sulla failed to dislodge them.
+
+It now remained to be settled in what way the new citizens were to be
+incorporated in the Roman state. If they were enrolled in the
+thirty-five tribes, they would outnumber the old citizens. It was
+therefore resolved to form ten new tribes, which should consist of the
+new citizens exclusively; but, before these arrangements could be
+completed, the Civil War broke out.
+
+[Footnote 66: A law of the Consul Pompeius bestowed the Latin franchise
+upon all the citizens of the Gallic towns between the Po and the Alps,
+so that they now entered into the same relations with Rome as the Latins
+had formerly held.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Terracina.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.
+
+
+One reason which induced the Senate to bring the Social War to a
+conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king of Pontus,
+one of the ablest monarchs with whom Rome ever came into contact. The
+origin and history of this war will be narrated in the following
+chapter. The dispute between Marias and Sulla for the command against
+Mithridates was the occasion of the first Civil War. The ability which
+Sulla had displayed in the Social War, and his well-known attachment to
+the Senatorial party, naturally marked him out as the man to whom this
+important dignity was to be granted. He was accordingly elected Consul
+for the year 88 B.C., with Q. Pompeius Rufus as his colleague; and he
+forthwith received the command of the Mithridatic War. But Marius had
+long coveted this distinction; he quitted the magnificent villa which he
+had built at Misenum, and took up his residence at Rome; and in order to
+show that neither his age nor his corpulency had destroyed his vigor, he
+repaired daily to the Campus Martius, and went through the usual
+exercises with the young men. He was determined not to yield without a
+struggle to his hated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune
+Saturninus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument
+for his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus. Sulpicius was one of
+the greatest orators of the age, and had acquired great influence by his
+splendid talents. He was an intimate friend of the Tribune M. Livius
+Drusus, and had been himself elected Tribune for B.C. 88, through the
+influence of the Senatorial party, who placed great hopes in him; but,
+being overwhelmed with debt, he now sold himself to Marius, who promised
+him a liberal share of the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Accordingly,
+Sulpicius brought forward a law by which the Italians were to be
+distributed among the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the
+old Roman citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in each
+tribe, and would certainly confer upon Marius the command of the
+Mithridatic War. To prevent the Tribune from putting these rogations to
+the vote, the Consuls declared a justitium, during which no business
+could be legally transacted. But Sulpicius was resolved to carry his
+point; with an armed band of followers he entered the forum and called
+upon the Consuls to withdraw the justitium; and upon their refusal to
+comply with his demand he ordered his satellites to draw their swords
+and fall upon them. Pompeius escaped, but his son Quintus, who was also
+the son-in-law of Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself took refuge in the
+house of Marius, which was close to the forum, and in order to save his
+life he was obliged to remove the justitium.
+
+Sulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging Nola, which
+was still held by the Samnites (see p. 180)(Fifth paragraph of Chapter
+XXV.--Transcriber). The city was now in the hands of Sulpicius and
+Marius, and the rogations passed into law without opposition, as well as
+a third, conferring upon Marius the command of the Mithridatic War.
+Marius lost no time in sending some Tribunes to assume on his behalf the
+command of the army at Nola; but the soldiers, who loved Sulla, and who
+feared that Marius might lead another army to Asia, and thus deprive
+them of their anticipated plunder, stoned his deputies to death. Sulla
+found his soldiers ready to respond to his wishes; they called upon him
+to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city from the tyrants. He
+therefore hesitated no longer, but at the head of six legions broke up
+from his encampment at Nola, and marched toward the city. His officers,
+however, refused to serve against their country, and all quitted him,
+with the exception of one Quæstor. This was the first time that a Roman
+had ever marched at the head of Roman troops against the city. Marius
+was taken by surprise. Such was the reverence that the Romans
+entertained for law, that it seems never to have occurred to him or to
+his party that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against the state.
+Marius attempted to gain time for preparations by forbidding Sulla, in
+the name of the Republic, to advance any farther; but the Prætors who
+carried the command narrowly escaped being murdered by the soldiers; and
+Marius, as a last resource, offered liberty to the slaves who would join
+him. But it was all in vain. Sulla forced his way into the city, and
+Marius took to flight with his son and a few followers. Sulla used his
+victory with moderation. He protected the city from plunder; and only
+Marius, Sulpicius, and ten others of his bitterest enemies, were
+declared public enemies by the Senate. Sulpicius was betrayed by one of
+his slaves and put to death, but Marius and his son succeeded in making
+their escape. Marius himself embarked on board a ship at Ostia, with a
+few companions, and then sailed southward along the coast of Italy. At
+Circeii he and his companions were obliged to land on account of the
+violence of the wind and the want of provisions. After wandering about
+for a long time, they learned from some peasants that a number of
+horsemen had been in search of them; and they accordingly turned aside
+from the road, and passed the night in a deep wood in great want. But
+the indomitable spirit of the old man did not fail him; and he consoled
+himself and encouraged his companions by the assurance that he should
+still live to see his seventh Consulship, in accordance with a
+prediction that had been made to him in his youth. Shortly afterward,
+when they were near to Minturnæ, they descried a party of horsemen
+galloping toward them. In great haste they hurried down to the sea, and
+swam off to two merchant vessels, which received them on board. The
+horsemen bade the crew bring the ship to land or throw Marius overboard;
+but, moved by his tears and entreaties, they refused to surrender him.
+The sailors soon changed their minds; and, fearing to keep Marius, they
+cast anchor at the mouth of the Liris, where they persuaded him to
+disembark, and rest himself from his fatigues till a wind should rise;
+but they had no sooner landed him than they immediately sailed away.
+Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps and marshes through which the
+Liris flows. With difficulty he reached the hut of an old man, who
+concealed him in a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds; but
+hearing shortly afterward the noise of his pursuers, he crept out of his
+hiding-place and threw himself into the marsh. He was discovered, and
+dragged out of the water; and, covered with mud, and with a rope round
+his neck, was delivered up to the authorities of Minturnæ. The
+magistrates then deliberated whether they should comply with the
+instruction that had been sent from Rome to all the municipal towns to
+put Marius to death as soon as they found him. After some consultation
+they resolved to obey it, and sent a Cimbrian slave to carry out their
+orders. The room in which the old general was confined was dark; and, to
+the frightened barbarian, the eyes of Marius seemed to dart forth fire,
+and from the darkness a terrible voice shouted out, "Man! durst thou
+slay C. Marius?" The barbarian immediately threw down his sword, and
+rushed out of the house, exclaiming, "I can not kill C. Marius!"
+Straightway there was a revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of
+Minturnæ. They repented of their ungrateful conduct toward a man who had
+saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for his departure, provided
+him with every thing necessary for the voyage, and, with prayers and
+wishes for his safety, placed him on board. The wind carried him to the
+island of Ænaria (now Ischia), where he found the rest of his friends;
+and from thence he set sail for Africa, which he reached in safety. He
+landed near the site of Carthage, but he had scarcely put his foot on
+shore before the Prætor Sextilius sent an officer to bid him leave the
+country, or else he would carry into execution the decree of the Senate.
+This last blow almost unmanned Marius: grief and indignation for a time
+deprived him of speech, and his only reply was, "Tell the Prætor that
+you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of Carthage."
+Shortly afterward Marius was joined by his son, and they crossed over to
+the island of Cercina, where they remained unmolested.
+
+Meantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which prepared the way
+for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla's soldiers were impatient for
+the plunder of Asia, and he therefore contented himself with repealing
+the Sulpician laws. He then sent forward his legions to Capua, that they
+might be ready to embark for Greece, but he himself remained in Rome
+till the Consuls were elected for the following year. The candidates
+whom he recommended were rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius,
+who belonged to the aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute
+man, and on L. Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side. Sulla
+did not attempt to oppose their election: to have recalled his legions
+to Rome would have been a dangerous experiment when the soldiers were so
+eager for the spoils of the East; and he only took the vain precaution
+of making Cinna promise that he would make no attempt to disturb the
+existing order of things. But as soon as Sulla had quitted Italy, Cinna
+brought forward again the law of Sulpicius for incorporating the new
+Italian citizens among the thirty-five tribes. The two Consuls had
+recourse to arms, Octavius to oppose and Cinna to carry the law. A
+dreadful conflict took place in the forum. The party of Octavius
+obtained the victory, and Cinna was driven out of the city with great
+slaughter. But Cinna, by means of the new citizens, whose cause he
+espoused, was soon at the head of a formidable army. As soon as Marius
+heard of these changes he set sail from Africa, and offered to serve
+under Cinna, who gladly accepted his proposal, and named him Proconsul;
+but Marius refused all marks of honor. The sufferings and privations he
+had endured had exasperated his proud and haughty spirit almost to
+madness, and nothing but the blood of his enemies could appease his
+resentment. He continued to wear a mean and humble dress, and his hair
+and beard had remained unshorn from the day he had been driven out of
+Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted the war with great vigor.
+He first captured the corn-ships, and thus cut off Rome from its usual
+supply of food. He next took Ostia and the other towns on the sea-coast,
+and, moving down the Tiber, encamped on the Janiculum. Famine began to
+rage in the city, and the Senate was obliged to yield. They sent a
+deputation to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but
+entreating them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the deputies
+sitting in his chair of office, and gave them a kind answer. Marius
+stood in silence by the side of the Consul, but his actions spoke louder
+than words. After the audience was over they entered the city. The most
+frightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain while seated in
+his curule chair. The streets ran with the noblest blood of Rome. Every
+one whom Marius hated or feared was hunted out and put to death; and no
+consideration, either of rank, talent, or former friendship, induced him
+to spare the victims of his vengeance. The great orator M. Antonius fell
+by the hands of his assassins; and his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who
+had triumphed with him over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his
+own life. Cinna was soon tired of the butchery; but the appetite of
+Marius seemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh
+victims for its gratification. Without going through the form of an
+election, Marius and Cinna named themselves Consuls for the following
+year (B.C. 86), and thus was fulfilled the prediction that Marius should
+be seven times Consul. But he did not long enjoy the honor: he was now
+in his seventy-first year; his body was worn out by the fatigues and
+sufferings he had recently undergone; and on the eighteenth day of his
+Consulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after a few days' illness.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Mount Argæus in Cappadocia.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.
+
+
+The kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being on the coast of
+the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally a satrapy of the
+Persian empire, extending from the River Halys on the west to the
+frontiers of Colchis on the east. Even under the later Persian kings the
+rulers of Pontus were really independent, and in the wars of the
+successors of Alexander the Great it became a separate kingdom. Most of
+its kings bore the name of Mithridates; and the fifth monarch of this
+name formed an alliance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the
+province of Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war
+against Aristonicus. He was assassinated about B.C. 120, and was
+succeeded by his son Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, who was
+then only about twelve years of age. His youth was remarkable, but much
+that has been transmitted to us respecting this period of his life wears
+a very suspicious aspect; it is certain, however, that when he attained
+to manhood he was not only endowed with consummate skill in all martial
+exercises, and possessed of a bodily frame inured to all hardships, but
+his naturally vigorous intellect had been improved by careful culture.
+As a boy he had been brought up at Sinope, where he had probably
+received the elements of a Greek education, and so powerful was his
+memory that he is said to have learned not less than twenty-five
+languages, and to have been able in the days of his greatest power to
+transact business with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule
+in their own peculiar dialect. As soon as he was firmly established on
+the throne he began to turn his arms against the neighboring nations. On
+the west his progress was hemmed in by the power of Rome, and the minor
+sovereigns of Bithynia and Cappadocia enjoyed the all-powerful
+protection of the Republic. But on the east his ambition found free
+scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between the Euxine and the
+confines of Armenia, including the whole of Colchis and the province
+called Lesser Armenia; and he even added to his dominions the Tauric
+Chersonesus, now called the _Crimea_. The Greek kingdom of Bosphorus,
+which formed a portion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his
+sway. Moreover, he formed alliances with Tigranes, king of Armenia, to
+whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, as well as with the
+warlike nations of the Parthians and Iberians. He thus found himself in
+possession of such great power and extensive resources, that he began to
+deem himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. Many causes of
+dissension had already arisen between them. Shortly after his accession,
+the Romans had taken advantage of his minority to wrest from him the
+province of Phrygia. In B.C. 93 they resisted his attempt to place upon
+the throne of Cappadocia one of his own nephews, and appointed a
+Cappadocian named Ariobarzanes to be king of that country. For a time
+Mithridates submitted; but the death of Nicomedes II., king of Bithynia,
+shortly afterward, at length brought matters to a crisis. That monarch
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicomedes III.; but Mithridates took
+the opportunity to set up a rival claimant, whose pretensions he
+supported with an army, and quickly drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia
+(B.C. 90). About the same time he openly invaded Cappadocia, and
+expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing his own son
+Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes had recourse to Rome,
+where they found ready support; a decree was passed that Nicomedes and
+Ariobarzanes should be restored to their respective kingdoms, and the
+execution of it was confided to M. Aquillius and L. Cassius.
+
+Mithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were restored to
+their dominions; but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced on the throne of
+Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman legates to invade the
+territories of Mithridates, into which he made a predatory incursion.
+Mithridates offered no resistance, but sent to the Romans to demand
+satisfaction, and it was not until his embassador was dismissed with an
+evasive answer that he prepared for immediate hostilities (B.C. 88). His
+first step was to invade Cappadocia, from which he easily expelled
+Ariobarzanes once more. His generals drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia,
+and defeated Aquillius. Mithridates, following up his advantage, not
+only made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman
+province of Asia. Here the universal discontent of the inhabitants,
+caused by the oppression of the Roman governors, enabled him to overrun
+the whole province almost without opposition. The Roman officers, who
+had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, were unable to
+collect any forces to oppose his progress; and Aquillius himself, the
+chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the King of Pontus.
+Mithridates took up his winter quarters at Pergamus, where he issued the
+sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to put to death on the same
+day all the Roman and Italian citizens who were to be found within their
+walls. So hateful had the Romans rendered themselves during the short
+period of their dominion, that these commands were obeyed with alacrity
+by almost all the cities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to
+have perished in this fearful massacre.
+
+The success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to declare against
+Rome, and the king accordingly sent his general Archelaus with a large
+army and fleet into Greece. Most of the Grecian states now declared in
+favor of Mithridates. Such was the position of affairs when Sulla landed
+in Epirus in B.C. 87. He immediately marched southward, and laid siege
+to Athens and the Piræus. But for many months these towns resisted all
+his attacks. Athens was first taken in the spring of the following year;
+and Archelaus, despairing of defending the Piræus any longer, withdrew
+into Boeotia, where he received some powerful re-enforcements from
+Mithridates. Piræus now fell into the hands of Sulla, and both this
+place and Athens were treated with the utmost barbarity. The soldiers
+were indulged in indiscriminate slaughter and plunder. Having thus
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unfortunate Athenians, Sulla directed his
+arms against Archelaus in Boeotia, and defeated him with enormous loss
+at Chæronea. Out of the 110,000 men of which the Pontic army consisted,
+Archelaus assembled only 10,000 at Chalcis, in Euboea, where he had
+taken refuge. Mithridates, on receiving news of this great disaster,
+immediately set about raising fresh troops, and was soon able to send
+another army of 80,000 men to Euboea. But he now found himself
+threatened with danger from a new and unexpected quarter. While Sulla
+was still occupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Rome had sent a
+fresh army to Asia under the Consul L. Valerius Flaccus to carry on the
+war at once against their foreign and domestic enemies. Flaccus was
+murdered by his troops at the instigation of Fimbria, who now assumed
+the command, and gained several victories over Mithridates and his
+generals in Asia (B.C. 85). About the same time the new army, which the
+king had sent to Archelaus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the
+neighborhood of Orchomenus. These repeated disasters made Mithridates
+anxious for peace, but it was not granted by Sulla till the following
+year (B.C. 84), when he had crossed the Hellespont in order to carry on
+the war in Asia. The terms of peace were definitely settled at an
+interview which the Roman general and the Pontic king had at Dardanus,
+in the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon all his conquests in
+Asia, to restrict himself to the dominions which he held before the
+commencement of the war, or pay a sum of 5000 talents, and surrender to
+the Romans a fleet of seventy ships fully equipped. Thus terminated the
+First Mithridatic War.
+
+Sulla was now at liberty to turn his aims against Fimbria, who was with
+his army at Thyatira. The name of Sulla carried victory with it. The
+troops of Fimbria deserted their general, who put an end to his own
+life. Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. After exacting enormous
+sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he left his legate, L. Licinius
+Murena, in command of that province, with two legions, and set sail with
+his own army to Athens. While preparing for his deadly struggle in
+Italy, he did not lose his interest in literature. He carried with him
+from Athens to Rome the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which
+contained most of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Brundisium.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+SECOND CIVIL WAR.--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH, B.C.
+83-78.
+
+
+Sulla landed at Brundisium in the spring of B.C. 83, in the Consulship
+of L. Scipio and C. Norbanus. During the preceding year he had written
+to the Senate, recounting the services he had rendered to the
+commonwealth, complaining of the ingratitude with which he had been
+treated, announcing his speedy return to Italy, and threatening to take
+vengeance upon his enemies and those of the Republic. The Senate, in
+alarm, sent an embassy to Sulla to endeavor to bring about a
+reconciliation between him and his enemies, and meantime ordered the
+Consuls Cinna and Carbo to desist from levying troops and making farther
+preparations for war. Cinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command; they
+knew that a reconciliation was impossible, and resolved to carry over an
+army to Dalmatia, in order to oppose Sulla in Greece; but, after one
+detachment of their troops had embarked, the rest of the soldiers rose
+in mutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had thus lost their
+chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make every preparation to
+resist Sulla, for they were well aware that he would never forgive them,
+and that their only choice lay between victory and destruction. Besides
+this the Italians were ready to support them, as these new citizens
+feared that Sulla would deprive them of the rights which they had lately
+obtained after so much bloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect of
+victory, for their troops far exceeded those of their opponent. They had
+200,000 men in arms, while Sulla landed at Brundusium with only 30,000,
+or at the most 40,000 men. But, on the other hand, the popular party had
+no one of sufficient influence and military reputation to take the
+supreme command in the war; their vast forces were scattered about
+Italy, in different armies, under different generals; the soldiers had
+no confidence in their commanders, and no enthusiasm in their cause; and
+the consequence was, that whole hosts of them deserted to Sulla on the
+first opportunity. Sulla's soldiers, on the contrary, were veterans, who
+had frequently fought by each other's sides, and had acquired that
+confidence in themselves and in their general which frequent victories
+always give. Still, if the Italians had remained faithful to the cause
+of the Marian party, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore
+one of his first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them
+from his enemies. For this purpose he would not allow his troops to do
+any injury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march from
+Brundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and he formed separate treaties
+with many of the Italian towns, by which he secured to them all the
+rights and privileges of Roman citizens which they then enjoyed. Among
+the Italians the Samnites continued to be the most formidable enemies of
+Sulla. They had joined the Marian party, not simply with the design of
+securing the supremacy for the latter, but with the hope of conquering
+Rome by their means, and then destroying forever their hated oppressor.
+Thus this Civil war became merely another phase of the Social war, and
+the struggle between Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of the peninsula
+was renewed after the subjection of the latter for more than two hundred
+years.
+
+Sulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting with any
+resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory over the Consul
+Norbanus, who was defeated with great loss, and obliged to take refuge
+in Capua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no great distance, willingly
+accepted a truce which Sulla offered him, although Sertorius, the ablest
+of the Marian generals, warned him against entering into any
+negotiations. His caution was justified by the event. By means of his
+emissaries Sulla seduced the troops of Scipio, who at length found
+himself deserted by all his soldiers, and was taken prisoner in his
+tent. Sulla, however, dismissed him uninjured. On hearing of this, Carbo
+is said to have observed "that he had to contend in Sulla both with a
+lion and a fox, but that the fox gave him more trouble." Many
+distinguished Romans meantime had taken up arms on behalf of Sulla. Cn.
+Pompey, the son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of
+age, levied three legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts; and
+Q. Metellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others, offered
+their services as legates. It was not, however, till the following year
+(B.C. 82) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. The Consuls
+of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger Marius, the former
+of whom was intrusted with the protection of Etruria and Umbria, while
+the latter had to guard Rome and Latium. Sulla appears to have passed
+the winter at Campania. At the commencement of spring he advanced
+against the younger Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at
+Sacriportus, and defeated him with great loss. Marius took refuge in
+Præneste; and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a large
+force to blockade the town, marched with the main body of his army to
+Rome. Marius was resolved not to perish unavenged, and accordingly,
+before Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L. Damasippus, the
+Prætor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His orders were
+faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucius Scævola, the Pontifex Maximus and jurist,
+P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other distinguished men, were
+butchered, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber. Sulla entered the
+city without opposition, and marched against Carbo, who had been
+previously opposed by Pompey and Metellus. The history of this part of
+the war is involved in great obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to
+relieve Præneste, but failed in each; and, after fighting with various
+fortune against Pompey, Metellus, and Sulla, he at length embarked for
+Africa, despairing of farther success in Italy. Meantime Rome had nearly
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. The Samnites and Lucanians, under
+Pontius Telesinus and L. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve
+Præneste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, which had been left
+without an army for its protection. Sulla arrived barely in time to save
+the city. The battle was fought before the Colline Gate; it was long and
+obstinately contested; the combat was not simply for the supremacy of a
+party; the very existence of Rome was at stake, for Pontius had declared
+that he would raze the city to the ground. The left wing, where Sulla
+commanded in person, was driven off the field by the vehemence of the
+enemy's charge; but the success of the right wing, which was commanded
+by Crassus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain a
+complete victory. Fifty thousand men were said to have fallen on each
+side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian party either
+perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners and put to death.
+Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius, whose head was cut off and
+carried under the walls of Præneste, thereby announcing to the young
+Marius that his last hope of succour was gone. To the Samnite prisoners
+Sulla showed no mercy. He was resolved to root out of the peninsula
+those heroic enemies of Rome. On the third day after the battle he
+collected all the Samnite and Lucanian prisoners in the Campus Martius,
+and ordered his soldiers to cut them down. The dying shrieks of so many
+victims frightened the Senators, who had been assembled at the same time
+by Sulla in the temple of Bellona; but he bade them attend to what he
+was saying, and not mind what was taking place outside, as he was only
+chastising some rebels. Præneste surrendered soon afterward. The Romans
+in the town were pardoned; but all the Samnites and Prænestines were
+massacred without mercy. The younger Marius put an end to his own life.
+The war in Italy was now virtually at an end, for the few towns which
+still held out had no prospect of offering any effectual opposition, and
+were reduced soon afterward. In other parts of the Roman world the war
+continued still longer, and Sulla did not live to see its completion.
+The armies of the Marian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued by
+Pompey in the course of the same year; but Sertorius in Spain continued
+to defy all the attempts of the Senate till B.C. 72.
+
+Sulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the Civil war, but
+had been driven to it by the mad ambition of Marius. His enemies had
+attempted to deprive him of the command in the Mithridatic war, which
+had been legally conferred upon him by the Senate; and while he was
+righting the battles of the Republic they had declared him a public
+enemy, confiscated his property, and murdered the most distinguished of
+his friends and adherents. For all these wrongs Sulla had threatened to
+take the most ample vengeance; and he more than redeemed his word. He
+resolved to extirpate the popular party root and branch. One of his
+first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who were to be put to
+death, which list was exhibited in the forum to public inspection, and
+called a _Proscriptio_. It was the first instance of the kind in Roman
+history. All persons in this list were outlaws who might be killed by
+any one with impunity; their property was confiscated to the state;
+their children and grandchildren lost their votes in the comitia, and
+were excluded from all public offices. Farther, all who killed a
+proscribed person, or indicated the place of his concealment, received
+two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered such a person was
+punished with death. Terror now reigned not only at Rome, but throughout
+Italy. Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly appeared. No one was
+safe; for Sulla gratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists
+their personal enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by his
+adherents. An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to many a
+man, who belonged to no political party, his death-warrant; for,
+although the confiscated property belonged to the state, and had to be
+sold by public auction, the friends and dependents of Sulla purchased it
+at a nominal price, as no one dared to bid against them. Oftentimes
+Sulla did not require the purchase-money to be paid at all, and in many
+cases he gave such property to his favorites without even the formality
+of a sale. The number of persons who perished by the proscriptions
+amounted to many thousands. At the commencement of these horrors Sulla
+had been appointed Dictator. As both the Consuls had perished, he caused
+the Senate to elect Valerius Flaccus interrex, and the latter brought
+before the people a rogatio, conferring the Dictatorship upon Sulla, for
+the purpose of restoring order to the Republic, and for as long a time
+as he judged to be necessary. Thus the Dictatorship was revived after
+being in abeyance for more than 120 years, and Sulla obtained absolute
+power over the lives and fortunes of all the citizens. This was toward
+the close of B.C. 81. Sulla's great object in being invested with the
+Dictatorship was to carry into execution in a legal manner the great
+reforms which he meditated in the constitution and the administration of
+justice, by which he hoped to place the government of the Republic on a
+firm and secure basis. He had no intention of abolishing the Republic,
+and consequently he caused Consuls to be elected for the following year,
+B.C. 81, and was elected to the office himself in B.C. 80, while he
+continued to hold the Dictatorship.
+
+At the beginning of B.C. 81 Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph on
+account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which he delivered
+to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony, he claimed for
+himself the surname of _Felix_, as he attributed his success in life to
+the favor of the gods. All ranks in Rome bowed in awe before their
+master; and among other marks of distinction which were voted to him by
+the obsequious Senate, a gilt equestrian statue was erected to his honor
+before the Rostra, bearing the inscription "Cornelio Sullæ Imperatori
+Felici."
+
+During the years B.C. 80 and 79 Sulla carried into execution his various
+reforms in the constitution, of which an account is given at the end of
+this chapter. At the same time he established many military colonies
+throughout Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian towns which had fought
+against Sulla were deprived of the full Roman franchise which had been
+lately conferred upon them; their lands were confiscated and given to
+the soldiers who had fought under him. A great number of these colonies
+were settled in Etruria. They had the strongest interest in upholding
+the institutions of Sulla, since any attempt to invalidate the latter
+would have endangered their newly-acquired possessions. But, though they
+were a support to the power of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the
+commonwealth; an idle and licentious soldiery supplanted an industrious
+agricultural population; and Catiline found nowhere more adherents than
+among the military colonies of Sulla. While Sulla thus established
+throughout Italy a population devoted to his interests, he created at
+Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by giving the citizenship
+to a great number of slaves belonging to those who had been proscribed
+by him. The slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as many as
+10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as their patron.
+
+Sulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of B.C. 79; and as he
+longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures, he resigned his
+Dictatorship, and declared himself ready to render an account of his
+conduct while in office. This voluntary abdication by Sulla of the
+sovereignty of the Roman world has excited the astonishment and
+admiration of both ancient and modern writers. But it is evident that
+Sulla never contemplated, like Julius Cæsar, the establishment of a
+monarchical form of government; and it must be recollected that he could
+retire into a private station without any fear that attempts would be
+made against his life or his institutions. The ten thousand Cornelii at
+Rome and his veterans stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole
+strength of the aristocratical party, secured him against all danger.
+Even in his retirement his will was law, and shortly before his death he
+ordered his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the towns in Italy
+because he was a public defaulter.
+
+After resigning his Dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at
+Puteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, he
+passed the remainder of his life in those literary and sensual
+enjoyments in which he had always taken so much pleasure. He died in
+B.C. 78, in the sixtieth year of his age. The immediate cause of his
+death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but some time before he had
+been suffering from the disgusting disease which is known in modern
+times by the name of Morbus Pediculosus. The Senate, faithful to the
+last, resolved to give him the honor of a public funeral. This was,
+however, opposed by the Consul Lepidus, who had resolved to attempt the
+repeal of Sulla's laws; but the Dictator's power continued unshaken
+even after his death. The veterans were summoned from their colonies,
+and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, and Cn. Pompey placed themselves at their
+head. Lepidus was obliged to give way, and allowed the funeral to take
+place without interruption. It was a gorgeous pageant. The Magistrates,
+the Senate, the Equites, the Priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as
+the veterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus Martius,
+where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of Sulla himself, who
+feared that his enemies might insult his remains, as he had done those
+of Marius, which had been taken out of the grave and thrown into the
+Anio at his command. It had been previously the custom of the Cornelia
+gens to bury and not burn their dead. A monument was erected to Sulla in
+the Campus Martius, the inscription on which he is said to have composed
+himself. It stated that none of his friends ever did him a kindness, and
+none of his enemies a wrong, without being fully repaid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All the reforms of Sulla were effected by means of _Leges_, which were
+proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and bore the general name of
+_Leges Corneliæ_. They may be divided into four classes: laws relating
+to the constitution, to the ecclesiastical corporations, to the
+administration of justice, and to the improvement of public morals.
+Their general object and design was to restore, as far as possible, the
+ancient Roman Constitution, and to give again to the Senate and the
+Nobility that power of which they had been gradually deprived by the
+leaders of the popular party. His Constitution did not last, because the
+aristocracy were thoroughly selfish and corrupt, and exercised the power
+which Sulla had intrusted to them only for their own aggrandizement.
+Their shameless conduct soon disgusted the provinces as well as the
+capital; the people again regained their power, but the consequence was
+an anarchy and not a government; and as neither class was fit to rule,
+they were obliged to submit to the dominion of a single man. Thus the
+empire became a necessity to the exhausted Roman world.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. _Laws relating to the Constitution._--Sulla deprived the Comitia
+Tributa of their legislative and judicial powers; but he allowed them to
+elect the Tribunes, Ædiles, Quæstors, and other inferior magistrates.
+This seems to have been the only purpose for which they were called
+together. The Comitia Centuriata, on the other hand, were allowed to
+retain their right of legislation unimpaired. He restored, however, the
+ancient regulation, which had fallen into desuetude, that no matter
+should be brought before them without the previous sanction of a senatus
+consultum.
+
+The Senate had been so much reduced in numbers by the proscriptions of
+Sulla, that he was obliged to fill up the vacancies by the election of
+three hundred new members. But he made no alteration in their duties and
+functions, as the whole administration of the state was in their hands;
+and he gave them the initiative in legislation by requiring a previous
+senatus consultum respecting all measures that were to be submitted to
+the Comitia, as already stated.
+
+With respect to the magistrates, Sulla increased the number of Quæstors
+from eight to twenty, and of Prætors from six to eight. He renewed the
+old law that no one should hold the Prætorship before he had been
+Quæstor, nor the Consulship before he had been Prætor. He also renewed
+the law that no one should be elected to the same magistracy till after
+the expiration of ten years.
+
+One of the most important of Sulla's reforms related to the Tribunate,
+which he deprived of all real power. He took away from the Tribunes the
+right of proposing a rogation of any kind to the Tribes, or of
+impeaching any person before them; and he appears to have limited the
+right of intercession to their giving protection to private persons
+against the unjust decisions of magistrates, as, for instance, in the
+enlisting of soldiers. To degrade the Tribunate still lower, Sulla
+enacted that whoever had held this office forfeited thereby all right to
+become a candidate for any of the higher curule offices, in order that
+all persons of rank, talent, and wealth might be deterred from holding
+an office which would be a fatal impediment to rising any higher in the
+state. He also required persons to be Senators before they could become
+Tribunes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations._--Sulla repealed
+the Lex Domitia, which gave to the Comitia Tributa the right of electing
+the members of the great ecclesiastical corporations, and restored to
+the latter the right of co-optatio, or self-election. At the same time,
+he increased the number of Pontiffs and Augurs to fifteen respectively.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice._--Sulla
+established permanent courts for the trial of particular offenses, in
+each of which a Prætor presided. A precedent for this had been given by
+the Lex Calpurnia of the Tribune L. Calpurnius Piso, in B.C. 149, by
+which it was enacted that a Prætor should preside at all trials for
+Repetundæ during his year of office. This was called a _Quæstio
+Perpetua_, and nine such _Quæstiones Perpetuæ_ were established by
+Sulla, namely, De Repetundis, Majestatis, De Sicariis et Veneficis, De
+Parricidio, Peculatus, Ambitus, De Nummis Adulterinis, De Falsis or
+Testamentaria, and De Vi Publica. Jurisdiction in civil cases was left
+to the Prætor Peregrinus and the Prætor Urbanus as before, and the other
+six Prætors presided in the Quæstiones; but as the latter were more in
+number than the Prætors, some of the Prætors took more than one Quæstio,
+or a Judex Quæstionis was appointed. The Prætors, after their election,
+had to draw lots for their several jurisdictions. Sulla enacted that the
+Judices should be taken exclusively from the Senators, and not from the
+Equites, the latter of whom had possessed this privilege, with a few
+interruptions, from the law of C. Gracchus, in B.C. 123. This was a
+great gain for the aristocracy, since the offenses for which they were
+usually brought to trial, such as bribery, malversation, and the like,
+were so commonly practiced by the whole order, that they were, in most
+cases, nearly certain of acquittal from men who required similar
+indulgence themselves.
+
+Sulla's reform in the criminal law, the greatest and most enduring part
+of his legislation, belongs to a history of Roman law, and can not be
+given here.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IV. _Laws relating to the Improvement of Public Morals._--Of these we
+have very little information. One of them was a Lex Sumtuaria, which
+enacted that not more than a certain sum of money should be spent upon
+entertainments, and also restrained extravagance in funerals. There was
+likewise a law of Sulla respecting marriage, the provisions of which are
+quite unknown, as it was probably abrogated by the Julian law of
+Augustus.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Sulla.
+
+On the obverse is the head of Sulla; on the reverse that of Q. Pompeius
+Rufus, his colleague in his first Consulship.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Cn. Pompeius Magnus.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. B.C.
+78-70.
+
+
+Sulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to overthrow the
+aristocratic constitution which he had established. The Consul M.
+Lepidus had already, as we have seen, endeavored to prevent the burial
+of Sulla in the Campus Martius. He now proposed to repeal the Dictator's
+laws; but the other Consul, Q. Catulus, remained firm to the
+aristocracy, and offered the most strenuous opposition to the measures
+of his colleague. Shortly afterward the Senate ordered Lepidus to repair
+to Farther Gaul, which had been assigned to him as his Province; but he
+availed himself of the opportunity to collect an army in Etruria, and at
+the beginning of the following year marched straight upon Rome. The
+Senate assembled an army, which they placed under the command of Q.
+Catulus, with Pompey as his lieutenant. A battle was fought near the
+Mulvian bridge, in which Lepidus was defeated, and, finding it
+impossible to maintain his footing in Italy, he sailed with the
+remainder of his forces to Sardinia, where he died soon afterward.
+
+Meantime the remainder of the Marian party found refuge in Spain. Q.
+Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had received the
+government of this country in the year B.C. 82. He soon acquired an
+extraordinary ascendency over the minds of the natives, and flattered
+them with the hope of establishing an independent state which might bid
+defiance to Rome. His influence was enhanced by the superstition of the
+people. He was accompanied on all occasions by a tame fawn, which they
+believed to be a familiar spirit. So attached did they become to his
+person, that he found no difficulty in collecting a formidable army,
+which for some years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. After
+defeating several generals whom Sulla had sent against him, he had to
+encounter, in B.C. 79, Q. Metellus, who had been Consul the previous
+year with Sulla. But Metellus did not fare much better than his
+predecessors; and in B.C. 78 Sertorius was re-enforced by a considerable
+body of troops which Perperna carried with him into Spain after the
+defeat of Lepidus. The growing power of Sertorius led the Senate to send
+Pompey to the assistance of Metellus. Pompey, though only 30 years of
+age, was already regarded as the ablest general of the Republic; and as
+he played such a prominent part in the later history, we may here pause
+to give a brief account of his early career.
+
+POMPEY was born B.C. 106, and was, as we have already seen, the son of
+Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians in his Consulship,
+B.C. 89. The young Pompey served under his father in this war, when he
+was only 17 years of age, and continued with him till his death two
+years afterward. He was present at the battle of the Colline Gate in
+B.C. 87, and shortly afterward he saved the life of his father, and
+quelled an insurrection of the soldiers by his courage and activity. As
+soon as Sulla had finished the Mithridatic war, and was on his way to
+Italy, Pompey, instead of waiting, like the other leaders of the
+aristocracy, for the arrival of their chief, resolved to share with him
+the glory of crushing the Marian party. Accordingly, he proceeded to
+levy troops in Picenum without holding any public office; and such was
+his personal influence that he was able to raise an army of three
+legions. Before joining Sulla he gained a brilliant victory over the
+Marian generals, and was received by Sulla with the greatest
+distinction. Upon the conclusion of the war in Italy Pompey was sent
+first into Sicily, and afterward into Africa, where the Marian party
+still held out. His success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he
+reduced the whole of Numidia, and, unlike other Roman governors,
+abstained from plundering the province. His military achievements and
+his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown, and he returned
+to Rome covered with glory (B.C. 80). Numbers flocked out of the city to
+meet him; and the Dictator himself, who formed one of the crowd, greeted
+him with the surname of MAGNUS or the GREAT, which he bore ever
+afterward. Sulla at first refused to let him triumph. Hitherto no one
+but a Dictator, Consul, or Prætor had enjoyed this distinction; but as
+Pompey insisted upon the honor, Sulla gave way, and the young general
+entered Rome in triumph as a simple Eques, and before he had completed
+his 25th year.
+
+Pompey again exhibited his power in promoting, in B.C. 79, the election
+of M. Æmilius Lepidus to the Consulship, in opposition to the wishes of
+Sulla. The latter had now retired from public affairs, and contented
+himself with warning Pompey, as he met him returning from the comitia in
+triumph, "Young man, it is time for you not to slumber, for you have
+strengthened your rival against yourself." Lepidus seems to have
+reckoned upon the support of Pompey; but in this he was disappointed,
+for Pompey remained faithful to the aristocracy, and thus saved his
+party. He fought at the Mulvian bridge against Lepidus, as we have
+already related, and afterward marched into Cisalpine Gaul against the
+remains of his party. The Senate, who now began to dread Pompey, ordered
+him to disband his army; but he found various excuses for evading this
+command, as he was anxious to obtain the command of the war against
+Sertorius in Spain. They hesitated, however, to give him this
+opportunity for gaining fresh distinction and additional power; and it
+was only in consequence of the increasing power of Sertorius that they
+at length unwillingly determined to send Pompey to Spain, with the title
+of Proconsul, and with powers equal to Metellus.
+
+Pompey arrived in Spain in B.C. 76. He soon found that he had a more
+formidable enemy to deal with than any he had yet encountered. He
+suffered several defeats, and, though he gained some advantages, yet
+such were his losses that at the end of two years he was obliged to send
+to Rome for re-enforcements. The war continued three years longer; but
+Sertorius, who had lost some of his influence over the Spanish tribes,
+and who had become an object of jealousy to M. Perperna and his
+principal Roman officers, was unable to carry on operations with the
+same vigor as during the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly gained
+some advantages over him, but the war was still far from a close; and
+the genius of Sertorius would probably have soon given a very different
+aspect to affairs had he not been assassinated by Perperna in B.C. 72.
+Perperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to the power of
+Sertorius; but he soon found that he had murdered the only man who was
+able to save him from ruin. In his first battle with Pompey he was
+completely defeated, his principal officers slain, and himself taken
+prisoner. Anxious to save his life, he offered to deliver up to Pompey
+the papers of Sertorius, containing letters from many of the leading men
+at Rome. But Pompey refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be
+burnt. The war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder of the
+year was employed in subduing the towns which still held out against
+Pompey. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with Perperna,
+and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the war to a conclusion.
+The people longed for his return, that he might deliver Italy from
+Spartacus and his horde of gladiators, who had defeated the Consuls, and
+were in possession of a great part of the peninsula.
+
+A righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their love of the
+cruel sports of the amphitheatre. The gladiators were generally
+prisoners taken in war, and sold to persons who trained them in schools
+for the Roman games. There was such a school at Capua, and among the
+gladiators was a Thracian of the name of Spartacus, originally a chief
+of banditti, who had been taken prisoner by the Romans, and was now
+destined to be butchered for their amusement. Having prevailed upon
+about 70 of his comrades, he burst out of the school with them,
+succeeded in obtaining arms, and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius,
+at that time an extinct volcano (B.C. 73). Here he was soon joined by
+large numbers of slaves, who flocked to him from all quarters. He was
+soon at the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the Social and
+Civil Wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment of slave-labor
+furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of soldiers. In addition to
+this, the war with Sertorius was not yet finished, and that with
+Mithridates, of which we shall speak presently, had already commenced.
+For upward of two years Spartacus was master of Italy, which he laid
+waste from the foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the
+peninsula. In B.C. 72 he found himself at the head of 100,000 men, and
+defeated both Consuls. As the Consuls of the following year had no
+military reputation, the conduct of the war was intrusted to the Prætor,
+M. Licinius Crassus, who had greatly distinguished himself in the wars
+of Sulla. He had been rewarded by the Dictator with donations of
+confiscated property, and had accumulated an immense fortune. Six
+legions were now given him in addition to the remains of the Consular
+armies already in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened and
+disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by decimating
+the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme point of Bruttium.
+Crassus drew strong lines of circumvallation around Rhegium, and by his
+superior numbers prevented the escape of the slaves. Spartacus now
+attempted to pass over to Sicily, where he would have been welcomed by
+thousands of followers. He failed in the attempt to cross the straits,
+but at length succeeded in forcing his way through the lines of Crassus.
+The Roman general hastened in pursuit, and in Lucania fell in with the
+main body of the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which
+Spartacus perished, with the greater part of his followers. About 6000
+were taken prisoners, whom Crassus impaled on each side of the Appian
+road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 made their way northward,
+whom Pompey met as he was returning from Spain, and cut to pieces.
+Crassus had, in reality, brought the war to an end, but Pompey took the
+credit to himself, and wrote to the Senate, saying, "Crassus, indeed,
+has defeated the enemy, but I have extirpated them by the roots."
+
+Pompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of their armies,
+and each laid claim to the Consulship. Neither of them was qualified by
+the laws of Sulla. Pompey was only in his 35th year, and had not even
+held the office of Quæstor. Crassus was still Prætor, and two years
+ought to elapse before he could become Consul. Pompey, however, agreed
+to support the claims of Crassus, and the Senate dared not offer open
+opposition to two generals at the head of powerful armies. Pompey,
+moreover, declared himself the advocate of the popular rights, and
+promised to restore the Tribunitian power. Accordingly, they were
+elected Consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the city in
+triumph on the 31st of December, B.C. 71, and Crassus enjoyed the honor
+of an ovation.
+
+The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (B.C. 70) was memorable for the
+repeal of the most important portions of Sulla's constitutional reforms.
+One of Pompey's first acts was to redeem the pledge he had given to the
+people, by bringing forward a law for the restoration of the Tribunitian
+power. The law was passed with little opposition; for the Senate felt
+that it was worse than useless to contend against Pompey, supported as
+he was by the popular enthusiasm and by his troops, which were still in
+the immediate neighborhood of the city. He also struck another blow at
+the aristocracy. By one of Sulla's laws, the Judices, during the last
+ten years, had been chosen from the Senate. The corruption and venality
+of the latter in the administration of justice had excited such general
+indignation that some change was clamorously demanded by the people.
+Accordingly, the Prætor L. Aurelius Cotta, with the approbation of
+Pompey, proposed a law by which the Judices were to be taken in future
+from the Senate, Equites, and Tribuni Ærarii, the latter probably
+representing the wealthier members of the third order in the state. This
+law was likewise carried; but it did not improve the purity of the
+administration of justice, since corruption was not confined to the
+Senators, but pervaded all classes of the community alike. Pompey had
+thus broken with the aristocracy, and had become the great popular hero.
+In carrying both these measures he was strongly supported by Cæsar, who,
+though he was rapidly rising in popular favor, could as yet only hope to
+weaken the power of the aristocracy through Pompey's means.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Mithridates.]
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.
+
+
+When Sulla returned to Italy after the First Mithridatic War, he left L.
+Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in Asia. Murena, who was
+eager for some opportunity of earning the honor of a triumph, pretending
+that Mithridates had not yet evacuated the whole of Cappadocia, not only
+marched into that country, but even crossed the Halys, and laid waste
+the plains of Pontus itself (B.C. 83). To this flagrant breach of the
+treaty so lately concluded the Roman general was in great measure
+instigated by Archelaus, who, finding himself regarded with suspicion by
+Mithridates, had consulted his safety by flight, and was received with
+the utmost honors by the Romans. Mithridates, who was wholly unprepared
+to renew the contest with Rome, offered no opposition to the progress of
+Murena; but finding that general disregard his remonstrances, he sent to
+Rome to complain of his aggression. When, in the following spring (B.C.
+82), he saw Murena preparing to renew his hostile incursions, he at once
+determined to oppose him by force, and assembled a large army, with
+which he met the Roman general on the banks of the Halys. The action
+that ensued terminated in the complete victory of the king, and Murena,
+with difficultly, effected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia
+at the mercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province.
+Shortly afterward A. Gabinius arrived in Asia, bringing peremptory
+orders from Sulla to Murena to desist from hostilities, whereupon
+Mithridates once more consented to evacuate Cappadocia. Thus ended what
+is commonly called the Second Mithridatic War.
+
+Notwithstanding the interposition of Sulla, Mithridates was well aware
+that the peace between him and Rome was in fact only suspension of
+hostilities, and that the haughty Republic would never suffer the
+massacre of her citizens in Asia to remain ultimately unpunished. Hence
+all his efforts were directed toward the formation of an army capable of
+contending, not only in numbers, but in discipline, with those of Rome;
+and with this view he armed his barbarian troops after the Roman
+fashion, and endeavored to train them up in that discipline of which he
+had so strongly felt the effect in the preceding contest. In these
+attempts he was doubtless assisted by the refugees of the Marian party,
+who had accompanied Fimbria into Asia, and on the defeat of that general
+by Sulla had taken refuge with the King of Pontus. At their instigation,
+also, Mithridates sent an embassy to Sertorius, who was still
+maintaining his ground in Spain, and concluded an alliance with him
+against their common enemies. But it was the death of Nicomedes III.,
+king of Bithynia, at the beginning of B.C. 74, that brought matters to a
+crisis, and became the immediate occasion of the war which both parties
+had long felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his dominions by will
+to the Roman people, and Bithynia was accordingly declared a Roman
+province; but Mithridates asserted that the late king had left a
+legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he immediately
+prepared to support by his arms.
+
+The forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take the field
+were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable confidence of
+victory. He had assembled an army of 120,000 foot-soldiers, armed and
+disciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 horse, besides a hundred
+scythed chariots. His fleet, also, was so far superior to any that the
+Romans could oppose to him as to give him the almost undisputed command
+of the sea. These preparations, however, appear to have delayed him so
+long that the season was far advanced before he was able to take the
+field, and both the Roman Consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M. Aurelius
+Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however, was able to oppose
+his first irruption. He traversed almost the whole of Bithynia without
+encountering any resistance; and when at length Cotta ventured to give
+him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, his army and fleet were totally
+defeated. Mithridates now proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea
+and land. But Lucullus, who had advanced from Phrygia to the relief of
+Cotta, and followed Mithridates to Cyzicus, took possession of an
+advantageous position near the camp of the king, where he almost
+entirely cut him off from receiving supplies by land, while the storms
+of the winter prevented him from depending on those by sea. Hence it was
+not long before famine began to make itself felt in the camp of
+Mithridates, and all his assaults upon the city having been foiled by
+the courage and resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled
+(early in the year B.C. 73) to abandon the enterprise and raise the
+siege. In his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman general,
+and suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the Æsepus and Granicus.
+By the close of the year the great army with which he had commenced the
+war was annihilated, and he was not only compelled to retire within his
+own dominions, but was without the means of opposing the advance of
+Lucullus into the heart of Pontus itself. But he now again set to work
+with indefatigable activity to raise a fresh army; and while he left the
+whole of the sea-coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established
+himself in the interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by
+Lucullus; and despairing of opposing the farther progress of the Romans,
+he fled into Armenia to claim the protection and assistance of his
+son-in-law Tigranes.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Tigranes.]
+
+Tigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of Asia, but he
+appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in war with Rome; and on
+this account, while he received the fugitive monarch in a friendly
+manner, he refused to admit him to his presence, and showed no
+disposition to attempt his restoration. But the arrogance of the Romans
+brought about a change in his policy; and Tigranes, offended at the
+haughty conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had sent to demand the
+surrender of Mithridates, not only refused this request, but determined
+at once to prepare for war.
+
+While Lucullus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he devoted his
+attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia, which was suffering
+severely from the oppressions of the farmers of the public taxes. By
+various judicious regulations he put a stop to their exactions, and
+earned the gratitude of the cities of Asia; but at the same time he
+brought upon himself the enmity of the Equites, who were the farmers of
+the revenue. They were loud against him in their complaints at Rome,
+and by their continued clamors undoubtedly prepared the way for his
+ultimate recall.
+
+Meanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and Tigranes had
+led to a complete reconciliation between them, and the Pontic king, who
+had spent a year and eight months in the dominions of his son-in-law
+without being admitted to a personal interview, was now made to
+participate in all the councils of Tigranes, and appointed to levy an
+army to unite in the war. But it was in vain that in the ensuing
+campaign (B.C. 69) he urged upon his son-in-law the lessons of his own
+experience, and advised him to shun a regular action with Lucullus:
+Tigranes, confident in the multitude of his forces, gave battle at
+Tigranocerta, and was defeated, before Mithridates had been able to join
+him. But this disaster, so precisely in accordance with the warnings of
+Mithridates, served to raise the latter so high in the estimation of
+Tigranes, that from this time forward the whole conduct of the war was
+intrusted to the direction of the King of Pontus.
+
+In the following summer (B.C. 68) Lucullus crossed the Taurus,
+penetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the allied
+monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But the early severity of the
+season, and the discontent of his own troops, checked the farther
+advance of the Roman general, who turned aside into Mesopotamia. Here
+Mithridates left him to lay siege to the fortress of Nisibis, which was
+supposed to be impregnable, while he himself took advantage of his
+absence to invade Pontus at the head of a large army, and endeavor to
+regain possession of his former dominions. The defense of Pontus was
+confided to Fabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus; but the
+oppression of the Romans had excited a general spirit of disaffection,
+and the people crowded around the standard of Mithridates. Fabius was
+totally defeated, and compelled to shut himself up in the fortress of
+Cabira. In the following spring (B.C. 67), Triarius, another of the
+Roman generals, was also defeated with immense loss. The blow was one of
+the severest which the Roman arms had sustained for a long period: 7000
+of their troops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number of
+officers, and their camp itself was taken.
+
+The advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented Mithridates
+from following up his advantage, and he withdrew into Lesser Armenia,
+where he took up a strong position to await the approach of Tigranes.
+But the farther proceedings of Lucullus were paralyzed by the mutinous
+and disaffected spirit of his own soldiers. Their discontents were
+fostered by P. Clodius, whose turbulent and restless spirit already
+showed itself in its full force, and were encouraged by reports from
+Rome, where the demagogues who were favorable to Pompey, or had been
+gained over by the Equestrian party, were loud in their clamors against
+Lucullus. They accused him of protracting the war for his own personal
+objects, either of ambition or avarice; and the soldiery, whose appetite
+for plunder had been often checked by Lucullus, readily joined in the
+outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of Tigranes, the two monarchs found
+themselves able to overrun almost the whole of Pontus and Cappadocia
+without opposition.
+
+Such was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia to reduce
+Pontus to the form of a Roman province, and they had, in consequence, to
+report to the Senate that the country supposed to be conquered was again
+in the hands of the enemy. The adversaries of Lucullus naturally availed
+themselves of so favorable an occasion, and a decree was passed
+transferring to M. Acilius Glabrio, one of the Consuls for the year, the
+province of Bithynia, and the command against Mithridates. But Glabrio
+was wholly incompetent for the task assigned to him. On arriving in
+Bithynia he made no attempt to assume the command, but remained within
+the confines of his province, while he still farther embarrassed the
+position of Lucullus by issuing proclamations to his soldiers,
+announcing to them that their general was superseded, and releasing them
+from their obedience. Before the close of the year (B.C. 67) Lucullus
+had the mortification of seeing Mithridates established once more in the
+possession of his hereditary dominions. But it was still more galling to
+his feelings when, in the spring of the following year (B.C. 66), he was
+called upon to resign the command to Pompey, who had just brought to a
+successful termination the war against the pirates.
+
+The Mediterranean Sea had long been swarming with pirates. From the
+earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this sea, which,
+lying between three continents, and abounding with numerous creeks and
+islands, presents at the same time both the greatest temptations and the
+greatest facilities for piratical pursuits. Moreover, in consequence of
+the Social and Civil wars, and the absence of any fleet to preserve
+order upon the sea, piracy had reached an alarming height. The pirates
+possessed fleets in all parts of the Mediterranean, were in the habit of
+plundering the most wealthy cities on the coasts, and had at length
+carried their audacity so far as to make descents upon the Appian Road,
+and carry off Roman magistrates, with their lictors. All communication
+between Rome and the provinces was cut off, or at least rendered
+extremely dangerous; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which Rome to a
+great extent depended for its subsistence, could not reach the city, and
+the price of provisions in consequence rose enormously. Such a state of
+things had become intolerable, and all eyes were now directed to Pompey.
+At the beginning of B.C. 67 the Tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a
+bill which was intended to give Pompey almost absolute authority over
+the greater part of the Roman world. It proposed that the people should
+elect a man with consular rank, who should possess unlimited power for
+three years over the whole of the Mediterranean, a fleet of 200 ships,
+with as many soldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, and 6000
+Attic talents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was clear who was
+meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, and in the Senate Cæsar
+was almost the only person who came forward in its support. Party spirit
+ran to such a height that the most serious riots ensued. Even Pompey
+himself was threatened by the Consul, "If you emulate Romulus, you will
+not escape the end of Romulus." Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius spoke
+against the bill with great eloquence, but with no effect. On the day
+that the bill was passed the price of provisions at Rome immediately
+fell, a fact which showed the immense confidence which all parties
+placed in the military abilities of Pompey.
+
+Pompey's plans were formed with great skill, and were crowned with
+complete success. He stationed his lieutenants with different squadrons
+in various parts of the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates from
+uniting, and to hunt them out of the various bays and creeks in which
+they concealed themselves; while, at the same time, he swept the middle
+of the sea with the main body of his fleet, and chased them eastward. In
+forty days he drove the pirates out of the western seas, and restored
+communication between Spain, Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a
+short time in Italy, he sailed from Brundusium, cleared the seas as he
+went along, and forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here the
+decisive action was fought; the pirates were defeated, and more than
+20,000 prisoners fell into his hands. Those on whom most reliance could
+be placed were distributed among the small and depopulated cities of
+Cilicia, and a large number were settled at Soli, which was henceforward
+called Pompeiopolis. The second part of this campaign occupied only
+forty-nine days, and the whole war was brought to a conclusion in the
+course of three months. Pompey remained in Cilicia during the remainder
+of this year and the beginning of the one following. Meantime the
+Tribune C. Manilius brought forward a bill (B.C. 66) giving to Pompey
+the command of the war against Mithridates, with unlimited power over
+the army and the fleet in the East, and with the rights of a Proconsul
+in the whole of Asia as far as Armenia. As his Proconsular power already
+extended over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean in virtue
+of the Gabinian law, this new measure virtually placed almost the whole
+of the Roman dominions in his hands. But there was no power, however
+excessive, which the people were not ready to intrust to their favorite
+hero; and the bill was accordingly passed, notwithstanding the
+opposition of Hortensius, Catulus, and the aristocratical party. Cicero
+advocated the measure in an oration which has come down to us (_Pro Lege
+Manilia_), and Cæsar likewise supported it with his growing popularity
+and influence.
+
+On receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey immediately
+crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the army from Lucullus.
+
+The power of Mithridates had been broken by the previous victories of
+Lucullus, and the successes which the king had gained lately were only
+of a temporary nature, mainly owing to the disorganization of the Roman
+army. In the plan of the campaign Pompey displayed great military skill.
+One of his first measures was to secure the alliance of the Parthian
+king, which not only deprived Mithridates of all hopes of succor from
+that quarter, but likewise cut him off from all assistance from the
+Armenian king Tigranes, who was now obliged to look to the safety of his
+own dominions. Pompey next stationed his fleet in different squadrons
+along the coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive Mithridates of all
+communication from the sea, and he then proceeded in person at the head
+of his land-forces against the king. Thus thrown back upon his own
+resources, Mithridates sued for peace, but, as Pompey would hear of
+nothing but unqualified submission, the negotiation was broken off. The
+king was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 2000 horse; but he knew
+too well the strength of a Roman army to venture an engagement with
+these forces, and accordingly withdrew gradually to the frontiers of
+Armenia. For a long time he succeeded in avoiding a battle, but he was
+at length surprised by Pompey in Lesser Armenia, as he was marching
+through a narrow pass. The battle was soon decided; the king lost the
+greater number of his troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen to
+the fortress of Synorium, on the borders of the Greater Armenia. Here he
+again collected a considerable force; but as Tigranes refused to admit
+him into his dominions, because he suspected him of fomenting the
+intrigues of his son against him, Mithridates had no alternative but to
+take refuge in his own distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. To
+reach them he had to march through Colchis, and to fight his way through
+the wild and barbarous tribes that occupied the country between the
+Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeeded, however, in this arduous
+enterprise, and reached the Bosporus in safety in the course of next
+year. Pompey abandoned at present all thoughts of following the
+fugitive king, and resolved at once to attack Tigranes, who was now the
+more formidable of the two monarchs.
+
+On entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He was joined by the
+young Tigranes, who had revolted against his father, and all the cities
+submitted to them on their approach. When the Romans drew near to
+Artaxata, the king, deserted by his army and his court, went out to meet
+Pompey, and threw himself before him as a suppliant. Pompey received him
+with kindness, acknowledged him as King of Armenia, and demanded only
+the payment of 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria,
+Phoenicia, Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered
+by Lucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes, Sophene
+and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom; but as the young
+prince was discontented with this arrangement, and even ventured to
+utter threats, Pompey had him arrested, and kept him in chains to grace
+his triumph.
+
+After thus settling the affairs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded northward
+in pursuit of Mithridates. But the season was so far advanced that he
+took up his winter quarters on the banks of the River Cyrus. Early in
+the spring (B.C. 65) he resumed his march northward, and advanced as far
+as the River Phasis, but, obtaining here more certain information of the
+movements of Mithridates, and of the wild and inaccessible nature of the
+country through which he would have to march in order to reach the king,
+he retraced his steps, and led his troops into winter quarters at
+Amisus, on the Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman
+province.
+
+In B.C. 64 Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed Antiochus
+Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province. He likewise compelled
+the neighboring princes, who had established independent kingdoms on the
+ruins of the Syrian empire, to submit to the Roman dominion. The whole
+of this year was occupied with the settlement of Syria and the adjacent
+countries.
+
+Next year (B.C. 63) Pompey advanced farther south, in order to establish
+the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and Palestine. The
+latter country was at this time distracted by a civil war between
+Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the side of Hyrcanus, and
+Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey when the latter had advanced
+near to Jerusalem. But the Jews refused to follow the example of their
+king, and it was not till after a siege of three months that the city
+was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first time that any
+human being, except the high-priest, had penetrated into this sacred
+spot. He reinstated Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, but compelled him
+to pay an annual tribute to Rome; Aristobulus accompanied him as a
+prisoner. It was during this war in Palestine that Pompey received
+intelligence of the death of Mithridates.
+
+During the last two years Mithridates had been making the most extensive
+preparations for a renewal of the contest. He had conceived the daring
+project of marching round the north and west coasts of the Euxine, and
+penetrating even into Italy. With these views, he was busily engaged in
+assembling such a fleet and array as would be sufficient for an
+enterprise of this magnitude; but his proceedings were delayed by a long
+and painful illness, which incapacitated him for any personal exertion.
+At length, however, his preparations were completed, and he found
+himself at the head of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable fleet.
+But during his illness disaffection had made rapid progress among his
+followers. The full extent of his schemes was probably communicated to
+few; but enough had transpired to alarm the multitude, and a formidable
+conspiracy was organized by Pharnaces, the favorite son of Mithridates.
+He was quickly joined both by the whole army and the citizens of
+Panticapæum, who unanimously proclaimed him king, and Mithridates saw
+that no choice remained to him but death or captivity. Hereupon he took
+poison, which he constantly carried with him; but his constitution had
+been so long inured to antidotes that it did not produce the desired
+effect, and he was compelled to call in the assistance of one of his
+Gaulish mercenaries to dispatch him with his sword.
+
+Pompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs in Asia.
+He confirmed Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, in the possession of the
+kingdom of Bosporus; Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, was rewarded with
+an extension of territory; and Ariobarzanes, king of Cappadocia, was
+restored to his kingdom. After an absence of seven years, Pompey arrived
+in Italy toward the end of B.C. 62. His arrival had been long looked for
+by all parties with various feelings of hope and fear. It was felt that
+at the head of his victorious troops he could easily play the part of
+Sulla, and become the ruler of the state. Important events had taken
+place at Rome during the absence of Pompey, of which it is necessary to
+give an account before following him to the city.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Cicero.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
+RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST.--THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. 69-61.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the restoration of the Tribunate and the alteration in
+the judicial power in Pompey's Consulship, the popular party had
+received such a severe blow during Sulla's supremacy, that the
+aristocracy still retained the chief political influence during Pompey's
+absence in the East. But meantime a new leader of the popular party had
+been rapidly rising into notice, who was destined not only to crush the
+aristocracy, but to overthrow the Republic and become the undisputed
+master of the Roman world.
+
+C. JULIUS CÆSAR, who was descended from an old Patrician family, was six
+years younger than Pompey, having been born in B.C. 100. He was closely
+connected with the popular party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with
+the great Marius, and he himself married, at an early age, Cornelia, the
+daughter of Cinna, the most distinguished of the Marian leaders. Sulla
+commanded him to divorce his wife, and on his refusal he was included in
+the list of the proscription. The Vestal virgins and his friends with
+difficulty obtained his pardon from the Dictator, who observed, when
+they pleaded his youth and insignificance, "that that boy would some day
+or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that there were many
+Mariuses in him."
+
+This was the first proof which Cæsar gave of the resolution and decision
+of character which distinguished him throughout life. He went to Asia in
+B.C. 81, where he served his first campaign under M. Minucius Thermus,
+and was rewarded, at the siege of Mitylene, with a civic crown for
+saving the life of a fellow-soldier. On his return to Rome he accused
+(B.C. 77) Cn. Dolabella of extortion in his province of Macedonia.
+Dolabella was acquitted by the senatorial judges; but Cæsar gained great
+reputation by this prosecution, and showed that he possessed powers of
+oratory which bade fair to place him among the foremost speakers at
+Rome. To render himself still more perfect in oratory, he went to
+Rhodes, which was then celebrated for its school of rhetoric, but in his
+voyage thither he was captured by pirates, with whom the seas of the
+Mediterranean then swarmed. In this island he was detained by them till
+he could obtain fifty talents from the neighboring cities for his
+ransom. Immediately on obtaining his liberty, he manned some Milesian
+vessels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted them as prisoners to
+Pergamus, where he shortly afterward crucified them--a punishment he had
+frequently threatened them with in sport when he was their prisoner. He
+then repaired to Rhodes, where he studied under Apollonius for a short
+time, but soon afterward crossed over into Asia, on the outbreak of the
+Mithridatic war in B.C. 74. Here, although he held no public office, he
+collected troops on his own authority, and repulsed the commander of the
+king, and then returned to Rome in the same year, in consequence of
+having been elected Pontiff during his absence. His affable manners,
+and, still more, his unbounded liberality, won the hearts of the people.
+
+Cæsar obtained the Quæstorship in B.C. 68. In this year he lost his aunt
+Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife Cornelia. He pronounced
+orations over both of them in the forum, in which he took the
+opportunity of passing a panegyric upon the former leaders of the
+popular party. At the funeral of his aunt he caused the images of Marius
+to be carried in the procession: they were welcomed with loud
+acclamations by the people, who were delighted to see their former
+favorite brought, as it were, into public again.
+
+Cæsar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian Laws, which bestowed
+upon Pompey the command against the pirates and Mithridates. These
+measures, as we have already seen, were opposed by the aristocracy, and
+widened still farther the breach between them and Pompey. In B.C. 65
+Cæsar was Curule Ædile along with M. Bibulus, and still farther
+increased his popularity by the splendid games which he exhibited. He
+now took a step which openly proclaimed him the leader of the Marian
+party. He caused the statues of Marius and the Cimbrian trophies, which
+had been all destroyed by Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at
+night in the Capitol. In the morning the city was in the highest state
+of excitement; the veterans of Marius cried with joy at beholding his
+countenance once more, and greeted Cæsar with shouts of applause. Q.
+Catulus brought the conduct of Cæsar before the notice of the Senate,
+but the popular excitement was so great that they thought it better to
+let the matter drop.
+
+In Cæsar's Ædileship the first Catilinarian conspiracy occurred, and
+from this time his history forms a portion of that of the times. But
+before passing on, the early life of another distinguished man, the
+greatest of Roman orators, also claims our notice.
+
+M. TULLIUS CICERO was born at Arpinum in B.C. 106, and consequently in
+the same year as Pompey. His father was of the Equestrian order, and
+lived upon his hereditary estate near Arpinum, but none of his ancestors
+had ever held any of the offices of state. Cicero was therefore,
+according to the Roman phraseology, a New Man (see p. 128)(Fourth
+paragraph of Chapter XVIII.--Transcriber). He served his first and only
+campaign in the Social War (B.C. 89), and in the troubled times which
+followed he gave himself up with indefatigable perseverance to those
+studies which were essential to his success as a lawyer and orator. When
+tranquillity was restored by the final discomfiture of the Marian party,
+he came forward as a pleader at the age of twenty-five. The first of his
+extant speeches in a civil suit is that for P. Quintius (B.C. 81); the
+first delivered upon a criminal trial was that in defense of Sex.
+Roscius of Ameria, who was charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a
+freedman of Sulla, supported, as it was understood, by the influence of
+his patron. In consequence of the failure of his health, Cicero quitted
+Rome in B.C. 79, and spent two years in study in the philosophical and
+rhetorical schools of Athens and Asia Minor. On his return to the city
+he forthwith took his station in the foremost rank of judicial orators,
+and ere long stood alone in acknowledged pre-eminence; his most
+formidable rivals--Hortensius, eight years his senior, and C. Aurelius
+Cotta, who had long been kings of the bar--having been forced, after a
+short but sharp contest for supremacy, to yield.
+
+Cicero's reputation and popularity already stood so high that he was
+elected Quæstor (B.C. 76), although, comparatively speaking, a stranger,
+and certainly unsupported by any powerful family interest. He served in
+Sicily under Sex. Peducæus, Prætor of Lilybæum. In B.C. 70 he gained
+great renown by his impeachment of Verres for his oppression of the
+Sicilians, whom he had ruled as Prætor of Syracuse for the space of
+three years (B.C. 73-71). The most strenuous exertions were made by
+Verres, backed by some of the most powerful families, to wrest the case
+out of the hands of Cicero, who, however, defeated the attempt, and
+having demanded and been allowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting
+evidence, he instantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less
+than two months, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses.
+Another desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now Consul elect, who
+was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles which might have
+the effect of delaying the trial until the commencement of the following
+year; but here again he was defeated by the promptitude and decision of
+his opponent, who opened the case very briefly, proceeded at once to the
+examination of the witnesses and the production of the depositions and
+other papers, which, taken together, constituted a mass of testimony so
+decisive that Verres gave up the contest as hopeless, and retired at
+once into exile without attempting any defense. The full pleadings,
+however, which were to have been delivered had the trial been permitted
+to run its ordinary course, were subsequently published by Cicero.
+
+In B.C. 69 Cicero was Ædile, and in 66 Prætor. In the latter year he
+delivered his celebrated address to the people in favor of the Manilian
+Law. Having now the Consulship in view, and knowing that, as a new man,
+he must expect the most determined opposition from the Nobles, he
+resolved to throw himself into the arms of the popular party, and to
+secure the friendship of Pompey, now certainly the most important person
+in the Republic.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 65) the first conspiracy of Catiline
+occurred. The circumstances of the times were favorable to a bold and
+unprincipled adventurer. A widespread feeling of disaffection extended
+over the whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla had already squandered
+their ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a renewal of those scenes of
+blood which they had found so profitable. The multitudes whose estates
+had been confiscated and whose relations had been proscribed were
+eagerly watching for any movement which might give them a chance of
+becoming robbers and murderers in their turn. The younger nobility, as a
+class, were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bankrupts in
+fortune as well as in fame, and eager for any change which might
+relieve them from their embarrassments. The rabble were restless and
+discontented, filled with envy and hatred against the rich and powerful.
+Never was the executive weaker. The Senate and Magistrates were wasting
+their energies in petty disputes, indifferent to the interests of the
+Republic. Pompey, at the head of all the best troops of the Republic,
+was prosecuting a long-protracted war in the East; there was no army in
+Italy, where all was hushed in a treacherous calm.
+
+Of the profligate nobles at this time none was more profligate than L.
+SERGIUS CATILINA. He was the descendant of an ancient patrician family
+which had sunk into poverty, and he first appears in history as a
+zealous partisan of Sulla. During the horrors of the proscription he
+killed his brother-in-law, Q. Cæcilius, and is said to have murdered
+even his own brother. His youth was spent in the open indulgence of
+every vice, and it was believed that he had made away with his first
+wife, and afterward with his son, in order that he might marry the
+profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who objected to the presence of a grown-up
+step-child. Notwithstanding these crimes, he acquired great popularity
+among the younger nobles by his agreeable address and his zeal in
+ministering to their pleasures. He possessed extraordinary powers of
+mind and body, and all who came in contact with him submitted more or
+less to the ascendency of his genius. He was Prætor in B.C. 68; was
+Governor of Africa during the following year; and returned to Rome in
+B.C. 66, in order to press his suit for the Consulship. The election for
+B.C. 65 was carried by P. Autronius Pætus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both
+of whom were soon after convicted of bribery, and their places supplied
+by their competitors and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius
+Torquatus. Catiline, who was desirous of becoming a candidate, had been
+disqualified in consequence of an impeachment for oppression in his
+province preferred by P. Clodius Pulcher. Exasperated by their
+disappointment, Autronius and Catiline formed a project, along with Cn.
+Calpurnius Piso, another profligate young nobleman, to murder the new
+Consuls upon the first of January, when offering up their vows in the
+Capitol, after which Autronius and Catiline were to seize the fasces,
+and Piso was to be dispatched with an army to occupy the Spains. This
+extraordinary design is said to have been frustrated solely by the
+impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal prematurely before the whole
+of the armed agents had assembled.
+
+Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure which had so nearly
+proved a triumph, Catiline was soon after left completely unfettered by
+his acquittal upon trial for extortion, a result secured by the liberal
+bribes administered to the accuser as well as to the jury. From this
+time he proceeded more systematically, and enlisted a more numerous body
+of supporters. In the course of B.C. 64 he had enrolled several Senators
+in his ranks, among others P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been
+Consul in B.C. 71, and C. Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout
+by his impetuosity and sanguinary violence. He proposed that all debts
+should be canceled, that the most wealthy citizens should be proscribed,
+and that all offices of honor and emolument should be divided among his
+associates. He confidently anticipated that he should be elected Consul
+for the next year along with C. Antonius, having formed a coalition with
+him for the purpose of excluding Cicero. The orator, however, was
+supported, not only by the Equites and Pompey's friends, but even by the
+Senate, who, though disliking a New Man, were compelled to give him
+their support in order to exclude Catiline. The consequence was that
+Cicero and Antonius were returned, the former nearly unanimously, the
+latter by a small majority over Catiline. As soon as Cicero entered upon
+his Consulship he renounced his connection with the popular party, and
+became a stanch supporter of the aristocracy. He successfully opposed an
+agrarian law proposed by the Tribune Rullus, and defended C. Rabirius,
+who was now accused by the Tribune Labienus of having been concerned in
+the death of Saturninus nearly forty years before. Cæsar took an active
+part in both these proceedings. But the attention of Cicero was mainly
+directed to Catiline's conspiracy. He gained over his colleague Antonius
+by resigning to him the province of Macedonia. Meantime he became
+acquainted with every detail of the plot through Fulvia, the mistress of
+Q. Curius, one of Catiline's intimate associates. Thus informed, Cicero
+called a meeting of the Senate on the 21st of October, when he openly
+denounced Catiline, charged him broadly with treason, and asserted that
+the 28th was the period fixed for the murder of the leading men in the
+Republic. The Senate thereupon invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power. The Comitia for the election of the Consuls was now held.
+Catiline, again a candidate, was again rejected. Driven to despair by
+this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once to bring matters to a
+crisis. On the night of the 6th of November he summoned a meeting of the
+ringleaders at the house of M. Porcius Læca, and made arrangements for
+an immediate outbreak. Cicero, being immediately informed of what took
+place, summoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the Senate in the
+Temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the first of his
+celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon his entrance
+had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon a bench from which
+every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had scarcely commenced when
+his words were drowned by the shouts of "enemy" and "parricide" which
+burst from the whole assembly, and he rushed forth with threats and
+curses on his lips. He now resolved to strike some decisive blow before
+troops could be levied to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving the chief
+control of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus, he set
+forth in the dead of night, and proceeded to join Manlius at Fæsulæ.
+
+On the 9th, when the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered his
+second speech, which was addressed to the people in the forum. The
+Senate proceeded to declare Catiline and Manlius public enemies, and
+decreed that Antonius should go forth to the war, while Cicero should
+remain to guard the city. Cicero was now anxious to obtain other
+evidence, besides that of Fulvia, which would warrant him in
+apprehending the conspirators within the walls. This was fortunately
+supplied by the embassadors of the Allobroges, who were now at Rome,
+having been sent to seek relief from certain real or alleged grievances.
+Their suit, however, had not prospered, and Lentulus, conceiving that
+their discontent might be made available for his own purposes, opened a
+negotiation with them and disclosed to them the nature of the plot. But
+they thought it more prudent to reveal all to Q. Fabius Sanga, the
+patron of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the
+instructions of the latter the embassadors affected great zeal in the
+undertaking, and obtained a written agreement signed by Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and others. They quitted Rome soon after midnight on the 3d of
+December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was charged with
+dispatches for Catiline. The embassadors were seized, as they were
+crossing the Mulvian bridge, by two of the Prætors, who had been
+stationed in ambush to intercept them.
+
+Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other conspirators
+to his presence. Lentulus being Prætor, the Consul led him by the hand
+to the Temple of Concord, where the Senate was already met; the rest of
+the accused followed closely guarded. Volturcius, finding escape
+impossible, agreed, upon his own personal safety being insured, to make
+a full confession. His statements were confirmed by the Allobroges, and
+the testimony was rendered conclusive by the signatures of the
+ringleaders, which they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and seven others being thus established, Lentulus was forced
+to abdicate his office, and then, with the rest, was consigned to the
+charge of certain Senators, who became responsible for their appearance.
+
+These circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated by Cicero
+in his Third Oration, delivered in the forum. On the nones (5th) of
+December the Senate was again summoned to determine upon the fate of
+the conspirators. Cæsar, in an elaborate speech, proposed that they
+should be kept in confinement in the different towns of Italy, but Cato
+and Cicero strongly advocated that they should be instantly put to
+death. Their views were adopted by a majority of the Senate, and a
+decree passed to that effect. On the same night Lentulus and his
+associates were strangled by the common executioner in the Tullianum, a
+loathsome dungeon on the slope of the Capitol.
+
+While these things were going on at Rome, Catiline had collected a force
+amounting to two legions, although not above one fourth part were fully
+equipped. When the news of the failure of the plot at Rome reached his
+camp many deserted. He thereupon attempted to cross the Apennines and
+take refuge in Cisalpine Gaul, but the passes were strictly guarded by
+Metellus Celer with three legions. Finding, therefore, that escape was
+cut off in front, while Antonius was pressing on his rear, Catiline
+determined, as a last resource, to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in
+consequence of real or pretended illness, resigned the command to M.
+Petreius, a skillful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The
+rebels fought with the fury of despair; and when Catiline saw that all
+was lost, he charged headlong into the thickest of the fight and fell
+sword in hand (B.C. 62).
+
+Cicero had rendered important services to the state, and enjoyed for a
+time unbounded popularity. Catulus in the Senate and Cato in the forum
+hailed him as the "Father of his Country;" thanksgivings in his name
+were voted to the gods; and all Italy joined in testifying enthusiastic
+admiration and gratitude. Cicero's elation knew no bounds; he fancied
+that his political influence was now supreme, and looked upon himself as
+a match even for Pompey. But his splendid achievement contained the germ
+of his humiliation and downfall. There could be no doubt that the
+punishment inflicted by the Senate upon Lentulus and his associates was
+a violation of the fundamental principles of the Roman Constitution,
+which declared that no citizen could be put to death until sentenced by
+the whole body of the people assembled in their Comitia, and for this
+act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was held responsible. It was in
+vain to urge that the Consuls had been armed with dictatorial power; the
+Senate, in the present instance, assuming to themselves judicial
+functions which they had no right to exercise, gave orders for the
+execution of a sentence which they had no right to pronounce. Nor were
+his enemies long in discovering this vulnerable point. On the last day
+of the year, when, according to established custom, he ascended the
+Rostra to give an account to the people of the events of his Consulship,
+Metellus Celer, one of the new Tribunes, forbade him to speak,
+exclaiming that the man who had put Roman citizens to death without
+granting them a hearing was himself unworthy to be heard. But this
+attack was premature. The audience had not yet forgotten their recent
+escape; so that, when Cicero swore with a loud voice that "he had saved
+the Republic and the city from ruin," the crowd with one voice responded
+that he had sworn truly.
+
+It was rumored that many other eminent men had been privy to Catiline's
+conspiracy. Among others, the names of Crassus and Cæsar were most
+frequently mentioned; but the participation of either of these men in
+such an enterprise seems most improbable. The interests of Crassus were
+opposed to such an adventure; his vast wealth was employed in a variety
+of speculations which would have been ruined in a general overthrow,
+while he had not the energy or ability to seize and retain the helm in
+the confusion that would have ensued. Of Cæsar's guilt there is no
+satisfactory evidence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a man
+would have leagued with such a desperate adventurer as Catiline. Cato,
+in his speech respecting the fate of the conspirators, hinted that Cæsar
+wished to spare them because he was a partner of their guilt; and in the
+following year (B.C. 62), when Cæsar was Prætor, L. Vettius, who had
+been one of Cicero's informers, openly charged him with being a party to
+the plot. Thereupon Cæsar called upon Cicero to testify that he had of
+his own accord given the Consul evidence respecting the conspiracy; and
+so complete was his vindication that Vettius was thrown into prison.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Pompey.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julius Cæsar.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXII.
+
+FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
+B.C. 62-57.
+
+
+Pompey, as we have already seen, reached Italy in B.C. 62. It was
+generally feared that he would seize the supreme power, but he soon
+calmed these apprehensions by disbanding his army immediately after
+landing at Brundusium. He did not, however, enter Rome in triumph till
+the 30th of September, B.C. 61. The triumph lasted two days, and
+surpassed in splendor every spectacle that Rome had yet seen. The
+tablets carried in the procession, on which his victories were
+emblazoned, declared that he had taken 1000 strong fortresses, 900
+towns, and 800 ships; that he had founded 39 cities; that he had raised
+the revenue of the Roman people from 59 millions to 85 millions; and
+that he had brought into the public treasury 20,000 talents. Before his
+triumphal car walked 324 captive princes.
+
+With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Pompey's life may
+be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed almost exclusively
+in war; but now he was called upon to play a prominent part in the civil
+commotions of the Republic--a part for which neither his natural talents
+nor his previous habits had in the least fitted him. From the death of
+Sulla to the present time, a period of nearly twenty years, he had been
+unquestionably the first man in the Roman world, but he did not retain
+much longer this proud position, and soon discovered that the genius of
+Cæsar had reduced him to a second place in the state. It would seem as
+if Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew to which party to attach
+himself. He had been appointed to the command against the pirates and
+Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded
+him with jealousy and distrust. He could not, therefore, ally himself to
+them, especially too as some of their most influential leaders, such as
+M. Crassus and L. Lucullus, were his personal enemies. At the same time
+he seems to have been indisposed to unite himself to the popular party,
+which had risen into importance during his absence in the East, and over
+which Cæsar possessed unbounded influence. But the object which engaged
+the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain from the Senate a
+ratification of his acts in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he
+had promised to his veterans. In order to secure this object, he had
+purchased the Consulship for one of his officers, L. Afranius, who was
+elected with Q. Metellus for B.C. 60. But L. Afranius was a man of
+slender ability; and the Senate, glad of an opportunity to put an
+affront upon a person whom they both feared and hated, resolutely
+refused to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia. This was the unwisest
+thing they could have done. If they had known their real interests, they
+would have yielded to all Pompey's wishes, and have sought by every
+means to win him over to their side, as a counterpoise to the growing
+and more dangerous influence of Cæsar. But their short-sighted policy
+threw Pompey into Cæsar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall of their
+party. Pompey was resolved to fulfill the promises he had made to his
+Asiatic clients and his veteran troops.
+
+Cæsar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year. He had been in
+that province for one year as Proprætor, during which time he displayed
+that military ability which was soon to be exhibited on a still more
+conspicuous field. He subdued the mountainous tribes of Lusitania, took
+the town of Brigantium in the country of the Gallæci, and gained many
+other advantages over the enemy. His troops saluted him as Imperator,
+and the Senate honored him by a public thanksgiving. He now laid claim
+to a triumph, and at the same time wished to become a candidate for the
+Consulship. For the latter purpose his presence in the city was
+necessary; but, as he could not enter the city without relinquishing his
+triumph, he applied to the Senate to be exempted from the usual law, and
+to become a candidate in his absence. As this was refused, he at once
+relinquished his triumph, entered the city, and became a candidate for
+the Consulship. He was elected without difficulty, but the aristocracy
+succeeded in associating with him in the Consulship M. Bibulus, who
+belonged to the opposite party, and who had likewise been his colleague
+in the Ædileship and Prætorship.
+
+Cæsar now represented to Pompey the importance of detaching from the
+aristocracy M. Crassus, who, by his connections and immense wealth,
+possessed great political influence. Pompey and Crassus had for a long
+time past been deadly enemies, but they were now reconciled, and the
+three entered into an agreement to divide the power between themselves.
+This first Triumvirate, as it is called, was therefore merely a private
+arrangement between the three most powerful men at Rome, which remained
+a secret till the proceedings of Cæsar in his Consulship showed that he
+was supported by a power against which it was in vain for his enemies to
+struggle.
+
+As soon as Cæsar had entered upon his Consulship he proposed an agrarian
+law for the division of the rich Campanian land. The execution of the
+law was to be intrusted to a board of twenty commissioners. The
+opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain. Porapey and Crassus
+spoke in favor of the law; and the former declared that he would bring
+both sword and buckler against those who used the sword. On the day on
+which it was put to the vote, Bibulus and the other members of the
+aristocracy were driven out of the forum by force of arms: the law was
+carried, the commissioners appointed, and about 20,000 citizens,
+comprising, of course, a great number of Pompey's veterans, received
+allotments subsequently. Bibulus, despairing of being able to offer any
+farther resistance to Cæsar, shut himself up in his own house, and did
+not appear again in public till the expiration of his Consulship.
+
+Cæsar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey's acts in
+Asia, and, to cement their union more closely, gave his only daughter
+Julia in marriage to Pompey. His next step was to gain over the Equites,
+who had rendered efficient service to Cicero in his Consulship, and had
+hitherto supported the aristocratical party. An excellent opportunity
+now occurred for accomplishing this object. In their eagerness to obtain
+the farming of the public taxes in Asia, the Equites had agreed to pay
+too large a sum, and accordingly petitioned the Senate for more
+favorable terms. This, however, had been opposed by Metellus Celer,
+Cato, and others of the aristocracy; and Cæsar, therefore, now carried a
+law to relieve the Equites from one third of the sum which they had
+agreed to pay. Having thus gratified the people, the Equites, and
+Pompey, he was easily able to obtain for himself the provinces which he
+wished.
+
+It is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to Cæsar to suppose
+that he already saw that the struggle between the different parties at
+Rome must eventually be terminated by the sword. The same causes were
+still in operation which had led to the civil wars between Marius and
+Sulla; and he was well aware that the aristocracy would not hesitate to
+call in the assistance of force if they should ever succeed in detaching
+Pompey from his interests. It was therefore of the first importance for
+him to obtain an army which he might attach to himself by victories and
+rewards. Accordingly, he induced the Tribune Vatinius to propose a bill
+to the people granting him the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum
+for five years (B.C. 58-54). Transalpine Gaul was shortly afterward
+added. Cæsar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would thus be able to
+pass the winter in Italy and keep up his communication with the city,
+while the disturbed state of Farther Gaul promised him sufficient
+materials for engaging in a series of wars in which he might employ an
+army that would afterward be devoted to his purposes. In addition to
+these considerations, Cæsar was also actuated by the ambition of
+subduing forever that nation which had once sacked Rome, and which had
+been, from the earliest times, more or less an object of dread to the
+Roman state.
+
+The Consuls of the following year (B.C. 58) were L. Calpurnius Piso and
+A. Gabinius. Piso was Cæsar's father-in-law, and Gabinius in his
+Tribunate had proposed the law conferring upon Pompey the command
+against the pirates. Cæsar saw that it was evident they would support
+whatever the Triumvirs might wish. Cicero was now threatened with
+destruction.
+
+In B.C. 62, while the wife of Cæsar was celebrating in the house of her
+husband, then Prætor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of the Bona Dea,
+from which all male creatures were excluded, it was discovered that P.
+Clodius Pulcher, a profligate noble, whom we have seen inciting the army
+of Lucullus to insurrection, had found his way into the mansion
+disguised in woman's apparel, and, having been detected, had made his
+escape by the help of a female slave. The matter was laid before the
+Senate, and by them referred to the members of the Pontifical College,
+who passed a resolution that sacrilege had been committed. Cæsar
+forthwith divorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to trial.
+In defense he pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that he was at
+Interamna at the very time when the crime was said to have been
+committed; but Cicero came forward as a witness, and swore that he had
+met and spoken to Clodius in Rome on the day in question. In spite of
+this decisive testimony, and the evident guilt of the accused, the
+Judices pronounced him innocent by a majority of voices (B.C. 61).
+Clodius now vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To accomplish his
+purpose more readily, he determined to become a candidate for the
+Tribunate, but for this it was necessary, in the first place, that he
+should be adopted into a plebeian family by means of a special law.
+This, after protracted opposition, was at length accomplished through
+the interference of the Triumvirs, and he was elected Tribune for B.C.
+58.
+
+One of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was to
+propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who should be
+found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. Cicero changed his
+attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused, went round the Forum
+soliciting the compassion of all whom he met. For a brief period public
+sympathy was awakened. A large number of the Senate and the Equites
+appeared also in mourning, and the better portion of the citizens seemed
+resolved to espouse his cause. But all demonstrations of such feelings
+were promptly repressed by Piso and Gabinius. Cæsar had previously made
+overtures to Cicero, which the orator, overrating his influence and
+relying upon the support of Pompey, had rejected. The Triumvirs now left
+him to his fate, and Cicero, giving way to despair, quitted Rome at the
+beginning of April (B.C. 68), and reached Brundusium about the middle of
+the month. From thence he crossed over to Greece. The instant that the
+departure of Cicero became known, a law was passed pronouncing his
+banishment, forbidding any one to entertain or harbor him, and
+denouncing as a public enemy whosoever should take any steps toward
+procuring his recall. His mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at
+Tusculum and Formiæ, were at the same time given over to plunder and
+destruction. Clodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to
+consult any longer the views of the Triumvirs. He restored Tigranes to
+liberty, whom Pompey had kept in confinement, ridiculed the great
+Imperator before the people, and was accused of making an attempt upon
+his life. Pompey, in revenge, resolved to procure the recall of Cicero
+from banishment, and was thus brought again into some friendly
+connections with the aristocratical party. The new Consuls (B.C. 57)
+were favorable to Cicero; but, though Clodius was no longer in office,
+he had several partisans among the Tribunes who offered the most
+vehement opposition to the restoration of his great enemy. One of the
+chief supporters of Cicero was the Tribune T. Annius Milo, a man as
+unprincipled and violent as Clodius himself. He opposed force to force,
+and at the head of a band of gladiators attacked the hired ruffians of
+Clodius. The streets of Rome were the scenes of almost daily conflicts
+between the leaders of these assassins. At length the Senate, with the
+full approbation of Pompey, determined to invite the voters from the
+different parts of Italy to repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law
+for the recall of Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the bill
+was passed by an overwhelming majority. On the same day Cicero quitted
+Dyrrhachium, and crossed over to Brundusium. He received deputations and
+congratulatory addresses from all the towns on the line of the Appian
+Way; and having arrived at Rome on the 4th of September, a vast
+multitude poured forth to meet him, while the crowd rent the air with
+acclamations as he passed through the Forum and ascended the Capitol to
+render thanks to Jupiter (B.C. 57).
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Hercules at Rome.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison
+Carrée_.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+CÆSAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-50.
+
+
+Cæsar set out for his province immediately after Cicero had gone into
+exile (B.C. 58). During the next nine years he was occupied with the
+subjugation of Gaul. In this time he conquered the whole of Transalpine
+Gaul, which had hitherto been independent of the Romans, with the
+exception of the part called Provincia. Twice he crossed the Rhine, and
+carried the terror of the Roman arms beyond that river. Twice he landed
+in Britain, which had been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can only
+offer a very brief sketch of the principal events of each year.
+
+_First Campaign_, B.C. 58.--Cæsar left Rome toward the latter end of
+April, and arrived in Geneva in eight days. His first campaign was
+against the Helvetii, a Gallic people situated to the north of the Lake
+of Geneva, and between the Rhine and Mount Jura. This people, quitting
+their homes, had passed through the country of the Sequani, and were
+plundering the territories of the Ædui. Three out of their four clans
+had already crossed the Arar (_Saône_); but the fourth, which was still
+on the other side of the river, was surprised by Cæsar and cut to
+pieces. He then threw a bridge across the Arar, followed them cautiously
+for some days, and at length fought a pitched battle with them near the
+town of Bibracte (_Autun_). The Helvetii were defeated with great
+slaughter, and the remnant compelled to return to their former homes.
+
+This great victory raised Cæsar's fame among the various tribes of
+Gauls, and the Ædui solicited his assistance against Ariovistus, a
+German king who had invaded Gaul, and was constantly bringing over the
+Rhine fresh swarms of Germans. Cæsar commanded Ariovistus to abstain
+from introducing any more Germans into Gaul, to restore the hostages to
+the Ædui, and not to attack the latter or their allies. A haughty answer
+was returned to these commands, and both parties prepared for war. Cæsar
+advanced northward through the country of the Sequani, took possession
+of Vesontio (_Besançon_), an important town on the Dubis (_Doubs_), and
+some days afterward fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who
+suffered a total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the
+Rhine, a distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and, among the rest,
+Ariovistus himself, crossed the river; the rest were cut to pieces by
+the Roman cavalry.
+
+_Second Campaign_, B.C. 57.--The following year was occupied with the
+Belgic war. Alarmed at Cæsar's success, the various Belgic tribes which
+dwelt between the Sequana (_Seine_) and the Rhine, and were the most
+warlike of all the Gauls, had entered into a confederacy to oppose him,
+and had raised an army of 300,000 men. Cæsar opened the campaign by
+marching into the country of the Remi, who submitted at his approach. He
+then crossed the Axona (_Aisne_), and pitched his camp in a strong
+position on the right bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of
+provisions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their vast
+army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto Cæsar had remained
+in his intrenchments, but he now broke up from his quarters and resumed
+the offensive. The Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and Ambiani were subdued
+in succession, or surrendered of their own accord; but a more formidable
+task awaited him when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of all the
+Belgic tribes. In their country, near the River Sabis (_Sambre_), the
+Roman army was surprised by the enemy while engaged in fortifying the
+camp. The attack of the Nervii was so unexpected, that before the Romans
+could form in rank the enemy was in their midst: the Roman soldiers
+began to give way, and the battle seemed entirely lost. Cæsar freely
+exposed his own person in the first line of the battle, and discharged
+alike the duties of a brave soldier and an able general. His exertions
+and the discipline of the Roman troops at length triumphed, and the
+Nervii were defeated with such immense slaughter, that out of 60,000
+fighting men only 500 remained in the state. When the Senate received
+the dispatches of Cæsar announcing this victory, they decreed a public
+thanksgiving of fifteen days--a distinction which had never yet been
+granted to any one.
+
+_Third Campaign_, B.C. 56.--In the third campaign Cæsar completed the
+subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval war against the
+Veneti, the inhabitants of the modern Brittany, and, by means of his
+lieutenants, conquered the remaining tribes who still held out. In the
+later part of the summer Cæsar marched against the Morini and Menapii
+(in the neighborhood of Calais and Boulogne). Thus all Gaul had been
+apparently reduced to subjection in three years; but the spirit of the
+people was yet unbroken, and they only waited for an opportunity to rise
+against their conquerors.
+
+_Fourth Campaign_, B.C. 55.--In the following year Cæsar determined to
+attack the Germans. The Gauls had suffered too much in the last three
+campaigns to make any farther attempt against the Romans at present; but
+Cæsar's ambition would not allow him to be idle. Fresh wars must be
+undertaken to employ his troops in active service. Two German tribes,
+the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, had been driven out of their own
+country by the Suevi, and had crossed the Rhine with the intention of
+settling in Gaul. This, however, Cæsar was resolved to prevent, and
+accordingly prepared to attack them. The Germans opened negotiations
+with him, but, while these were going on, a body of their cavalry
+defeated Cæsar's Gallic horse. On the next day all the German chiefs
+came into Cæsar's camp to apologize for what they had done; but Cæsar
+detained them, and straightway led his troops to attack the enemy.
+Deprived of their leaders and taken by surprise, the Germans, after a
+feeble resistance, took to flight, and were almost all destroyed by the
+Roman cavalry. After this victory Cæsar resolved to cross the Rhine, in
+order to strike terror into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge
+of boats across the river, probably in the neighborhood of Cologne; and
+after spending eighteen days on the eastern side of the Rhine, and
+ravaging the country of the Sigambri, he returned to Gaul and broke down
+the bridge.
+
+Although the greater part of the summer was now gone, Cæsar resolved to
+invade Britain. His object in undertaking this expedition at such a late
+period of the year was more to obtain some knowledge of the island from
+personal observation than with any view to permanent conquest at
+present. He accordingly took with him only two legions, with which he
+sailed from the port Itius (probably Witsand, between Calais and
+Boulogne), and effected a landing somewhere near the South Foreland,
+after a severe struggle with the natives. Several of the British tribes
+hereupon sent offers of submission to Cæsar; but, in consequence of the
+loss of a great part of the Roman fleet a few days afterward, they took
+up arms again. Being, however, defeated, they again sent offers of
+submission to Cæsar, who simply demanded double the number of hostages
+he had originally required, as he was anxious to return to Gaul before
+the autumnal equinox.
+
+The news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant Britons was
+received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm. The Senate voted a public
+thanksgiving of twenty days, notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, who
+declared that Cæsar ought to be delivered up to the Usipetes and
+Tenchtheri, to atone for his treachery in seizing the sacred persons of
+embassadors.
+
+_Fifth Campaign_, B.C. 54.--The greater part of Cæsar's fifth campaign
+was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He sailed from the
+port Itius with an army of five legions, and landed, without opposition,
+at the same place as in the former year. The British states had
+intrusted the supreme command to Cassivellaunus, a chief whose
+territories were divided from the maritime states by the River Tamesis
+(Thames). The Britons bravely opposed the progress of the invaders, but
+were defeated in a series of engagements. Cæsar crossed the Thames above
+London, probably in the neighborhood of Kingston, took the town of
+Cassivellaunus, and conquered great part of the counties of Essex and
+Middlesex. In consequence of these disasters, Cassivellaunus sued for
+peace; and after demanding hostages, and settling the tribute which
+Britain should pay yearly to the Roman people, Cæsar returned to Gaul
+toward the latter part of the summer. He gained no more by his second
+invasion of Britain than by his first. He had penetrated, it is true,
+farther into the country, but had left no garrisons or military
+establishments behind him, and the people obeyed the Romans as little
+afterward as they had done before.
+
+In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, Cæsar was obliged
+to divide his forces, and station his legions for the winter in
+different parts. This seemed to the Gauls a favorable opportunity for
+recovering their lost independence and destroying their conquerors. The
+Eburones, a Gallic people between the Meuse and the Rhine, near the
+modern _Tongres_, destroyed the detachment under the command of T.
+Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta. They next attacked the camp
+of Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was stationed among the
+Nervii. Cicero repulsed the enemy in all their attempts, till he was at
+length relieved by Cæsar in person, who came to his assistance with two
+legions as soon as he heard of the dangerous position of his legate. The
+forces of the enemy, which amounted to 60,000, were defeated by Cæsar,
+who then joined Cicero, and praised him and his men for the bravery they
+had shown.
+
+_Sixth Campaign_, B.C. 63.--In the next year the Gauls again took up
+arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to recover their
+independence. The destruction of the Roman troops under Sabinus and
+Cotta, and the unsettled state of Gaul during the winter, had led Cæsar
+to apprehend a general rising of the natives; and he had accordingly
+levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and obtained one from Pompey,
+who was remaining in the neighborhood of Rome as Proconsul with the
+imperium. Being thus at the head of a powerful army, he was able to
+subdue the tribes that revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones,
+Carnutes, Menapii, and Treviri to return to obedience. But as the
+Treviri had been supported by the Germans, he crossed the Rhine again a
+little above the spot where he had passed over two years before, and,
+after receiving the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country of the
+Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid waste the country of the Eburones
+with fire and sword. At the conclusion of the campaign he prosecuted a
+strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and Carautes, and caused
+Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in the conspiracy, to be put to
+death.
+
+_Seventh Campaign_, B.C. 52.--The unsuccessful issue of last year's
+revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The execution of
+Acco had frightened all the chiefs, as every one feared that his turn
+might come next; the hatred of the Roman yoke was intense; and thus all
+the materials were ready for a general conflagration. It was first
+kindled by the Carnutes, and in a short time it spread from district to
+district till almost the whole of Gaul was in flames. Even the Ædui, who
+had been hitherto the faithful allies of the Romans, and had assisted
+them in all their wars, subsequently joined the general revolt. At the
+head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, a young man of noble family
+belonging to the Arverni, and by far the ablest general that Cæsar had
+yet encountered. Never before had the Gauls been so united: Cæsar's
+conquests of the last six years seemed to be now entirely lost. The
+campaign of this year, therefore, was by far the most arduous that Cæsar
+had yet carried on; but his genius triumphed over every obstacle, and
+rendered it the most brilliant of all. He concentrated his forces with
+incredible rapidity, and lost no time in attacking the chief towns in
+the hands of the enemy. Vellaunodunum (in the country of
+_Château-Landon_), Genabum (_Orléans_), and Noviodunum (_Nouan_, between
+Orleans and Bourges), fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed at
+his rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded his countrymen to lay waste
+their country and destroy their towns. This plan was accordingly carried
+into effect; but, contrary to the wishes of Vercingetorix, Avaricum
+(_Bourges_), the chief town of the Bituriges, and a strongly-fortified
+place, was spared from the general destruction. This town Cæsar
+accordingly besieged, and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the
+Gauls, it was at length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, were indiscriminately butchered.
+
+Cæsar now divided his army into two parts: one division, consisting of
+four legions, he sent, under the command of T. Labienus, against the
+Senones and Parisii; the other, comprising six legions, he led in person
+into the country of the Arverni, and with them laid siege to Gergovia
+(near _Clermont_). The revolt of the Ædui shortly afterward compelled
+him to raise the siege, and inspired the Gauls with fresh courage.
+Vercingetorix retired to Alesia (_Alise_, in Burgundy), which was
+considered impregnable, and resolved to wait for succors from his
+countrymen. Cæsar immediately laid siege to the place, and drew lines of
+circumvallation around it. The Romans, however, were in their turn soon
+surrounded by a vast Gallic army which had assembled to raise the siege.
+Cæsar's army was thus placed in imminent peril, and on no occasion in
+his whole life was his military genius so conspicuous. He was between
+two great armies. Vercingetorix had 70,000 men in Alesia, and the Gallic
+army without consisted of between 250,000 and 300,000 men. Still he
+would not raise the siege. He prevented Vercingetorix from breaking
+through the lines, entirely routed the Gallic army without, and finally
+compelled Alesia to surrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his
+hands. The fall of Alesia was followed by the submission of the Ædui and
+Arvemi. Cæsar then led his troops into winter quarters. After receiving
+his dispatches, the Senate voted him a public thanksgiving of twenty
+days, as in the year B.C. 55.
+
+_Eighth Campaign_, B.C. 51.--The victories of the preceding year had
+determined the fate of Gaul; but many states still remained in arms, and
+entered into fresh conspiracies during the winter. This year was
+occupied in the reduction of these states, into the particulars of which
+we need not enter. During the winter Cæsar employed himself in the
+pacification of Gaul, and, as he already saw that his presence would
+soon be necessary in Italy, he was anxious to remove all causes for
+future wars. He accordingly imposed no new taxes, treated the states
+with honor and respect, and bestowed great presents upon the chiefs. The
+experience of the last two years had taught the Gauls that they had no
+hope of contending successfully against Cæsar, and, as he now treated
+them with mildness, they were the more readily induced to submit
+patiently to the Roman yoke.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Ruins on the Esquiline.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
+COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR.--EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. B.C.
+57-50.
+
+
+Cicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though his return had
+been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely changed, and he was
+forced to yield to a power which he no longer dared to resist. He even
+lent his support to the Triumvirs, and praised in public those
+proceedings which he had once openly and loudly condemned. Meantime the
+power of Pompey had been shaken at Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung
+up between him and Crassus, and Cato and the other leaders of the
+aristocracy attacked him with the utmost vehemence. The Senate began to
+entertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined to support L.
+Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in B.C. 56, had become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the following year, and who threatened to deprive Cæsar
+of his provinces and armies. Under these circumstances Cæsar invited
+Pompey and Crassus to meet him at Luca (_Lucca_) in the spring of B.C.
+56. He reconciled them to each other, and arranged that they were to be
+Consuls for the next year, and obtain provinces and armies, while he
+himself was to have his government prolonged for another five years, and
+to receive pay for his troops. On their return to Rome, Pompey and
+Crassus became candidates for the Consulship; but Domitius Ahenobarbus,
+supported by Cato and the aristocracy, offered a most determined
+opposition. The Consul Lentulus Marcellinus likewise was resolved to use
+every means to prevent their election; and, finding it impossible to
+carry their election while Marcellinus was in office, they availed
+themselves of the veto of two of the Tribunes to prevent the Consular
+Comitia from being held this year. The elections, therefore, did not
+take place till the beginning of B.C. 55, under the presidency of an
+interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus and Cato did not relax in their
+opposition; and it was not till the armed bands of Pompey and Crassus
+had cleared the Campus Martius of their adversaries that they were
+declared Consuls for the second time (B.C. 55).
+
+They forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact that had been
+made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C. Trebonius to bring forward two
+bills, one of which gave the province of the two Spains to Pompey, and
+that of Syria to Crassus; the other prolonged Cæsar's government for
+five years more, namely, from the 1st of January, B.C. 53, to the end of
+the year 49. Pompey was now at the head of the state; and at the
+expiration of his year of office would no longer be a private man, but
+with the command of an army and in possession of the imperium. With an
+army he felt sure of regaining his former influence. He had now
+completed the theatre which he had been some time building, and, as a
+means of regaining the popular favor, he resolved to open it with an
+exhibition of games of unparalleled splendor and magnificence. The
+building itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was the
+first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was sufficiently
+large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games exhibited lasted many
+days. Five hundred African lions and eighteen elephants were killed. A
+rhinoceros was likewise exhibited on this occasion for the first time.
+Pompey sent an army into Spain under the command of his lieutenants, L.
+Afranius and M. Petreius, while he himself remained in the neighborhood
+of Rome as Proconsul.
+
+Before the end of the year Crassus set out for Syria, with the intention
+of attacking the Parthians. He was anxious to distinguish himself in
+war, like Pompey and Cæsar, and, though upward of sixty years of age, he
+chose rather to enter upon an undertaking for which he had no genius
+than to continue the pursuit of wealth and influence at home. He crossed
+the Euphrates in B.C. 54, but, hesitating to proceed at once against
+Parthia, he gave the enemy time to assemble his forces, and returned to
+Syria without accomplishing any thing of importance. He spent the winter
+in Syria, where, instead of exercising his troops and preparing for the
+ensuing campaign, he plundered the temples, and employed his time in
+collecting money from every quarter. In the following spring (B.C. 53)
+he again crossed the Euphrates, and plunged into the sandy deserts of
+Mesopotamia. He trusted to the guidance of an Arabian chieftain, who
+promised to lead him by the shortest way to the enemy. But this man was
+in the pay of Surenas, the Parthian general; and when he had brought the
+Romans into the open plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous
+pretext, and rode off to inform Surenas that the Roman army was
+delivered into his hands. The Parthians soon appeared. They worried the
+densely-marshaled Romans with showers of arrows; and by feigned
+retreats, during which they continued to discharge their arrows, they
+led the Romans into disadvantageous positions. The son of Crassus, who
+had distinguished himself as one of Cæsar's lieutenants in Gaul, was
+slain, and the Romans, after suffering great loss, retreated to Carrhæ,
+the Haran of Scripture. On the following day they continued their
+retreat; and Surenas, fearing that Crassus might after all make his
+escape, invited him to an interview. He was treacherously seized, and,
+in the scuffle which ensued, was slain by some unknown hand. His head
+was carried to the Parthian king Orodes, who caused melted gold to be
+poured into the mouth, saying, "Sate thyself now with that metal of
+which in life thou wert so greedy." Twenty thousand Roman troops were
+slain, and ten thousand taken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the
+most disastrous in which the Romans were ever engaged. Only a small
+portion of the Roman army escaped to Syria under the command of L.
+Cassius Longinus, afterward one of Cæsar's assassins, who had displayed
+considerable ability during the war, but whose advice Crassus had
+constantly refused to follow.
+
+The death of Crassus left Pompey and Cæsar alone at the head of the
+state, and it became evident that sooner or later a struggle would take
+place between them for the supremacy. The death of Julia, in B.C. 54, to
+whom both her father and husband were strongly attached, broke a link
+which might have united them much longer. Pompey considered that he had
+been the chief means of raising Cæsar to power, and he appeared long to
+have deemed it impossible that the conqueror of Mithridates could be
+thrown into the shade by any popular leader. Such a result, however, was
+now imminent. Cæsar's brilliant victories in Gaul were in every body's
+mouth, and Pompey saw with ill-disguised mortification that he was
+becoming the second person in the state. Though this did not lead him to
+break with Cæsar at once, it made him anxious to increase his power and
+influence, and he therefore now resolved, if possible, to obtain the
+Dictatorship. He accordingly used no effort to put an end to the
+disturbances at Rome between Milo and Clodius in this year, in hopes
+that all parties would be willing to accede to his wishes in order to
+restore peace to the city. Milo was a candidate for the Consulship and
+Clodius for the Prætorship. Each was attended by a band of hired
+ruffians; battles took place between them daily in the Forum and the
+streets; all order and government were at an end. In such a state of
+things no elections could be held, and the confusion at length became
+downright anarchy, when Milo murdered Clodius on the 20th of January in
+the following year (B.C. 52). The two rivals had met near Bovillæ,
+accompanied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued. The
+party of Milo proved the stronger, and Clodius took refuge in a house.
+But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius, and having dispatched
+him, left him dead upon the road. His body was found by a Senator,
+carried to Rome, and exposed naked to the people. They were violently
+excited at the sight, and their feelings were still farther inflamed by
+the harangues of the Tribunes. The benches and tables of the
+Senate-house were seized to make a funeral pile for their favorite; and
+not only the Senate-house, but several other public buildings, were
+reduced to ashes. As the riots still continued, the Senate had no longer
+any choice but to call in the assistance of Pompey. They therefore
+commissioned him to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances.
+Pompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires, obeyed with
+alacrity; he was invested with the supreme power of the state by being
+elected sole Consul on the 25th of February; and, in order to deliver
+the city from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought forward laws against
+violence and bribery at elections. Milo was put upon his trial; the
+court was surrounded with soldiers; Cicero, who defended him, was
+intimidated, and Milo was condemned, and went into exile at
+Massilia.[67] Others shared the same fate, and peace was once more
+restored to the state.
+
+Pompey's jealousy of Cæsar brought him into connection with the
+aristocratical party. After Julia's death he had married Cornelia, the
+daughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his colleague on the first of
+August. His next step was to strike a blow at Cæsar. He brought forward
+an old law that no one should become a candidate for a public office
+while absent, in order that Cæsar might be obliged to resign his
+command, and to place himself in the power of his enemies at Rome, if he
+wished to obtain the Consulship a second time.[68] But the renewal of
+this enactment was so manifestly aimed at Cæsar that his friends
+insisted he should be specially exempted from it; and as Pompey was not
+yet prepared to break openly with him, he thought it more expedient to
+yield. At the same time, Pompey provided that he himself should remain
+in command of an army after his rival had ceased to have one, by
+obtaining a senatus consultum, by which his government of the Spains was
+prolonged for another five years. And, in case Cæsar should obtain the
+Consulship, he caused a law to be enacted, in virtue of which no one
+could have a province till five years had elapsed from the time of his
+holding a public office. Such were the precautions adopted against
+Cæsar, the uselessness of which time soon showed.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 51) Pompey declared himself still more
+openly on the side of the Senate; but still he shrank from supporting
+all the violent measures of the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, who
+proposed to send a successor to Cæsar, on the plea that the war in Gaul
+was finished, and to deprive him of the privilege of becoming a
+candidate for the Consulship in his absence. The Consuls for the next
+year (B.C. 50), L. Æmilius Paullus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the
+powerful Tribune C. Curio, were all reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey
+and the Senate. Cæsar, however, gained over Paullus and Curio by large
+bribes, and with a lavish hand distributed immense sums of money among
+the leading men of Rome. It was proposed in the Senate by the Consul C.
+Marcellus that Cæsar should lay down his command by the 13th of
+November. But this was an unreasonable demand; Cæsar's government had
+upward of another year to run; and if he had come to Rome as a private
+man to sue for the Consulship, there can be no doubt that his life would
+have been sacrificed. Cato had declared that he would bring Cæsar to
+trial as soon as he laid down his command; but the trial would have been
+only a mockery, for Pompey was in the neighborhood of the city at the
+head of an army, and would have overawed the judges by his soldiery as
+at Milo's trial. The Tribune Curio consequently interposed his veto
+upon the proposition of Marcellus. The Senate, anxious to diminish the
+number of his troops, had, under pretext of a war with the Parthians,
+ordered that Pompey and Cæsar should each furnish a legion to be sent
+into the East. The legion which Pompey intended to devote to this
+service was one he had lent to Cæsar in B.C. 53, and which he now
+accordingly demanded back; and, although Cæsar saw that he should thus
+be deprived of two legions, which would probably be employed against
+himself, he complied with the request. Upon their arrival in Italy, they
+were not sent to the East, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua.
+Cæsar took up his quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province
+bordering upon Italy.
+
+Though war seemed inevitable, Cæsar still showed himself willing to
+enter into negotiations with the aristocracy, and accordingly sent Curio
+with a letter addressed to the Senate, in which he expressed his
+readiness to resign his command if Pompey would do the same. Curio
+arrived at Rome on the 1st of January, B.C. 49, the day on which the new
+Consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus and C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon
+their office. It was with great difficulty that the Tribunes, M.
+Antonius, afterward the well-known Triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus,
+forced the Senate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent
+debate, the motion of Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, "that
+Cæsar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not
+do so he should be regarded as an enemy of the state." On the 6th of
+January the Senate passed the decree investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power. Antonius and Cassius, considering their lives no
+longer safe, fled from the city in disguise to Cæsar's army, and called
+upon him to protect the inviolable persons of the Tribunes. This was the
+crisis. The Senate intrusted the management of the war to Pompey,
+determined that fresh levies of troops should be held, and voted a sum
+of money from the public treasury to Pompey. Pompey all along had no
+apprehensions as to the war; he thought it impossible that Cæsar should
+ever march against him; he was convinced that his great fame would cause
+a multitude of troops to flock around him whenever he wished. In
+addition to this, he had been deceived as to the disposition of Cæsar's
+troops: he had been led to believe that they were ready to desert their
+general at the first opportunity. Consequently, when the war broke out,
+Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two legions which he had
+obtained from Cæsar, and on the fidelity of which he could by no means
+rely.
+
+[Footnote 67: Cicero sent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant
+to have delivered, the one which we still have. Milo, after reading it,
+remarked, "I am glad it was not delivered, for I should then have been
+acquitted, and never have known the delicate flavor of these Massilian
+mullets."]
+
+[Footnote 68: Cæsar's government would expire at the end of B.C. 49, and
+he had therefore determined to obtain the Consulship for B.C. 48, since
+otherwise he would become a private person.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Marcus Brutus.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXV.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CÆSAR'S DEATH. B.C. 49-44.
+
+
+As soon as Cæsar learned at Ravenna the last resolution of the Senate,
+he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs he had sustained,
+and called upon them to support him. Finding them quite willing to
+support him, he crossed the Rubicon,[69] which separated his province
+from Italy, and occupied Ariminum, where he met with the Tribunes. He
+commenced his enterprise with only one legion, consisting of 5000
+foot-soldiers and 300 horse; but others had orders to follow him from
+Transalpine Gaul, and he was well aware of the importance of expedition,
+that the enemy might have no time to complete their preparations. Though
+it was the middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost rapidity, and
+such was the popularity of his cause in Italy, that city after city
+opened its gates to him, and his march was like a triumphal progress.
+Arretium, Pisaurum, Fanum, Ancona, Iguvium, and Auximum fell into his
+hands. These successes caused the utmost consternation at Rome; it was
+reported that Cæsar's cavalry were already at the gates; a general panic
+seized the Senate, and they fled from the city without even taking with
+them the money from the public treasury. Cæsar continued his victorious
+march through Picenum till he came to Corfinium, which M. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus held with a strong force; but, as Pompey did not march to
+his assistance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place, and fell
+himself into Cæsar's hands, together with several other Senators and
+distinguished men. Cæsar, with the same clemency which he displayed
+throughout the whole of the Civil War, dismissed them all uninjured. He
+then hastened southward in pursuit of Pompey, who had now resolved to
+abandon Italy. He reached Brundusium before Cæsar, but had not sailed
+when the latter arrived before the town. Cæsar straightway laid siege to
+the place, but Pompey abandoned it on the 17th of March, and embarked
+for Greece. Cæsar was unable to follow him for want of ships. He
+accordingly marched back from Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having
+thus in three months become the master of the whole of Italy.
+
+The only opposition which Cæsar met with in Rome was from L. Metellus
+the Tribune, who attempted to prevent him from entering the public
+treasury, though the people had given him permission to take from it as
+much money as he pleased. "Stand aside, young man," said Cæsar; "it is
+easier for me to do than to say." After remaining in the neighborhood of
+Rome for a short time, he set out for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in
+charge of the city, and M. Antonius in command of the troops in Italy.
+He sent Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to take
+possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to occupy Illyricum. Curio and
+Valerius obtained possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposition;
+and the former then passed over into Africa, which was in possession of
+the Pompeian party. Here, however, he encountered strong opposition, and
+at length was defeated, and lost his life in a battle with Juba, king of
+Mauretania, who supported P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
+Antonius also met with ill success in Illyricum, for his army was
+defeated, and he himself taken prisoner. These disasters were more than
+counterbalanced by Cæsar's victories in the mean time in Spain. Leaving
+Rome about the middle of April, he found, on his arrival in Gaul, that
+Massilia refused to submit to him. He besieged the place forthwith, but,
+unable to take it immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D. Brutus, with
+part of his troops, to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to
+Spain. On the approach of Cæsar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, the
+lieutenants of Pompey in Spain, united their forces, and took up a
+strong position near the town of Ilerda (_Lerida_, in Catalonia), on the
+right bank of the Sicoris (_Segre_). After experiencing great
+difficulties at first and some reverses, Cæsar at length reduced
+Afranius and Petreius to such straits that they were obliged to
+surrender. They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their
+troops disbanded, and the remainder incorporated among Cæsar's troops.
+The conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, who commanded two
+legions in the Farther Province; but, after the victory over Afranius
+and Petreius, there was no army in Spain capable of offering resistance,
+and Varro accordingly surrendered to Cæsar on his arrival at Corduba
+(_Cordova_). Having thus subdued all Spain in forty days, he returned to
+Gaul. Massilia had not yet yielded; but the siege had been prosecuted
+with so much vigor, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender the
+town soon after he appeared before the walls.
+
+During his absence in Spain Cæsar was appointed Dictator by the Prætor
+M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so by a law passed for the
+purpose. On his return to Rome Cæsar assumed the new dignity, but laid
+it down again at the end of eleven days, after holding the Consular
+Comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia were elected Consuls
+for the next year. But during these eleven days he caused some very
+important laws to be passed. The first was intended to relieve debtors,
+but at the same time to protect, to a great extent, the rights of
+creditors. He next restored all exiles; and, finally, he conferred the
+full citizenship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held only the
+Latin franchise.
+
+After laying down the Dictatorship, Cæsar went in December to
+Brundusium, where he had previously ordered his troops to assemble. He
+had lost many men in the long march from Spain, and also from sickness
+arising from their passing the autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey
+during the summer had raised a large force in Greece, Egypt, and the
+East, the scene of his former glory. He had collected an army consisting
+of nine legions of Roman citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
+infantry; and his forces far surpassed in number those which Cæsar had
+assembled at Brundusium. Moreover, Pompey's fleet, under the command of
+Bibulus, Cæsar's colleague in his first Consulship, completely commanded
+the sea. Still Cæsar ventured to set sail from Brundusium on the 4th of
+January, and he arrived the next day in safety on the coast of Epirus.
+In consequence, however, of the small number of his ships, he was able
+to carry over only seven legions, which, from the causes previously
+mentioned, had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot and 500
+horse. After landing this force he sent back his ships to bring over
+the remainder; but part of the fleet was intercepted in its return by M.
+Bibulus, who kept up such a strict watch along the coast that the rest
+of Cæsar's army was obliged for the present to remain at Brundusium.
+Cæsar was thus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy's
+country, and cut off from the rest of his army; but he knew that he
+could thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
+acting on the offensive. After gaining possession of Oricum and
+Apollonia, he hastened northward, in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium,
+where all Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by rapid marches,
+reached this town before him, and both armies then encamped opposite to
+each other, Pompey on the right, and Cæsar on the left bank of the River
+Apsus. Cæsar was now greatly in want of re-enforcements, and such was
+his impatience that he attempted to sail across the Adriatic in a small
+boat. The waves ran so high that the sailors wanted to turn back, till
+Cæsar discovered himself, telling them that they earned Cæsar and his
+fortunes. They then toiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to
+return, and with difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece.
+Shortly afterward M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the remainder
+of the army. Pompey meantime had retired to some high ground near
+Dyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a battle with Cæsar's
+veterans, Cæsar began to blockade him in his position, and to draw lines
+of circumvallation of an extraordinary extent. They were nearly
+completed when Pompey forced a passage through them, and drove back
+Cæsar's legions with considerable loss. Cæsar thus found himself
+compelled to retreat from his present position, and accordingly
+commenced his march for Thessaly. Pompey's policy of avoiding a general
+engagement with Cæsar's veterans till he could place more reliance upon
+his own troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto crowned
+with success; but he was prevented from carrying out the prudent plan
+which he had formed for conducting the campaign. His camp was filled
+with a multitude of Roman nobles, unacquainted with war, and anxious to
+return to their estates in Italy and to the luxuries of the capital. His
+unwillingness to fight was set down to love of power and anxiety to keep
+the Senate in subjection. Stung with the reproaches with which he was
+assailed, and elated in some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he
+resolved to bring the contest to an issue. Accordingly, he offered
+battle to Cæsar in the plain of Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly.
+The numbers on either side were very unequal: Pompey had 45,000
+foot-soldiers and 7000 horse, Cæsar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse.
+The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August, B.C. 48, according
+to the old calendar,[70] ended in the total defeat of Pompey's army.
+
+The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of Pompey and the Republic.
+Pompey was at once driven to despair. He made no attempt to rally his
+forces, though he might still have collected a considerable army; but,
+regarding every thing as lost, he hurried to the sea-coast with a few
+friends. He embarked on board a merchant-ship at the mouth of the River
+Peneus, and first sailed to Lesbos, where he took on board his wife
+Cornelia, and from thence made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek
+refuge in Egypt, as he had been the means of restoring to his kingdom
+Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian monarch. On his death
+in B.C. 51 Ptolemy Auletes had left directions that his son should reign
+jointly with his elder sister Cleopatra. But their joint reign did not
+last long, for Ptolemy, or, rather, Pothinus and Achillas, his chief
+advisers, expelled his sister from the throne. Cleopatra collected a
+force in Syria, with which she invaded Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy
+were encamped opposite her, near Alexandria, when Pompey arrived off the
+coast and craved the protection of the young king. This request threw
+Pothinus and Achillas into great difficulty, for there were many of
+Pompey's old soldiers in the Egyptian army, and they feared he would
+become master of Egypt. They therefore determined to put him to death.
+Accordingly, they sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three
+or four attendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends
+watched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he would be
+received by the king, who was standing on the edge of the sea with his
+troops. Just as the boat reached the shore, and Pompey was in the act of
+rising from his seat in order to step on land, he was stabbed in the
+back by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his centurions. Achillas
+and the rest then drew their swords; whereupon Pompey, without uttering
+a word, covered his face with his toga, and calmly submitted to his
+fate. He had just completed his 58th year. His head was cut off, and his
+body, which was cast naked upon the shore, was buried by his freedman
+Philippus, who had accompanied him from the ship. The head was brought
+to Cæsar when he arrived in Egypt soon afterward, but he turned away
+from the sight, shed tears at the untimely end of his rival, and put his
+murderers to death.
+
+When news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various laws were
+passed which conferred supreme power upon Cæsar. Though absent, he was
+nominated Dictator a second time, and for a whole year. He appointed M.
+Antonius his master of the Horse; and entered upon the office in
+September of this year (B.C. 48). He was also nominated to the
+Consulship for the next five years, though he did not avail himself of
+this privilege; and he was invested with the tribunicial power for life.
+
+Cæsar went to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival there he
+became involved in a war, which detained him several months, and gave
+the remains of the Pompeian party time to rally and to make fresh
+preparations for continuing the struggle. The war in Egypt, usually
+called the Alexandrine War, arose from Cæsar's resolving to settle the
+disputes respecting the succession to the kingdom. He determined that
+Cleopatra, whose fascinations completely won his heart, and her brother
+Ptolemy, should reign in common, according to the provisions of their
+father's will; but as this decision was opposed by the guardians of the
+young king, a war broke out between them and Cæsar, in which he was for
+some time exposed to great danger on account of the small number of his
+troops. But, having received re-enforcements, he finally prevailed, and
+placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne, the elder having
+perished in the course of the contest. Cleopatra afterward joined Cæsar
+at Rome, and bore him a son named Cæsarion.
+
+After bringing the Alexandrine War to a close, toward the end of March,
+B.C. 47, Cæsar marched through Syria into Pontus in order to attack
+Pharnaces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who had defeated Cn.
+Domitius Calvinus, one of Cæsar's lieutenants. This war, however, did
+not detain him long; for Pharnaces, venturing to come to an open battle
+with the Dictator, was utterly defeated on the 2d of August near Zela.
+It was in reference to this victory that Cæsar sent the celebrated
+laconic dispatch to the Senate, _Veni, vidi, vici_, "I came, I saw, I
+conquered." He then proceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed
+Dictator for another year, and nominated M. Æmilius Lepidus his Master
+of the Horse. At the same time he quelled a formidable mutiny of his
+troops which had broken out in Campania.
+
+Cæsar did not remain in Rome more than two or three months. With his
+usual activity and energy he set out to Africa before the end of the
+year (B.C. 47), in order to carry on the war against Scipio and Cato,
+who had collected a large army in that country. Their forces were far
+greater than those which Cæsar could bring against them; but he had too
+much reliance on his own genius to be alarmed by mere disparity of
+numbers. At first he was in considerable difficulties; but, having been
+joined by some of his other legions, he was able to prosecute the
+campaign with more vigor, and finally brought it to a close by the
+battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, B.C. 46, in which the Pompeian
+army was completely defeated. All Africa now submitted to Cæsar with the
+exception of Utica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that
+resistance was hopeless; and Cato, who was a sincere Republican,
+resolved to die rather than submit to Cæsar's despotism. After spending
+the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's _Phædo_, a dialogue on
+the immortality of the soul, he stabbed himself. His friends, hearing
+him fall, ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, while he was fainting,
+dressed his wounds. When, however, he recovered feeling, he tore off the
+bandages, and so died.
+
+Cæsar returned to Rome by the end of July. He was now undisputed master
+of the Roman world. Great apprehensions were entertained by his enemies
+lest, notwithstanding his former clemency, he should imitate Marius and
+Sulla, and proscribe all his opponents. But these fears were perfectly
+groundless. A love of cruelty was no part of Cæsar's nature; and, with a
+magnanimity which victors rarely show, and least of all those in civil
+wars, he freely forgave all who had borne arms against him, and declared
+that he should make no difference between Pompeians and Cæsarians. His
+object was now to allay animosities, and to secure the lives and
+property of all the citizens of his empire. As soon as the news of his
+African victory reached Rome a public thanksgiving of forty days was
+decreed in his honor; the Dictatorship was bestowed upon him for ten
+years; and the Censorship, under the new title of "Præfectus Morum," for
+three years. Cæsar had never yet enjoyed a triumph; and, as he had now
+no farther enemies to meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of
+celebrating his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four
+magnificent triumphs. None of these, however, were in honor of his
+successes in the civil war; and consequently his African triumph was to
+commemorate his victory over Juba, and not over Scipio and Cato. These
+triumphs were followed by largesses of corn and money to the people and
+the soldiers, by public banquets, and all sorts of entertainments.
+
+Cæsar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had crept into
+the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws suitable to the
+altered condition of the commonwealth. He attempted, by severe sumptuary
+laws, to restrain the extravagance which pervaded all classes of
+society. But the most important of his changes this year (B.C. 40) was
+the reformation of the Calendar, which was a real benefit to his country
+and the civilized world, and which he accomplished in his character as
+Pontifex Maximus. The regulation of the Roman calendar had always been
+intrusted to the College of Pontiffs, who had been accustomed to
+lengthen or shorten the year at their pleasure for political purposes;
+and the confusion had at length become so great that the Roman year was
+three months behind the real time. To remedy this serious evil, Cæsar
+added 90 days to the current year, and thus made it consist of 445 days;
+and he guarded against a repetition of similar errors for the future by
+adapting the year to the sun's course.
+
+In the midst of these labors Cæsar was interrupted by intelligence of a
+formidable insurrection which had broken out in Spain, where the remains
+of the Pompeian party had again collected a large army under the command
+of Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus. Cæsar set out for Spain at the end
+of B.C. 46. With his usual activity he arrived at Obulco, near Corduba,
+in 27 days from the time of his leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to
+offer stronger opposition than he had anticipated; but he brought the
+war to a close by the battle of Munda, on the 17th of March, B.C. 46, in
+which he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, a hard-fought
+battle: Cæsar's troops were at first driven back, and were only rallied
+by their general's exposing his own person, like a common soldier, in
+the front line of the battle. Cn. Pompeius was killed shortly afterward,
+but Sextus made good his escape. The settlement of the affairs in Spain
+detained Cæsar in the province some months longer, and he consequently
+did not reach Rome till September. At the beginning of October he
+entered the city in triumph on account of his victories in Spain,
+although the victory had been gained over Roman citizens. The Senate
+received him with the most servile flattery. They had in his absence
+voted a public thanksgiving of fifty days, and they now vied with each
+other in paying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was to wear,
+on all public occasions, the triumphal robe; he was to receive the title
+of "Father of his Country;" statues of him were to be placed in all the
+temples; his portrait was to be struck on coins; the month of Quintilis
+was to receive the name of Julius in his honor, and he was to be raised
+to a rank among the gods. But there were still more important decrees
+than these, which were intended to legalize his power, and confer upon
+him the whole government of the Roman world. He received the title of
+Imperator for life; he was nominated Consul for the next ten years, and
+both Dictator and Præfectus Morum for life; his person was declared
+sacred; a guard of Senators and Knights was appointed to protect him,
+and the whole Senate took an oath to watch over his safety.
+
+If we now look at the way in which Cæsar exerted his sovereign power, it
+can not be denied that he used it in the main for the good of his
+country. He still pursued his former merciful course: no proscriptions
+or executions took place; and he began to revolve vast schemes for the
+benefit of the Roman world. At the same time he was obliged to reward
+his followers, and for that reason he greatly increased the number of
+senators and magistrates, so that there were 16 Prætors, 40 Quæstors,
+and 6 Ædiles, and new members were added to the priestly colleges. Among
+other plans of internal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest of
+all the Roman laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine
+marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia and to dig a canal through the
+isthmus of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman Empire, he
+meditated expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous tribes on
+the Danube, and had already begun to make preparations for his departure
+to the East. In the midst of these vast projects he entered upon the
+last year of his life, B.C. 44, and his fifth Consulship and
+Dictatorship. He had made M. Antonius his colleague in the Consulship,
+and M. Lepidus the Master of the Horse. He had for some time past
+resolved to preserve the supreme power in his family; and, as he had no
+legitimate children, he had fixed upon his great-nephew Octavius
+(afterward the Emperor Augustus) as his successor. Possessing royal
+power, he now wished to obtain the title of king, and accordingly
+prevailed upon his colleague Antonius to offer him the diadem in public
+on the festival of the Lupercalia (the 15th of February). But the very
+name of king had long been hateful at Rome; and the people displayed
+such an evident dislike to the proposal that it was dropped for the
+present.
+
+The conspiracy against Cæsar's life had been formed as early as the
+beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by C. Cassius Longinus, a
+personal enemy of Cæsar's, and more than sixty persons were privy to it.
+Private hatred alone seems to have been the motive of Cassius, and
+probably of several others. Many of them had taken an active part in the
+war against Cæsar, and had not only been forgiven by him, but raised to
+offices of rank and honor. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, who had
+been pardoned by Cæsar after the battle of Pharsalia, and had since been
+treated almost as his son. In this very year Cæsar had made him Prætor,
+and held out to him the prospect of the Consulship. Brutus, like Cato,
+seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cassius persuaded him to
+join the conspiracy, and imitate his great ancestor who freed them from
+the Tarquins. It was now arranged to assassinate the Dictator in the
+Senate-house on the Ides or 15th of March. Rumors of the plot got
+abroad, and Cæsar was strongly urged not to attend the Senate. But he
+disregarded the warnings which were given him. As he entered, the Senate
+rose to do him honor; and when he had taken his seat, the conspirators
+pressed around him as if to support the prayer of Tillius Cimber, who
+entreated the Dictator to recall his brother from banishment. When Cæsar
+began to show displeasure at their importunity, Tillius seized him by
+his toga, which was the signal for attack. Casca struck the first blow,
+and the other conspirators bared their weapons. Cæsar defended himself
+till he saw Brutus had drawn his sword, and then exclaiming, "And thou,
+too, Brutus!" he drew his toga over his head, and fell pierced with
+three-and-twenty wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Julius Cæsar.]
+
+Cæsar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only to the Roman people, but
+the whole civilized world. The Republic was utterly lost. The Roman
+world was now called to go through many years of disorder and bloodshed,
+till it rested again under the supremacy of Augustus. The last days of
+the Republic had come, and its only hope of peace and security was under
+the strong hand of military power.
+
+Cæsar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. His personal
+appearance was noble and commanding; he was tall in stature, of a fair
+complexion, and with black eyes full of expression. He never wore a
+beard, and in the latter part of his life his head was bald. His
+constitution was originally delicate, and he was twice attacked by
+epilepsy while transacting public business; but, by constant exercise
+and abstemious living, he had acquired strong and vigorous health, and
+could endure almost any amount of exertion. He took pains with his
+person, and was considered to be effeminate in his dress.
+
+Cæsar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at one and the
+same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, a
+poet, a historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an architect. He
+was equally fitted to excel in every thing, and has given proofs that he
+would have surpassed almost all other men in any subject to which he
+devoted the energies of his extraordinary mind. One fact places his
+genius for war in a most striking light. Till his 40th year, when he
+went as Proprætor into Spain, he had been almost entirely engaged in
+civil life and his military experience must have been of the most
+limited kind. Most of the greatest generals in the history of the world
+have been distinguished at an early age: Alexander the Great, Hannibal,
+Frederick of Prussia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some of their most
+brilliant victories under the age of 30; but Cæsar, from the age of 23
+to 40, had seen nothing of war, and, notwithstanding, appears all at
+once as one of the greatest generals that the world has ever seen.
+
+[Illustration: Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The crossing of this stream was in reality a declaration
+of war against the Republic, and later writers relate that upon arriving
+at the Rubicon Cæsar long hesitated whether he should take this
+irrevocable step, and that, after pondering many hours, he at length
+exclaimed, "The die is cast," and plunged into the river. But there is
+not a word of this in Cæsar's own narrative.]
+
+[Footnote 70: In reality on the 6th of June.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: M. Antonius.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CÆSAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.
+
+
+When the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and the other
+conspirators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had killed the
+Tyrant, and calling the people to join them; but they met with no
+response, and, finding alone averted looks, they retired to the Capitol.
+Here they were joined by Cicero, who had not been privy to the
+conspiracy, but was now one of the first to justify the murder. Meantime
+the friends of Cæsar were not idle. M. Lepidus, the Master of the Horse,
+who was in the neighborhood of the city, marched into the Campus Martius
+in the night; and M. Antony hastened to the house of the Dictator, and
+took possession of his papers and treasures. But both parties feared to
+come to blows. A compromise was agreed to; and at a meeting of the
+Senate it was determined that Cæsar's murderers should not be punished,
+but, on the other hand, that all his regulations should remain in force,
+that the provisions of his will should be carried into effect, and that
+he should be honored with a public funeral. The conspirators descended
+from the Capitol; and, as a proof of reconciliation, Cassius supped with
+Antony and Brutus with Lepidus.
+
+This reconciliation was only a pretense. Antony aspired to succeed to
+the power of the Dictator; and, to rouse the popular fury against the
+conspirators, Cæsar's will was immediately made public. He left as his
+heir his great-nephew Octavius, a youth of 18, the son of Atia, the
+daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed considerable legacies to his
+murderers. He gave his magnificent gardens beyond the Tiber to the
+public, and to every Roman citizen he bequeathed the sum of 300
+sesterces (between £2 and £8 sterling). When this became known a deep
+feeling of sorrow for the untimely fate of their benefactor seized the
+minds of the people. Their feelings were raised to the highest point two
+or three days afterward, when the funeral took place. The body was to be
+burned in the Campus Martius, but it was previously carried to the
+forum, where Antony, according to custom, pronounced the funeral oration
+over it. After relating the exploits of the great Dictator, reciting his
+will, and describing his terrible death, he lifted up the blood-stained
+robe which Cæsar had worn in the Senate-house, and which had hitherto
+covered the corpse, and pointed out the numerous wounds which disfigured
+the body. At this sight a yell of indignation was raised, and the mob
+rushed in every direction to tear the murderers to pieces. The
+conspirators fled for their lives from the city. The poet Helvius Cinna,
+being mistaken for the Prætor Cinna, one of the assassins, was
+sacrificed on the spot before the mistake could be explained.
+
+Antony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of Cæsar's papers, he
+was able to plead the authority of the Dictator for every thing which he
+pleased. The conspirators hastened to take possession of the provinces
+which Cæsar had assigned to them. Dec. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine
+Gaul, M. Brutus to Macedonia, and Cassius to Syria. Antony now made a
+disposition of the provinces, taking Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and
+giving Macedonia to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to Dolabella.
+
+Meantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius was at Apollonia,
+a town on the coast of Illyricum, at the time of his uncle's death.
+Cæsar had determined to take his nephew with him in his expedition
+against the Parthians, and had accordingly sent him to Apollonia, where
+a camp had been formed, that he might pursue his military studies. The
+soldiers now offered to follow him to Italy and avenge their leader's
+death, but he did not yet venture to take this decisive step. He
+determined, however, to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few
+friends. Upon arriving at Brundusium he heard of the will of the
+Dictator, and was saluted by the soldiers as Cæsar. As the adopted heir
+of his uncle his proper name was now C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus, and by
+the last of these names we shall henceforth call him. He now made up his
+mind to proceed to Rome and claim his uncle's inheritance, in opposition
+to the advice of his mother, who dreaded this dangerous honor for her
+son. Upon arriving at Rome he declared before the Prætor, in the usual
+manner, that he accepted the inheritance, and he then promised the
+people to pay the money bequeathed to them. He even ventured to claim of
+Antony the treasures of his uncle; but, as the latter refused to give
+them up, he sold the other property, and even his own estates, to
+discharge all the legacies. Antony threw every obstacle in his way; but
+the very name of Cæsar worked wonders, and the liberality of the young
+man gained the hearts of the people. He had, indeed, a difficult part to
+play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle; and yet Antony,
+their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous foe. In these
+difficult circumstances the youth displayed a prudence and a wisdom
+which baffled the most experienced politicians. Without committing
+himself to any party, he professed a warm attachment to the Senate.
+Cicero had once more taken an active part in public affairs; and
+Octavian, with that dissimulation which he practiced throughout his
+life, completely deceived the veteran orator. On the 2d of September
+Cicero delivered in the Senate the first of his orations against Antony,
+which, in imitation of those of Demosthenes against Philip, are known by
+the name of the _Philippics_. Antony was absent at the time, but shortly
+afterward attacked the orator in unmeasured terms. Cicero replied in the
+Second Philippic, one of the most violent invectives ever written. It
+was not spoken, but was published soon after Antony had quitted Rome.
+
+Meantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the disposition of
+the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a considerable number of
+troops in various parts of Italy. Antony saw that the power was slipping
+from under his feet. Two of the legions which he had sent from Epirus
+passed over to Octavian; and, in order to keep the remainder under his
+standard, and to secure the north of Italy to his interests, Antony now
+proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, which had been previously granted to him by
+the Senate. Upon entering the province toward the end of November, Dec.
+Brutus threw himself into Mutina (_Modena_), to which Antony laid siege.
+
+Soon after Antony's departure Cicero prevailed upon the Senate to
+declare Antony a public enemy, and to intrust to the young Octavian the
+conduct of the war against him. Cicero was now at the height of his
+glory. His activity was unceasing, and in the twelve remaining
+"Philippics" he encouraged the Senate and the people to prosecute the
+war with vigor. The two new Consuls (B.C. 48) were A. Hirtius and C.
+Vibius Pansa, both of whom had been designated by the late Dictator. As
+soon as they had entered upon their office, Hirtius, accompanied by
+Octavian, marched into Cisalpine Gaul, while Pansa remained in the city
+to levy troops. For some weeks no movement of importance took place in
+either army; but when Pansa set out to join his colleague and Octavian,
+Antony marched southward, attacked him at Forum Gallorum, near Bononia
+(_Bologna_), and gained a victory over him (April 14). Pansa was
+mortally wounded; but Hirtius retrieved this disaster by suddenly
+attacking Antony the same evening on his return to the camp at Mutina. A
+few days afterward (April 27th) a more decisive battle took place before
+Mutina. Antony was defeated with great loss, but Hirtius fell in leading
+an assault on the besiegers' camp. The death of the two Consuls left
+Octavian the sole command; and so timely was their removal that he was
+accused by many of murdering them.
+
+Antony now found it impossible to continue the siege of Mutina, but he
+retreated in good order northward, crossed the Alps, and was well
+received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, who had promised him support.
+Meantime the good understanding between Octavian and the Senate had come
+to an end. The latter, being resolved to prevent him from obtaining any
+farther power, gave the command of the Consular armies to D. Brutus; and
+Cicero talked of removing the boy. But the "boy" soon showed the Senate
+that he was their master. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who
+gladly followed the heir of Cæsar to Rome. Though only 20 years of age,
+he demanded of the Senate the Consulship. At first they attempted to
+evade his demand; but his soldiers were encamped in the Campus Martius,
+and in the month of August he was elected Consul with his cousin Q.
+Pedius. The first act of his Consulship showed that he had completely
+broken with the Senate. His colleague proposed a law declaring all the
+murderers of Cæsar to be outlaws. Octavian then quitted Rome to march
+professedly against Antony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city; but it
+soon appeared that he had come to an understanding with Antony, for he
+had hardly entered Etruria before the unwilling Senate were compelled,
+upon the proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of outlawry against
+Antony and Lepidus. These two were now descending the Alps at the head
+of 17 legions. Octavian was advancing northward with a formidable army.
+Between two such forces the situation of D. Brutus was hopeless. He was
+deserted by his own troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending to cross
+over to Macedonia, but was put to death in the former place by order of
+Antony.
+
+Lepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian, now arranged
+a meeting between them on a small island near Bononia, formed by the
+waters of the River Rhenus, a tributary of the Po. The interview took
+place near the end of November. It was arranged that the government of
+the Roman world should be divided between the three for a period of five
+years, under the title of "Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the
+Republic."[71] Octavian received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa; Antony
+the two Gauls, with the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with
+Spain, was assigned to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to prosecute
+the war against Brutus and Cassius, who were in possession of the
+eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive the Consulship for the
+following year, with the charge of Italy.
+
+The Triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla by drawing
+up a Proscription--a list of persons whose lives were to be sacrificed
+and property confiscated. But they had not Sulla's excuse. He returned
+to Italy exasperated to the highest degree by the murder of his friends
+and the personal insults he had received. The Triumvirs, out of a
+cold-blooded policy, resolved to remove every one whose opposition they
+feared or whose property they coveted. In drawing up the fatal list,
+they sacrificed without scruple their nearest relatives and friends. To
+please Antony, Octavian gave up Cicero; Antony, in return, surrendered
+his own uncle, L. Cæsar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus.
+As many as 300 Senators and 2000 Equites were entered on the lists.
+
+As soon as the Triumvirs had made their secret arrangements they marched
+toward Rome. Hitherto they had published the names of only 17 of the
+Proscribed; but the city was in a state of the utmost alarm, and it was
+with difficulty that Pedius could preserve the peace. So great were his
+anxiety and fatigue that he died the night before the entry of the
+Triumvirs into the city. They marched into Rome at the head of their
+legions, and filled all the public places with their soldiery. No
+attempt at resistance was made. A law was proposed and carried
+conferring upon the Triumvirs the title and powers they had assumed. The
+work of butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of the Proscribed
+were then published, each more numerous than the former. The soldiers
+hunted after the victims, cut off their heads, and brought them to the
+authorities to prove their claims to the blood-money. Slaves were
+rewarded for betraying their masters, and whoever harbored any of the
+Proscribed was punished with death. Terror reigned throughout Italy. No
+one knew whose turn would come next.
+
+Cicero was included in the first 17 victims of the Proscription. He was
+residing in his Tusculan villa with his brother Quintus, who urged him
+to escape to Brutus in Macedonia. They reached Astura, a small island
+off Antium, when Quintus ventured to Rome to obtain a supply of money,
+of which they were in need. Here he was apprehended, together with his
+son, and both were put to death. The orator again embarked, and coasted
+along to Formiæ, where he landed at his villa, resolving no longer to
+fly from his fate. After spending a night in his own house, his
+attendants, hearing that the soldiers were close at hand, forced him to
+enter a litter, and hurried him through the woods toward the shore,
+distant a mile from his house. As they were passing onward they were
+overtaken by their pursuers, and were preparing to defend their master
+with their lives; but Cicero commanded them to desist, and, stretching
+his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to strike. They
+instantly cut off his head and hands, which were carried to Rome.
+Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the wife of Antony, gloated her
+eyes with the sight, and even thrust a hair-pin through his tongue.
+Antony ordered the head to be nailed to the Rostra, which had so often
+witnessed the triumphs of the orator. Thus died Cicero, in the 64th year
+of his age. He had not sufficient firmness of character to cope with the
+turbulent times in which his lot was cast, but as a man he deserves our
+admiration and love. In the midst of almost universal corruption he
+remained uncontaminated. He was an affectionate father, a faithful
+friend, and a kind master.
+
+Many of the Proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge with Sextus
+Pompey in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in the East. After the
+death of Cæsar, the Senate appointed Sextus Pompey to the command of the
+Republican fleet. He had become master of Sicily; his fleet commanded
+the Mediterranean; and Rome began to suffer from want of its usual
+supplies of corn. It was arranged that Octavian should attempt the
+conquest of Sicily, while Antony was preparing for the campaign in the
+East. A fleet under Salvidienus Rufus was sent against Pompey, but was
+defeated by the latter in the Straits of Sicily, in sight of Octavian.
+But the war against Brutus and Cassius was more urgent, and accordingly
+Octavian and Antony sailed shortly afterward to the East, leaving Pompey
+undisputed master of the sea.
+
+On quitting Italy, Brutus had first gone to Athens. The remains of the
+Pompeian legions, which continued in Greece after the battle of
+Pharsalia, gathered round him; Hortensius, the governor of Macedonia,
+acknowledged him as his successor; and C. Antonius, whom his brother had
+sent over to take the command of the province, was obliged to surrender
+to Brutus.
+
+His colleague had been equally fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, to whom
+Antony had given this province, was besieged in Laodicea by Cassius, and
+put an end to his own life.
+
+These events took place in B.C. 43. Brutus and Cassius were now masters
+of the Roman world east of the Adriatic. It was evident that their
+enemies before long would cross over into Greece; but, instead of
+concentrating their forces in that country, they began to plunder the
+cities of Asia Minor, in order to obtain money for their troops. Brutus
+pillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The inhabitants of the Lycian town
+of Xanthus refused to submit to the exactions of Brutus, made an heroic
+defense when they were attacked, and preferred to perish in the flames
+of their city rather than to yield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged
+when the news of the Triumvirate and the Proscription reached them; but
+they continued some time longer plundering in the East, and it was not
+till the spring of B.C. 42 that the Republican chiefs at length
+assembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march into Europe. So
+much time, however, had now been lost, that Antony and Octavian landed
+upon the coast of Greece, and had already commenced their march toward
+Macedonia before Brutus and Cassius had quitted Asia.
+
+Brutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching struggle.
+He continued his studious habits during the campaign, and limited his
+sleep to a very short time. On the night before his army crossed over
+into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the lamp burning dim, and the
+whole camp in deep silence, when he saw a gigantic and terrible figure
+standing by him. He had the courage to ask, "Who art thou, and for what
+purpose dost thou come?" The phantom replied, "I am thy evil genius,
+Brutus; we shall meet again at Philippi!" and vanished.
+
+[Illustration: Philippi.]
+
+Brutus and Cassius marched through Thrace and Macedonia to Philippi,
+where they met the army of the Triumvirs. The Republican leaders took up
+their positions on two heights distant a mile from each other, Brutus
+pitching his camp on the northern, and Cassius on the southern, near the
+sea. The camps, though separate, were inclosed with a common
+intrenchment, and midway between them was the pass which led like a gate
+from Europe to Asia. The Triumvirs were on the lower ground, in a less
+favorable position--Octavian opposite Brutus, and Antony opposite
+Cassius. Their troops began to suffer from want of provisions, and they
+endeavored to force the Republican leaders to an engagement. Cassius
+was unwilling to quit his strong position, and recommended that they
+should wait for their fleet; but Brutus was anxious to put an end to
+this state of suspense, and persuaded the council to risk an immediate
+battle. Brutus himself defeated the army opposite to him, and penetrated
+into the camp of Octavian, who was lying ill, unable to take part in the
+battle. His litter was seized, and brought forth covered with blood, and
+a report spread that he had been killed. Meantime, on the other side of
+the field, Antony had driven back Cassius, and taken his camp. Cassius
+had retired to a neighboring hill with some of his men, when he saw a
+large body of cavalry approaching. Thinking that they belonged to the
+enemy and that every thing was lost, he ordered one of his freedmen to
+put an end to his life. But the cavalry had been sent by Brutus to
+obtain news of Cassius; and when he heard of the death of his colleague,
+he wept over him as "the last of the Romans," a eulogy which Cassius had
+done nothing to deserve.
+
+Twenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his forces; but
+this time he was completely defeated, and with difficulty escaped from
+the field. He withdrew into a wood, and in the night-time fell upon his
+sword, which Strato, who had been his teacher in rhetoric, held for him.
+His wife Porcia, the daughter of Cato, resolved not to survive her
+husband; and, being closely watched by her relations, she put an end to
+her life by thrusting burning charcoal into her mouth. Brutus was
+doubtless a sincere Republican, but he was a man of weak judgment,
+deficient in knowledge of mankind, and more fitted for a life of study
+than the command of armies and the government of men.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antony and Cleopatra.]
+
+[Footnote 71: _Triumviri Reipulicæ constituendæ._]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: M. Agrippa.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII.
+
+FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.
+
+
+The battle of Philippi scaled the fate of the Republic. Antony remained
+in the East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, who was in ill
+health, returned to Italy to give the veterans the lands which had been
+promised them. Antony traversed Asia Minor, plundering the unfortunate
+inhabitants, who had already suffered so severely from the exactions of
+Brutus and Cassias. In the voluptuous cities of Asia he surrendered
+himself to every kind of sensual enjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the
+character of Bacchus, accompanied by a wild procession of women dressed
+like Bacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Pans. At
+Tarsus, in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the war against
+the Parthians, he was visited by Cleopatra. He had summoned her to his
+presence to answer for her conduct in supplying Cassius with money and
+provisions. She was now in her 28th year, and in the full maturity of
+her charms. In her 15th year her beauty had made an impression on the
+heart of Antony, when he was at Alexandria with Gabinius, and she now
+trusted to make him her willing slave. She sailed up the Cydnus to
+Tarsus in a magnificent vessel with purple sails, propelled by silver
+oars to the sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined under an
+awning spangled with gold, attired as Venus and fanned by Cupids. The
+most beautiful of her female slaves held the rudder and the ropes. The
+perfumes burnt upon the vessel filled the banks of the river with their
+fragrance. The inhabitants cried that Venus had come to revel with
+Bacchus. Antony accepted her invitation to sup on board her galley, and
+was completely subjugated. Her wit and vivacity surpassed even her
+beauty. He followed her to Alexandria, where he forgot every thing in
+luxurious dalliance and the charms of her society.
+
+Meantime important events had been taking place in Italy. Octavian found
+immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of the veterans. All
+Italy was thrown into confusion. Though he expelled thousands from their
+homes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to give their farms to his soldiers,
+they still clamored for more. Those who had obtained assignments of land
+seized upon the property of their neighbors, and those who had not were
+ready to rise in mutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to
+yield their property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their
+complaints, and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of
+Octavian. Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to control his
+soldiers. Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in Italy,
+resolved to avail herself of those elements of confusion, and crush
+Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious woman; she saw that, sooner or
+later, the struggle must come between her husband and Octavian; and, by
+precipitating the war, she hoped to bring her husband to Italy, and thus
+withdraw him from the influence of Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother
+of the Triumvir, who was Consul this year (B.C. 41), entered into her
+views. They proclaimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate
+Italians, and also promised to the discontented soldiery that the
+Triumvir would recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these means
+they soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable force. They even
+obtained possession of Rome. But Agrippa, the ablest general of
+Octavian, forced them to quit the city, and pressed them so hard that
+they were obliged to take refuge in Perusia (_Perugia_), one of the most
+powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were besieged during the winter,
+and suffered so dreadfully from famine that they found themselves
+compelled to capitulate in the following spring. The lives of L.
+Antonius and Fulvia were spared, but the chief citizens of Perusia
+itself were put to death, and the town burnt to the ground.
+
+While Antony's friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his own forces
+experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q. Labienus, the son
+of Cæsar's old lieutenant in Gaul, had been sent by Brutus and Cassius
+to seek aid from Orodes, the king of Parthia. He was in that country
+when the news arrived of the battle of Philippi, and had remained there
+up to the present time. The war in Italy, and Antony's indolence at
+Alexandria, held out a favorable opportunity for the invasion of the
+Roman provinces. Orodes placed a large army under the command of
+Labienus and his own son Pacorus. They crossed the Euphrates in B.C. 40,
+and carried every thing before them. Antony's troops were defeated; the
+two powerful cities of Antioch and Apamea were taken, and the whole of
+Syria overrun by the Parthians. Pacorus penetrated as far south as
+Palestine, and Labienus invaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, both from
+Italy and the East, at length aroused Antony from his voluptuous dreams.
+Leaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria to conduct the war against the
+Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where he met his brother and wife.
+He now formed an alliance with Sextus Pompey, sailed to Italy, and laid
+siege to Brundusium. Another civil war seemed inevitable; but the
+soldiers on both sides were eager for peace, and mutual friends
+persuaded the chiefs to be reconciled, which was the more easily
+effected in consequence of the death of Fulvia at Sicyon. A new division
+of the Roman world was now made. Antony was to have all the eastern
+provinces and Octavian the western, the town of Scodra, in Illyricum,
+forming the boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them in
+common. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa, which he had
+received after the battle of Philippi, but he had ceased to be of any
+political importance. It was agreed that Antony should carry on the war
+against the Parthians, and that Octavian should subdue Pompey, whom
+Antony readily sacrificed. The Consuls were to be selected alternately
+from the friends of each. To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry
+Octavia, the sister of Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one of the
+noblest women of her age. The two Triumvirs then repaired to Rome to
+celebrate the marriage. These events took place toward the end of B.C.
+40.
+
+Discontent, however, prevailed at Rome. Sextus Pompey, who had been
+excluded from the peace, still continued master of the sea, and
+intercepted the ships which supplied the city with corn. The people were
+in want of bread, and became so exasperated that Octavian and Antony
+found it necessary to enter into negotiations with Pompey. An interview
+took place between the chiefs at Cape Misenum. It was agreed that
+Pompey should receive Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he
+should send to Rome an immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted
+one another, and Pompey entertained Octavian and Antony on board his own
+galley. When the banquet was at its height, a Greek named Menas, or
+Menodorus, one of Pompey's captains, whispered to him, "Shall I cut off
+the anchors of the ship, and make you master of the Roman world?" To
+which Pompey made the well-known reply, "You ought to have done it
+without asking me." The two Triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were
+received with shouts of applause. The civil wars seemed to have come to
+an end (B.C. 39).
+
+Antony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found that his
+legate Ventidius had gained the most brilliant success over the
+Parthians. This man was a native of Picenum, and originally a
+mule-driver. He was taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked in
+chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius Strato. He was made
+Tribune of the Plebs by Julius Cæsar, and was raised to the Consulship
+in B.C. 43. In the Parthian War he displayed military abilities of no
+ordinary kind. He first defeated Labienus, took him prisoner in Cilicia,
+and put him to death. He then entered Syria, and drove Pacorus beyond
+the Euphrates. In the following year (B.C. 38) the Parthians again
+entered Syria, but Ventidius gained a signal victory over them, and
+Pacorus himself fell in the battle.
+
+The treaty between Sextus Pompey and the Triumvirs did not last long.
+Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompey therefore recommenced his
+piratical excursions. The price of provisions at Rome immediately rose,
+and Octavian found it necessary to commence war immediately; but his
+fleet was twice defeated by Pompey, and was at last completely destroyed
+by a storm (B.C. 38). This failure only proved the necessity of making
+still more extensive preparations to carry on the war with success. The
+power of Octavian was insecure as long as Pompey was master of the sea,
+and could deprive Rome of her supplies of corn. Nearly two years were
+spent in building a new fleet, and exercising the newly-raised crews and
+rowers. The command of the fleet and the superintendence of all the
+necessary preparations for the war were intrusted to Agrippa. In order
+to obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin for his fleet, and
+thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he constructed the
+celebrated Julius Portus on the coast of Campania, near Baiæ, by
+connecting the inland Lake Avernus, by means of a canal, with the Lake
+Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter lake against the sea, by an
+artificial dike or dam. While he was engaged in these great works,
+Antony sailed to Taventum, in B.C. 37, with 300 ships. Mæcenas hastened
+thither from Rome, and succeeded once more in concluding an amicable
+arrangement. He was accompanied on this occasion by Horace, who has
+immortalized, in a well-known satire, his journey from Rome to
+Brundusium. Octavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Metapontum; the
+Triumvirate was renewed for another period of five years; Antony agreed
+to leave 120 ships to assist in the war against Pompey, and Octavian
+promised to send a land force to the East for the campaign against the
+Parthians.
+
+Octavian, now relieved of all anxiety on the part of Antony, urged on
+his preparations with redoubled vigor. By the summer of B.C. 36 he was
+ready to commence operations. He had three large fleets at his disposal:
+his own, stationed in the Julian harbor; that of Antony, under the
+command of Statilius Taurus, in the harbor of Tarentum; and that of
+Lepidus, off the coast of Africa. His plan was for all three fleets to
+set sail on the same day, and make a descent upon three different parts
+of Sicily; but a fearful storm marred this project. Lepidus alone
+reached the coast of Sicily, and landed at Lilybæum; Statilius Taurus
+was able to put back to Tarentum; but Octavian, who was surprised by the
+storm off the Lucanian promontory of Palinurus, lost a great number of
+his ships, and was obliged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered
+fleet. As soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail
+for Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompey's fleet off Mylæ, destroying 30 of
+his ships; but the decisive battle was fought on the 3d of September
+(B.C. 36), off Naulochus, a sea-port between Mylæ and the promontory of
+Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory; most of the Pompeian
+vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompey himself fled to Lesbos with a
+squadron of 17 ships. Octavian did not pursue him, as Lepidus, who was
+at the head of a considerable force, now claimed Sicily for himself, and
+an equal share as Triumvir in the government of the Roman world; but
+Octavian found means to seduce his soldiers from their allegiance; and
+Lepidus was at last obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to throw
+himself upon his mercy. His life was granted, but he was deprived of his
+Triumvirate, his army, and his provinces, and was compelled to retire to
+Italy as a private person. He was allowed, however, to retain his
+property and the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. He lived till B.C. 13.
+
+In B.C. 35 Pompey crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the view of
+seizing that province; but he was easily crushed by the lieutenants of
+Antony, was taken prisoner as he attempted to escape to Armenia, and was
+put to death at Miletus. By the death of Pompey and the deposition of
+Lepidus, Antony and Octavian were now left without a rival, and Antony's
+mad love for Cleopatra soon made Octavian the undisputed master of the
+Roman world.
+
+After Antony's marriage with Octavia in B.C. 40, he seems for a time to
+have forgotten, or, at least, conquered the fascinations of the Egyptian
+queen. For the next three years he resided in Athens with his wife; but
+after his visit to Italy, and the renewal of the Triumvirate in B.C. 37,
+he left Octavia behind at Tarentum, and determined to carry out his
+long-projected campaign against the Parthians. As he approached Syria,
+"that great evil," as Plutarch calls it, his passion for Cleopatra,
+burst forth with more vehemence than ever. From this time she appears as
+his evil genius. He summoned her to him at Laodicea, and loaded her with
+honors and favors. He added to her dominions Phoenicia, Coele-Syria,
+Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Palestine, and Arabia, and publicly
+recognized the children she had borne him. Although he had collected a
+large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was unable to tear himself
+away from the enchantress, and did not commence his march till late in
+the year. The expedition proved most disastrous; the army suffered from
+want of provisions, and Antony found himself compelled to retreat. He
+narrowly escaped the fate of Crassus, and it was with the utmost
+difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the Armenian mountains, after
+losing the best part of his troops.
+
+Antony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself entirely to
+Cleopatra. In B.C. 34 he made a short campaign into Armenia, and
+succeeded in obtaining possession of Artavasdas, the Armenian king. He
+carried him to Alexandria, and, to the great scandal of all the Romans,
+entered the city in triumph, with all the pomp and ceremonial of the
+Roman pageant. He now laid aside entirely the character of a Roman
+citizen, and assumed the state and dress of an Eastern monarch. Instead
+of the toga he wore a robe of purple, and his head was crowned with a
+diadem. Sometimes he assumed the character of Osiris, while Cleopatra
+appeared at his side as Isis. He gave the title of kings to Alexander
+and Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The Egyptian queen already dreamed
+of reigning over the Roman world.
+
+While Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his friends and
+supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had been restoring order
+to Italy, and, by his wise and energetic administration, was slowly
+repairing the evils of the civil wars. In order to give security to the
+frontiers and employment to the troops, he attacked the barbarians on
+the north of Italy and Greece, and subdued the Iapydes, Pannonians, and
+Dalmatians. He carried on these wars in person, and won the affection of
+the soldiers by sharing their dangers and hardships.
+
+The contrast between the two Triumvirs was sufficiently striking, but
+Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony. Letters passed
+between them full of mutual recriminations, and both parties began to
+prepare for the inevitable struggle. Toward the end of B.C. 32 the
+Senate declared war against Cleopatra, for Antony was regarded as her
+slave.[72] The five years of the Triumvirate had expired on the last day
+of this year; and on the 1st of January, B.C. 31, Octavian, as Consul of
+the Republic, proceeded to carry on the war against the Egyptian queen.
+The hostile fleets and armies assembled on the western coasts of Greece.
+Antony's fleet was superior both in number and size of the ships, but
+they were clumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the Ambraciot
+Gulf, in the modern _Bay of Prevesa_. (See Plan, P.) The army was
+encamped on the promontory of Actium (Plan, 3), which has given its name
+to the battle. The fleet of Octavian consisted of light Liburnian
+vessels, manned by crews which had gained experience in the wars against
+Sextus Pompey. It was under the command of the able Agrippa, who took up
+his station at Corcyra, and swept the Adriatic Sea. Octavian in person
+took the command of the land forces, which were encamped on the coast of
+Epirus opposite Actium, on the spot where Nicopolis afterward stood.
+(Plan, 1.) The generals of Antony strongly urged him to fight on land;
+but the desertions among his troops were numerous; Cleopatra became
+alarmed for her safety; and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the
+army, and retire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the watch,
+and Antony had no sooner sailed outside the strait than he was compelled
+to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally favorable to both
+parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were at anchor in the rear,
+taking advantage of a favorable breeze which sprang up, sailed through
+the midst of the combatants with her squadron of 60 ships, and made for
+the coast of Peloponnesus. When Antony saw her flight, he hastily
+followed her, forgetting every thing else, and shamefully deserting
+those who were fighting and dying in his cause. The remainder of the
+fleet was destroyed before night-time. The army, after a few days'
+hesitation, surrendered, and Octavian pardoned all the officers who sued
+for his favor. The battle of Actium was fought on the 2d of September,
+B.C. 31, from which day the reign of Octavian is to be dated.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Actium.
+
+1. Nicopolis              3. Prom. Actium.
+2. _C. La Scara_.         5. Temple of Apollo.
+             P. _Bay of Prevesa_.
+]
+
+Octavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly twelve months
+after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to Italy with his veteran
+troops, and himself passed the winter at Samos; but he could not satisfy
+the demands of the soldiers, who broke out into open mutiny. Octavian
+hastened to Brundusium, and with difficulty raised a sufficient sum of
+money to calm their discontent.
+
+This respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra. They knew that
+resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent embassadors to Octavian to
+solicit his favor. To Antony no answer was given, but to Cleopatra hopes
+were held out if she would betray her lover. She began to flatter
+herself that her charms, which had fascinated both Cæsar and Antony,
+might conquer Octavian, who was younger than either. Octavian at length
+appeared before Pelusium, which surrendered to him without resistance.
+He then marched upon Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight
+success in an action with the cavalry, prepared to resist Octavian both
+by sea and land; but as soon as the Egyptian ships approached those of
+Octavian, the crews saluted them with their oars and passed over to
+their side. Antony's cavalry also deserted him, his infantry was easily
+repulsed, and he fled to Alexandria, crying out that he was betrayed by
+Cleopatra.
+
+The queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she had built to
+receive her body after death, and where she had collected her most
+valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony's defeat, she sent persons to
+inform him that she was dead. He fell into the snare; they had promised
+not to survive one another, and Antony stabbed himself. He was drawn up
+into the mausoleum, and died in her arms. She was apprehended by the
+officers of Octavian, and a few days afterward had an interview with the
+conqueror. Her charms, however, failed in softening the colder heart of
+Octavian. He only "bade her be of good cheer and fear no violence." Soon
+afterward she learned that she was to be sent to Rome in three days'
+time. This news decided her. On the following day she was found lying
+dead on a golden couch in royal attire, with her two women lifeless at
+her feet. The manner of her death was unknown. It was generally believed
+that she had died by the bite of an asp, which a peasant had brought to
+her in a basket full of figs. She was 39 years of age at the time of her
+death. Egypt was made a Roman province. Octavian did not return to Rome
+till B.C. 29, when he celebrated a threefold triumph over the
+Pannonians, Dalmatians, and Egypt. The Temple of Janus was closed for
+the third time in Roman history. The exhausted Roman world, longing for
+repose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian. The Senate
+conferred upon him numerous honors and distinctions, with the title of
+Imperator for life.
+
+Thus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been tending for
+the last hundred years. The corruption and demoralization of all classes
+had rendered a Republic almost an impossibility; and the civil
+dissensions of the state had again and again invested one or more
+persons with despotic authority. The means which Augustus employed to
+strengthen and maintain his power belong to a history of the Empire. He
+proceeded with the caution which was his greatest characteristic. He
+refused the names of King and Dictator, and was contented with the
+simple appellation of _Princeps_, which had always been given to one of
+the most distinguished members of the Senate. He received, however, in
+B.C. 27, the novel title of _Augustus_, that is, "the sacred," or "the
+venerable," which was afterward assumed by all the Roman emperors as a
+surname. As Imperator he had the command of the Roman armies; and the
+tribunitian and proconsular powers which the Senate conferred upon him
+made him absolute master of the state. He made a new division of the
+provinces, allowing the Senate to appoint the governors of those which
+were quiet and long-settled, like Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but
+retaining for himself such as required the presence of an army, which
+were governed by means of his Legati. On the death of Lepidus in B.C.
+13, he succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus, and thus became the head of
+the Roman religion. While he thus united in his own person all the great
+offices of state, he still allowed the Consuls, Prætors, and other
+magistrates of the Republic to be annually elected. "In a few words, the
+system of Imperial government, as it was instituted by Octavian, and
+maintained by those princes who understood their own interest and that
+of the people, may be defined as an absolute government, disguised by
+the form of a commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded
+their throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength; and
+humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of the Senate,
+whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed."[73]
+
+[Footnote 72: Antony retaliated by sending Octavia a bill of divorce.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Gibbon.]
+
+[Illustration: Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Horace.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII.
+
+SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO
+THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.
+
+
+For many centuries after the foundation of the city the Romans can
+hardly be said to have had any literature at all. There may have
+existed, at an early period, some songs or ballads, recounting, in rude
+strains,[74] the exploits of the heroes of Roman story, but all trace of
+these has disappeared. It was not till the conquest of the Greek cities
+in Southern Italy, shortly before the First Punic War, that we can date
+the commencement of the Roman literature. It began with the Drama.
+Dramatic exhibitions were first introduced at Rome from Etruria in B.C.
+363, on the occasion of a severe pestilence, in order to avert the anger
+of the gods. But these exhibitions were only pantomimic scenes to the
+music of the flute, without any song or dialogue. It was not till B.C.
+240 that a drama with a regular plot was performed at Rome. Its author
+was M. LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, a native of Magna Græcia, who was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum, and carried to Rome, where he
+became the slave of M. Livius Salinator. He was afterward set free, and,
+according to Roman practice, took the gentilic name of his master. He
+acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge of the Latin language, and wrote
+both tragedies and comedies, which were borrowed, or, rather, translated
+from the Greek. He also wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and
+some hymns. He may be regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were
+read in schools in the time of Horace.
+
+CN. NÆVIUS, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by birth. He served
+in the First Punic War, and, like Livius, wrote dramas borrowed from the
+Greek. His first play was performed in B.C. 235. He was attached to the
+Plebeian party; and, with the license of the old Attic comedy, he made
+the stage a vehicle for assailing the aristocracy. In consequence of his
+attacks upon the Metelli he was thrown into prison. He obtained his
+release through the Tribunes, but was soon compelled to expiate a new
+offense by exile. He retired to Utica, where he died about B.C. 202. In
+his exile he wrote, in the Saturnian metre, an epic poem on the First
+Punic War, in which he introduced the celebrated legends connected with
+the foundation of Rome. This poem was extensively copied both by Ennius
+and Virgil.
+
+Q. ENNIUS, however, may be regarded as the real founder of Roman
+literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna Græcia. He was born at
+Rudiæ, in Calabria, B.C. 239. Cato found him in Sardinia in B.C. 204,
+and brought him in his train to Rome. He dwelt in a humble house on the
+Aventine, and maintained himself by acting as preceptor to the youths of
+the Roman nobles. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the
+elder Scipio Africanus. He died B.C. 169, at the age of 70. He was
+buried in the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place
+among the effigies of that noble house. His most important work was an
+epic poem, entitled the "Annals of Rome," in 18 books, written in
+dactylic hexameters, which, through his example, supplanted the old
+Saturnian metre. This poem commenced with the loves of Mars and Rhea,
+and came down to the age of Ennius. Virgil borrowed largely from it;
+and, down to his time, it was regarded as the great epic poem of the
+Latin language. He also wrote numerous tragedies, a few comedies, and
+several other works, such as _Satiræ_, composed in a great variety of
+metres, from which circumstance they probably received their name.
+
+The comic drama of Rome, though it continued to be more or less a
+translation or an imitation of the Greek, was cultivated with
+distinguished success by two writers of genius, several of whose plays
+are still extant.
+
+T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS was a native of Sarsina, a small village in Umbria,
+and was born about B.C. 254. He probably came to Rome at an early age,
+and was first employed in the service of the actors. With the money he
+had saved in this inferior station he left Rome, and set up in business;
+but his speculations failed: he returned to Rome, and his necessities
+obliged him to enter the service of a baker, who employed him in
+turning a hand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three
+plays, the sale of which to the managers of the public games enabled him
+to quit his drudgery, and begin his literary career. He was then about
+30 years of age (B.C. 224), and continued to write for the stage for
+about 40 years. He died in B.C. 184, when he was 70 years of age. The
+comedies of Plautus enjoyed unrivaled popularity among the Romans, and
+continued to be represented down to the time of Diocletian. Though they
+were founded upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak, and
+joke like genuine Romans, and the poet thereby secured the sympathy of
+his audience more completely than Terence. It was not only with the
+common people that Plautus was a favorite; educated Romans read and
+admired his works down to the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a
+level with that of the old Attic comedy; and St. Jerome used to console
+himself with the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in
+tears on account of his past sins. The favorable impression which the
+ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by the
+judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several of his plays
+have been imitated by many of the best modern poets. Twenty of his
+comedies are extant.
+
+P. TERENTIUS AFER, usually called TERENCE, was born at Carthage, B.C.
+195. By birth or purchase he became the slave of P. Terentius, a Roman
+senator, who afforded him the best education of the age, and finally
+gave him his freedom. The _Andria_, which was the first play of Terence
+acted (B.C. 166), was the means of introducing him to the most refined
+and intellectual circles of Rome. His chief patrons were Lælius and the
+younger Scipio, both of whom treated him as an equal, and are said even
+to have assisted him in the composition of his plays. He died in the
+36th year of his age, in B.C. 159. Six comedies are all that remain to
+us. The ancient critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence immaculate
+purity and elegance of language. Although a foreigner and a freedman, he
+divides with Cicero and Cæsar the palm of pure Latinity.
+
+There were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but who enjoyed
+a great reputation among the Romans. Q. CÆCILIUS was a native of Milan,
+and, like Terence, came to Rome as a slave. He was the immediate
+predecessor of Terence, and died B.C. 108, two years before the
+representation of the _Andria_. L. AFRANIUS flourished B.C. 100, and
+wrote comedies describing Roman scenes and manners, called _Comoediæ
+Togatæ_, to distinguish them from those depicting Grecian life, which
+were termed _Palliatæ_, from _pallium_, the national dress of the
+Greeks.
+
+There were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who also enjoyed
+great celebrity, though their works have likewise perished. M. PACUVIUS,
+son of the sister of Ennius, was born about B.C. 220, and died in the
+90th year of his age. He is praised by the Latin writers for the
+loftiness of his thoughts, the vigor of his language, and the extent of
+his knowledge. Hence we find the epithet _doctus_ frequently applied to
+him. Most of his tragedies were taken from the Greek writers; but some
+belonged to the class called _Prætextatæ_, in which the subjects were
+taken from Roman story. One of these, entitled _Paullus_, had as its
+hero L. Æmilius Paullus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia. L.
+ACCIUS, a younger contemporary of Pacuvius, was born B.C. 170, and lived
+to a great age. Cicero, when a young man, frequently conversed with him.
+His tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of the
+Greek; but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of which was
+entitled _Brutus_.
+
+Though the Roman Drama, properly so called, was derived from the Greeks,
+there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions which were of Italian
+origin. The first of these were the _Atellanæ Fabulæ_, or Atellane
+Plays, which took their name from Atella, a town in Campania. They were
+composed in the Oscan dialect, and were at first rude extemporaneous
+farces, but were afterward divided into acts like a regular drama. They
+seem to have been the origin of the Policinello of modern Italy. The
+Oscan dialect was preserved even when they were introduced at Rome. The
+_Mimes_ were another species of comedy, of which only the name seems to
+have been derived from the Greek. They were a species of low comedy of
+an indecent description, in which the dialogue was subordinate to
+mimicry and gesture. The Dictator Sulla was very fond of these
+performances. The two most distinguished writers of Mimes were DEC.
+LABERIUS, a knight, and P. SYRUS, a freedman, and originally a Syrian
+slave, both of whom were contemporaries of Julius Cæsar. At Cæsar's
+triumphal games in October, B.C. 45, P. Syrus challenged all his craft
+to a trial of wit in extemporaneous farce, and Cæsar offered Laberius
+500,000 sesterces to appear on the stage. Laberius was 60 years old, and
+the profession of a mimus was infamous, but the wish of the Dictator was
+equivalent to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had, however,
+revenge in his power, and took it. His prologue awakened compassion, and
+perhaps indignation; and during the performance he adroitly availed
+himself of his various characters to point his wit at Cæsar. In the
+person of a beaten Syrian slave he cried out, "Marry! Quirites, but we
+lose our freedom," and all eyes were turned upon the Dictator; and in
+another mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, "Needs must he fear who
+makes all else adread." Cæsar, impartially or vindictively, awarded the
+prize to Syrus.
+
+The _Fescennine Songs_ were the origin of the _Satire_, the only
+important species of literature not derived from the Greeks, and
+altogether peculiar to Italy. These Fescennine Songs were rude
+dialogues, in which the country people assailed and ridiculed one
+another in extempore verses, and which were introduced as an amusement
+in various festivals. They were formed into the _Satire_[75] by C.
+LUCILIUS, who wrote in hexameter verse, and attacked the follies and
+vices both of distinguished persons and of mankind in general. He was
+born B.C. 148, at Suessa Aurunca, and died at Naples in B.C. 103. He
+lived upon terms of intimacy with the younger Scipio and Lælius, and was
+the maternal ancestor of Pompey the Great. Lucilius continued to be
+admired in the Augustan age; and Horace, while he censures the harsh
+versification and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his
+compositions, acknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness
+of his attacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries.
+
+Between Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived Lucretius and
+Catullus, two of the greatest--perhaps the greatest--of all the Roman
+poets.
+
+T. LUCRETIUS CARUS was born B.C. 95, and died about B.C. 51. He is said
+to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to have perished by his
+own hand. The work which has immortalized his name is a philosophical
+didactic poem, in heroic hexameters, entitled _De Rerum Natura_, divided
+into six books, and addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who was prætor in
+B.C. 58. Its object is to state clearly the leading principles of the
+Epicurean philosophy in such a form as might render the study attractive
+to his countrymen. He attempts to show that there is nothing in the
+history or actual condition of the world which does not admit of
+explanation without having recourse to the active interposition of
+divine beings. The work has been admitted by all modern critics to be
+the greatest of didactic poems. The most abstruse speculations are
+clearly explained in majestic verse, while the subject, which in itself
+is dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and
+beauty.
+
+VALERIUS CATULLUS was born at Verona or in its immediate vicinity, B.C.
+87. He inherited considerable property from his father, who was the
+friend of Julius Cæsar; but he squandered a great part of it by
+indulging freely in the pleasures of the metropolis. In order to better
+his fortunes, he went to Bithynia in the train of the Prætor Memmius,
+but it appears that the speculation was attended with little success. It
+was probably during this expedition that his brother died in the Troad,
+a loss which he deplores in the affecting elegy to Hortalus. On his
+return he continued to reside at Rome, or at his country seats on the
+promontory of Sirmio and at Tibur. He died about B.C. 47. His poems are
+on a variety of topics, and composed in different styles and metres.
+Some are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams; while the Nuptials of
+Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus adorned all he touched,
+and his shorter poems are characterized by original invention and
+felicity of expression. His _Atys_ is one of the most remarkable poems
+in the whole range of Latin literature, distinguished by wild passion
+and the noblest diction.
+
+Among the poets of the Augustan age Virgil and Horace stand forth
+pre-eminent.
+
+P. VIRGILIUS (more properly VERGILIUS) MARO was born B.C. 70, at Andes,
+a small village near Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul. His father left him a
+small estate, which he cultivated. After the battle of Philippi (B.C.
+42) his property was among the lands assigned by Octavian to the
+soldiers. Through the advice of Asinius Pollio, who was then governor of
+Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a poet, Virgil applied to Octavian at
+Rome for the restitution of his land, and obtained his request. The
+first Eclogue commemorates his gratitude. Virgil lived on intimate terms
+with Mæcenas, whom he accompanied in the journey from Rome to
+Brundusium, which forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His
+most finished work, the _Georgics_, was undertaken at the suggestion of
+Mæcenas.[76] The poem was completed after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31,
+while Octavian was in the East.[77] The _Æneid_ was the occupation of
+his latter years. His health was always feeble, and he died at
+Brundusium in B.C. 19, in his 51st year. His remains were transferred to
+Naples, which had been his favorite residence, and placed on the road
+from Naples to Puteoli (_Pozzuoli_), where a monument is still shown,
+supposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said that in his last illness
+he wished to burn the Æneid, to which he had not given the finishing
+touches, but his friends would not allow him. He was an amiable,
+good-tempered man, free from the mean passions of envy and jealousy. His
+fame, which was established in his lifetime, was cherished after his
+death as an inheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works
+became school-books even before the death of Augustus, and continued
+such for centuries after. He was also the great poet of the Middle Ages.
+To him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and owned him for
+his master and model. The ten short poems called Bucolics, or Eclogues,
+were the earliest works of Virgil, and probably all written between B.C.
+41 and B.C. 37. They have all a Bucolic form and coloring, but some of
+them have nothing more. Their merit consists in their versification, and
+in many natural and simple touches. The Georgics is an "Agricultural
+Poem" in four books. Virgil treats of the cultivation of the soil in the
+first book, of fruit-trees in the second, of horses and other cattle in
+the third, and of bees in the fourth. This poem shows a great
+improvement both in his taste and in his versification. Neither in the
+Georgics nor elsewhere has he the merit of striking originality; his
+chief excellence consists in the skillful handling of borrowed
+materials. The Æneid, or adventures of Æneas after the fall of Troy, is
+an epic formed on the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded upon an
+old Roman tradition that Æneas and his Trojans settled in Italy, and
+were the founders of the Roman name. In the first six books the
+adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these books
+contain more variety of incident and situation than those which follow.
+The last six books, the history of the struggles of Æneas in Italy, are
+based on the plan of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the
+Latini, offers in marriage to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who
+had been betrothed to Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. The
+contest is ended by the death of Turnus, who falls by the hand of Æneas.
+The fortunes of Æneas and his final settlement in Italy are the subjects
+of the Æneid, but the glories of Rome and the Julian house, to which
+Augustus belonged, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the first book
+the foundation of Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus, and the
+transfer of empire from Alba to Rome; from the line of Æneas will
+descend the "Trojan Cæsar," whose empire will only be limited by the
+ocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate triumphs of Rome are
+predicted.
+
+Q. HORATIUS FLACCUS, usually called HORACE, was born at Venusia, in
+Apulia, B.C. 65. His father was a freedman. He had received his
+manumission before the birth of the poet, who was of ingenuous birth,
+but who did not altogether escape the taunt which adhered to persons
+even of remote servile origin. His father's occupation was that of a
+collector (_coactor_) of taxes. With the profits of his office he had
+purchased a small farm in the neighborhood of Venusia. Though by no
+means rich, he declined to send the young Horace to the common school,
+kept in Venusia by one Flavius, to which the children of the rural
+aristocracy resorted. Probably about his twelfth year his father carried
+him to Rome to receive the usual education of a knight's or senator's
+son. He frequented the best schools in the capital. One of these was
+kept by Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging propensities
+have been immortalized by his pupil. The names of his other teachers are
+not recorded by the poet. He was instructed in the Greek and Latin
+languages: the poets were the usual school-books--Homer in the Greek,
+and the old tragic writer, Livius Andronicus, in the Latin. In his
+eighteenth year Horace proceeded to Athens, in order to continue his
+studies at that seat of learning. When Brutus came to Athens after the
+death of Cæsar, Horace joined his army, and received at once the rank of
+a military tribune and the command of a legion. He was present at the
+battle of Philippi, and shared in the flight of the republican army. In
+one of his poems he playfully alludes to his flight, and throwing away
+his shield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits;
+and, having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to return to Rome.
+He had lost all his hopes in life; his paternal estate had been swept
+away in the general forfeiture; but he was enabled to obtain sufficient
+money to purchase a clerkship in the Quæstor's office, and on the
+profits of that place he managed, with the utmost frugality, to live.
+Meantime some of his poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil,
+who introduced him to Mæcenas (B.C. 39). Horace soon became the friend
+of Mæcenas, and this friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a year
+or two after the commencement of their friendship (B.C. 37) Horace
+accompanied his patron on the journey to Brundusium already alluded to.
+About the year B.C. 34 Mæcenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm,
+sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in content, during
+the rest of his life. The situation of this farm was in the valley of
+Ustica, within view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the Digentia,
+about 15 miles from Tibur (_Tivoli_). A site exactly answering to the
+villa of Horace, and on which were found ruins of buildings, has been
+discovered in modern times. Besides this estate, his admiration of the
+beautiful scenery in the neighborhood of Tibur inclined him either to
+hire or to purchase a small cottage in that romantic town; and all the
+later years of his life were passed between the metropolis and these two
+country residences. He died, B.C. 8, in his 57th year. He was buried on
+the slope of the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron Mæcenas,
+who had died before him in the same year. Horace has described his own
+person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark hair, but early
+tinged with gray. In his youth he was tolerably robust, but suffered
+from a complaint in his eyes. In more advanced life he grew fat, and
+Augustus jested about his protuberant belly. His health was not always
+good, and he seems to have inclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he
+was rather careless. His habits, even after he became richer, were
+generally frugal and abstemious; though on occasions, both in youth and
+maturer age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked choice
+wine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the luxuries
+of his time. He was never married. The _Odes_ of Horace want the higher
+inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory verses are exquisitely
+graceful, but they have no strong ardor, no deep tenderness, nor even
+much light and joyous gayety; but as works of refined art, of the most
+skillful felicities of language and of measure, of translucent
+expression, and of agreeable images embodied in words which imprint
+themselves indelibly on the memory, they are unrivaled. In the _Satires_
+of Horace there is none of the lofty moral indignation, the fierce
+vehemence of invective, which characterized the later satirists. It is
+the folly rather than the wickedness of vice which he touches with such
+playful skill. In the _Epodes_ there is bitterness provoked, it should
+seem, by some personal hatred or sense of injury; but the _Epistles_ are
+the most perfect of the Horatian poetry, the poetry of manners and
+society, the beauty of which consists in its common sense and practical
+wisdom. The Epistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the
+Georgics of Virgil, and, perhaps, the Satires of Juvenal, the most
+perfect and the most original form of Roman verse. The _Art of Poetry_
+was probably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from devoting
+himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or, at least, to
+suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection.
+
+Three celebrated Elegiac poets--Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid--also
+belong to the Augustan age.
+
+ALBIUS TIBULLUS was of equestrian family, and possessed an hereditary
+estate between Tibur and Præneste. His great patron was Messala, whom he
+accompanied in B.C. 31 into Aquitania, whither Messala had been sent by
+Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which had broken out in
+this province. In the following year (B.C. 30) Messala, having pacified
+Gaul, was sent into the East. Tibullus set out in his company, but was
+taken ill, and obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he returned to
+Rome. So ceased the active life of Tibullus. He died at an early age
+soon after Virgil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a
+gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he was an object
+of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are exquisite small poems,
+celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses.
+
+SEXTUS AURELIUS PROPERTIUS was a native of Umbria, and was born about
+B.C. 51. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an agrarian division,
+probably that in B.C. 33, after the Sicilian War. He began to write
+poetry at a very early age, and the merit of his productions soon
+attracted the attention and patronage of Mæcenas. The year of his death
+is altogether unknown. As an elegiac poet a high rank must be awarded to
+Propertius, and among the ancients it was a disputed point whether the
+preference should be given to him or to Tibullus. To the modern reader,
+however, the elegies of Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those
+of Tibullus. This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great
+measure, also, from a certain want of nature in them. The fault of
+Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His whole
+ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom he made his model. He
+abounds with obscure Greek myths, as well as Greek forms of expression,
+and the same pedantry infects even his versification.
+
+P. OVIDIUS NASO, usually culled OVID, was born at Sulmo, in the country
+of the Peligni, on the 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an
+ancient equestrian family, and was destined to be a pleader; but the
+bent of his genius showed itself very early. The hours which should have
+been spent in the study of jurisprudence were employed in cultivating
+his poetical talent. It is a disputed point whether he ever actually
+practiced as an advocate after his return to Rome. The picture Ovid
+himself draws of his weak constitution and indolent temper prevents us
+from thinking that he ever followed his profession with perseverance,
+if, indeed, at all. He became, however, one of the _Triumviri
+Capitules_; and he was subsequently made one of the _Centumviri_, or
+judges who tried testamentary, and even criminal causes. Till his 50th
+year he continued to reside at Rome, where he had a house near the
+Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignian farm. He not only
+enjoyed the friendship of a large circle of distinguished men, but the
+regard and favor of Augustus and the imperial family; notwithstanding,
+in A.D. 9, he was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict to transport
+himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the Danube, on
+the very border of the empire. He underwent no trial, and the sole
+reason for his banishment stated in the edict was his having published
+his poem on the Art of Love (_Ars Amatoria_). The real cause of his
+banishment is unknown, for the publication of the Art of Love was
+certainly a mere pretext. Ovid draws an affecting picture of the
+miseries to which he was exposed in his place of exile. He complains of
+the inhospitable soil, of the severity of the climate, and of the perils
+to which he was exposed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding
+country, and insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all his
+misfortunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical
+talents. He died at Tomi in the 60th year of his age, A.D. 18. Besides
+his amatory poems, Ovid wrote the _Metamorphoses_ in 15 books, which
+consist of such legends or fables as involved a transformation, from the
+Creation to the time of Julius Cæsar, the last being that emperor's
+change into a star; the _Fasti_ in 12 books, of which only the first six
+are extant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appropriate
+festivals and mythology; and the _Elegies_, written during his
+banishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical genius, which
+makes it the more to be regretted that it was not always under the
+control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great vigor of fancy and warmth
+of coloring, but he was the first to depart from that pure and correct
+taste which characterizes the Greek poets and their earlier Latin
+imitators.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now turn to the history of prose literature among the Romans. The
+earliest prose works were Annals, containing a meagre account of the
+principal events in Roman history, arranged under their respective
+years. The earliest Annalists who obtained reputation were Q. FABIUS
+PICTOR and L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, both of whom served in the Second Punic
+War, and drew up an account of it, but they wrote in the Greek language.
+The first prose writer in the Latin language, of whom any considerable
+fragments have been preserved, is the celebrated Censor, M. Porcius
+Cato, who died B.C. 149, and of whose life an account has been already
+given. He wrote an important historical work entitled _Origines_. The
+first book contained the history of the Roman kings; the second and
+third treated of the origin of the Italian towns, and from these two
+books the whole work derived its title; the fourth book treated of the
+First Punic War, the fifth book of the Second Punic War, and the sixth
+and seventh continued the narrative to the year of Cato's death. There
+is still extant a work on agriculture (_De Re Rustica_) bearing the name
+of Cato, which is probably substantially his, though it is certainly not
+exactly in the form in which it proceeded from his pen. There were many
+other annalists, of whom we know little more than the names, and whose
+works were used by Livy in compiling his Roman history.
+
+Oratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the chief avenues
+to political distinction. Cicero, in his work entitled _Brutus_, has
+given a long list of distinguished Orators whose speeches he had read,
+but he himself surpassed all his predecessors and contemporaries. In his
+works the Latin language appears in the highest perfection. Besides his
+numerous orations he also wrote several treatises on _Rhetoric_, of
+which the most perfect is a systematic treatise on the art of Oratory
+(_De Oratore_), in three books. His works on _Philosophy_ were almost
+the first specimens of this kind of literature ever presented to the
+Romans in their own language. He does not aim at any original
+investigation or research. His object was to present, in a familiar and
+attractive form, the results at which the Greek philosophers had
+arrived, not to expound any new theories. His Epistles, of which more
+than eight hundred have come down to us, are among the most valuable
+remains of antiquity. Cicero, during the most important period of his
+life, maintained a close correspondence with Atticus, and with a wide
+circle of political friends and connections. These letters supply the
+most ample materials for a history of the Roman Republic during its last
+struggles, and afford a clear insight into the personal dispositions and
+motives of its chief leaders.
+
+The most learned Roman under the Republic was M. TERENTIUS VARRO, a
+contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served as Pompey's lieutenant in
+Spain in the Civil Wars, but was pardoned by Cæsar after the battle of
+Pharsalia, and was employed by him in superintending the collection and
+arrangement of the great library designed for public use. Upon the
+formation of the second Triumvirate, Varro's name appeared upon the list
+of the proscribed; but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after
+having remained for some time in concealment, he obtained the protection
+of Octavian. His death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his 80th year.
+Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he was
+likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We have his own authority
+for the assertion that he had composed no less than 490 books, but of
+these only two have come down to us, and one of them in a mutilated
+form: 1. _De Re Rustica_, a work on Agriculture, in three books, written
+when the author was 80 years old; 2. _De Lingua Latina_, a grammatical
+treatise which extended to 24 books, but six only have been preserved,
+and these are in a mutilated condition. The remains of this treatise are
+particularly valuable. They have preserved many terms and forms which
+would otherwise have been altogether lost, and much curious information
+connected with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, of the
+Romans.
+
+C. JULIUS CÆSAR, the great Dictator, was also distinguished as an
+author, and wrote several works, of which the _Commentaries_ alone have
+come down to us. They relate the history of the first seven years of the
+Gallic War in seven books, and the history of the Civil War down to the
+commencement of the Alexandrine in three books. Neither of these works
+completes the history of the Gallic and Civil Wars. The history of the
+former was completed in an 8th book, which is usually ascribed to
+Hirtius. The history of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish Wars was
+written in three separate books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but
+their authorship is uncertain. The purity of Cæsar's Latin and the
+clearness of his style have deservedly obtained the highest praise.
+
+C. SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, a contemporary of Cæsar, and one of his
+supporters, was also distinguished as a historian. He was born B.C. 86
+at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines, and died in B.C. 34. After
+the African War (B.C. 46) he was left by Cæsar as governor of Numidia,
+where he acquired great riches by his oppression of the people. Two of
+his works have come down to us, the _Catilina_, the history of the
+suppression of Catiline's conspiracy, and the _Jugurtha_, the history of
+the war against Jugurtha. Sallust made Thucydides his model, and took
+great pains with his style.
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS, the contemporary and friend of Cicero and Atticus, was
+the author of numerous works, all of which are lost, with the exception
+of the well-known Lives of Distinguished Commanders (_Vitæ Excellentium
+Imperatorum_). But even these Lives, with the exception of that of
+Atticus, are probably an abridgment of the original work of Nepos, made
+in the fourth century of the Christian era.
+
+Of the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished was the
+historian TITUS LIVIUS, usually called LIVY. He was born at Patavium
+(_Padua_), B.C. 59. The greater part of his life appears to have been
+spent in Rome, but he returned to his native town before his death,
+which happened at the age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius, A.D.
+17. His literary talents secured the patronage and friendship of
+Augustus; and his reputation became so widely diffused, that a Spaniard
+traveled from Cadiz to Rome solely for the purpose of beholding him;
+and, having gratified his curiosity in this one particular, he
+immediately returned home. Livy's "History of Rome" extended from the
+foundation of the city to the death of Drusus, B.C. 9, and was comprised
+in 142 books. Of these 35 have descended to us. The whole work has been
+divided into _decades_, containing 10 books each. The First decade (bks.
+i.-x.) is entire. It embraces the period from the foundation of the city
+to the year B.C. 294, when the subjugation of the Samnites may be said
+to have been completed. The Second decade (bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether
+lost. It included the period from B.C. 294 to B.C. 219, comprising an
+account, among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the
+First Punic War. The Third decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It
+embraces the period from B.C. 219 to B.C. 201, comprehending the whole
+of the Second Punic War. The Fourth decade (bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire,
+and also one half of the Fifth (bks. xli.-xlv.). These 15 books continue
+the history from B.C. 201 to B.C. 167, and develop the progress of the
+Roman arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending
+with the triumph of Æmilius Paullus. Of the remaining books nothing is
+extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style of Livy may be
+pronounced almost faultless. In judging of his merits as a historian, we
+are bound to ascertain, if possible, the end which he proposed to
+himself. No one who reads his work with attention can suppose that he
+ever conceived the project of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His
+aim was to offer to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative,
+which, while it gratified their vanity, should contain no startling
+improbabilities or gross amplifications. To effect this purpose, he
+studied with care the writings of some of his more celebrated
+predecessors in the same field; but in no case did he ever dream of
+ascending to the fountain-head, and never attempted to test the accuracy
+of his authorities by examining monuments of remote antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: Mæcenas.]
+
+[Footnote 74: These were probably composed in the Saturnian metre, the
+oldest species of versification among the Romans, in which much greater
+license was allowed in the laws of quantity than in the metres which
+were borrowed from the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 75: The name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a _lex per
+saturam lata_ is a law which contained several distinct regulations at
+once.]
+
+[Footnote 76: _Georg._, iii., 41.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Comp. _Georg._, iv., 560, and ii., 171.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Aureus of Augustus Cæsar.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX.
+
+THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.
+
+
+Augustus, being now the emperor of Rome, sought to win the affections of
+his people. He lived with republican simplicity in a plain house on the
+Palatine Hill, and educated his family with great strictness and
+frugality. His public conduct was designed to conceal his unbounded
+power. He rejected all unworthy members from the Senate, and limited the
+number of the Senators to six hundred. The Comitia of the Centuries was
+still allowed to pass laws and elect magistrates, but gradually these
+powers were taken away, until, in the reign of Tiberius, they are
+mentioned no more. The emperor's chief counselors in public affairs were
+his four friends, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, C. Cilnius Mæcenas, M. Valerius
+Messala, and Asinius Pollio, all persons of excellent talents, and
+devoted to their master. Agrippa aided him greatly in embellishing the
+city of Rome with new buildings, and the Pantheon, which was built in
+the Campus Martins, still bears the inscription, _M. Vipsanius Agrippa,
+consul tertium_. Augustus was accustomed to say that he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble.
+
+To secure the peace of the capital, and to extirpate the robbers who
+filled its streets, Augustus divided Rome into fourteen regions, and
+each region into several smaller divisions called _Vici_: a magistrate
+was placed over each _Vicus_, and all these officers were under the
+command of the city prefect. A police force, _Vigiles_, seven hundred in
+number, was also provided, who succeeded in restoring the public peace.
+Italy, in a similar manner, was divided into regions, and local
+magistrates were appointed, who made life and property every where
+secure.
+
+We must notice briefly the extent and condition of that vast empire,
+over which Augustus ruled--too vast, in fact, to be subjected to the
+control of a single intellect. Italy, the peculiar province of the
+emperor, had lost a large part of its free population, whose place was
+supplied by slaves; military colonies were numerous, a kind of
+settlement which never tended to advance the prosperity of the country;
+the cities were declining, and many of them almost abandoned. The north
+of Italy, however, still retained a portion of its former prosperity;
+its great droves of swine supplied the people of Rome with a large part
+of their food; vineyards also abounded there, and the wine-vats of upper
+Italy were said to be often larger than houses. Coarse woolen cloths
+were manufactured in Liguria, and a finer wool was produced near Mutina.
+But Italy, once so fertile, could no longer produce its own corn, for
+which it depended chiefly upon Sicily, Africa, and Egypt.
+
+The island of Sicily, too, had suffered greatly during the civil wars.
+Its cities were fallen into ruin, and the woods and mountains were
+filled with fugitive slaves, who, when captured, were taken to Rome and
+exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatres. A Roman colony was planted
+by Augustus in the almost deserted city of Syracuse.
+
+The condition of the extensive province of Gaul was more promising, its
+savage tribes having begun to adopt the arts of civilization. The Gauls
+purchased from southern traders such articles as they were unable to
+produce at home, and supplied Italy, in return, with coarse wool and
+cargoes of bacon. Several Roman colonies established in Gaul enjoyed
+various political privileges, but the people in general were oppressed
+with taxes and burdened with debts. The religion of the Druids was
+discouraged by laws which forbade human sacrifices, and, indeed, all
+rites opposed to the Roman faith. In Southern Gaul the city of Massilia
+(Marseilles) had imparted civilization to the neighboring tribes: they
+learned to use the Greek characters in writing, while many of the Gallic
+cities invited Greek teachers to open schools in their midst.
+
+Spain, rich in gold and silver, in fine wool, and a prolific soil,
+traded largely with Rome. The valley of the Bætis, or Guadalquiver, was
+renowned for its uncommon fertility. Many of the Spaniards had already
+adopted the language and manners of their conquerors. Spain was divided
+into three provinces, Bætica, Lusitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis.
+Gades, or Cadiz, was one of the richest cities of the empire, and,
+according to Dion Cassius, had received the privilege of Roman
+citizenship from Julius Cæsar, whom its people had aided against
+Pompey's officers. The tribes in the northwest of Spain, however, were
+savage and unquiet, and their language, the Basque, which still exists,
+shows that they were never perfectly conquered by the Romans.
+
+The northern coast of Africa, opposite to Spain, was held by Juba, a
+native prince, while the Roman province of Africa embraced ancient
+Carthage, together with a considerable territory around it. This
+province possessed a large trade. Cyrenaica, to the eastward, included
+the island of Crete, and was termed a prætorian province.
+
+Egypt was ruled by a governor, who was always taken from the equestrian
+order. Two legions only were stationed in that province. Being the
+centre of the trade between Italy and the Indies, Egypt accumulated
+great wealth, and was renowned for its extensive commerce. It exported
+large quantities of corn to Italy, and also papyrus, the best writing
+material then known. The two finest kinds of papyrus were named the
+Augustan and the Livian. Alexandria, the sea-port of Egypt, was the
+second city of the empire. Its commerce was immense; and its museum,
+colleges, library, and literary men made it also the centre of Greek
+literature. Alexandria, too, was famous for its superstition and its
+licentiousness: the festivals and rites of Serapis had long excited the
+contempt of the wiser Romans.
+
+The trade between Alexandria and the Indies was carried on through two
+routes: one was the famous canal which, begun by Pharaoh Necho, was
+completed under the government of the Ptolemies. Leaving the Nile near
+the southern point of the Delta, the canal, after a somewhat circuitous
+course, joined the Red Sea at the town of Arsinoe, near the modern town
+of Suez. Another route was overland from Coptos, on the Nile, across the
+desert, to Berenice and Myos Hormos. Along this road wells were dug or
+reservoirs of water provided, and thus an easy communication was kept up
+with the East. Heavy duties, however, were laid upon all goods entering
+or leaving Alexandria, and its extensive trade afforded a great revenue
+to the government.
+
+From Egypt to the Ægean Sea, various provinces were created in Syria and
+Asia Minor. The most extensive of these were the two provinces of Syria
+and Asia, which were governed by lieutenants of the emperor. Judea
+retained a nominal independence, under the government of Herod;
+Jerusalem was adorned by Herod with magnificent buildings; and Antioch,
+Tyre, and several other eastern cities were still prosperous and
+luxurious. They were, however, heavily taxed, and suffered from the
+tyranny and exactions of their Roman rulers.
+
+Greece, in the age of Augustus, seems to have been a scene of
+desolation. It was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia,
+both belonging to the jurisdiction of the Senate and the people. Greece
+had suffered greatly during the civil wars, and had never recovered its
+ancient prosperity. The peninsula was partly depopulated. Laconia had
+long lost its importance, and Messenia and Arcadia were almost
+deserted. Corinth and Patræ, however, were flourishing Roman colonies;
+Thebes was a mere village; Athens still retained its literary renown,
+and was always a favorite resort for cultivated Romans; but its harbor
+was deserted, its walls thrown down, and the energy of its people
+forever gone.
+
+Macedonia had suffered equally with Greece, and no trace remained of its
+former power. Thus we find that the civilized world, at the accession of
+Augustus, was every where marked by desolation and decay.
+
+The Roman empire, at this period, was bounded on the north by the
+Euxine, the Danube, the Rhine, and the British Channel; westward it
+reached to the Atlantic; on the south it was confined by the deserts of
+Africa, and on the east by Assyria and Mesopotamia. The Mediterranean
+Sea was wholly within the empire, and afforded an easy mode of
+communication with the different provinces.
+
+The government which Augustus now established was designed to preserve
+the memory of the republic, while the real power remained with the
+emperor alone. The people were deprived of all their former importance;
+the Comitia were only suffered to pass upon laws proposed by the Senate,
+which was now wholly under the control of the emperor. Consuls and other
+magistrates were still chosen annually, and Augustus, in the earlier
+years of his reign, was accustomed to solicit votes for his favorite
+candidates, who, however, were always elected; later he contented
+himself with furnishing them with a written recommendation. The Senate
+met twice in every month, instead of three times, as was the former
+custom, except during September and October, when no meetings were held.
+The provinces were governed by proconsuls, several of whom were
+appointed by the Senate and the people; but all of them were carefully
+observed by the emperor. Rome itself was governed by a prefect, whose
+duty it was to preserve the public peace.
+
+In this manner Augustus, by the aid of his proconsuls, held a despotic
+rule over all his dominions. He controlled the Senate, too, through his
+authority as censor, and appointed or deposed its members; and he raised
+the property qualification of each Senator to about $50,000. A large
+part of the people of the capital were maintained by the free
+distribution of corn; but Augustus reduced the number from 320,000 to
+200,000, providing for the poorer citizens by settling them in new
+colonies, and his measures seem to have produced general contentment.
+
+He was also sincerely desirous to reform the morals of the nation.
+Several laws were passed encouraging marriage, and in B.C. 18 he obliged
+the Senate to decree that marriage should be imperative upon every
+citizen of suitable age. Celibacy was punished by an incapacity to
+receive bequests, and even the childless married man was deprived of
+half his legacy; these efforts, however, failed, and a general license
+prevailed. As censor, he sought to restrain extravagance, and limited
+the sum to be expended upon entertainments. He insisted that the _toga_,
+the national dress, be worn at least at the public spectacles; he
+endeavored to preserve the distinctions of rank by providing each of the
+three orders with its own seats in the circus; and he plainly sought to
+elevate the aristocracy, and to withdraw all political power from the
+people. It is said, however, that he once entertained the design of
+resigning his authority, but was prevented from doing so by the advice
+of his friends, who represented to him that the Romans were no longer
+capable of governing themselves.
+
+The Prætorian guard, which Augustus provided for his own protection,
+consisted of ten cohorts, each containing 800 or 1000 men, both cavalry
+and foot: of these only three cohorts were kept in the city, the others
+being distributed through the Italian towns. These soldiers received
+double pay, and were commanded by the _præfectus prætorii_: at a later
+period they became the masters of the empire.
+
+The whole army, amounting to about 350,000 men, was encamped in various
+portions of his dominions. His fleet, which numbered 500 ships, was
+stationed chiefly at Misenum and Ravenna. His revenues arose from the
+contributions of the provinces, from various taxes, and from the rent of
+the public domain. An excise was imposed upon all goods exposed for
+sale, and there was also a tax upon all bachelors.
+
+Augustus encouraged commerce and industry, built new roads, and provided
+the capital with an abundance of food. Games and public spectacles were
+exhibited to amuse the people, a free distribution of corn relieved the
+indigent, literature was encouraged, the arts flourished with new vigor,
+and the people and the Senate, pleased with present tranquillity,
+bestowed upon Augustus the title of the Father of his Country.
+
+Several conspiracies, however, alarmed the emperor. In B.C. 30, Lepidus,
+a son of the former triumvir, had formed a plot for his destruction,
+which was detected by Mæcenas, and its author put to death. Another, in
+B.C. 22, was also unsuccessful. In A.D. 4, Cinna, a grandson of Pompey,
+was discovered in a similar attempt, and was pardoned at the request of
+Livia; he was afterward even raised to the consulship. But so
+intimidated was Augustus by the fear of assassination, that, toward the
+close of his life, he never went to a meeting of the Senate without
+wearing a breastplate under his robe.
+
+The military enterprises of Augustus were in general successful. He led
+an army into Spain, and subdued the Cantabri and Astures, returning to
+Rome B.C. 24. While in Spain he founded several cities, among others
+Augusta Emerita (Merida), and Cæsar Augusta (Saragossa). Phraates, king
+of the Parthians, fearful of the Roman arms, gave up the Roman standards
+taken from Crassus and Antony, B.C. 20, and this event was celebrated by
+striking medals and by the verses of the Augustan poets. The emperor
+hung up the standards in a temple which he had built at Rome to Mars,
+the Avenger.
+
+Tiberius and Drusus, the two sons of Livia by her former husband, were
+distinguished commanders, and gained many victories over the Germans;
+but, in B.C. 9, Drusus died from a fall from his horse. Tiberius then
+took the command of the army, and gained a great victory over the
+Sigambri. He returned to Rome B.C. 6, and triumphed; was saluted
+Imperator, and received the tribunitian power for five years.
+
+Soon after, indignant at the dissolute conduct of his wife Julia, and
+the honors bestowed upon her sons by Agrippa, he withdrew to Rhodes,
+where he remained for seven years, a discontented exile. He returned to
+Rome in A.D. 2, and, two years after, was adopted by Augustus as his
+son. He next conquered a large part of Germany, and defeated several
+large bodies of the Marcomanni in what is now the territory of Bohemia.
+
+But, while he was employed upon this expedition, Arminius, the German
+hero, excited an insurrection of his countrymen against the cruel
+Romans, cut off Varus, their leader, with his army, and filled Rome with
+alarm. Germany seemed lost. Augustus, when he heard of the disaster,
+exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! give me back my legions!"
+
+Tiberius, however, together with Germanicus, the brave son of Drusus,
+returned to the defense of the frontier, but did not venture to
+penetrate into the forests beyond the Rhine.
+
+In his domestic life Augustus was singularly unfortunate. Livia, his
+wife, for whom he entertained a sincere affection, was a person of
+strong intellect and various accomplishments; but she was descended from
+the Claudian family, and inherited all the pride, ambition, and love of
+political intrigue which marked the descendants of Appius Claudius. She
+was also married to a Claudius, and thus her two sons by her first
+husband, Tiberius and Drusus, were even more than herself Claudians. On
+them all Livia's affections were fixed; to secure their aggrandizement
+she hesitated at no effort and no crime; and when Drusus died, her son
+Tiberius, who resembled his mother in disposition, became the chief
+object of her regard. Her husband and his family wore looked upon with
+jealousy and dislike, and the darkest suspicions were aroused at Rome
+by the death, one by one, of every person who stood between Tiberius and
+the throne.
+
+Livia had no child by her second marriage, and the only heir of Augustus
+was Julia, the daughter of his former wife, Scribonia. Julia was
+beautiful, intelligent, and highly educated; and Augustus, who was
+strongly attached to his own family, looked upon his daughter with
+singular affection and pride. He hoped to see her grow up pure, wise,
+and discreet--a new Lucretia, the representative of the ideal Roman
+matron; and he early accustomed Julia to practice moderation in dress,
+to spend hours at the spinning-wheel, and to look upon herself as
+destined to become the model and example of Roman women.
+
+Julia was first married to her cousin Marcellus, the son of Octavia, a
+young man of excellent character, whom Augustus adopted, and probably
+destined as his successor; but, in B.C. 23, Marcellus died, amid the
+sincere grief of all the Romans. Marcellus has been made immortal by a
+few touching lines of Virgil.
+
+[Illustration: Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus.]
+
+Not long after, Augustus married Julia to his friend Agrippa, and they
+had five children--three sons, Caius, Lucius, and Agrippa Postumus, the
+latter being born after the death of his father, and two daughters,
+Julia and Agrippina. These children were now the hope of the people and
+the emperor, and objects of jealousy and dislike to Livia and Tiberius.
+
+In B.C. 12 Agrippa died. Augustus then prevailed upon Tiberius to
+divorce his own wife, to whom he was sincerely attached, in order to
+marry Julia. Their union was an unhappy one, and, after living together
+for about a year, they separated forever.
+
+The conduct of Julia, in fact, had long been marked by gross
+immoralities, and Augustus alone was unconscious of her unworthiness. He
+refused to believe that his daughter, whom he had destined to become an
+example of purity, had so deceived and dishonored him. At length,
+however, he became convinced of her guilt, and banished her (B.C. 2) to
+the island Pandataria (Santa Maria), off the coast of Campania, where
+she was treated with just severity. Her daughter Julia, who had shared
+in her excesses, was also sent into exile.
+
+Meanwhile Caius and Lucius Cæsar both died suddenly. Caius was sent to
+the East in B.C. 1, to improve himself in military affairs, and there
+died, A.D. 3, from the effects of a wound given him by an assassin.
+Lucius, the younger, having gone on a mission to Spain in A.D. 2, fell
+sick and died at Massilia. About this time Tiberius had been recalled
+from Rhodes and intrusted with the chief care of public affairs. It was
+believed at Rome that Livia and her son had removed the two Cæsars by
+poison and assassination.
+
+All happiness must now have fled from the breast of the emperor. He
+still, however, attended carefully to the duties of his station. In A.D.
+4 he adopted Tiberius, together with Agrippa Postumus; Tiberius was
+obliged at the same time to adopt Germanicus, the eldest son of his
+brother Drusus. In A.D. 7 Augustus was induced to banish Agrippa
+Postumus, who proved unworthy of his favor, to the island of Planasia,
+and this act was ratified by a decree of the Senate; it was thought,
+however, that Livia was again the cause of this unnatural act. In A.D. 8
+the poet Ovid was banished for some unknown crime.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentum, or chariot, in
+which the Roman ladies were accustomed to ride.]
+
+It was in the year 5 or 7 B.C., for the true date is unknown, that Jesus
+Christ, the Savior of the world, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea.
+
+In A.D. 14, Augustus, aided by Tiberius, took a census--the third during
+his reign. His health, which had always been delicate, now rapidly
+declined. He had long borne with patience the infirmities of old age,
+and he now retired to Nola, where he died, August 19, A.D. 14, in the
+same room where his father had died before him. It is said that as he
+was dying he exclaimed to those around him, "Have I not acted my part
+well? It is time for the applause."
+
+He was seventy-six years old. His subjects lamented his death with
+sincere grief, since they had felt the happy effects of his care. His
+funeral rites were performed in great solemnity; his body was burned on
+the Campus Martius, and his ashes were placed in the splendid mausoleum
+which he had built for himself and his family. The Senate ordered him to
+be numbered among the gods of Rome.
+
+In appearance Augustus was of middle stature, his features regular, and
+his eyes of uncommon brilliancy. He was a tolerable writer, and capable
+of distinguishing literary merit; his chosen friends were all men of
+letters; and his fame with posterity rests, in a great degree, upon that
+circle of poets, historians, and eminent scholars by whom he was
+surrounded. The Augustan Age, indeed, forms one of the most remarkable
+periods in the history of the human intellect.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Augustus, showing the myrtle crown, or Corona
+ovalis.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Nero, showing an Organ and a sprig of Laurel,
+probably designed as a prize medal for a musician.]
+
+CHAPTER XL.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.
+
+
+A feeling resembling loyalty had grown up at Rome toward the family of
+Augustus, and no one ventured to dispute the claim of Tiberius to the
+throne. Livia, however, who had attended the death-bed of the emperor,
+concealed his death until her son arrived, and then proclaimed, at the
+same moment, the death of Augustus and the accession of his successor.
+The first event of the new reign was the assassination of Agrippa
+Postumus, grandson of Augustus, and, according to the modern rule of
+descent, the proper heir to the throne. The guilt of this act was shared
+between Tiberius and his mother, who were also accused of having
+hastened the death of Augustus.
+
+Tiberius summoned the Senate to assemble, announced the death of the
+emperor, and pretended a wish to be relieved from the cares of empire;
+the Senate, however, refused to accept his feigned resignation, and he
+yielded to their wishes. This body now became the chief source of
+legislation. Tiberius took away from the people the power of making laws
+and of electing magistrates. The _senatus consulta_, or decrees of the
+Senate, were made the source of law, without any authority from the
+Comitia. The Senate selected the Consuls from four candidates presented
+to them by the emperor, and thus the last trace of the popular power
+passed away.
+
+Meanwhile two mutinies occurred among the soldiers, which seemed at
+first to threaten a change in the government. The legions of Pannonia,
+complaining of long service and indifferent pay, rose against their
+commander Blæsus, but were induced to return to their duty by Drusus,
+the son of Tiberius. A more important insurrection broke out among the
+legions of the Rhine, who sought to prevail upon Germanicus, the son of
+Drusus, to accept the imperial crown. Germanicus, however, who was
+adorned with many noble qualities, refused to yield either to their
+entreaties or their threats. Agrippina, his wife, with the infant Caius,
+joined Germanicus in imploring the soldiers not to forget their duty;
+and they at length relented, and even gave up their leaders.
+
+Germanicus had now deserved the hatred of the jealous and treacherous
+Tiberius. He was beloved by the people and the army, was frank,
+generous, and brave; he had married Agrippina, the daughter of Julia and
+Agrippa, and was the adopted son of the emperor himself. His mind had
+been highly cultivated, and he excelled in all elegant exercises. He
+seems, in fact, to have been one of the noblest of the Romans.
+
+In A.D. 14 he led an army across the Rhine, but the next year planned a
+more important expedition, in which he defeated the Germans under
+Arminius, and buried the remains of the army of the unfortunate Varus
+under an earthen mound. His third campaign was still more successful. In
+A.D. 16 he gained an important battle in the valley of the Weser, and
+recovered the last of the eagles lost by Varus.
+
+Tiberius, jealous of his fame, now recalled him, and resolved that the
+limits of the empire should not be enlarged. In A.D. 17 Germanicus
+triumphed, surrounded in his chariot by his five sons. The same year he
+was sent to the East to settle the affairs of the Eastern provinces.
+Meanwhile a war broke out in Germany between Arminius and Marboduus.
+Drusus was sent thither to contrive the destruction of both leaders,
+which he seems to have effected, since Marboduus was driven to seek
+protection from the Romans, while the brave Arminius was soon after
+slain by the hands of his fellow-Germans.
+
+Germanicus, in A.D. 18, visited Athens, sailed up the Nile the same
+year, and then, having returned to Syria, died of poison administered to
+him by Cn. Piso, a friend of the Empress Livia. His death excited great
+grief at Rome, where he was buried with solemnity in A.D. 20. Piso,
+meanwhile, being tried before the Senate, and finding himself about to
+be condemned, sought a voluntary death.
+
+Tiberius was cold and unpopular in his manners, awkward and even timid
+in his carriage, but a master of dissimulation. The only person of whom
+he stood in awe was his mother Livia; but he lived in constant fear of
+insurrection. The Lex Majestas, which he enlarged and enforced with
+unusual severity, was now the source of great evil to his country. This
+law defined treason against the emperor. Tiberius made it include words
+as well as acts, and thus he who spoke lightly of the emperor's person
+or authority might be punished with death.
+
+From this law grew up the Delatores, or informers, persons who made it
+their chief occupation to denounce those who were obnoxious to the
+emperor. The informers soon grew numerous: some of them were persons of
+high rank, who sought to display their eloquence, and to win the favor
+of the emperor, by denouncing his opponents in envenomed rhetoric, while
+others were common spies. No man's life was safe at Rome from this
+moment, and the purest and wisest citizens were exposed to the attacks
+of an infinite number of delators. Tiberius encouraged the informers.
+Ælius Saturninus was flung from the Tarpeian Rock for a libel upon the
+emperor. Silanus was banished for "disparaging the majesty of Tiberius."
+
+Tiberius, who professed to imitate the policy of Augustus in every
+particular, seems to have governed with firmness and ability. He
+improved the condition of the provinces, restrained the avarice of the
+provincial governors, maintained good order in the capital, and strove
+to check the growth of luxury; but the morals of the capital were now
+hopelessly depraved, and the vice and corruption of the whole world
+flowed into the streets of Rome.
+
+Ælius Sejanus, the Præfect of the Prætorians, had long been the friend
+and chief adviser of the emperor. He was cruel, unscrupulous, and
+ambitious--the proper instrument of a tyrant. In A.D. 21 an insurrection
+broke out in Gaul, which was scarcely subdued when the Germans rose
+against the Romans. The Gauls, too, led by Sacrovir, a Druid, who
+exercised a superstitious influence over his countrymen, once more
+rebelled. Drusus, who had been made Consul with his father, was sent
+against them, and reduced them to subjection. The Druid Sacrovir burned
+himself in a house to which he had fled. In A.D. 22 Drusus received the
+tribunitian power. He was the only son of Tiberius, and was married to
+Livia, or Livilla, as she was sometimes called.
+
+Sejanus had now conceived a design which led him to resolve upon the
+destruction of all the imperial family, since he himself began to aspire
+to the throne; and the elevation of Drusus filled him with disgust. In
+A.D. 23 he prevailed upon Tiberius to remove all the Prætorian Guards,
+about nine or ten thousand in number, to a camp near the city. He
+appointed their officers, won the soldiers with bribes and flatteries,
+and thus believed he had gained a sure support.
+
+Drusus stood in his path, and he resolved to destroy him. He won the
+affections of Livilla, and prevailed upon her to poison her husband. The
+unhappy prince died in 23. Tiberius received the news of his son's death
+with a composure almost incredible. He told the Senate, who put on
+mourning robes, that he had given himself to his country. A splendid
+funeral procession was prepared for Drusus, in which the statues of
+Attus Clausus, the Sabine chief, the founder of the Claudian Gens, and
+of Æneas, and the Alban kings, were carried side by side, thus recalling
+the memories of the early regal dynasty, as well as of the severe
+founders of the Republic.
+
+Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, together with her numerous family,
+next aroused the hostility of Sejanus, and he resolved upon their
+destruction. In A.D. 25 he proposed for the hand of Livilla, but
+Tiberius refused to sanction the connection. In A.D. 26 eleven cities
+contended for the privilege of making Tiberius their tutelar deity, but
+he declined this honor. Soon after, the emperor, as if anxious to escape
+from the sarcasms and the scandal of Rome, retired from the city,
+accompanied by a single Senator, Cocceius Nerva, and at length, in A.D.
+27, hid himself in the island of Capreæ, on the coast of Campania. Here
+he built twelve villas in different parts of the island, and lived with
+a few companions, shut out from mankind. No one was allowed to land upon
+the shores of Capreæ, and even fishermen who broke this rule through
+ignorance were severely punished. Every day, however, dispatches were
+brought from the continent, and he still continued to direct the affairs
+of his vast empire.
+
+Sejanus was left to govern Rome, but frequently visited the Emperor at
+his island. In A.D. 29, Livia, the widow of Augustus, died, at the age
+of eighty-six years, having retained her powerful intellect and her love
+of political intrigue to the close of her life. It is said that her
+private charities were great, and that she remained faithful to the
+memory of her imperial husband. The family of Germanicus, meanwhile,
+were crushed by the arts of Sejanus. In A.D. 29 Tiberius directed the
+Senate to banish Agrippina and her son Nero, and they were confined
+separately upon two barren islands. Drusus, the second son, was soon
+after imprisoned; while Caius, the youngest, by his flatteries and
+caresses, preserved the favor of Tiberius, and was admitted into Capreæ.
+The emperor now began to doubt the fidelity of his chosen friend
+Sejanus, although their statues had been placed together in the Temple
+of Friendship on the island; and he sent a letter to the Senate in which
+he denounced him as a traitor. Such was the end of a guilty friendship.
+Sejanus was flung into the Mamertine Prison, and there strangled. The
+people threw his body into the Tiber, A.D. 31. Great numbers of his
+friends or relatives perished with him, and a general massacre filled
+Rome with terror. He was succeeded in his power by Sertorius Macro, who
+had aided in his destruction.
+
+Tiberius, meanwhile, seems to have become a raging madman. He put to
+death his niece Agrippina, with her two children, and ruled over the
+Senate with pitiless cruelty. His companion, Cocceius Nerva, filled with
+melancholy at the misfortunes of his country, resolved upon suicide; nor
+could all the entreaties or commands of Tiberius prevail upon him to
+live. In A.D. 35 Tiberius made his will, dividing his estate between
+Caius, the youngest son of Germanicus, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of
+the second Drusus. Macro, probably fearing the fate of Sejanus, had
+formed a close intimacy with Caius, and they now planned the death of
+the emperor, whose feeble health, however, since he was near
+seventy-seven years of age, promised Rome a speedy deliverance. Tiberius
+died March 16, A.D. 37, Macro, it is said, having smothered him with a
+pillow.
+
+If we may trust the account of the Jew Philo, he left the empire in a
+prosperous condition. His cruelty, in fact, seems to have been exercised
+upon the great and the rich, while the people lived in security. His
+administration may be said to have been a fortunate one. His character
+and his crimes disgrace human nature.
+
+[Illustration: Reverses of Roman brass Coins, showing Galleys.]
+
+REIGN OF CAIUS CALIGULA, A.D. 37-41.--Caius Cæsar, known as Caligula,
+was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and men fondly hoped that he
+had inherited the virtues of his father, whom he resembled in his
+personal appearance. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor, and the Senate
+and the people acknowledged him with unfeigned joy. He was now
+twenty-five years of age, and his first acts were generous and humane.
+He recalled many exiles, abolished various taxes, and gratified the
+people with spectacles and gifts. He also buried the remains of his
+mother and brother, who had died in exile, with decent solemnity.
+
+But, having been seized with a severe illness after he had reigned eight
+months, upon his recovery his mind seemed to have been fatally injured.
+He abandoned himself to cruelty and lust; he surpassed the vices of
+Tiberius; and at length, declaring himself to be a god, would often go
+through the streets of Rome dressed as Bacchus, Venus, or Apollo: he
+compelled the people to worship him, and made the wealthiest citizens
+his priests. He even conferred the consulship on his favorite horse.
+
+His boundless wastefulness soon consumed the public treasures, and he
+was forced to resort to every kind of extortion to obtain money. Having
+exhausted Rome and Italy, in A.D. 39 he led a large army across the Alps
+for the purpose of plundering Gaul, where the richest citizens were put
+to death and their property confiscated. He was assassinated in his
+palace January 24, A.D. 41.
+
+REIGN OF TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO, A.D. 41-54.--The Emperor
+Claudius was the son of Drusus and Antonia, and the brother of
+Germanicus. He was fifty-one years old when, after the murder of
+Caligula, the Prætorian Guard raised him to the throne. His health had
+always been delicate, his mind feeble, and he had never taken any part
+in public affairs. His first acts were popular and mild, but, having
+fallen under the control of his wife Messalina, who was a monster of
+wickedness, he put to death many of the best of the Romans. When,
+however, Messalina ventured to marry C. Silius, a young Roman knight,
+Claudius directed her execution. He then married his niece Agrippina,
+who prevailed upon him to set aside his son Britannicus, and to adopt
+her own son Nero, who was now destined for the throne. Nero was educated
+by the philosopher Seneca, together with Burrus Afranius, præfect of the
+Prætorians. Claudius, however, becoming suspicious of the designs of his
+wife, she resolved upon his death. Locusta, a noted poisoner, was hired
+to prepare a dish of poisoned mushrooms, of which Claudius ate: but the
+poison not proving fatal, the physician Xenophon forced a larger
+quantity into his throat, and he died October 13, A.D. 54.
+
+Claudius was fond of letters, and wrote memoirs of his own time and
+histories in Greek of Etruria and of Carthage. He also made various
+useful laws, and carried out several public works of importance. He
+completed the Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula, and built a fort and
+light-house at Ostia, and a tunnel from Lake Lucinus to the River Liris.
+_Colonia Agrippina_ (Cologne) was raised by his orders to the most
+important military station in Lower Germany.
+
+In A.D. 43 a Roman army invaded Britain. Claudius himself entered that
+country soon after, and returned to Rome to triumph. But Vespasian,
+afterward emperor, together with his son Titus, overran Britain,
+defeated Caractacus, the brave British chieftain, and sent him and his
+family prisoners to Rome. Claudius, pleased with his manly conduct, gave
+him his liberty.
+
+NERO, A.D. 54-68.--The first five years of the reign of Nero were marked
+by the mildness and equity of his government. He discouraged luxury,
+reduced the taxes, and increased the authority of the Senate. His two
+preceptors, Seneca and Burrus, controlled his mind, and restrained for a
+time the constitutional insanity of the Claudian race. At length,
+however, he sank into licentiousness, and from licentiousness to its
+necessary attendants, cruelty and crime. From a modest and philosophic
+youth, Nero became the most cruel and dissolute of tyrants. He quarreled
+with his mother Agrippina, who for his sake had murdered the feeble
+Claudius; and when she threatened to restore Britannicus to the throne,
+he ordered that young prince to be poisoned at an entertainment. In
+order to marry Poppæa Sabina, a beautiful and dissolute woman, wife of
+Salvius Otho, he resolved to divorce his wife Octavia, and also to
+murder his mother Agrippina. Under the pretense of a reconciliation, he
+invited Agrippina to meet him at Baiæ, where she was placed in a boat,
+which fell to pieces as she entered it. Agrippina swam to the shore, but
+was there assassinated by the orders of her son. The Roman Senate
+congratulated Nero upon this fearful deed, while the philosopher Seneca
+wrote a defense of the matricide. The philosopher, the Senate, and the
+emperor seem worthy of each other.
+
+It would be impossible to enumerate all the crimes of Nero. In A.D. 64 a
+fire broke out in Rome, which lasted for six days, consuming the greater
+part of the city. Nero was supposed to have ordered the city to be
+fired, to obtain a clear representation of the burning of Troy, and,
+while Rome was in flames, amused himself by playing upon musical
+instruments. He sought to throw the odium of this event upon the
+Christians, and inflicted upon them fearful cruelties. The city was
+rebuilt upon an improved plan, and Nero's palace, called the Golden
+House, occupied a large part of the ruined capital with groves, gardens,
+and buildings of unequaled magnificence.
+
+In A.D. 65 a plot was discovered in which many eminent Romans were
+engaged. The poet Lucan, Seneca, the philosopher and defender of
+matricide, together with many others, were put to death. In A.D. 67
+Nero traveled to Greece, and performed on the cithara at the Olympian
+and Isthmian games. He also contended for the prize in singing, and put
+to death a singer whose voice was louder than his own. Stained with
+every crime of which human nature is capable, haunted by the shade of
+the mother he had murdered, and filled with remorse, Nero was finally
+dethroned by the Prætorian Guards, and died by his own hand, June 9,
+A.D. 68. He was the last of the Claudian family. No one remained who had
+an hereditary claim to the empire of Augustus, and the future emperors
+were selected by the Prætorian Guards or the provincial legions.
+
+During this reign, Boadicea, the British queen, A.D. 61, revolted
+against the Romans and defeated several armies; but the governor,
+Suetonius Paulinus, conquered the insurgents in a battle in which eighty
+thousand Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, unwilling to survive
+her liberty, put an end to her life.
+
+On the death of Nero, Servius Sulpicius Galba, already chosen emperor by
+the Prætorians and the Senate, was murdered in the Forum, January, A.D.
+69. He was succeeded by Salvius Otho, the infamous friend of Nero, and
+the husband of Poppæa Sabina. The legions on the Rhine, however,
+proclaimed their own commander, A. Vitellius, emperor, and Otho's forces
+being defeated in a battle near Bedriacum, between Verona and Cremona,
+he destroyed himself.
+
+Vitellius, the new emperor, was remarkable for his gluttony and his
+coarse vices. He neglected every duty of his office, and soon became
+universally contemptible. Vespasian, the distinguished general, who had
+been fighting successfully against the Jews in Palestine, was proclaimed
+emperor by the governor of Egypt. Leaving his son Titus to continue the
+war, Vespasian prepared to advance upon Rome. His brave adherent,
+Antonius Primus, at the head of the legions of the Danube, without any
+orders from Vespasian, marched into Italy and defeated the army of
+Vitellius. The Prætorians and the Roman populace still supported
+Vitellius; a fearful massacre took place in the city, and the Capitoline
+Temple was burned; but Antonius Primus took the Prætorian camp, and
+Vitellius was dragged from his palace and put to death, December 20,
+A.D. 69.
+
+REIGN OF T. FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, A.D. 69-79.--Vespasian, the founder of
+the first Flavian family of emperors, was a soldier of fortune, who had
+risen from a low station to high command in the army. He was brave,
+active, free from vice, and, although fond of money, was never charged
+with extortion or rapacity. Toward the close of the summer, A.D. 70, he
+arrived in Rome, and received the imperium from the Senate. He began
+at once to restore discipline in the army, and raised to the rank of
+Senators and Equites illustrious men from the provinces, as well as from
+Italy and Rome, thus giving to the provincials a certain share in the
+government. The courts of justice were purified, the _Delatores_, or
+spies, were discountenanced, and trials for treason ceased. To increase
+his revenues, Vespasian renewed the taxes in several provinces which had
+been exempted by Nero, and he introduced economy and good order into the
+administration of the finances. Yet he expended large sums in rebuilding
+the Capitoline Temple, and also in completing the Colosseum, whose
+immense ruins form one of the most remarkable features in the modern
+scenery of Rome. He built, too, the Temple of Peace and a public
+library. He appointed lecturers upon rhetoric, with a salary of 100
+sesterces, but was possessed himself of little mental cultivation. He is
+even said to have disliked literary men, and, in the year A.D. 74,
+expelled the Stoic and Cynic philosophers from Rome.
+
+In A.D. 70, September 2, his son Titus took the city of Jerusalem, after
+a brave defense by the Jews, who were finally betrayed by their own
+factions. The city was totally destroyed, and nearly half a million of
+the Jews perished in the siege. Those who survived, being forbidden to
+rebuild their city, were scattered over the empire, and each Jew was
+compelled to pay a yearly tax of two drachmæ, which was appropriated to
+rebuilding the Capitoline Temple. The Arch of Titus, which still exists
+at Rome, was erected in commemoration of the fall of Jerusalem.
+
+Vespasian's generals repressed an insurrection of the Germans, and in
+A.D. 71 C. Julius Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus,
+entered Britain as legate to Petilius Cerialis. He was made governor of
+the province in A.D. 77, and led his victorious armies as far north as
+the Highlands of Scotland. This excellent character, by his justice and
+moderation, reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke.
+
+By his first wife, Flavia Domatilla, Vespasian had three
+children--Titus, Domitian, and Domatilla. When she died he formed an
+inferior kind of marriage with Coenis, a woman of low station, who,
+however, seems to have deserved his esteem. He died 23d of June, A.D.
+79, at the age of seventy. Although never a refined or cultivated man,
+Vespasian, by his hardy virtues, restored the vigor of the Roman
+government, and gave peace and prosperity to his subjects; while he who
+founded a library and established schools of rhetoric can not have been
+so wholly illiterate as some writers have imagined.
+
+
+REIGN OF TITUS, A.D. 79-81.
+
+Titus was one of the most accomplished and benevolent of men. Eloquent,
+warlike, moderate in his desires, he was called _Amor et deliciæ humani
+generis_, "The love and the delight of the human race." In early life he
+had been thought inclined to severity, and his treatment of the Jews, at
+the fall of their city, does not seem in accordance with his character
+for humanity. But no sooner had he ascended the throne than he won a
+general affection. Such was the mildness of his government that no one
+was punished at Rome for political offenses. Those who conspired against
+him he not only pardoned, but took into his familiarity. He was so
+generous that he could refuse no request for aid. He was resolved, he
+said, that no one should leave his presence sorrowful; and he thought
+that day lost in which he had done no good deed. Titus wrote poems and
+tragedies in Greek, and was familiar with his native literature. During
+his reign, A.D. 79, occurred a violent eruption of Vesuvius, together
+with an earthquake, by which Herculaneum, Stabiæ, and Pompeii, three
+towns on the Bay of Naples, were destroyed. The emperor was so touched
+by the sufferings of the inhabitants that he expended nearly his whole
+private fortune in relieving their wants. Pompeii and Herculaneum, which
+were covered by lava or ashes, were thus preserved from farther decay,
+and, having been partially excavated and restored, enable us to form a
+truthful conception of the domestic life of the Roman cities in the age
+of Titus. We here enter the villas of the rich or the humble homes of
+the poor, and find every where traces of comfort, elegance, and taste.
+
+The next year after the destruction of these cities, a fire broke out in
+Rome, which raged for three days, desolating the finest regions of the
+city. The Capitoline Temple was again destroyed, together with many
+buildings in the Campus Martius. A pestilence followed soon after, which
+ravaged Rome and all Italy.
+
+In A.D. 81 Titus dedicated the Colosseum, which was now completed, and
+also his famous baths, the ruins of which may still be visited at Rome.
+Splendid games and spectacles were exhibited in honor of these events.
+Few military events occurred during this reign, the empire being
+perfectly quiet, except where the active Agricola was subduing the
+wandering tribes of Scotland.
+
+At length Titus, having gone to the Sabine villa where his father
+Vespasian died, was himself suddenly arrested by death. It was believed
+that his brother Domitian was the cause of this unhappy event, and all
+the people lamented their emperor as if they had lost a father or a
+friend. Titus died September 13, A.D. 81.
+
+
+REIGN OF DOMITIAN, A.D. 81-96
+
+Domitian, who was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers upon his brother's
+death, possessed the mental ability of the Flavian family, joined to the
+vices and cruelty of the Claudian. In him Nero or Caligula seemed
+revived. His first political acts, however, were often useful, and for
+several years he concealed his true disposition. But he soon surrounded
+himself with spies and informers, and put to death the noblest men of
+his time. To preserve the fidelity of the soldiers he doubled their pay,
+while he won the populace by games and donations. But, to maintain his
+expenditure, he confiscated the property of the richer citizens, and no
+man of wealth was safe from an accusation of treason.
+
+Agricola, who had gained a great victory over the Caledonians at the
+foot of the Grampion Hills, and who was about to subdue all Scotland,
+Domitian recalled, being jealous of his military fame; and that brave
+leader passed the last eight years of his life in retirement at Rome, in
+order to avoid the suspicions of the tyrant. Meanwhile, the Dacians, led
+by their king Decebalus, having crossed the Danube, Domitian took the
+field against them, and, in A.D. 90, was defeated, and forced to
+conclude a humiliating peace. Yet, on his return to Rome, he celebrated
+a triumph, assuming the name of Dacicus. The next year an insurrection
+broke out among the German legions, which was, however, suppressed.
+
+Domitian now ordered himself to be styled the "Lord and God," and was
+worshiped with divine honors. A ferocious jealousy of all excellence in
+others seemed to possess him with rage against the wise and good. The
+most eminent of the nobility were put to death. All philosophers, and
+among them the virtuous Epictetus, were banished from Rome. The
+Christians, which name now included many persons of high station, were
+murdered in great numbers. At last the tyrant resolved to put to death
+his wife Domitia, but she discovered his design, and had him
+assassinated, 18th September, A.D. 96. The Senate passed a decree that
+his name should be erased from all public monuments, and refused to
+yield to the wishes of the soldiers, who would have proclaimed him a
+god.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing
+figure of Britannia.]
+
+CHAPTER XLI.
+
+PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF M.
+COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.
+
+
+This venerable man was sixty-four years old when he was proclaimed
+emperor upon the death of Domitian. He was a native of the town of
+Narnia, in Umbria, and his virtues had won him a general esteem. The
+Prætorians, who had not been consulted in his election, never looked
+upon him with favor, and Nerva was obliged to act with great caution. He
+stopped trials for high treason, pardoned political offenders,
+diminished taxes, recalled exiles, and strove by every honest art to
+attain popularity. But the Prætorians, becoming mutinous, not only put
+the murderers of Domitian to death, but forced the emperor to approve of
+their act publicly. This insult was deeply felt by Nerva, who now
+resolved to adopt a colleague, in order to increase his own authority.
+He therefore selected M. Ulpius Trajan, a distinguished general, who was
+in command of the army of Lower Germany.
+
+We now enter upon the most pleasing period in the history of the Roman
+Empire. During the next eighty years a general prosperity prevailed. The
+emperors were all men worthy to command, and capable of giving
+tranquillity to their vast dominions. Several of them were of the purest
+morals, of high mental cultivation, and are still looked upon as
+ornaments of the human race; and while they could not check the decline
+of their people, these virtuous emperors prevented, for a time, the fall
+of the Roman Empire.
+
+Nerva, in order to elevate the condition of his people, purchased lands,
+which he distributed among them, and he sought to make them feel the
+necessity of labor and of self-dependence. But it was too late to reform
+the manners of the indolent, licentious plebs, corrupted by the
+indulgence of their tyrants. Nerva died of a fever, January 27, A.D.
+98.
+
+
+M. ULPIUS TRAJANUS, A.D. 98-117
+
+Trajan, the first emperor who was not a native of Italy, was born at
+Italica, in Spain, and was about forty years of age at the death of
+Nerva. His memory was so much revered among the Romans, that, two
+hundred and fifty years later, the Senate hailed the accession of the
+new emperor with the prayer that he might be happier than Augustus,
+better than Trajan. He was free from every vice except an occasional
+indulgence in wine. His mind was naturally strong, his manners pleasing,
+his appearance noble and imposing. He desired only to restore the simple
+manners and virtuous habits of an earlier age.
+
+Trajan, after his adoption by Nerva, entered upon his high office at
+Cologne, and then traveled toward Rome. In A.D. 99 he entered that city
+on foot, followed by a small retinue, and was received with general good
+will. He abolished the trials for high treason, _judicia majestatis_,
+which had made Rome so often a scene of terror, restored freedom of
+speech to the Senate, revived the _Comitia_ for the election of
+magistrates, and bound himself by oath to observe the laws. He punished
+the principal informers, banishing many of them to the barren islands
+around Italy, while he at once, by severe measures, reduced the
+turbulent Prætorians to obedience. His wife Plotina, who was a woman of
+excellent character, with her sister Marcina, revived by their virtues
+the dignity of the Roman matron. The society of the city was purified,
+and the family of the emperor offered an example of propriety that
+produced an excellent effect upon the manners of the higher ranks.
+
+Among the first acts of Trajan was the foundation of public schools for
+the education and maintenance of poor children in various parts of
+Italy. He founded, too, the Ulpian Library at Rome, and adorned every
+part of his empire with magnificent buildings, roads, bridges, and
+various useful improvements. He seemed to live, in fact, wholly for his
+people, and passed his life in devising and executing plans for their
+advantage.
+
+When Decebalus, king of the Dacians, sent to demand the tribute which
+had been promised him by Domitian, Trajan refused to be bound by the
+disgraceful treaty, and, having levied an army of 60,000 men, marched
+against the Dacians, who had boldly advanced across the Danube. A
+terrible battle took place, in which the Romans were victorious; but so
+great was the slaughter that sufficient linen could not be obtained to
+dress the wounds of the soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes
+to supply their wants. He took the capital of the Dacian king, defeated
+him in various encounters, and compelled him (A.D. 102) to make peace,
+giving up a part of his territory. Having returned to Rome, Trajan
+received from the Senate the surname of Dacicus. But in A.D. 104 the
+Dacians again rose in arms, and the Senate declared Decebalus a public
+enemy. Trajan led an army in person against the barbarians, and, to
+provide for an easy access to their territory, built a stone bridge
+across the Danube of immense size and strength, fortified at each end
+with towers. He next advanced into the midst of the hostile country,
+took the capital of the Dacians, and reduced them to subjection.
+Decebalus, in despair, fell by his own hand. All Dacia, comprising the
+modern countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, was made a
+Roman province; and several Roman colonies were planted among the
+barbarians, thus for the first time preparing for the spread of
+civilization in that savage country. Trajan now returned to Rome, to
+triumph a second time for his Dacian successes. He also began that
+famous Column in commemoration of his victories which still stands at
+Rome, and which shows in its rich sculpture the various captives and
+spoils of the Dacian war.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Arabia Petræa was also at this time added to the Roman Empire, after
+which a peace of several years succeeded. In A.D. 114, a Parthian war
+breaking out, Trajan hastened to the East, and, having passed the winter
+at Antioch, witnessed a severe earthquake, which shook that city as well
+as all Syria. He himself escaped with difficulty from a falling house.
+In the spring, at the head of his legions, he overran Armenia and formed
+it into a province. He next built a bridge across the Tigris, resembling
+that upon the Danube, and led his army into Assyria, a country never yet
+visited by a Roman general. He took Babylon and Ctesiphon, the capital
+of the Parthian kingdom, and, sailing down the Tigris, passed through
+the Persian Gulf, and annexed a large portion of Arabia Felix to his
+empire. The Jews, too, about this time revolted, but were subdued,
+after a brave resistance, and treated with great severity. His Eastern
+conquests, however, proved by no means secure, and his new subjects
+revolted as soon as his armies were gone. In A.D. 117 Trajan entered
+Southern Arabia to complete the subjection of that country, when he was
+seized with a dropsy and forced to return to Rome. He did not reach that
+city, but died, August 9th, A.D. 117, at Selinus, in Cilicia. His ashes
+were carried to Rome, and placed under the magnificent column which
+recorded his Dacian victories.
+
+During Trajan's reign, the empire, already too extensive, was made more
+unwieldy by his various conquests. He was evidently ambitious of the
+fame of a conqueror, and possessed many of the qualities of an able
+general. He was also a skillful ruler of his immense dominions, leaving
+no portion unprotected by his vigilance. The only stain upon his fame is
+his persecution of the Christians, whom he continued to treat with
+severity even when convinced of their perfect innocence.
+
+After the conclusion of the Dacian war he celebrated games and
+spectacles, which are said to have lasted through four months, and in
+which ten thousand gladiators fought and suffered for the entertainment
+of the people--a proof that the Romans were yet, in some respects,
+barbarians. Trajan, however, forbade the performance of indecent
+pantomimes. Trajan's bridge across the Danube is described by Dion
+Cassius as of greater importance than any of his other works. He
+designed it to form an easy access to his Dacian province. It was formed
+of twenty stone piers, distant about 170 feet from each other, and sixty
+feet wide: they were probably connected by arches of wood. Trajan also
+began to make roads across the Pontine Marshes, and founded several
+public libraries. Pliny the younger, who lived during this reign, was
+the most eminent literary man of the time, and wrote a fine panegyric
+upon his friend the emperor. Pliny saw the first eruption of Vesuvius,
+in which his uncle and adopted father, the elder Pliny, perished. He was
+a person of great wealth and uncommon generosity, having given 300,000
+sesterces yearly to maintain the children of the poor in his native town
+of Comum. His letters to Trajan show that he was an excellent master,
+husband, and friend, and we may well believe that in this happy period
+many Romans resembled Trajan and his learned correspondent.
+
+
+REIGN OF HADRIAN, A.D. 117-138.
+
+Hadrian, descended from a family of Hadria, in Picenum, was a military
+commander, distinguished for his courage and activity. His father had
+married an aunt of the late emperor, who, upon the father's death, was
+appointed one of Hadrian's guardians. Yet it is supposed Trajan made no
+nomination of a successor to the throne, and that his wife Plotina
+forged the will by which the world was made to believe that he had
+adopted Hadrian. This will was, however, published, and Hadrian entered
+upon his government at Antioch, August 11th, A.D. 117, and was there
+proclaimed emperor. The Senate, to whom he wrote a letter announcing his
+appointment, at once confirmed him in his power. He now made peace with
+the Parthians, and restored to Chosroes, their king, Assyria and
+Mesopotamia. He adopted the policy of Augustus, refusing to extend the
+limits of the empire. In A.D. 118 he returned to Rome, but was soon
+forced to march to the defense of the province of Moesia, which had
+been invaded by the Sarmatæ and Roxolani. His object being merely to
+preserve the boundaries of the empire, he concluded a peace with the
+Roxolani, and probably purchased their submission. He was about to march
+against the Sarmatæ, when the news of a conspiracy at Rome was brought
+to him. He seems to have ordered the leaders to be put to death,
+although he afterward denied that he had done so. Having returned to
+Rome, he endeavored to win the affections of the people by donations,
+games, and gladiatorial shows. He also canceled a large amount of unpaid
+taxes, now due for fifteen years, and promised the Senators never to
+punish one of their body without their approval. He divided Italy into
+four regions, a Consular Magistrate being placed over each; and he
+introduced a new system of administration into the palace, the army, and
+the state, which lasted until the reign of Constantine the Great.
+
+In A.D. 119 he began a journey through all the provinces of his empire,
+in order to examine into their condition, and to discover and amend any
+faults in the system of government. Hadrian, too, was fond of travel,
+and was never content to remain long in repose. A large part of his
+reign was occupied with this important journey. He first visited Gaul
+and Germany, and thence, in A.D. 121, passed over into Britain. Here he
+found the Britons already partially civilized, but unable to defend
+themselves from the incursions of their neighbors the Caledonians. To
+protect them from these forays, he built a wall across the island from
+the mouth of the Tyne to Solway, remains of which are still shown to the
+traveler. On his return he adorned the town of Nemausus (Nismes) with
+fine buildings, and then went into Spain, where he passed the winter. He
+returned to Rome A.D. 122, but soon after went to Athens, where he spent
+three years. During his residence in that city he began many magnificent
+buildings, and he seems to have looked upon Athens with singular
+affection and reverence. He visited Sicily, returned to Rome, set out
+for Africa, whence, after a brief visit, he once more visited Athens, to
+view the completion of his architectural designs. He finished the Temple
+of the Olympian Jupiter, the largest and most magnificent in the world,
+which had been commenced by Pisistratus, and left many other fine works
+behind him. Then he passed through Asia, inspecting the conduct of the
+provincial officers, and next traveled through Syria into Egypt, where
+his favorite Antinous, a beautiful youth, was drowned. This event seems
+to have filled him with a lasting grief. At length, in A.D. 131, he
+returned to Rome.
+
+[Illustration: Mole of Hadrian restored.[78]]
+
+Here he published the _Edictum Perpetuum_, a codification of the edicts
+of the Roman Prætors, which was composed by Salvius Julianus, an eminent
+lawyer. The design of this work was to condense the vast body of the law
+into a convenient form.
+
+A revolt broke out among the Jews, Hadrian having established a colony
+called Ælia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, and, not content with
+introducing pagan worship into the holy city, had even issued an edict
+forbidding the practice of circumcision. These imprudent measures
+produced a revolt among the Jews, who, under their leader Barcochab,
+fought with their usual courage and desperation. The war continued for
+several years, during which more than half a million of Jews are said to
+have perished. At length Julius Severus came from Britain to lead the
+Roman armies, and the rebellion was suppressed. The Jews were now
+forbidden to live in Jerusalem or its neighborhood, and the nation was
+scattered over the habitable world.
+
+A war which seemed about to break out with the Albanians and Iberians in
+the East was prevented by Hadrian, who, with his usual policy, sent
+large presents to his enemies, and thus converted them into friends. He
+now returned from his travels to Rome, where he built his magnificent
+villa at Tibur, the extensive ruins of which may still be seen; and he
+passed the remainder of his life either at Tibur or in Rome. His health
+had been affected by his incessant labors, and in A.D. 135 he was seized
+with dropsy. Having no children, he adopted L. Ceionius, under the name
+of L. Ælius Verus, a young noble, who, however, died on the first day of
+the year A.D. 138. Hadrian then adopted Arrius Antoninus (afterward the
+Emperor Antoninus Pius), and presented him as his successor to the
+Senators assembled around his bed. At the same time he obliged him to
+adopt L. Commodus Verus, the son of the former Verus, and also M. Annius
+Verus, the future Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Ill health seems now to have
+fatally affected the mind and disposition of Hadrian. He became morose
+and cruel. He put many eminent nobles to death, and is said to have sunk
+into debauchery at his Tiburtine villa. His disease proving incurable,
+he several times attempted suicide; but having removed to Baiæ, hoping
+for some relief in that fine climate, he died there July 10th, A.D. 138,
+aged sixty-three. He was buried in the villa of Cicero, near Puteoli.
+When the Senate, enraged at his cruelties in the latter part of his
+life, wished to annul his acts, and would have refused him divine
+honors, Antoninus interposed, and excused his adopted father on the plea
+that ill health had disordered his mind. For this filial conduct he
+received the name of Pius. The Senate not only numbered Hadrian among
+the deities, but ordered temples to be erected in his honor. He left the
+empire prosperous and at peace. During his reign the Senate lost its
+importance in the administration of affairs, since Hadrian supplied its
+place by a _Consistorium Principis_, or council, composed of eminent
+men, presided over by a distinguished lawyer. Hadrian was fond of
+letters and the arts, and adorned every part of his empire with fine
+buildings or useful works. Wherever he traveled he did something for the
+benefit of his subjects.
+
+[Footnote 78: This mausoleum, begun by Hadrian, is now the Castle of St.
+Angelo.]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse of a brass Coin of Antoninus Pius.]
+
+
+REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS, A.D. 138-161.
+
+This excellent man was born at Lanuvium, September 19th, A.D. 86, but
+his family came from the town of Nemausis (Nismes), in Gaul. Soon after
+his accession to the empire he married his daughter Faustina to Marcus
+Aurelius, procured for him the tribunitian and proconsular power from
+the Senate, and made him his associate in the labors of the government.
+His tranquil and prosperous reign is the most pleasing period in the
+history of the Roman Empire. The world enjoyed a general peace, and the
+emperor endeavored, by every wise measure, to secure the prosperity of
+his subjects. Like Numa, to whom he has often been compared, Antoninus
+was the peacemaker between distant nations, who were accustomed to
+submit their differences to him, and to abide implicitly by his award.
+He checked the persecutions to which the Christians had been exposed in
+former reigns, and to him Justin Martyr addressed his apology for
+Christianity. He watched carefully the conduct of the provincial
+governors, and applied the public revenues to founding schools,
+repairing roads and harbors, and encouraging every where industry and
+trade. When Asia and Rhodes were devastated by an earthquake, Antoninus
+expended large sums in relieving the sufferers by that calamity, as well
+as those who were reduced to indigence by the great fires which nearly
+destroyed Carthage, Narbonne, and Antioch, in A.D. 153. He appointed
+teachers of rhetoric in various cities of the empire, conferred honors
+and emoluments upon men of letters, and in A.D. 141 founded a
+charity-school for orphan girls, whom he styled _Puellæ Alimentariæ
+Faustinianæ_, in memory of his wife Faustina, who had died the year
+before. Faustina, however, does not seem to have merited his esteem, and
+the emperor was well acquainted with her faults; yet he generously
+overlooked them while she lived, and upon her death paid unusual honors
+to her memory. His piety, his devotion to the national religion, and his
+various virtues, seem to have won for him universal love and veneration,
+and his successors during the next century assumed the name of Antoninus
+as their worthiest title.
+
+Antoninus made no attempt to extend the boundaries of the empire. The
+barbarous races who were now beginning to swarm upon the frontiers, the
+Germans and the Dacians, were held in check; and although the Brigantes
+made several inroads into Britain, they were defeated by A. Lollius, the
+Legate, in A.D. 141; and a wall of turf was raised beyond the former
+wall built by Agricola to check the incursions of the Caledonians. This
+peaceful reign, however, seems to have increased the general indolence
+of the people, and the martial spirit of the Roman soldiers declined in
+the idleness of their stationary camps. After a reign of twenty-three
+years, Antoninus died, March 7th, A.D. 161, in his villa at Lorium, aged
+seventy-five years.
+
+
+REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 161-180.
+
+He was succeeded by Aurelius, who was born at Rome A.D. 121. This prince
+is known as the Philosopher; and the wish of Plato that philosophers
+might be kings, or kings philosophers, seems to have been fulfilled at
+his accession. Aurelius had been from his youth a lover of truth. His
+morals and his intellect were trained by the purest and wisest men of
+his age. He had studied under Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto, two
+famous rhetoricians, and also under the Stoic philosophers Junius
+Rusticus and Apollonius; and he had been constantly employed by his
+adopted father Antoninus as an associate in all his useful and
+benevolent designs. His health was, however, delicate, and he now
+admitted to a share in the empire his adopted brother, L. Verus, who
+possessed a vigorous constitution, but was addicted to licentious
+pleasures.
+
+The general peace which had prevailed during the reign of Marcus
+Antoninus was forever passed away, and the world was in future to be
+desolated by almost perpetual hostilities. The Parthian king Vologeses
+III. having invaded the eastern provinces, and cut to pieces a Roman
+legion, L. Verus was sent to oppose his advance; but upon arriving at
+Antioch, Verus remained there, plunged in dissipation, while his brave
+lieutenant Avidius Cassius drove back the Parthians, invaded
+Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and penetrated to Babylon. Another
+Roman general conquered Armenia, and restored the legitimate king Soæmus
+to his throne. At the close of the war, Verus, A.D. 166, returned to
+Rome, and triumphed. His army brought the plague with it from the East,
+which now desolated Italy and Rome. Many illustrious men died; but the
+famous physician Galen (Claudius Galenus), who had come from Pergamus to
+Rome, was now enabled to exhibit his uncommon professional skill. This
+pestilence lasted for several years.
+
+Verus died of intemperance A.D. 171, and Aurelius prevailed upon the
+Senate to rank him among the gods. He now marched against the
+Marcomanni, but was defeated in a great battle, and, in order to provide
+a new army, sold the imperial plate and jewels. He now took up a
+position at Sirmium (Sirmich), and endeavored to wear out the barbarians
+by skirmishes and sudden attacks, without venturing far from his
+strong-hold. At length, however, upon one occasion, having been drawn
+into a defile, the Roman army was relieved by a fierce storm of thunder
+and rain, which terrified the barbarians. Tradition attributes this
+sudden storm to the prayers of a Christian legion. The barbarians now
+submitted, and withdrew beyond the Danube.
+
+Soon after, an insurrection broke out in Syria, where Avidius Cassius,
+at the instigation, it is said, of the emperor's wife Faustina, had
+proclaimed himself emperor. But Cassius, by his severity, disgusted his
+own soldiers, and was assassinated by a centurion. Aurelius lamented
+this event, since it deprived him of an opportunity of showing clemency
+to an erring friend. He at once set out for the East, and there freely
+forgave all those who had conspired against him. He took the young
+family of Cassius under his protection, and ordered the papers of that
+officer to be destroyed, lest they might disclose the names of the
+conspirators. Faustina, who had accompanied her husband to Cilicia, died
+soon after, it is said, by her own hand.
+
+It is remarkable that this philosophic emperor should have permitted a
+cruel persecution of the Christians in A.D. 177, perhaps at the
+instigation of the Stoic philosophers--the only blot upon his general
+humanity and benevolence. Among the victims of this persecution was
+Justin Martyr, the author of the Apologies for Christianity, addressed
+to Antoninus, as well as to Aurelius himself. Toward the close of his
+reign, having become convinced of the falseness of the charges made
+against the Christians, Aurelius became once more tolerant and
+philosophic.
+
+In A.D. 176 the emperor triumphed at Rome for his various successes. He
+gave a donation of eight pieces of gold to every citizen, and made his
+son Commodus his colleague. In the mean time the barbarians in the
+interior of Europe, moved by a general impulse, began to press upon the
+frontiers of the empire, and from this time seem never to have ceased
+their inroads until the final destruction of the Roman power. Aurelius
+marched, A.D. 177, to the frontier, defeated the barbarians in various
+engagements, and had perhaps proved the savior and second founder of
+Rome, when he was seized with a fever at Vindobona (Vienna), A.D. 180,
+and died after a few days' illness. He was the last of the Roman
+emperors who labored for the welfare of his people. He was, no doubt,
+the greatest and wisest of them all, and he united the different talents
+of a man of learning, a fine writer, a skillful soldier, and a
+benevolent, judicious ruler. His "Meditations," which have made him
+known to posterity, are among the most delightful productions of the
+human intellect, while his private character seems to have been no less
+attractive than his writings.
+
+
+REIGN OF M. COMMODUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 180-192.
+
+The depraved Commodus succeeded his virtuous father at the age of
+twenty. He had been educated with singular care, but was wholly given up
+to coarse sensuality. The people, however, still hoped that he might be
+worthy of his father, and received him, upon his accession, with loud
+expressions of joy. For a short time he concealed his true disposition;
+but his sister Lucilla, jealous of her brother's wife Crispina, formed a
+conspiracy against him in A.D. 182, and he escaped with difficulty from
+the hand of the assassin. From this moment he threw off all disguise,
+and indulged his natural vices without restraint. He put to death the
+most illustrious men of the time, encouraged informers and false
+accusations, and filled Rome with terror. In the midst of these
+cruelties he often sang, danced, or played the buffoon in public, fought
+as a gladiator in the circus, and ordered the people to worship him as a
+second Hercules. His lieutenant Marcellus, in A.D. 184, defeated the
+Caledonians, after they had passed the long wall of Hadrian, and had
+ravaged the northern part of Britain; and in A.D. 191 an invasion of the
+Frisians was repelled. Commodus, however, paid no attention to the
+affairs of the empire. In A.D. 189 Italy suffered from a pestilence and
+famine, when the people of Rome rose against the emperor's præfect,
+Cleander, and tore him to pieces. Commodus still continued his murders,
+and was at last assassinated by the directions of his mistress, Marcia,
+whose death he had resolved upon. He died December 31st, A.D. 192. The
+Senate ordered his memory to be held infamous, and his body to be
+dragged by iron hooks through the streets, and then to be thrown into
+the Tiber; but his successor Pertinax prevailed that it should be placed
+in the mausoleum of Hadrian. Such was the son of Marcus Aurelius.
+
+[Illustration: Commodus.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Pertinax.]
+
+CHAPTER XLII.
+
+FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.
+
+
+Pertinax, an aged senator of consular rank, and now Præfect of the city,
+was summoned by the conspirators, who came to his house late at night,
+after the murder of Commodus, to ascend the vacant throne. He was one of
+the few friends and ministers of Marcus Aurelius who yet survived, and,
+having filled many important offices, had always been distinguished for
+firmness, prudence, and integrity. The rumor was spread that Commodus
+had died of apoplexy, and that Pertinax had succeeded him; but the
+Prætorian Guards were dissatisfied at his election. The Senate, however,
+confirmed the choice of the conspirators, and Pertinax lived among his
+own order rather as an equal than a master. His manners were simple, his
+mode of life frugal, and he sought to revive the pleasing simplicity of
+the early Republic.
+
+Pertinax administered justice with strictness, released those who had
+been left in prison by Commodus, reformed the finances and introduced
+economy, redivided the uncultivated lands among those who would till
+them, removed oppressive restrictions upon trade, and deserved the
+respect of the wiser portion of his subjects.
+
+But the Prætorians were never reconciled to his rule, and on the 28th of
+March, A.D. 193, eighty-six days after his election, they broke into
+the imperial palace, and struck down the emperor with innumerable blows.
+His head was separated from his body, and, being placed upon a lance,
+was carried in triumph to the Prætorian camp, while the people silently
+lamented the death of this virtuous ruler.
+
+The soldiers, meanwhile, proclaimed from the ramparts of their camp that
+the throne of the world would be sold at auction to the highest bidder.
+Didius Julianus, a wealthy Senator, whose age had not quenched his
+vanity and ambition, offered about a thousand dollars to each man for
+the possession of the prize. He was declared emperor, and, surrounded by
+the armed Prætorians, was carried to the Senate, who were forced to
+accept the selection of the soldiers. But the Senators and the people
+felt deeply the disgrace of their country, and even the Prætorians were
+ashamed of their unworthy choice. Julianus found himself on the throne
+of the world without a friend.
+
+[Illustration: Septimius Severus.]
+
+The armies in the provinces, when they heard of these transactions at
+the capital, rose in revolt, and refused to acknowledge the authority of
+Julian. Clodius Albinus commanded the legions in Britain, Septimius
+Severus those in Pannonia, and Pescennius Niger the army of the East.
+Severus, more active than his competitors, was saluted by his soldiers
+as emperor, and marched rapidly toward Rome. Julian, deserted by the
+Prætorians, was condemned to death by the Senate, and was executed as a
+common criminal after a reign of only sixty-six days. Severus was
+acknowledged as their lawful emperor by the Senate, June 2, A.D. 193,
+and his first act was to disarm the Prætorian Guards and banish them
+from the capital.
+
+He next marched against Niger, and defeated him in two battles, while he
+was also successful in a severe contest with Clodius Albinus at Lyons.
+Both of his competitors were put to death, and Severus, now set free
+from fear of rivalry, began to show the native cruelty of his
+disposition. Forty-one Senators, whom he accused of having favored
+Albinus, were executed, with their wives and children; and many of the
+provincial nobles of Spain and Gaul shared their fate. Yet Severus was
+in many respects a useful ruler; strict in the administration of the
+laws, careful to correct abuses, and restraining his subjects with stern
+impartiality. Peace returned to the provinces, cities were repeopled,
+roads repaired, Rome abounded in provisions, and the people were
+satisfied. Severus changed the constitution of the Prætorian Guards, and
+filled up their ranks with the bravest soldiers of the legions of the
+frontier. These barbarians, he thought, would be able to suppress any
+rebellion that might arise; and he increased the number to fifty
+thousand men. The Præfect of the Prætorians, who had at first been a
+simple soldier, now became the chief minister of the emperor, and was at
+the head of the finances and even of the law. The celebrated lawyer
+Papinian was appointed Præfect after the fall of Plautianus; and several
+great jurisconsults, particularly Paulus and Ulpian, flourished under
+the reign of Severus or his family.
+
+Severus, however, was a military despot, and, despising the feeble
+Senate, assumed both the legislative and the executive power. The
+jurisconsults, in fact, from this reign, begin to treat the emperor as
+the source of all law, the Senate and the people being no longer
+considered in the state. But this arbitrary rule, introduced by Severus,
+is thought to have tended more than any thing else to destroy the vigor
+of the Roman Empire, by leading the people to an abject dependence upon
+their rulers.
+
+The wife of Severus, Julia Domna, a Syrian lady of great beauty and
+various accomplishments, became the mother of two sons, Caracalla and
+Geta, and the emperor hoped that they would prove worthy of the high
+office to which they were born. They soon, however, showed themselves
+incapable of any serious study or employment, and were chiefly
+remarkable for the hatred they bore toward each other. The court was
+already divided into two factions, composed of the adherents of either
+son; and the emperor, who in vain strove to remove their rivalry,
+foresaw that one must fall a victim to the hatred of the other.
+
+In A.D. 208 a war broke out in Britain, and Severus, although now more
+than sixty years of age, and afflicted with the gout, so that he was
+carried on a litter, set out at the head of his army, attended by his
+two sons, and penetrated into the interior of Scotland. This was his
+last enterprise, for he died at York, February 4, A.D. 211. He left his
+empire to his two sons, who returned to Rome, and were acknowledged by
+the Senate and the army.
+
+[Illustration: Caracalla.]
+
+Their discord, however, still continued, and they planned a division of
+the empire, a measure which was then distasteful to all the Romans, and
+which was only prevented from taking place by the tears and entreaties
+of their mother, Julia Domna. Geta, the younger son, who was of a gentle
+disposition, soon after, in A.D. 212, February 27th, was murdered by the
+cruel and relentless Caracalla. Twenty thousand of his friends are said
+to have been put to death at the same time, and his unhappy mother,
+Julia Domna, was forced to receive her guilty son with feigned smiles
+and words of approbation. Remorse, however, fastened upon Caracalla, and
+the shade of Geta haunted him wherever he went. His cruelties now
+redoubled. He put to death Papinian, the Prætorian Præfect, the splendid
+ornament of the Roman bar; and his massacres filled every part of the
+empire with mourning and terror. In A.D. 213 he left the city of Rome,
+and never returned thither again; the rest of his reign was passed in
+the provinces, and wherever he came he indulged himself in endless
+murders, confiscations, and acts of violence. "He was," says Gibbon,
+"the common enemy of mankind." He directed a general massacre of the
+people of Alexandria, who had lampooned him, and viewed the scene from
+a secure post in the Temple of Serapis. To retain the affections of his
+army, he lavished upon them immense sums, the plunder of his empire; and
+he was at length assassinated, March 8, A.D. 217, at the instigation of
+Macrinus, one of the Prætorian Præfects, who had discovered that the
+tyrant had planned his own death.
+
+Macrinus, Præfect of the Prætorian Guard, was elected emperor March 11,
+A.D. 217, and the Senate and the provinces submitted without a murmur.
+But the new emperor was disliked by the nobles on account of his humble
+origin, and soon offended his army by endeavoring to reform their
+discipline. The Empress Julia now withdrew by a voluntary death from the
+sorrow which surrounded her, and the family of Severus became extinct. A
+rebellion broke out in the Syrian army, who proclaimed Bassianus, the
+grandson of Julia Mæsa, sister of the late empress, and who assumed the
+name of Antoninus. He pretended that he was the natural son of
+Caracalla. A battle took place, in which Macrinus was defeated, and soon
+after put to death; and Elagabalus, for that is the name under which
+this monster is commonly known, ascended the throne.
+
+He at once plunged into every vice. The sun was worshiped at Emessa
+under the name of Elagabalus, from whence the new emperor derived his
+surname, having been a priest in the temple; and he now introduced the
+lascivious rites of the Syrian deity into the capital of the world. A
+magnificent temple of the god Elagabalus was raised on the Palatine
+Mount, and the grave and dignified nobles of Rome were forced to take
+part in the ceremonies, clothed in long Phoenician tunics.
+
+It would be impossible to describe the vices of this wretched being, who
+seems to have sunk to the very extreme of depravity. His cousin,
+however, Alexander Severus, as if to show that human nature had not
+wholly declined, was amiable, virtuous, and learned. Elagabalus was
+murdered by the Prætorians March 10, A.D. 222, and Alexander placed upon
+the throne.
+
+Alexander Severus seems to have inclined toward the Christian faith,
+which was now very widely extended throughout the empire. He revoked all
+former edicts against the Christians, and ordered the words "Do unto
+others as you would have them do to you" to be inscribed upon his
+palaces and other buildings. The Persian Empire was now arising in new
+strength under the house of the Sassanides, and a war having broken out
+with them, Alexander marched against the Persians, and gained a
+considerable victory. He returned to Rome in triumph, and entered the
+city in a chariot drawn by four elephants. Soon after, the Germans
+having invaded Gaul, he led his army to the defense of the frontier;
+but, while attempting to reform the discipline of the Gallic legions, he
+was assassinated by a band of discontented soldiers, and Maximin, a
+Thracian peasant of great personal strength, who had risen to a high
+command in the army, was raised to the throne.
+
+[Illustration: Alexander Severus.]
+
+Maximin, A.D. 235, began his reign by massacring many of the friends of
+the late emperor, and even all those who showed any regret for his
+death. He was a fierce, ignorant barbarian, but was very successful in
+his wars against the Germans, having ravaged their country, and sent
+great numbers of them to be sold as slaves in Italy. He also defeated
+the Dacians and Sarmatians. But his severities produced a revolt in
+Africa, where the legions proclaimed their proconsul Gordian emperor,
+then in the eightieth year of his age. The Senate now revolted against
+Maximin, and ordered all his friends in Rome to be put to death. Maximin
+now made peace with the barbarians, and marched toward Italy, while, in
+the mean time, Gordian and his son were defeated and slain in Africa.
+The Senate immediately elected Papianus and Balbinus emperors, to whom,
+in order to gratify the people, they joined the younger Gordian, then
+only twelve years of age. Maximin entered Italy and besieged Aquileia,
+but his soldiers, weary of the length of the siege, put him to death,
+A.D. 238. The Goths on the Danube and the Persians in the East now
+assailed the empire, and at the same time the Prætorian Guards murdered
+his two associates, leaving Gordian sole emperor of Rome. Gordian was
+married to the daughter of Misitheus, Præfect of the Prætorians, an
+excellent minister and commander. Together they marched to the East,
+and defeated the Persians under their king Sapor, in various
+engagements. Misitheus now died, and Gordian appointed the Arab Philip
+his prime minister. Sapor was again defeated; but the Arab conspired
+against Gordian, his benefactor, who was assassinated in A.D. 244.
+
+Philip, having made peace with the Persians, returned to Rome, where he
+won the favor of the people by his mild conduct. In his reign the
+secular games were celebrated, it being reckoned one thousand years
+since the foundation of the city. Philip ruled with mildness, and was an
+enemy to persecution. In A.D. 249, however, the Illyrian army revolted,
+and proclaimed their commander, Trajanus Decius, emperor, who defeated
+Philip near Verona, and put him to death. His son, who had remained at
+Rome, was slain by the Prætorian Guards.
+
+In A.D. 250 the Goths invaded the empire. These fierce barbarians came
+from the north of Europe, and were among the chief instruments of the
+fall of Rome. Decius, who does not seem to have wanted skill and
+courage, was finally defeated and slain by them, together with his son.
+Decius is remembered as one of the most cruel persecutors of the
+Christians. The innocent victims of his rage were subjected to torture,
+driven to hide in the wilderness among rocks and forests, and were glad
+to live among the wild beasts, more humane than man. The Bishop of Rome,
+Fabian, the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, and many more eminent in
+the Church, suffered from the unrelenting severity of this persecutor.
+
+A son of Decius, Hostilianus, together with Gallus, an experienced
+soldier, were now made emperors. They concluded a disgraceful, but
+probably necessary peace with the Goths. But Hostilianus soon after
+died, and Gallus was defeated and slain by Æmilianus, who was himself
+assassinated, and Valerian, the Censor, in A.D. 253, was made emperor. A
+very high character is given of this ruler, whose reign, however, was
+filled with disasters. Having joined his son Gallienus with him,
+Valerian vainly sought to repel the attacks of innumerable enemies on
+every side of the empire--the Goths, the Franks, the Scythians, and the
+Persians. In a campaign against the latter Valerian was taken prisoner,
+and for nine years languished in captivity, his unnatural son making no
+effort for his liberation.
+
+The Allemanni, meanwhile, had entered Italy, ravaged its northern
+territory, and even threatened Rome. They withdrew, loaded with plunder.
+To gain allies among the barbarians, Gallienus now married the daughter
+of the king of the Marcomanni. Every part of the empire seems now to
+have been laid open to the invaders. Greece was ravaged by the Goths;
+the famous Temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned by them, together with
+that fine city; and Sapor, king of the Persians, overran Syria and Asia.
+He was, however, finally repelled by the brave Odenatus, who, with his
+queen Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra.
+
+Valerian died in captivity, while a crowd of usurpers rose in arms
+against the weak Gallienus. There were nineteen pretenders to the throne
+according to Gibbon, but this period is usually known as that of the
+Thirty Tyrants. This melancholy period was also marked by a pestilence,
+which raged for fifteen years in every province. Five thousand persons
+are said to have died daily at Rome for some time; cities were
+depopulated, and the number of the human species must have sensibly
+declined. A famine preceded and attended the pestilence, earthquakes
+were common, and the third century is, no doubt, the most melancholy
+period in the history of Europe.
+
+Gallienus was murdered in A.D. 268, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius
+Claudius, who died of a pestilence which had broken out in his army in
+Egypt. Aurelian, a native of Pannonia, was the next emperor. His reign
+lasted four years and nine months, but was filled with remarkable
+events. He abandoned Dacia to the Goths, defeated the Alemanni, and
+drove them out of Italy. But he foresaw the danger of future invasions,
+and surrounded Rome with new walls about twenty-one miles in extent. In
+A.D. 272 he marched against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who ventured to
+defy the power of Rome. This illustrious woman was not only learned,
+beautiful, and an agreeable writer, but governed the East for five years
+with discretion and success. Aurelian was amazed at her warlike
+preparations upon the fall of Palmyra, and treated her beautiful city
+with lenity; but the Palmyrenians having rebelled, the city was taken by
+storm, and its people put to death. The ruins of Palmyra are still among
+the most remarkable of the ancient world.
+
+Aurelian now returned to Rome to celebrate his triumph. The spoils of
+every climate were borne before him; his captives were from Germany,
+Syria, and Egypt, and among them were the Emperor Tetricus and the
+beautiful Zenobia, bound with fetters of gold. A whole day was consumed
+in the passage of the triumphal procession through the streets of Rome.
+But Aurelian, who was illiterate, unpolished, and severe, failed to win
+the regard of his people, and was plainly more at his ease at the head
+of his army than in the cultivated society of Rome. He returned,
+therefore, to the East, where he died, as was usual with so many of the
+emperors, by the hand of an assassin, in A.D. 275. He restored vigor to
+the empire, and preserved it from instant destruction.
+
+The army, filled with sorrow for the loss of the emperor, revenged his
+death by tearing his assassin in pieces; and they then wrote a
+respectful letter to the Senate, asking the Senators to select his
+successor. The Senate, however, passed a decree that the army should
+name the new emperor. The soldiers, in their turn, refused, and thus for
+eight months an interregnum prevailed while this friendly contest
+continued. At last the Senate appointed the virtuous Tacitus, who
+claimed a descent from his namesake, the famous historian. Tacitus,
+however, who was seventy years old, sank under the hardships of his
+first campaign, and died A.D. 276, at Tyania, in Cappadocia.
+
+His brother Florian then ascended the throne, but was defeated and put
+to death by Probus, the best soldier of the age, who, in six years, once
+more repelled the barbarians from every part of the empire. He delivered
+Gaul from the ravages of the Germans, pursued them across the Rhine, and
+every where defeated them. He suppressed, also, several insurrections,
+and employed his soldiers in various useful works. But at length, weary
+of these labors, they put Probus to death, A.D. 282.
+
+Carus, the next emperor, was singularly frugal in his mode of life. When
+the Persian embassadors visited him in his tent they found him sitting
+upon the grass, clothed in a coarse robe, and eating his supper of bacon
+and hard pease. Carus gained many victories over the Persians, but died
+suddenly in A.D. 283. His two sons, Carinus and Namerian, succeeded him,
+but were soon assassinated, giving place to the more famous Diocletian.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro.]
+
+CHAPTER XLIII.
+
+FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
+
+
+Diocletian began to reign A.D. 284, and once more revived the vigor of
+the declining empire, which now seemed more than ever to depend for its
+existence upon the qualities of a single ruler. It seems, indeed, to
+have required an intellect of no common order to preserve the unity of
+the empire, composed of so many different nations, of territories
+separated by such vast distances, and threatened on every side by
+innumerable foes; but, of all his contemporaries, Diocletian was best
+suited to this task. His parents had been the slaves of a Roman Senator,
+and he had himself risen from this low station to the highest positions
+in the army. He acted with generosity toward the servants of the former
+emperor, not only suffering them to remain in safety under his rule, but
+even to retain their offices. Finding the empire too large to be
+governed by a single ruler, he selected as his colleague Maximian, a
+brave, but fierce and ignorant soldier, who, like himself, had risen to
+a high rank in the army. Maximian, however, always admitted the
+intellectual superiority of Diocletian. The emperor assumed the title of
+Jovius, and Maximian that of Herculius. Diocletian also appointed two
+Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, to aid him in the defense of the
+empire, which was divided between the four princes. Gaul, Spain, and
+Britain were intrusted to the care of Constantius, Italy and Africa to
+Maximian, Galerius commanded the legions on the Danube, while Diocletian
+reserved for himself Thrace, Egypt, and Asia. The four rulers seemed to
+have labored together in harmony, but the establishment of four courts
+in different parts of the empire obliged them to increase the taxes, and
+every province suffered under new impositions. Even Italy, which had
+always been favored in this particular, was now heavily burdened, and
+every where lands were abandoned and left uncultivated because their
+owners could not pay the taxes and impositions. In A.D. 287 a rebellion
+occurred in Gaul, which was suppressed by Maximian; soon after,
+Carausius, having become master of Britain, and possessing a
+considerable fleet, defied the power of the emperor; but when
+Constantius was appointed Cæsar he prepared to reduce the island to
+subjection. In A.D. 294 Carausius was put to death by Allectus, a new
+usurper. Constantius now crossed the Channel and recovered the island,
+which, after a separation of ten years, was once more reunited to the
+empire. During this reign the Goths, Vandals, and other northern
+barbarians wasted their strength in destructive contests with each
+other; but whenever, in intervals of peace, they invaded the Roman
+territory, they were driven back by the valor of the two Cæsars.
+Maximian, in the mean time, subdued a revolt in Africa; and Diocletian
+himself suppressed one of those seditions to which Egypt was constantly
+exposed. The emperor besieged Alexandria for eight months, cut off the
+aqueducts which conveyed water to the city, and, having taken it, put
+many thousands of its citizens to death. One remarkable edict which he
+now published forbade the study of alchemy in Egypt, and ordered all
+books upon that subject to be burned. He also made a treaty with the
+Nubians, in order to protect the frontiers of Egypt.
+
+It gives us, indeed, a clear view of the immense extent of the Roman
+power when we reflect that its commanders were, almost at the same
+moment, struggling successfully against its enemies in Africa, Britain,
+Germany, and the East. A war with Persia now arose, in which Galerius
+was at first defeated, A.D. 296. But the next year he passed through
+the mountains of Armenia at the head of twenty-five thousand chosen men,
+and, having surprised the Persian army in the night, slaughtered great
+numbers of them; the booty, too, was immense. A barbarian soldier,
+finding a bag of shining leather filled with pearls, threw away the
+contents and preserved the bag; and the uncultivated savages gathered a
+vast spoil from the tents of the Persians. Galerius, having taken
+prisoners several of the wives and children of the Persian monarch
+Narses, treated them with such tenderness and respect that Narses made
+peace. Mesopotamia was now added to the empire, being taken from the
+King of Armenia, who received in its place a considerable Persian
+province.
+
+The two emperors returned to Rome and celebrated their triumph November
+20, A.D. 303, the last spectacle of that kind which the world has
+witnessed. Romulus, more than a thousand years before, had ascended the
+Capitoline Mount on foot, bearing in his arms the spoil of Acron, and
+his example had been followed by a long line of Roman heroes. In the
+last triumph, the two emperors were attended by the spoils of Africa and
+Britain, of the East and the West.
+
+During this reign also occurred the last persecution of the Christians,
+who were soon to become the masters of the empire. It began A.D. 303,
+and continued for ten years; and such multitudes of the Christians
+perished that the emperors boasted that they had wholly extirpated the
+sect!
+
+Diocletian introduced an Eastern pomp into his court, assumed the titles
+of "Lord and Emperor," and wore a diadem set with pearls. His robes were
+of silk and gold. He required his subjects to prostrate themselves
+before him, and to adore him as a divinity.
+
+In A.D. 305, like Charles V., he resolved to abdicate his power, having
+persuaded his colleague Maximian to do the same: he lived in retirement
+for nine years, and amused himself cultivating his garden. "I wish you
+would come to Salona" (Spalatro), he wrote to Maximian, who sought to
+draw him from his retirement, "and see the cabbages I have planted: you
+would never again mention to me the name of empire." But the close of
+his life was embittered by the ingratitude of Constantine and Licinius,
+and the dangers of the empire. It is not known whether he died by
+disease or by his own hand.
+
+Upon the abdication of Diocletian and his colleague, the two Cæsars,
+Constantius and Galerius, assumed the title of Augustus. Constantius
+retained his former provinces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He was
+moderate, amiable, and lived with Roman simplicity. Galerius, on the
+other hand, was haughty, severe, and ambitious. He had married a
+daughter of Diocletian, and hoped that the death of Constantius would
+soon leave him the sole emperor of Rome. The two emperors now appointed
+two Cæsars, Maximin and Severus, the first nephew to Galerius, and the
+latter devoted to his interests. Constantius died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 306, and his son Constantine was proclaimed Augustus by the
+soldiers.
+
+[Illustration: Constantine and Fausta.]
+
+This prince, afterward Constantine the Great, was the son of Constantius
+and Helena, who was said to have been the daughter of an inn-keeper.
+When Constantius became Cæsar he divorced Helena, and her son was, in a
+measure, neglected. Constantine, however, soon distinguished himself as
+a soldier, and won the affection of the army. In appearance he was tall,
+dignified, and pleasing; he excelled in all military exercises, was
+modest, prudent, and well informed. He soon attracted the jealousy of
+Galerius, who would have put him to death had he not escaped to his
+father in Britain; and now Galerius refused to allow him any higher
+title than that of Cæsar.
+
+Maxentius, the son of the abdicated emperor Maximian, was also
+proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and prevailed upon his father once
+more to ascend the throne. Severus, who marched against them, was
+defeated and put to death; and Constantine now married Fausta, the
+daughter of Maximian. Galerius led a large army from the East, but was
+repulsed from Rome and retreated, leaving Maximian and his son masters
+of the capital. Galerius next associated Licinius with him in his
+power, and there were now six sovereigns upon the throne.
+
+In A.D. 310, however, Maximian, having conspired against the life of
+Constantine, was put to death; Galerius died the next year; in A.D. 312
+Maxentius fell before the arms of Constantine, and was drowned in the
+Tiber while attempting to make his escape. It was during this campaign
+that Constantine is said to have seen the miraculous cross in the
+heavens.
+
+The Roman Senate paid unusual honors to Constantine; games and festivals
+were instituted in memory of his victory over Maxentius, and a triumphal
+arch was erected, whose imperfect architecture shows the decline of
+ancient taste. The Arch of Trajan was stripped of its ornaments to adorn
+that of Constantine.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Constantine.]
+
+The new emperor introduced good order into the administration of the
+West, revived the authority of the Senate, and disbanded the Prætorian
+Guards; he revoked the edicts against the Christians, and paid unusual
+deference to the bishops and saints of the Church. The Emperor Licinius,
+who had married his sister, in A.D. 313 defeated and put to death
+Maximin, so that the empire was now shared between Constantine and
+Licinius.
+
+The former now summoned a council of bishops at Arles to suppress the
+heresy of the Donatists, but, before it met, was forced to march against
+Licinius, who had conspired against him. Licinius was defeated in two
+battles, and forced to give up a large part of his dominions to his
+conqueror. Constantine next defeated the Goths and Sarmatæ. Licinius
+had assumed the defense of Paganism, while Constantine raised the
+standard of the Cross. The last struggle between them took place near
+Adrianople; the Pagan army was defeated and put to flight, and in A.D.
+324 Licinius was put to death. Thus Constantine reigned alone over the
+empire of Augustus.
+
+At the famous Council of Nice, which met in A.D. 325, the doctrine of
+the Trinity was established, Arianism condemned, and at the same time
+the emperor was, in effect, acknowledged to be the spiritual head of the
+Church. But an event now occurred which must have destroyed forever the
+happiness of Constantine. He was induced to put to death his virtuous
+son Crispus, through the false accusations of his wife Fausta, and when
+afterward he discovered the falseness of the charges made against
+Crispus, he directed Fausta and her accomplices to be slain.
+
+Rome, which had so long been the capital of the world, was now to
+descend from that proud position and become a provincial city. When
+Constantine returned to Rome after the Council of Nice, he found himself
+assailed with insults and execrations. The Senate and the people of the
+capital saw with horror the destroyer of their national faith, and they
+looked upon Constantine as accursed by the gods. The execution of his
+wife and son soon after increased the ill feeling against the emperor,
+and Constantine probably resolved to abandon a city upon which he had
+bestowed so many favors, and which had repaid him with such ingratitude.
+He was conscious, too, that Rome, seated in the heart of Italy, was no
+longer a convenient capital for his empire, and he therefore resolved to
+build a new city on the site of ancient Byzantium. The Bosphorus, a
+narrow strait, connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora; and here,
+on a triangular piece of ground, inclosing on one side an excellent
+harbor, Constantine laid the foundations of his capital. It was situated
+in the forty-first degree of latitude, possessed a temperate climate,
+and a fertile territory around it; while, being placed on the confines
+of both Europe and Asia, it commanded the two divisions of the empire.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus.]
+
+Constantinople was adorned with all the architectural elegance of the
+age, but the arts of sculpture and of decoration had so declined that
+Constantine was forced to rob the cities of Greece of their finest works
+in order to supply the deficiencies of his own artists: Athens and Asia
+were despoiled to adorn his semi-barbarous capital. The city was
+provided with a forum, in which was placed a column of porphyry upon a
+white marble base, in all one hundred and twenty feet high, upon which
+stood a bronze figure of Apollo. A hippodrome, or circus of great size,
+and the baths and pleasure-grounds, recalled the memory of those of
+Rome. Schools and theatres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen
+palaces, and a great number of magnificent private houses, added to the
+splendor of the new city. Constantine designed, it is said, to have
+called his capital the SECOND OR NEW ROME, but his own name has always
+been preferred.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Constantinople.]
+
+Having thus provided a capital, Constantine next began to form a new
+constitution for his empire; he established, therefore, a complete
+despotism, all the power being lodged in the emperor, and all honors and
+titles being conferred by him alone. The name of Consul was still
+preserved, these officers being yearly appointed by the emperor; but we
+now notice the titles of _Count_ and _Duke_ joined with those of
+Quæstors and Proconsuls. All the civil magistrates were taken from the
+legal profession. The law was now the most honorable of the professions,
+and the law school at Berytus, in Phoenicia, had flourished since the
+reign of Alexander Severus.
+
+The Roman Empire was divided into four great præfectures, which were
+themselves subdivided into dioceses and provinces. The præfectures were
+named that of the East, of Illyricum, of Italy, and of Gaul. A Prætorian
+Præfect had charge of each præfecture, and regulated its civil
+government; took care of the roads, ports, granaries, manufactures,
+coinage; was the supreme legal magistrate, from whose decision there was
+no appeal. Rome and Constantinople had their own Præfects, whose courts
+took the place of those of the ancient Prætors, while a considerable
+police force preserved the quiet of each city. The magistrates of the
+empire were divided into three classes, the Illustrissimi, or
+illustrious; the Spectabiles, or respectable; and the Clarissimi, or the
+honorable.
+
+Constantine also made Christianity the established religion of the
+state, and appropriated a large portion of the revenues of the cities to
+the support of the churches and the clergy. His standing army was very
+large, but the ranks were now filled chiefly by barbarians, the Roman
+youth having lost all taste for arms. It is said the young men of Italy
+were in the habit of cutting off the fingers of the right hand in order
+to unfit themselves for military service.
+
+In order to support this extensive system, Constantine was forced to
+impose heavy taxes upon his people. Every year the emperor subscribed
+with his own hand, in purple ink, the _indiction_, or tax levy of each
+diocese, which was set up in its principal city, and when this proved
+insufficient, an additional tax, or _superindiction_, was imposed.
+Lands, cattle, and slaves were all heavily taxed, and the declining
+agriculture of the empire was finally ruined by the exorbitant demands
+of the state. In Campania alone, once the most fertile part of Italy,
+one eighth of the whole province lay uncultivated, and the condition of
+Gaul seems to have been no better. Besides this, merchants,
+manufacturers, mechanics, and citizens were taxed beyond their power of
+endurance, while those who failed to pay were shut up in prison. Every
+fourth year these taxes on industry were levied, a period to which the
+people looked forward with terror and lamentation. Gifts were also
+demanded from the cities or provinces on various occasions, such as the
+accession of an emperor, the birth of an emperor's heir, the free gift
+of the city of Rome, for example, being fixed at about three hundred
+thousand dollars; and, in fine, the imperial despotism reduced the
+people to want, and hastened, even more than the inroads of the
+barbarians, the destruction of civil society.
+
+Constantine in his old age adopted the luxury and pomp which Diocletian
+introduced from the East; he wore false hair of various colors carefully
+arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of silk embroidered with
+flowers of gold. His family, at an earlier period, consisted of Crispus,
+a son by his first wife Minervina, and the three sons of Fausta,
+Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. Besides these there were three
+daughters. Crispus, however, who was beloved by the people and the army,
+excited the jealousy of Fausta. Constantine was led to believe that his
+son was engaged in a conspiracy against his life, and Crispus was
+executed by his father's orders, together with Cæsar Licinius, the son
+of Constantine's favorite sister. Helena, the aged mother of
+Constantine, undertook to avenge her grandson. Fausta was finally proved
+to be unfaithful to her husband, and put to death, with many of her
+friends and followers. These fearful scenes within the palace recalled
+to the Roman people the memory of Nero and Caligula.
+
+The three sons of Fausta were now the heirs of the throne, and, with
+their two cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were carefully
+instructed by Christian professors, Greek philosophers, and Roman
+jurisconsults, the emperor himself teaching them the science of
+government and of man. They also studied the art of war in defending the
+frontiers of the empire; but no important war disturbed the last
+fourteen years of this reign. Constantine reigned thirty years, the
+longest period of any since Augustus; and he died May 22, A.D. 337, at
+his palace at Nicomedia, aged sixty-four years.
+
+Constantine, although professing the Christian faith, was not baptized
+until a short time before his death, when he received that solemn rite
+with many professions of penitence, and of a desire to live in future
+according to the precepts of religion. He seems to have possessed many
+excellent qualities, was brave, active, and untiring, ruled with
+firmness, and gave a large portion of his time to the cares of state.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julian the Apostate.]
+
+CHAPTER XLIV.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, A.D.
+476.
+
+
+The three sons of the late emperor, Constantine, Constantius, and
+Constans, as soon as their father was dead, put to death their two
+cousins, Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, with many more of their relatives;
+only Gallus and Julian, the children of Julius Constantius, being left
+alive. They then divided the empire, A.D. 337, Constantine, the elder,
+retaining the new capital, Constans receiving the western provinces,
+while to Constantius was left Syria and the East. Sapor, king of Persia,
+invaded the Eastern provinces, and defeated the Romans in various
+battles. Meanwhile a quarrel broke out between Constantine and Constans,
+and the former, having invaded his brother's provinces, was defeated and
+slain, A.D. 350. Ten years afterward Constans was himself put to death
+by Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who at once assumed the name of
+emperor. Constantius marched against him, but found that Vetranio,
+præfect of Illyricum, had joined him, instigated by the Princess
+Constantina. He finally, however, defeated Magnentius, and deposed the
+aged Vetranio, and thus became the master of Rome. Having recalled
+Gallus and Julian from banishment, the emperor gave them the title of
+Cæsars. Gallus proved unfit for public affairs, while Julian won the
+esteem of all men by his conduct and valor. He drove the Germans out of
+Gaul, which they had invaded, and even crossed the Rhine, in imitation
+of Julius Cæsar.
+
+Constantius now became jealous of the rising fame of Julian, who was
+beloved by the Western legions, and commanded him to send the finest
+part of his army to the East. Julian prepared to obey, but the soldiers
+rose in revolt, proclaiming him Julian Augustus. He sent messengers to
+the emperor demanding the recognition of his election; but war could not
+long be averted. Julian abjured Christianity, which he had hitherto
+professed, together with his allegiance to the emperor, and led a small
+army of well-chosen soldiers against his rival. Meantime Constantius, in
+A.D. 361, November 3d, died of a fever in Syria, while Julian entered
+Constantinople December 11th, amid the applause of the people. He was
+acknowledged emperor. He was now in his thirty-second year, in many
+particulars the most remarkable of the second Flavian family.
+
+Julian had been educated by the Platonic philosophers, and resolved to
+restore the ancient form of religion. He sacrificed to the pagan gods,
+rebuilt their temples, revived the practice of augury, or divination,
+and vainly strove to impose upon the human mind a superstition which it
+had just thrown off. In order to mortify the Christians, he resolved to
+rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and restore the Jews to their ancient
+seat. But some natural phenomenon interposed; the workmen were driven
+away by balls of fire, and Julian abandoned his design.
+
+Except this unphilosophical hostility toward the Christians, whose faith
+he had once professed, Julian seems to have made a sincere attempt to
+improve the condition of his people. He lived with frugality, rewarded
+merit, and encouraged learning, except where it was employed in the
+defense of Christianity. He was also successful in his wars against the
+Germans and the Persians, but at length was defeated by the latter, and
+was killed A.D. 363, June 26th.
+
+Julian affected in his dress and manners the rudeness and indifference
+of a philosopher, was free from vice, possessed considerable learning,
+and wrote a work of some value, in which he compared and studied the
+characters of the long line of his predecessors.
+
+Jovian was now proclaimed emperor by the Eastern army, and concluded a
+dishonorable peace with the Persians. He next published an edict
+restoring Christianity, but was found dead in his bed, A.D. 364.
+
+Valentinian was next chosen emperor, who gave the Eastern provinces to
+his brother Valens. He made Milan the seat of his own government, while
+Valens reigned at Constantinople; and the empire was from this time
+divided into the Eastern and the Western. The whole of the Western world
+was distressed by the invasion of barbarous tribes, and Valentinian now
+made his son Gratian his heir, in order to remove all doubt as to the
+succession. The Saxon pirates, meantime, harassed all the coasts of
+Gaul, while Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots. Theodosius,
+however, defeated them, and was soon after sent to quell an insurrection
+in Africa. This he succeeded in doing, when Valentinian died suddenly,
+A.D. 375.
+
+Valens, his brother, meantime had suppressed a rebellion in the East,
+led by Procopius; and then, having become an Arian, commenced a severe
+persecution of the orthodox, of whom no fewer than eighty ecclesiastics
+were put to death for supporting the election of a bishop of their own
+faith at Constantinople. Valens also succeeded in repelling the attacks
+of the Persians.
+
+In the West Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian and
+Valentinian II. The brave Theodosius, meanwhile, whose valor had
+preserved the peace of the nation, was executed by order of Gratian, and
+soon after the Huns appeared upon the Danube. These savages are thought
+to have entered Europe from Tartary. Their faces were artificially
+flattened and their beards plucked out. They left the cultivation of
+their fields to the women or slaves, and devoted their lives to warfare.
+A wandering race, they built no cities nor houses, and never slept
+beneath a roof. They lived upon horseback. The Huns first attacked their
+fellow-barbarians, the Ostrogoths, and made a fearful carnage, putting
+all the women and children to death.
+
+The Gothic nation now begged permission from the Romans to cross the
+Danube, and settle within the Roman territory. Their request was
+granted, upon condition that they should surrender all their arms; but
+this condition was imperfectly fulfilled. The celebrated Bishop Ulphilas
+about this time converted the Goths to Arianism, invented a Gothic
+alphabet, and infused among the Goths a hatred for the Catholic faith,
+which served to increase their zeal in all their future conflicts with
+the Romans. Ill-treated by the Roman commissioners who had been sent by
+the Emperor Valens to superintend their settlement, the Goths marched
+against Constantinople. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid, and the latter,
+although his own dominions were harassed by the Germans, marched to the
+aid of his uncle, but died at Sirmium. Valens encountered Fritigern, the
+Gothic leader, near Adrianople, in A.D. 378, and was defeated and slain.
+Nearly the whole of the Roman army was destroyed upon this fatal field.
+
+Gratian now chose as his colleague Theodosius, the son of the former
+brave commander of that name, and Theodosius for a time restored the
+Roman empire. He defeated the Goths, won their affections by his
+clemency, and induced them to protect the frontiers of the Danube.
+Gratian was defeated and put to death, A.D. 383, by a usurper, Maximus,
+who also deprived Valentinian II. of his province of Italy. Theodosius,
+however, defeated the usurper in A.D. 388, and generously restored
+Valentinian to his throne. Valentinian was murdered by a Frank,
+Arbogastes, in A.D. 392, but Theodosius marched against him, and
+defeated and destroyed the rebels Arbogastes and Eugenius, A.D. 394.
+
+Theodosius the Great, who had thus reunited the empire under his own
+sway, belonged to the orthodox faith, and sought to suppress Arianism,
+as well as many other heresies which, had crept into the Christian
+Church. He was a prudent ruler, and resisted successfully the inroads of
+the barbarians. He divided his empire between his two sons, Honorius and
+Arcadius, the former becoming Emperor of the West, the latter, who was
+the elder, succeeding his father at Constantinople; and Theodosius soon
+after died, lamented by his subjects. Rufinus, who became the chief
+minister of Arcadius, oppressed and plundered the Eastern empire. He was
+universally hated by the people. Stilicho, on the other hand, who also
+became the chief minister of Honorius, was a very different character.
+He was a brave and active commander, and restored the former glory of
+the Roman arms. His chief opponent was the famous Alaric, who now united
+the Gothic forces under his own command, and, having penetrated into
+Greece, ravaged and desolated that unhappy country. The barbarians
+plundered Athens, Corinth, Sparta, and Argos; and those cities, once so
+renowned for valor, seemed to offer him no resistance, so fallen was the
+ancient spirit of the Greeks. Stilicho, however, pursued Alaric into
+Elis, and would, perhaps, have totally destroyed the barbarians had not
+the feeble Arcadius not only made peace with Alaric, but appointed him
+to the command of Illyricum. Alaric, not long after, invaded Italy, but
+was defeated by his rival. In A.D. 403 he again invaded Italy, and was
+induced to retreat by a considerable bribe.
+
+The Emperor Honorius removed from Rome to Ravenna, where he believed
+himself more secure; and when a new horde of barbarians invaded Italy in
+A.D. 406, and had besieged Florence, they were totally defeated and
+destroyed by Stilicho. A portion of the invaders escaped into Gaul,
+where they committed great ravages, until Constantine, the governor of
+Britain, was proclaimed emperor, who wrested Gaul and Spain from the
+dominion of Honorius. This weak prince, in A.D. 408, consented to the
+murder of Stilicho. His new minister, Olympius, directed the slaughter
+of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy, a cruelty which was
+fearfully avenged.
+
+Alaric, the scourge of Rome, marched into Italy, and in A.D. 408
+besieged the capital. Pestilence and famine soon raged within the walls
+of Rome, until the Senate purchased a respite from their calamities by
+an enormous ransom. Honorius refused to confirm the treaty, and the next
+year Alaric once more appeared before the city. He took possession of
+Ostia, the port of Rome, reduced the Senate to surrender, and proclaimed
+Attalus emperor. Honorius still refusing to yield to his demands, Alaric
+resolved to punish Rome for the vices of its emperor. The sack of that
+city now followed, one of the most fearful tragedies in history.
+
+No foreign enemy had appeared before the gates of Rome since the
+invasion of Hannibal, until Alaric made his successful inroad into
+Italy. The city still retained all that magnificence with which it had
+been invested by the emperors. The Colosseum, the baths, the aqueducts,
+the palaces of the Senators, the public gardens, and the ancient
+temples, still remained; but its people were lost in luxury and vice.
+Learning was no longer respected among them, the gamester or the cook
+being more esteemed than philosophers or poets; and the luxurious
+Senators passed their lives in frivolous and degrading amusements. The
+indolent people were maintained by a daily distribution of bread, baked
+in the public ovens; and oil, wine, and bacon were also provided for
+them during a part of the year. The public baths were open to the
+people, and for a small copper coin they might enter those scenes of
+luxury where the walls were incrusted with precious marble, and
+perpetual streams of hot water flowed from silver tubes. From the bath
+they passed to the Circus, where, although the combats of gladiators had
+been suppressed by Christian princes, a succession of amusements was
+still provided. In this manner the luxurious nobles and people of Rome
+passed their tranquil, inglorious lives.
+
+The wealth of the capital was such as might well attract the barbarous
+invader. The palaces of the Senators were filled with gold and silver
+ornaments, and the churches had been enriched by the contributions of
+pious worshipers. Many of the nobles possessed estates which produced
+several hundred thousand dollars a year, and the wealth of the world was
+gathered within the walls of its capital.
+
+We have no means of estimating accurately the population of Rome. Its
+walls embraced a circuit of twenty-one miles, and it is probable that
+nearly a million of people were contained within the walls and the
+suburbs.
+
+Such was the condition of Rome when it was about to fall before the arms
+of the barbarians. August 24th, A.D. 410, Alaric approached the city,
+and the gates being opened to him by some Gothic slaves, his troops
+began at night a fearful scene of pillage and destruction. Men, women,
+and children were involved in a general massacre; nobles and plebeians
+suffered under a common fate. The Goths, as they entered, set fire to
+the houses in order to light their path, and the flames consumed a large
+part of the city. Great numbers of the citizens were driven away in
+hordes to be sold as slaves; others escaped to Africa, or to the islands
+on the coast of Italy, where the Goths, having no ships, were unable to
+follow them. But Alaric, who was an Arian, spared the churches of Rome,
+and was anxious to save the city from destruction. From this time,
+however, A.D. 410, began that rapid decay which soon converted Rome into
+a heap of ruins.
+
+Alaric, after six days given to plunder, marched out of the city, to the
+southern part of Italy, where he died. His body was buried under the
+waters of a rivulet, which was turned from its course in order to
+prepare his tomb; and, the waters being once more led back to their
+channel, the captives who had performed the labor were put to death,
+that the Romans might never discover the remains of their Gothic
+scourge.
+
+The brother of Alaric, Adolphus, who succeeded him, was married to the
+Princess Placidia, and now became the chief ally of Honorius. He
+restored Gaul to the empire, but was murdered while upon an expedition
+into Spain. Wallia, the next Gothic king, reduced all Spain and the
+eastern part of Gaul under the yoke of the Visigoths. The empire of the
+West was now rapidly dismembered. The Franks and Burgundians took
+possession of Gaul. Britain, too, was from this time abandoned by the
+Romans, and was afterward, in A.D. 448, overrun and conquered by the
+Angles and the Saxons, and thus the two great races, the English and the
+French, began.
+
+Arcadius, the Eastern emperor, governed by his minister, the eunuch
+Eutropius, and by the Empress Eudoxia, was led into many cruelties; and
+St. Chrysostom, the famous bishop and orator, was one of the illustrious
+victims of their persecutions. Arcadius died in A.D. 408, and was
+succeeded by the young Theodosius, who was controlled in all his
+measures by his sister Pulcheria, and for forty years Pulcheria ruled
+the East with uncommon ability. Honorius died in A.D. 423, when
+Valentinian III., son of Placidia, his sister, was made Emperor of the
+West. He was wholly governed by his mother, and thus Placidia and
+Pulcheria ruled over the civilized world.
+
+The Vandals, who had settled in the province of Andalusia, in Spain,
+were invited into Africa by Count Boniface, who had been led into this
+act of treachery by the intrigues of his rival Ætius. Genseric, the
+Vandal king, conquered Africa, although Boniface, repenting of his
+conduct, endeavored to recover the province; and thus Italy was now
+threatened on the south by the Vandal power in Africa.
+
+The Huns, meantime, who had been detained upon the upper side of the
+Danube, now crossed that river, being united under the control of
+Attila, and became the terror of the civilized world. Attila first
+threatened an attack upon the Eastern empire, but at length turned his
+arms against the West. He was defeated by Ætius and the Visigoths in
+A.D. 451, but the next year he invaded Italy, demanded the Princess
+Honoria in marriage, and destroyed many of the Italian cities. He spared
+the city of Rome, however, and finally died in A.D. 453. His death alone
+saved the empire from complete ruin.
+
+Valentinian III., who had put to death the brave commander Ætius, was
+murdered by the patrician Maximus in A.D. 455. The Vandals now besieged
+and plundered Rome, and sold many thousands of the citizens as slaves.
+Avitus, a Gaul, next became emperor by the influence of Theodoric, king
+of the Visigoths, but was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, and was
+followed by Majorian, a man of merit, who endeavored to reform the
+nation. He died in A.D. 461. Count Ricimer then declared Severus
+emperor, but was forced to apply for aid against the Vandals to the
+court of Constantinople, where Leo was now emperor. Leo appointed
+Anthemius to the throne of the West, and sent an army against the
+Vandals in Africa, which was totally defeated. Ricimer then deposed
+Anthemius, and declared Olybrius emperor; but both Ricimer and Olybrius
+died in A.D. 472. Leo next appointed Julius Nepos his colleague.
+Glycerius, an obscure soldier, made an effort to obtain the throne, but
+yielded to Nepos, and became Bishop of Salona. Orestes, who had
+succeeded Count Ricimer as commander of the barbarian mercenaries,
+deprived Nepos of his throne; and Nepos, having fled into Dalmatia, was
+executed by his old rival Glycerius.
+
+Orestes gave the throne to his son Romulus, to whom he also gave the
+title of Augustus, which was afterward changed by common consent to
+Augustulus. But Odoacer, the leader of the German tribes, put Orestes to
+death, sent Augustulus into banishment, with a pension for his support,
+and, having abolished the title of emperor, in A.D. 476 declared himself
+King of Italy.
+
+Romulus Augustus was the last emperor of the West, and bore the name of
+the founder of the monarchy as well as of the empire, a singular
+circumstance.
+
+In this manner fell the Roman Empire, a noble fabric, which its founder
+hoped would endure forever. Its destruction, however, gave rise to the
+various kingdoms and states of modern Europe, and thus civilization and
+Christianity, which might have remained confined to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, have been spread over a large portion of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV.
+
+ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.
+
+
+Roman literature, which had risen to its highest excellence under
+Augustus, declined rapidly under his successors, and was finally lost
+with the fall of the Western empire. The language was no longer pure,
+and neither prose nor poetry retained the harmony and elegance of the
+Augustan age. A certain sadness and discontent, which marks all the
+later literature, forms also a striking contrast with the cheerful tone
+of the earlier writers. Every part of the empire, however, abounded with
+men of letters, and a high degree of mental cultivation seems every
+where to have prevailed.
+
+Epic poetry continued to nourish, and Virgil found many imitators. The
+best epic writer of this period was M. Annæus Lucanus, who was born at
+Corduba, in Spain, in the year A.D. 38. Lucan was educated at Rome under
+the Stoic Cornutus, and was introduced by his uncle Seneca to the
+Emperor Nero. Having for a time enjoyed the patronage of Nero, he at
+length became the object of his jealousy and hatred, was accused of
+having taken part in Piso's conspiracy, and was condemned to death. He
+was allowed, as a favor, to put an end to his own life, and thus died,
+A.D. 65. Although so young, for he was scarcely twenty-seven years of
+age, Lucan, besides several shorter poems, produced the Pharsalia, an
+epic, of which he finished only ten books: it relates the wars between
+Cæsar and Pompey, and contains many fine thoughts and striking images.
+He evidently prefers Pompey to Cæsar, and possessed a strong love for
+liberty, which lends vigor to his verses. His language is pure, his
+rhythm often harmonious, but he never attains the singular delicacy and
+sweetness of his master, Virgil.
+
+C. Silius Italicus, the place of whose birth is unknown, also lived
+during the reign of Nero, and was Consul in the year A.D. 68. He was a
+Stoic, and put an end to his own life in the year A.D. 100, when he was
+about seventy-five years of age. His poem, the Punica, is an account of
+the second Punic War in verse, and is chiefly valuable to the historical
+student. He had little inventive power, and takes but a low rank in
+poetry.
+
+P. Papinius Statius, the son of the teacher of the Emperor Domitian, was
+carefully educated at Rome, and became renowned at an early age for his
+poetical talents. He spent the last years of his life at Naples, which
+was also the place of his birth, and died there in the year A.D. 96. He
+wrote the Thebais, in twelve parts; the Achilleis, in two books; the
+Sylvæ, a collection of poems; a tragedy, and other works. He seems to
+have borrowed much from earlier Greek writers, but was possessed of
+considerable poetical fervor.
+
+Claudius Claudianus, who lived under Theodosius the Great and his two
+sons, was probably born and educated at Alexandria, but we know little
+of his history. He came to Rome about A.D. 395, and, under the patronage
+of Stilicho, rose to a high position in the state. The time and place of
+his death are unknown. His chief works were, 1. Raptus Proserpinæ, an
+unfinished poem in three parts; 2. Gigantomachia, another unfinished
+work; 3. De Bello Gildonico, of which we possess only the first book;
+and, 4. De Bello Getico, in which the poet sings the victory of Stilicho
+over Alaric at Pollentia. His poems have a rude vigor which sometimes
+strikes the attention, but are chiefly valued for the light they throw
+upon the Gothic wars. They are marked by many faults of taste.
+
+Lyric poetry was little cultivated at Rome after the death of Horace;
+but satire, which was peculiar to the Romans, reached its highest
+excellence under the empire. Juvenal is still the master of this kind of
+writing, although he has been imitated by Boileau, Pope, and Johnson;
+and his contemporary Persius was also a writer of great power.
+
+Aulus Persius Flaccus was born at Volaterræ, in Etruria, in the year
+A.D. 34, of a distinguished family of the equestrian rank. He was
+educated at Rome under the best masters, particularly under the Stoic
+Cornutus, with whom he lived in close friendship, as well as with Lucan,
+Seneca, and the most distinguished men of his time. He died at the early
+age of twenty-eight, leaving behind him six satires and a brief preface.
+Persius possessed a generous, manly character, was the foe of every kind
+of vice, and formed one of that graceful band of writers who maintained
+their independence under the terrors of a despotic government.
+
+Decimus Junius Juvenalis, of whose life we have few particulars, was
+born at Aquinum A.D. 38 or 40, and came up to Rome, where he at first
+studied eloquence with great ardor, but at length gave himself wholly to
+satirical writing. He offended Domitian by his satires, it is said, and
+was sent by that emperor to the extreme boundary of Egypt, where he died
+of grief and exile; but scarcely any fact in the history of this great
+man has been perfectly ascertained.
+
+We possess sixteen satires of Juvenal, the last of which, however, is of
+doubtful authenticity. These satires are full of noble appeals to the
+purest emotions of virtue, and of severe rebukes for triumphant vice.
+Juvenal's language is often harsh and his taste impure; but his ideas
+are so elevated, his perception of truth, honor, and justice so clear,
+that he seldom fails to win the attention of his readers.
+
+Epigrams seem to have been a favorite mode of expressing thought at the
+court of Augustus, and almost every eminent Roman from the time of
+Cicero has left one or more of these brilliant trifles behind him. M.
+Valerius Martialis, the chief of the epigrammatists, was born about A.D.
+40, at Bibilis, in Spain, from whence he came to Rome, when about
+twenty, to perfect his education. Here he lived for thirty-five years,
+engaged in poetical pursuits, and patronized by Titus and Domitian. He
+seems finally to have returned to his native land, where he was living
+in the year A.D. 100. His poems are about fifteen hundred in number,
+divided into fourteen books, and are altogether original in their
+design. They are always witty, often indecent, and contain many personal
+allusions which can not now be understood. Martial is one of the most
+gifted of the Roman writers.
+
+The practice of writing epigrams was preserved until a very late period.
+Seneca, Pliny the younger, Hadrian, and many others, were fond of
+composing them; and in modern times the epigram has been a favorite kind
+of poetry with most good writers.
+
+Phædrus, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote pleasing fables.
+Calphurnius and Ausonius imitated Virgil's bucolics, and fragments of
+many other poets are preserved, whom we can not mention here.
+
+Historical writers also abounded under the empire. Velleius Paterculus,
+an excellent historian descended from a patrician family, was born about
+B.C. 19. He was the friend and flatterer of Tiberius, and rose, in
+consequence, to several high offices. He was Quæstor in perhaps A.D. 7,
+and Prætor in A.D. 15. His _Historicæ Romanæ_, two books of which
+remain, is an abridgment of the history of the world, written in a clear
+and pleasing style, and is, in general, trustworthy. He flatters his
+benefactors, Augustus and Tiberius, but his fine tribute to the memory
+of Cicero shows that he felt a strong sympathy with that chief of the
+Republicans.
+
+Valerius Maximus, who also lived under Tiberius, wrote a considerable
+work, composed of remarkable examples of virtue, and other anecdotes,
+collected from Roman or foreign history. He had plainly a just
+conception of moral purity, although he dedicates his book to Tiberius.
+His style is inflated and tasteless, but the work is not without
+interest.
+
+Next after Valerius arose Tacitus, the chief of the imperial prose
+writers. Tacitus, a plebeian by birth, was born at Interamna. The year
+of his birth is not known, but must have lain between A.D. 47 and A.D.
+61. Tacitus served in the army under Vespasian and Titus. He rose to
+many honors in the state, but in A.D. 89 left Rome, together with his
+wife, the daughter of the excellent Agricola. He returned thither in
+A.D. 97, and was made Consul by the Emperor Nerva. His death took place,
+no doubt, after A.D. 117. So few are the particulars that remain of the
+life of this eminent man; but the disposition and sentiments of Tacitus
+may be plainly discovered in his writings. He was honest, candid, a
+sincere lover of virtue. He lamented incessantly the fall of the old
+republic, and does not spare Augustus or Tiberius, whom he believed to
+be its destroyers. Like Juvenal, whom he resembled in the severity of
+his censure as well as the greatness of his powers, Tacitus wrote in a
+sad, desponding temper of mind, as if he foresaw the swift decline of
+his country.
+
+His style is wholly his own--concise, obscure, strong, forever arousing
+the attention. He could never have attained the easy elegance of Livy,
+and he never tells a story with the grace of that unequaled narrator,
+but he has more vigor in his descriptions, more reality in his
+characters.
+
+The life of his father-in-law Agricola is one of the most delightful of
+biographies. His account of the Germans was a silent satire upon the
+corrupt condition of the Roman state. The _Historiarum Libri_ is a
+history of his own age, from the fall of Galba to the death of Domitian,
+and was probably designed to embrace the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. A
+small portion only of this work is preserved. The _Annales_ relate the
+history of Rome from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, but are also
+imperfect. A treatise upon the orators is also attributed to the
+historian. Tacitus and Juvenal are the last great names in Roman
+literature.
+
+Quintus Curtius Rufus, an interesting writer, who lived perhaps under
+Claudius or Tiberius, his true period being uncertain, wrote, in ten
+books, an account of the exploits of Alexander the Great. He was
+succeeded by C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who came to Rome during the reign
+of Domitian, and there studied rhetoric and grammar. Under Hadrian he
+fell into disgrace and went into exile: the period of his death is
+unknown. Suetonius wrote the lives of the twelve Cæsars, ending with
+Domitian. His language is good, and he paints with uncommon minuteness
+the vices as well as the virtues of his subjects; he abounds, too, in
+particulars which throw light upon the manners of the Romans. Suetonius
+also wrote several short treatises, while various biographies have been
+attributed to him which probably belong to inferior writers.
+
+L. Annæus Florus, who perhaps lived under Trajan, wrote an epitome of
+Roman history. Justin, whose period is unknown, wrote or abridged from
+an earlier author, _Trogus_, a history of the world. The _Scriptores
+Historiæ Augustæ_ is a collection of writers of little merit, who
+flourished in different periods of the empire. Aurelius Victor, who was
+probably Præfect of Rome under Theodosius, wrote _Origo Gentis Romanæ_,
+only a small portion of which has been preserved, and several other
+historical works. Eutropius, who served under Julian against the
+Persians, composed a brief history of Rome, written in a pure and
+natural style.
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, who lived under Valens, Valentinian, and
+Theodosius until A.D. 410, and was a Greek by birth, wrote a history of
+the empire from Nerva to the death of Valens, A.D. 378. A large part of
+this work is lost. Ammianus abounds in digressions and descriptions, and
+is, on that account, the more entertaining. His manner can not be
+praised.
+
+The Spaniard Orosius concludes the list of the Latin historians. Orosius
+was a Christian presbyter, and, while defending Christianity, paints a
+lamentable picture of the condition of the pagan world. He borrowed from
+Justin and other writers, and lived in the fifth century.
+
+Rhetoric continued to be cultivated, but eloquence no longer possessed
+the power which it held under the Republic. The speeches now delivered
+were chiefly declamations upon unimportant themes. M. Annæus Seneca, the
+father of the philosopher, came to Rome from his native city Corduba, in
+Spain, during the reign of Augustus, and became a famous rhetorician. M.
+Fabius Quintilianus, a greater name in literature, was born A.D. 42, at
+Calgurris, in Spain, but, as was customary with men of merit at that
+period, went up to Rome, and became celebrated as a teacher of rhetoric.
+He was a person of excellent character, and, besides practicing at the
+bar, rose to the consulship. Having passed many years in politics or the
+law, Quintilian at last returned to his old profession, and in the close
+of his life gave himself wholly to letters. He now wrote his work upon
+oratory, _Libri duodecim Institutionis Oratoriæ_. In this valuable work
+he seeks to restore the purity of the language, inculcates simplicity,
+and shows an excellent taste. The younger Pliny was also a famous orator
+or declaimer.
+
+The Romance, or modern novel, is also thought to have begun in the first
+century with the satirical tale ascribed to Petronius Arbiter, or
+perhaps with the translation of the Milesian tales of Aristides from the
+Greek by Sisenna. The _Petronii Arbitri Satiricon_ is a romance in prose
+and verse, and was probably written in the first century by an author of
+whom nothing is known. It relates the adventures of a certain
+_Encolopius_, and satirizes the vices and follies of the age. The
+language of this work is pure, the wit lively, but indecent: only a
+portion, however, of the _Satiricon_ has been preserved. During the age
+of the Antonines arose _Appuleius_, the best known of the ancient
+writers of tales. He was born at Madaura, in Africa, but went to
+Carthage, and from thence to Athens, where he was initiated into the
+Grecian mysteries, and studied the Platonic philosophy. Appuleius was an
+agreeable speaker, and had filled his mind with the learning of his age;
+but his fame with posterity rests upon his novel _Metamorphoseon_, in
+which he strives to correct the vices of his contemporaries. In this
+work a vicious young man is transformed into an ass, under which form he
+goes through many amusing adventures, but is at last changed to a new
+man through the influence of the mysteries. The story is full of
+episodes, the moral good, but the language shows the decline of literary
+taste.
+
+Philosophy, since the time of Cicero, had become a favorite study with
+the Romans, although they produced no remarkable philosopher. Seneca,
+the most eminent of them, was the son of M. Annæus Seneca, the
+rhetorician. He was probably born at Corduba, in Spain, soon after the
+Christian era, and was educated by the best masters at Rome. He
+possessed an active intellect, was early renowned, and held various high
+offices in the state. Having been the preceptor of Nero, he was finally
+condemned to death by that monster, and put an end to his life A.D. 65.
+Seneca was a Stoic, and taught self-control, tranquillity of mind, and
+contempt for the changes of fortune. His various essays and other
+writings have always been admired, although he wanted a correct taste,
+and is often affected and rhetorical. He possessed great wealth, which
+he either inherited or accumulated. His town house was adorned with
+marbles and citron-wood, and his country villas, of which he had
+several, were filled with costly luxuries; yet his morals were probably
+pure, and he was much beloved for his generosity and fidelity to his
+many friends.
+
+The elder Pliny, _Plinius Secundus Major_, another famous philosopher,
+was born in the year A.D. 23, either at Como or Verona. He served with
+the army in Germany, and rose high in office under Vespasian. Being in
+command of the fleet at Misenum during the first eruption of Vesuvius in
+A.D. 79, in order to gratify his curiosity he remained too long near the
+burning mountain, and was suffocated by its exhalations. Pliny passed
+his whole life in study, and was never satisfied unless engaged in
+acquiring knowledge. His _Historia Naturalis_ resembles the Cosmos of
+Humboldt, and passes in review over the whole circle of human knowledge.
+It treats of the heavens, of the earth and its inhabitants, of the
+various races of man, of animals, trees, flowers, minerals, the contents
+of the sea and land, of the arts and sciences; and shows that the
+author possessed an intellect of almost unequaled activity. His nephew,
+the younger Pliny, who lived under Trajan, and was the favorite
+correspondent of that emperor, is remembered for his agreeable letters,
+and the purity and dignity of his character.
+
+Grammatical studies and critical writings also afforded employment for
+many intelligent Romans; and every part of the empire seems to have been
+filled with cultivated men, who, possessing wealth and leisure, gave
+themselves to literary studies. Aulus Gellius, one of the best known of
+the grammarians, lived during the period of the Antonines. His _Noctes
+Atticæ_ is a critical work in twenty books, in which he discusses many
+questions in language, philosophy, and science. He seems to have passed
+his life in traveling over Italy and Greece, collecting materials for
+this work, and, wherever he goes he never fails to meet with agreeable,
+intelligent friends, who delight, like himself, in improving
+conversation.
+
+Aurelius Macrobius, another well-known grammarian, lived during the
+fifth century. His Commentary on the Dream of Scipio is full of the
+scientific speculations of his age. His _Saturnalia_ contains many
+extracts from the best Roman writers, with criticisms upon them, in
+which he detects the plagiarisms of Virgil, and observes the faults as
+well as the beauties of the orators and poets of Rome. The works of
+other grammarians have been preserved or are partly known to us, among
+which are those of Servius, Festus, Priscianus, and Isidorus.
+
+The study of the law, too, flourished in uncommon excellence under the
+emperors, and nearly two thousand legal works were condensed in the
+Digests of Justinian, few of which belonged to the Republican period.
+Under Augustus and Tiberius, Q. Antistius Labeo founded the famous
+school of the Proculians. He left four hundred volumes upon legal
+subjects. His rival, C. Ateius Capito, founded the school of the
+Sabinians, and was also a profuse writer. Under Hadrian, Salvius
+Julianus prepared the _Edictum Perpetuum_, about the year A.D. 132,
+which condensed all the edicts of former magistrates into a convenient
+code. Papinianus, Ulpianus, and Paulus were also celebrated for their
+legal writings. The only complete legal work, however, which we possess
+from this period, is a Commentary by Gaius, who lived probably under
+Hadrian. This valuable treatise was discovered in the year 1816 by the
+historian Niebuhr, in the library of Verona. It contains a clear account
+of the principles of the Roman law, and the Institutes of Justinian are
+little more than a transcript of those of Gaius.
+
+Various medical writers also belong to the Imperial period, the most
+important of whom is A. Cornelius Celsus. Works on agriculture were also
+written by Columella, Palladius, and others, which serve to show the
+decline of that pursuit among the Romans. Geography, mathematics, and
+architecture were also cultivated; but of most of these scientific
+authors only the name is preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Juvenal.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+_Accensi_, 123.
+
+Accius, L., 275.
+
+Achæan League, 107;
+  in alliance with Philip V., 108.
+
+Achæan War, 138.
+
+Ædiles, 117.
+
+Adolphus, brother of Alaric, 341.
+
+Ælius Saturninus, 297.
+
+Ælius Sejanus, 297;
+  his death, 299.
+
+Æmilianus, 324.
+
+Æmilius Lepidus, M., military road made by, 114.
+
+Æmilius Paullus, L., ends the war in Illyria, 79;
+  slain in the battle of Cannæ, 88.
+
+Æmilius Paullus, L. (son), defeats Perseus, 135.
+
+Æneas, legend of, 8.
+
+Æquians, 58.
+
+Ætolian League, 107;
+  forms alliance with Rome, 108;
+  but is obliged to make peace with Philip V., 108;
+  chief town Ambracia taken by the Romans, 111;
+  compelled to sue for peace, and the League crushed, 111.
+
+Afranius, L., Consul, 224.
+
+Afranius, L. (poet), 274.
+
+Africa, invaded by the Romans, 72;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius, 31;
+  law introduced by Ti. Gracchus, 150, 151;
+  extended by C. Gracchus, 157;
+  law introduced by Cæsar, 225.
+
+Agricola, Julius, legate to Britain, 303;
+  his forced retirement, 305.
+
+Agrigentum besieged and taken, 70.
+
+Agrippa, M., Octavian's general, drives L. Antonius and Fulvia out of
+    Rome, 263;
+  defeats them at Perusia, 263;
+  constructs the Julius Portus, 265;
+  defeats fleet of Sextus Pompey, 266.
+
+Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 286.
+
+Agrippa, Postumus, 293;
+  assassination of, 295.
+
+Agrippina, 298;
+  put to death by Tiberius, 299.
+
+Alaric ravages Greece, 339;
+  besieges Rome, 340;
+  sacks the city, 341.
+
+Alba Longa, foundation of, 8;
+  destruction of, 14.
+
+Alban Lake, legend of the, 43.
+
+Alesia surrenders to Cæsar, 234.
+
+Alexander Severus, Emperor, 322.
+
+Alexandria, 288;
+  trade between, and the Indies, 288.
+
+Allemanni threaten Rome, 324;
+  defeated by Aurelian, 325.
+
+Allobroges, embassadors of the, 220.
+
+Alps, Hannibal's passage of, note on, 90.
+
+_Ambitus_, 128.
+
+Ancus Marcius, succeeds Tullus Hostilius, 14;
+  conquers several Latin cities, and removes inhabitants to Rome, 14;
+  institutes the Fetiales, 15;
+  founds a colony at Ostia, 15;
+  fortifies the Janiculum, 15;
+  constructs the Pons Sublicius, 15;
+  his reign and death, 15.
+
+Andriscus, 137.
+
+Antiochus, king of Syria, proposes to Philip V. to partition Egypt
+    between them, 108;
+  receives Hannibal as a fugitive, 110;
+  is persuaded to invade Greece, 110;
+  is defeated at Thermopylæ, and returns to Syria, 111;
+  invades the kingdom of Pergamus, but is defeated near Magnesia, 111;
+  is compelled to cede all his dominions in Asia Minor, to pay fines,
+      and surrender Hannibal, 111;
+  peace concluded, and affairs of Asia settled, 112.
+
+Antiochus Asiaticus deposed, 212.
+
+_Antepilani_, 122.
+
+Antoninus, M. Aurelius, Emperor, 314;
+  death of, 316.
+
+Antoninus, M. Commodus, Emperor, 316.
+
+Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 313.
+
+Antonius, C., 219, 220, 221.
+
+Antonius, M. (orator), assassinated, 185.
+
+Antony (Marcus Antonius), Consul with Cæsar, 249;
+  offers the diadem to Cæsar, 249;
+  takes possession of Cæsar's papers and treasures, 252;
+  pronounces the funeral oration over the body of Cæsar, 253;
+  master of Rome, 253;
+  attacked by Cicero in his Philippies, 254;
+  retires to Cisalpine Gaul, and besieges Mutina, 254;
+  declared a public enemy, 254;
+  defeats Pansa, 255;
+  is defeated by Hirtius, 255;
+  received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, 255;
+  forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, 256;
+  defeats Cassius at Philippi, 261;
+  licentious conduct in Asia Minor, and meeting with
+      Cleopatra, 262, 263;
+  follows her to Alexandria, 263;
+  Fulvia, his wife, and L. Antonius, his brother, rise against him, 263;
+  his troops defeated in Syria, 264;
+  meets his wife and brother at Athens, 264;
+  his wife dies, 264;
+  forms an alliance with Sextus Pompey, 264;
+  marries Octavia, sister of Octavian, 264;
+  returns to the East with Octavia, 265;
+  his success in Syria, 265;
+  makes another treaty with Octavian, 266;
+  renews his union with Cleopatra, 267;
+  is defeated in Parthia, 267;
+  returns to Alexandria, 267;
+  is defeated by Octavian in the battle of Actium, 268, 269;
+  is again defeated at Alexandria, 269;
+  stabs himself, 269.
+
+Apollonia, besieged by Philip V. of Macedon, 107.
+
+_Appellatio_, 121.
+
+Appius Claudius, 38, 40.
+
+Appius Claudius Cæcus, 66;
+  his son, 69.
+
+Appuleius, 349.
+
+Apulia, 4.
+
+Aquæ Sextæ, battle at, 171.
+
+Aquillius, M'., Consul, suppresses the Second Servile War in
+    Sicily, 172;
+  is defeated, and made prisoner by Mithridates, 188.
+
+Arabia Felix invaded by Trajan, 308.
+
+Arabia Petræa made a Roman province, 308.
+
+Arcadius, son of Theodosius, 339;
+  his cruelties, 341.
+
+Archelaus defeated at Chæronea, 188;
+  and again at Orchomenos, 189.
+
+Archimedes, 93, 94.
+
+Ariobarzanes expelled from Cappadocia, 187;
+  restored, 183;
+  again expelled, 188;
+  restored to his kingdom, 213.
+
+Ariovistus defeated by Cæsar, 280.
+
+Aristobulus surrenders to Pompey, 212, 213.
+
+Armenia, Pompey in, 212.
+
+Arminius, 291.
+
+Army, Roman, constitution of, 122.
+
+Artaxata, submission of Mithridates at, 212.
+
+As (weight), 19.
+
+Ascanius, legend of, 8.
+
+Asculum, revolt at, 178.
+
+Astures conquered by Augustus, 291.
+
+_Atellanæ Fabulæ_, 275.
+
+Athenio, leader of slaves in Sicily, 172;
+  defeated and slain by Catulus, 172.
+
+Athens, 107;
+  declares against Rome, 188.
+
+Attalus Philometor, 147.
+
+Attila invades Italy, 348.
+
+Augurs, 18, 57.
+
+Augusta Emerita (Merida) founded by Augustus, 291.
+
+Aurelian, Emperor, 325.
+
+Ausonius, 346.
+
+Autronius Pætus, P., 218.
+
+Avidius Cassius defeats the Parthians, 315.
+
+
+B.
+
+Babylon captured by Trajan, 308.
+
+Balearic Slingers, 124.
+
+Barcochab, 312.
+
+Belgic War, 230.
+
+Bibulus, M., 216, 225.
+
+Boadicea, 302.
+
+Boii finally conquered and slaughtered, 114.
+
+Bononia (Bologna), colony at, 114.
+
+Bosporus, Cimmerian, 211.
+
+Brennus, 45, 46, 47.
+
+Brigantium taken by Cæsar, 224.
+
+Bruttii, 4.
+
+Britain, first invasion by Cæsar, 231;
+  second invasion, 232.
+
+Brutus, D., put to death at Aquileia, 256.
+
+Brutus, L. Junius, 23-25;
+  his death, 26.
+
+Brutus, M. Junius, Prætor, conspires with Cassius and others to
+    assassinate Cæsar, 249;
+  retires to Macedonia, 253;
+  goes to Athens, and collects an army, 257, 255;
+  plunders Lycia, 258;
+  crosses over into Thrace, 258;
+  defeated by Octavian at Philippi, 261;
+  slays himself, 261.
+
+
+C.
+
+Cæcilius, Q., 274.
+
+Cæsar Augusta (Saragossa) founded by Augustus, 291.
+
+Cæsar, Augustus, his conduct of the empire, 286;
+  extent of his empire, 289;
+  his government, 289;
+  decree against celibacy, 289;
+  his protection, the Prætorian Guard, 290;
+  army, navy, and revenues, 290;
+  plots against his life, 290;
+  his military enterprises, 291;
+  domestic misfortunes, 291-293;
+  his death, 293;
+  personal appearance, 294.
+
+Cæsar, Caius Caligula, 293;
+  succeeds Tiberius, 299;
+  death of, 300.
+
+Cæsar, Caius Julius, early life, 214, 215;
+  Quæstor, 215;
+  Ædile, 216;
+  restores statues and trophies of Marius, 216;
+  Proprætor in Spain, 224;
+  his conquests there, 224;
+  Consul, 225;
+  forms cabal with Pompey and Crasus (1st Triumvirate), 225;
+  carries Agrarian Law, 225;
+  supports Pompey, and gives him his only daughter Julia in
+      marriage, 225;
+  divorces his wife, 226;
+  obtains command in Gaul, 226;
+  1st campaign in Gaul, 229;
+  2nd, 230;
+  3rd, 230;
+  4th, 231;
+  5th, 232;
+  6th, 232;
+  7th, 233;
+  8th, 234;
+  rivalry of Pompey, 237-8-9;
+  returns to Italy, 240;
+  quarters at Ravenna, 240;
+  ordered to disband his army, 240;
+  refuses, and crosses the Rubicon, 241;
+  enters Rome, 242;
+  conquers his opponents in Spain, 242;
+  short Dictatorship, 243;
+  crosses to Greece to encounter Pompey, 243-4;
+  total defeat of Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia, 245;
+  Dictator, 246;
+  pursues Pompey into Egypt, 246;
+  supports Cleopatra, 246;
+  conquers Pharnaces in Syria, 240;
+  returns to Rome, 246;
+  defeats Pompeian army in Africa, 247;
+  death of Cato at Utica, 247;
+  master of the Roman world, and Dictator for ten years, 247;
+  his Triumph, 247;
+  his clemency and reforms, 247-8-9;
+  Imperator and Dictator for life, 249;
+  appoints Octavius his heir, 249;
+  conspiracy against him, 249-50;
+  assassination, 250;
+  character, 250-1;
+  his character as a writer, 283.
+
+Cæsar, L.. Julius, Consul, 179;
+  in Social War, 179;
+  proposes Lex Julia, 179.
+
+Cæsar, Lucius, 293.
+
+Cæsar, Tiberius Claudius, succeeds Caligula, 300;
+  enters Britain, 301.
+
+Cæsar, Vespasianus, 301;
+  emperor, 302;
+  death, 303.
+
+Cæsar, A. Vitellius, Emperor, 302.
+
+Calabria, 4.
+
+Calphurnius, 346.
+
+Calpurnian Law, 157.
+
+Camillus, M. Furius, 43, 44, 47, 48, 52.
+
+Campagna, 3.
+
+Campania, 4.
+
+Cannæ, immense Roman army defeated at, by Hannibal, 88.
+
+Cantabri, conquered by Augustus, 291.
+
+Cantabrians, 114, 144-5.
+
+Canuleia Lex, 41.
+
+Capito, C. Ateius, 350.
+
+Capitolium, 23.
+
+Capua, opens its gates to Hannibal, 89;
+  retaken by the Romans, 96.
+
+Caracalla, Emperor, 321;
+  assassinated, 322.
+
+Caractacus, 301.
+
+Carbo, Cn. Papirius, Consul, joins Cinnæ, 190.
+
+Carinus, 326.
+
+Carthage, 68;
+  capture and destruction of, 142;
+  rebuilt by the Romans, 142;
+  capital of the Vandal kingdom, 142;
+  finally destroyed by the Arabs, 142.
+
+Carthaginians, their navy, 70;
+  defeated by the Roman navy, 71, 72.
+
+Carus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Catilina, L. Sergius, early life, 218;
+  crimes, 218;
+  conspiracy, 219;
+  accused by Cicero, 219;
+  leaves Rome, 220;
+  collects troops, 221;
+  defeated and slain, 221.
+
+Cassius Longinus, C., fights under Crassus in Mesopotamia, 237;
+  conducts the retreat to Syria, 237;
+  originates the conspiracy against Cæsar, 249;
+  retires into Syria, 253;
+  defeats Dolabella in Syria, 258;
+  plunders Rhodes, 258;
+  marches with Brutus into Thrace, 258;
+  defeated by Antony at Philippi, 261;
+  his death, 261.
+
+Cato, M. Porcius, in Spain, 114;
+  Quæstor, Prætor, Consul, 129;
+  Censor, 132;
+  his reforms, 132;
+  his prejudices, 132, 133;
+  his severity and avarice, 133.
+
+Cato, M. Porcius, advocates the death of the Catilinarian
+    conspirators, 221;
+  his death at Utica, 247;
+  his character as a writer, 283.
+
+Catullus, Valerius, 276.
+
+Catulus, Q. Lutatius, combined with Marius in the overthrow of the
+    Cimbri, 171;
+  his death by order of Marius, 185.
+
+Catulus, Q. Lutatius (son), hails Cicero as "Father of his
+    Country," 221.
+
+Caudine Forks, battle at, 57, 58.
+
+Celsus, A. Cornelius, 350.
+
+Celtiberians, tribes of, 114;
+  war with, 145.
+
+Censors, 118.
+
+Census, 118.
+
+_Centuriones_, 122.
+
+Cethegus, C. Cornelius, 219, 220.
+
+Chosroes, king of the Parthians, 310.
+
+Cicero, M, Tullius, early life, studies, and success as an orator, 216;
+  Quæstor, 217;
+  prosecutes Verres, 217;
+  his speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria, 216;
+  studies at Athens and in Asia Minor, 216;
+  Quæstor in Sicily, under Sex. Peducæus, at Lilybæum, 217;
+  Ædile, Prætor, 217;
+  Consul, 219;
+  opposes agrarian law of Rullus, 219;
+  denounces Catiline, 219;
+  arrests conspirators, 220;
+  third oration, 220;
+  his popularity, 221;
+  hostility of Clodius, 227;
+  his banishment, 227;
+  his return to Rome, 228;
+  joins the party of Cæsar's assassins, 252;
+  his Philippics against Antony, 254;
+  stimulates the Senate against Antony and Octavian, 255;
+  is included in the list of proscriptions, 257;
+  his death, 257;
+  his character as a writer, 282.
+
+Cimbri, 169;
+  they enter and ravage Spain, 170;
+  enter Italy, destroyed by Marius and Catulus, 171.
+
+Cincinnatus and the Æquians, 34.
+
+Cincius Alimentus, L., 282.
+
+Cinna, L., Consul, 184;
+  conflict with Octavius, 185;
+  associated with Marius, 185;
+  their massacres in Rome, 185;
+  murdered by his army, 190.
+
+Cinna, grandson of Pompey, 290.
+
+Circus Maximus, 17.
+
+Cisalpine Gaul, a Roman province, 114.
+
+_Cives Romani_, 66.
+
+Claudianus, Claudius, 345.
+
+Claudius, M. Aurelius, Emperor, 325.
+
+Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, meets M. Antony at Tarsus, 262-3;
+  attracts him to Alexandria, 263;
+  is deserted for Octavia, 265;
+  again attracts Antony, who returns with her to Alexandria, 267;
+  war declared against her by the Senate, 268;
+  defeated with Antony at Actium, 268;
+  deceives Antony, but fails to deceive Octavian, 269;
+  kills herself, 269.
+
+Clients, 12.
+
+Clodius Albinus, 319.
+
+Clodius Pulcher, P., profligate conduct of, 226;
+  tribune, 227;
+  procures the banishment of Cicero, 227;
+  killed by Milo, 238.
+
+Clusium besieged, 45.
+
+Cocceius Nerva, 293, 299;
+  emperor, 306.
+
+Cohorts, 123.
+
+Collatia, Collatinus, 16.
+
+Colonies, Roman, 43.
+
+Colosseum, the, 303.
+
+Columella, 350.
+
+_Comitia Centuriata_, 20, 120.
+
+_Comitia Curiata_, 12, 20, 120.
+
+_Comitia Tributa_, 18, 20, 121.
+
+Constantine proclaimed Augustus, 330;
+  emperor, 331;
+  removes the capital to Constantinople, 332;
+  his character, 335.
+
+Constantius, 328;
+  emperor, 329.
+
+Consuls, duties of, 118.
+
+Corfinium, new republic at, 178.
+
+Corinth captured, and burnt, 138.
+
+Coriolanus, C. Marcius, 32;
+  banished from Rome, 32;
+  invades Rome at the head of a Volscian army, 32;
+  spares the city, 33;
+  his death, 33.
+
+Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, 149, 160.
+
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, married to Cæsar, 214;
+  her death, 215.
+
+Corneliæ Leges, 186.
+
+Cornelii, slaves so called, 195.
+
+Cornelius Fronto, 314.
+
+Corsica and Sardinia formed into a Roman province, 77.
+
+Corsica, revolt in, 115.
+
+Cotta, C. Aurelius, lawyer, 216.
+
+Cotta, L. Aurelius, 218.
+
+Cotta, M. Aurelius, defeated by Mithridates, 206.
+
+Crassus, P. Licinius, 147.
+
+Crassus, M. Licinius, Prætor, appointed to command the army against the
+    Gladiators, 202;
+  defeats and slays Spartacus, 203;
+  Consul with Pompey, 203;
+  forms 1st Triumvirate with Cæsar and Pompey, 225;
+  meets Cæsar and Pompey at Luca, 236;
+  second Consulship with Pompey, 236;
+  his command in Syria, 236;
+  crosses the Euphrates, 237;
+  defeated and killed, 237.
+
+Cremona besieged, 113.
+
+Cretan Archers (_Sagittarii_), 124.
+
+Ctesiphon captured by Trajan, 308.
+
+Curiæ, 12.
+
+Curiatii, 18.
+
+Curius, M'., defeats Pyrrhus, 65.
+
+Curtius, M., legend of, 53.
+
+_Curules Magistratus_, 117.
+
+
+D.
+
+Dacia made a Roman province, 308.
+
+Dacians cross the Danube, 305.
+
+Decebalus, 305;
+  demands tribute, 307;
+  his defeat, 308.
+
+Decemvirate, 36;
+  Decemviri appointed, 37;
+  their tyranny, 37;
+  the Twelve Tables, 38;
+  Decemviri continue in office, 38;
+  they assassinate Licinius Dentatus, 38;
+  Virginia slain by her father to save her from the Decemvir Appius
+      Claudius, 39;
+  resignation of the Decemvirs, 39;
+  and election of 10 Tribunes, 40.
+
+Decius Mus, P., self-sacrifice, 55;
+  and of his son, 59.
+
+Decuriones, 123.
+
+Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, 213.
+
+Delatores, 297, 303.
+
+Demetrius of Pharos, 79.
+
+Dictator, 28 (note), 51.
+
+Dictatorship, 118;
+  revived by Sulla, 194
+
+Didius Julianus, Emperor, 319.
+
+Diocletian, Emperor, 327;
+  selects Maximian for his colleague, 328;
+  defeats the Persians, 329.
+
+Dolabella, Cn., accused of extortion, 215;
+  puts an end to his life, 258.
+
+Domitian, reign of, 305.
+
+Drama, Roman, 272.
+
+Drusus. M. Livius, 158, 159.
+
+Drusus, 291;
+  sent to Germany, 295;
+  receives the tribunitian power, 297;
+  poisoned by his wife, 208.
+
+Drusus, M. Livius, son of the opponent of C. Gracchus, elected a
+    Tribune, endeavours to obtain the Roman franchise for the
+    Allies, 176;
+  assassinated, 176.
+
+
+E.
+
+Eburones, revolt of the, 232.
+
+Egypt, condition of, 107;
+  under Augustus, 288.
+
+Elagabalus, Emperor, 322.
+
+Enna (Servile War), 146-7
+
+Ennius, Q., 273.
+
+Equestrian Order, 158.
+
+Etruria, 2.
+
+Etruscans, their name, language, origin, and portions of Italy occupied
+    by them, 5, 6;
+  wars with the, 43;
+  defeated, 58;
+  in league with the Umbrians, 59;
+  defeated at Lake Vadimo, 60.
+
+Eumenes, king of Pergamus, obtains Mysia, Lydia, and part of Curia, 112.
+
+Eunus (Servile War), 146, 147.
+
+Eutropius, 343.
+
+
+F.
+
+Fabia Gens and the Veientines, 33.
+
+Fabius, lieutenant, defeated by Mithridates, 208.
+
+Fabius Maximus, Q., appointed Dictator, and to the command-in-chief
+    against Hannibal, 87;
+  styled the _Cunctator_, or "Lingerer," 87;
+  obtains Tarentum, 96.
+
+Fabius Pictor, Q., 282.
+
+Fabius Sanga, Q., 220.
+
+Falerii surrenders to the Romans, 44.
+
+Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, 315.
+
+Fescennine songs, 276.
+
+_Fetiales_, 15.
+
+Fidenæ taken and destroyed, 43.
+
+Fimbria defeated, slays himself, 183.
+
+Flaccus, Aldus Persius, 315.
+
+Flamens, 13.
+
+Flamininus, L., act of cruelty of, 127.
+
+Flamininus, T. Quinctius, appointed to the command against Philip V.,
+    whose army is defeated in the battle of Cynoscephalæ, 103;
+  proclaims the independence of Greece, 109;
+  withdraws the Roman garrisons from all the towns of Greece, and
+      returns to Italy, 109.
+
+Flaminius, C., defeats the Insubres, 79;
+  is defeated by Hannibal near Lake Trasimenus, and slain, 86.
+
+Florian, Emperor, 326.
+
+Florus, L. Annæus, 347.
+
+_Fossa Mariana_, 170.
+
+Frentani, 3.
+
+Fulvia (mistress of Q. Curius), 219.
+
+Fulvia, wife of M. Antony, conspires against him, 263;
+  is driven out of Home, and defeated at Perusia, 263;
+  dies at Sicyon, 264.
+
+Fulvius Nobilior, M., besieges and captures the town of Ambracia, 111.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gabii, 25
+
+Gabinius, A., Tribune, 210.
+
+Gaius, 350.
+
+Galatia, 106.
+
+Galatians attacked by Cn. Manlius Vulso, defeated in two battles, and
+    compelled to sue for peace, 112.
+
+Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, his treachery, 144;
+  succeeds Nero, 302.
+
+Galerius, 328:
+  emperor, 329.
+
+Gallia Cisalpina, 2.
+
+Gallæcians, 114.
+
+Gallienus, Emperor, 325.
+
+Gallus, Emperor, 324.
+
+Gaul, Cæsar's wars in, 229-234;
+  under Augustus, 287;
+  insurrection in, 297.
+
+Gauls in Italy, 6:
+  (Insubres) conquered, 79.
+
+Gellius, Aulus, 350.
+
+Gentes, Roman, 12.
+
+Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius, 293;
+  quells a mutiny on the Rhine, 296;
+  his German campaigns, 296;
+  his death, 296.
+
+Geta, son of Septimius, killed by Caracalla, 321.
+
+Glabrio, M. Acilius, 209.
+
+Glaucia, fellow-demagogue of Saturninus, pelted to death with tiles by
+    the mob, 175.
+
+Gordian, Emperor, 324.
+
+Goths (Senones) besiege Clusium, 45;
+  march against Rome, 46;
+  battle of the Allia, 46;
+  Rome destroyed, 46;
+  the Capitol besieged, 46;
+  Capitol saved, 47;
+  Goths repulsed and destroyed, 47;
+  invade the Empire, 324
+
+Gracchi, 148-160.
+
+Gracchus, Caius Sempronius (the Tribune), returns from Sardinia, 157;
+  elected Tribune, 157;
+  his legal reforms, 157, 158;
+  opposed by M. Livius Drusus, 159;
+  murdered, 160.
+
+Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (father of the Tribunes), subdues Spain, 115.
+
+Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (the Tribune), Quæstor in Spain, 145;
+  at the siege of Carthage, 149;
+  elected Tribune, 150;
+  introduces Agrarian Law, 150, 151;
+  his murder, 152.
+
+Græcia, Magna, 6, 60.
+
+Greece under Augustus, 288.
+
+Greek colonies in Italy, 6.
+
+
+H.
+
+Hadrian, Emperor, 309;
+  journey through his provinces, 310;
+  his _Edictum Perpetuum_, 311;
+  builds a villa at Tibur, 312.
+
+Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, excites Gauls and Ligurians against
+    Romans, 113.
+
+Hamilcar Barca, 75;
+  relieves Lilybæum and Drepanum, 76;
+  conquests in Spain, 80;
+  death, 80.
+
+Hannibal elected to succeed Hasdrubal, 80;
+  first campaigns in Spain, 80;
+  besieges and takes Saguntum, 80, 81;
+  crosses the Iberus and the Pyrenees with a large army, 83;
+  reaches the Rhone, 83;
+  crosses the Alps, 83;
+  encamps in the plains of the Po, among the Insubres, 84;
+  reduces the Taurinians, 84;
+  defeats the army of Scipio near the Ticinus, 84;
+  defeats combined army of Scipio and Longus near the Trebia, 84;
+  marches through Liguria to the Arno, 86;
+  defeats C. Flaminius at Lake Trasimenus, 86;
+  eludes Q. Fabius and defeats Minucius, 87;
+  annihilates an immense Roman army at Cannæ, 88;
+  marches into Samnium and Campania, and obtains Capua, 89;
+  his rapid marches, 92;
+  campaigns of B.C. 215-213, 92, 93;
+  obtains Tarentum, 93;
+  marches up to the walls of Rome, but is unable to take the city, 95;
+  loses Capua, 96;
+  loses Salapia, 96;
+  destroys the army of Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea, 96;
+  loses Tarentum, 96;
+  is recalled from Italy, 104;
+  defeated by Scipio near Zama, 104;
+  is protected by Antiochus, after whose defeat at Magnesia he escapes,
+      and is received by Prusias, king of Bithynia, 111;
+  is demanded by Rome, takes poison, and dies, 131, 132.
+
+Hanno, in command of Carthaginian fleet, defeated by Lutatius
+    Catulus, 76.
+
+Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar, 80;
+  founds New Carthage, 80;
+  assassinated, 80.
+
+Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, marches from Spain into Italy, 97;
+  is defeated on the Metaurus, and slain, 98.
+
+_Hastati_, 122, 123.
+
+Helvetii defeated by Cæsar, 229.
+
+Hernicans, 59.
+
+Herodes Atticus, 314.
+
+Hiero, king of Syracuse, 69;
+  besieges Messana, 70;
+  is defeated by the Romans, and makes peace, 70;
+  his death, 93.
+
+Hirtius, A., Consul, defeats Antony at Mutina, but is slain, 255.
+
+Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, 114.
+
+Honorius, son of Theodosius, 339.
+
+Horatii, 13.
+
+Horatius Flaccus, Q. (poet), 278.
+
+Hortensia, Lex, 51.
+
+Hortensius, Q. (orator), 210, 211, 216, 217.
+
+Hostilianus, Emperor, 324.
+
+Hostilius Mancinus, C., defeated by the Celtiberians, 145.
+
+Huns appear on the Danube, 338;
+  cross the river, 342.
+
+Hyrcanus favored by Pompey, 212, 213.
+
+
+I.
+
+Iapygians, 5.
+
+_Ignobiles_, 128 (note).
+
+Illyria and Illyrians, 78-9.
+
+Illyrian Wars, 78, 79.
+
+Istria subdued, 115.
+
+Italia, 7.
+
+Italians proper, 5.
+
+Italicus, C. Silius, 344.
+
+Italy, geography of, 1;
+  fertility, 5;
+  early inhabitants, 5;
+  struggles in Central Italy, 59;
+  under Augustus, 286, 287.
+
+Iulus, or Ascanius, 8.
+
+
+J.
+
+Janiculum fortified, 15.
+
+Janus, temple of, 13;
+  closed for the 2d time, 78;
+  for the 3d time, 270.
+
+Jerusalem besieged and taken by Pompey, 212.
+
+Jesus Christ, birth of, 293.
+
+Jugurtha, under Scipio in Spain, 146;
+  early life, 162;
+  bribes the Senators, 163;
+  defeats Adherbal, and puts him to death, 163;
+  war declared against him, but comes to Rome under safe-conduct, 164;
+  murders Massiva, and is ordered to quit Italy, 164;
+  defeated by Metellus, 166;
+  and by Marius, 167;
+  who takes him prisoner, and conveys him to Rome, where he is starved
+      in prison, 167-8.
+
+Julia, aunt of Cæsar, married to Marius, 214;
+  her death, 215.
+
+Julia, daughter of Cæsar, married to Pompey, 225.
+
+Julia, daughter of Augustus, 292.
+
+Julia, Lex, 179-80.
+
+Julian, Emperor, 337.
+
+_Jus Imaginum_, 128 (note).
+
+Justin Martyr, 315.
+
+Juvenalis, Decimus Junius, 345.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kings of Rome, 9-28.
+
+
+L.
+
+Labeo, Q. Antistius, 350.
+
+Labienus (Tribune), 219.
+
+Laberius, Dec., 275.
+
+Latin War, 54;
+  battle at the foot of Vesuvius, 55;
+  self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus, 55;
+  defeat of the Latins, 55.
+
+Latins, 5.
+
+Latium, 3;
+  incorporated with the Republic of Rome, 56.
+
+Legends of early Roman history, 8.
+
+_Leges_ and _Plebiscita_, 121.
+
+_Legiones_, 19, 122.
+
+Lentulus Sura, P. Cornelius, 219, 220, 231.
+
+Lepidus, 290.
+
+Lepidus, M., Consul, opposes the public funeral of Sulla, 195-6;
+  proposes the repeal of Sulla's laws, 199;
+  collects an army and marches upon Rome, 199;
+  is defeated near the Mulvian Bridge, retires to Sardinia, and
+      dies, 199, 200.
+
+Lepidus, M., Master of the Horse, 249;
+  forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Antony, 255;
+  in Africa, 264.
+
+Licinian Rogations and Laws, 49, 150.
+
+Licinius colleague with Constantine, 331.
+
+Lictors (note), 25.
+
+Liguria, 2;
+  Ligurians, 113.
+
+Lilybæum, sieges of, 64, 74, 75.
+
+Livius Andronicus, M., 272.
+
+Livius, Titus, 284.
+
+Lucan, 301;
+  his poetry, 344.
+
+Lucania and Lucanians, 4.
+
+Lucanians, 6.
+
+_Luceres_, 12.
+
+Lucilius, C., 276.
+
+Lucretius Carus, T. (poet), 276.
+
+Lucullus, L. Licinius, opposes and defeats Mithridates in Bithynia and
+    Pontus, 206-7;
+  sends Appius Claudius to Tigranes, 207;
+  his reforms in Asia, 207-8;
+  defeats Tigranes at Tigranocerta and at Artaxata, 208;
+  recalled, and superseded by Pompey, 209.
+
+_Ludi Magni_, 117.
+
+Lusitania, invaded by Ser. Sulpicius Galba, 143;
+  tribes of, subdued by Cæsar, 224.
+
+Lusitanians, 114, 144-5.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macedonia, kingdom of, 107;
+  under Augustus, 289.
+
+Macedonian War, 135.
+
+Macrinus, Emperor, 322;
+  defeated by Elagabalus, 322.
+
+Macrobius, 350.
+
+Mæcenas, C. Cilnius, 286.
+
+Mælius, Sp., slain, 42.
+
+Magister Equitum, 28 (note).
+
+Magna Græcia, 6, 60.
+
+Mamertini, 69.
+
+Manilian Law, Cicero's address in favor of, 217.
+
+Manilius, C., Tribune, 210.
+
+_Manipuli_, 122.
+
+Manlius, M., saves the Capitol, 47;
+  patron of the poor, 48;
+  his fate, 49.
+
+Manlius Torquatus, L., 218, 220.
+
+Manlius Torquatus, T., legend of, 48;
+  and of his son, 55.
+
+Manlius Vulso, Cn., defeats the Galatians, and afterward, in conjunction
+    with commissioners, concludes a peace with Antiochus, and settles
+    the affairs of Asia, 111, 112.
+
+Marcellinus, Ammianus, 348.
+
+Marcellus, 292.
+
+Marcellus, M., Consul, arrives in Sicily, 93;
+  takes Leontini, 93;
+  invests Syracuse, where he is baffled by Archimedes, 93,
+    but finally captures it, 94;
+  takes Salapia, 96;
+  defeated and slain in Lucania, 97.
+
+Marcius, C., Coriolanus, 32.
+
+Marcomanni defeat Verus, 315.
+
+Marius, C., early life, 161;
+  in Spain with Scipio, 146, 162;
+  elected Tribune, 162;
+  sends the Consul Metellus to prison, 162;
+  elected Prætor, 162;
+  marries Julia, sister of C. Julius Cæsar the elder, 162;
+  accompanies Metellus to Africa, 164;
+  returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, with command in Numidia, 166;
+  repulses a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus, 167;
+  attaches Bocchus to the Romans, and takes Jugurtha prisoner, both by
+      the agency of his Quæstor Sulla, 167;
+  elected Consul during his absence, and returns to Rome, leading
+      Jugurtha in triumph, 168;
+  reorganizes the army, 170;
+  elected Consul a third and fourth time, 170;
+  defeats and destroys the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambrones, 171;
+  elected Consul a fifth time, and has a Triumph, 171;
+  enters into a compact with Saturninus and Glaucia, 173;
+  and is elected Consul a sixth time, 173, 174;
+  loses reputation, and sets sail for Cappadocia and Galatia, 175;
+  in the Social War, 179;
+  is surpassed by Sulla, 180;
+  intrigues to obtain the command against Mithridates, 181;
+  is opposed by Sulla, who enters Rome with his army, and Marius makes
+      his escape, 183;
+  his sufferings, risks, and return to Rome with Cinna, 185;
+  his conquests, and the massacres in Rome, 185;
+  in conjunction with Cinna elects himself Consul for the seventh
+      time, 185;
+  his death, 185.
+
+Marius, the younger, defeated by Sulla, 192;
+  orders his opponents to be put to death, 192;
+  embarks for Africa, 192;
+  puts an end to his own life, 193.
+
+Marrucini, 3.
+
+Marsi, 3.
+
+Marsic or Social War, 178-80.
+
+Martialis, M. Valerius, 346.
+
+Masinissa, enters into treaty with Scipio, 101;
+  assists Scipio, 103;
+  aids Scipio to defeat Hasdrubal and Syphax, 103;
+  marries, and soon afterward kills Sophonisba, 103-4.
+
+Massilia, 287.
+
+Maximin, Emperor, 323.
+
+Maximus, Valerius, 346.
+
+Mediterranean Sea infested with pirates, 209.
+
+Memmius, C., murdered, 174.
+
+Menapii defeated by Cæsar, 231.
+
+Menenius Agrippa, fable told by, 31.
+
+Mesopotamia added to the Roman empire, 329.
+
+Messala, M. Valerius, 286.
+
+Messana, 69.
+
+Metellus Celer, 221.
+
+Metellus, L., defeats the Carthaginians at Panormus, 73.
+
+Metellus (Macedonicus), Q., 145.
+
+Metellus (Numidicus), Q. Cæcilius, Consul, conducts the war in Africa
+    against Jugurtha, 166;
+  superseded by Marius, 166.
+
+Metellus, Q., Consul, 224.
+
+Military Tribunes appointed, 41.
+
+Mimes, 275.
+
+Mithridates V., king of Pontus, assassinated, 186.
+
+Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, early life, 186;
+  conquests and alliances, 187-8;
+  orders a massacre of Romans and Italians in the cities of Asia, 188;
+  defeated by L. Valerius Flaccus and by Sulla, 188-9;
+  obtains peace on hard conditions, 189;
+  defeats Murena on the Halys, 205;
+  makes peace with Rome, and evacuates Cappadocia, 205;
+  renews the war with Rome, 206;
+  overruns Bithynia, and defeats Cotta, 200;
+  retreats before Lucullus into Pontus, 207;
+  defeated by Lucullus at Cabira, and takes refuge in Armenia, 207;
+  defeats Fabius and Triarius, 208;
+  unites with Tigranes, when they overrun Pontus and Cappadocia, 209;
+  is defeated by Pompey, 211;
+  escapes into the Cimmerian Bosporos, 211;
+  conspiracy of his son Pharnaces, 213;
+  his death, 213.
+
+Mithridatic Wars: First, 183-9;
+  Second, 205;
+  Third, 205-13.
+
+Moorish Dartmen, 124.
+
+Morini defeated by Cæsar, 231.
+
+Mucius Scævola, C., 27.
+
+Mulvian bridge, battle of the, 199.
+
+Murena, L., invades Cappadocia and Pontus, 205;
+  is opposed by Mithridates, and defeated, 205.
+
+
+N.
+
+Nævius, Cn., 273.
+
+Naples, Bay of, 4.
+
+Nasica, Scipio, 152.
+
+Navius, Attus, 17.
+
+Navy, Carthaginian, 70, 71, 72.
+
+Navy, Roman, 70, 71, 72, 73.
+
+Neapolis attacked, 56.
+
+Nepos, Cornelius, 284.
+
+Nero and Livius, Consuls, defeat Hasdrubal, 97, 98.
+
+Nero, 301;
+  death of, 302.
+
+Nervii defeated by Cæsar, 230.
+
+Nicomedes III, driven out of Bithynia, 187;
+  restored, 188;
+  again expelled, 188;
+  dies, leaving his dominions to the Roman people, 200.
+
+_Nobiles_, 127 (note).
+
+Nobility, 127-8.
+
+_Nomen Latinum_, 66.
+
+Nonius, A., murder of, 174.
+
+Norbanus, C., Consul, defeated by Sulla, 191.
+
+_Novus Homo_, 128 (note).
+
+Numa Pompilius elected to succeed Romulus, 12;
+  his reign and institutions, 12.
+
+Numantine War, disastrous till conducted by Scipio, 145,
+   who captures and destroys Numantia, 146.
+
+Numerian, 326.
+
+Numidia, political condition of and war in, 162-8.
+
+Numitor, 9.
+
+
+O.
+
+Octavian (C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus), appointed heir to Cæsar, 249;
+  comes to Rome, and claims the inheritance, 254;
+  collects an army, 254;
+  elected Consul, 255;
+  forms Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, 256;
+  proscriptions, 256-7;
+  defeats Brutus at Philippi, 261;
+  returns to Rome, 263;
+  reconciliation with Antony, 264;
+  his fleet destroyed by Sextus Pompey, 265;
+  renews the Triumvirate, 266;
+  subdues the Dalmatians, 267;
+  rupture with Antony, 267;
+  defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, 268;
+  his Triumph, 270;
+  Imperator for life, Princeps, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, 270;
+  end of the Republic, 270.
+
+Octavius. _See_ Octavian.
+
+Octavius, Cn., conflict with Cinna, 185;
+  slain, 185.
+
+Oppian Law repealed, 130.
+
+Orosius, 348.
+
+Ostia founded, 15.
+
+Ostrogoths obtain permission to cross the Danube, 338.
+
+Otho, Salvius, 302.
+
+Ovid banished, 203.
+
+Ovidius Naso, P. (poet), 281.
+
+
+P.
+
+Pacuvius, M., 275.
+
+Palæopolis taken, 56.
+
+Palladius, 350.
+
+Palmyra, fall of, 325.
+
+Pannonia, mutiny in, 296.
+
+Panormus, defeat there of Carthaginians, 73.
+
+Pansa, C. Vibius, Consul, defeated by Antony, and slain, 255.
+
+Papinianus, 350.
+
+Papius Mutilus, C., 179;
+  defeated by Sulla, 180.
+
+Paterculus, Velleius, 346.
+
+_Patres Majorum_ and _Minorum Gentium_, 17.
+
+Patricians, 12;
+  struggles between them and the Plebeians, 29;
+  ascendency of the Patricians, 29.
+  _See_ Plebeians.
+
+_Patronus_, 12.
+
+Paulus, 350.
+
+Peligni, 3.
+
+Pergamus, 106;
+  made a province, 147.
+
+Perperna, M., re-enforces Sertorius in Spain, 200;
+  becomes jealous of Sertorius, and assassinates him, 202;
+  is defeated by Pompey, 202.
+
+Perseus succeeds Philip as king of Macedon, 134;
+  defeated by L. Æmilius Paullus, 135;
+  death, 136.
+
+Persius, 345.
+
+Pertinax, Emperor, 318.
+
+Pescennius Niger, 319.
+
+Petreius, M., 221.
+
+Petronius Arbiter, 348.
+
+Phædrus, 346.
+
+Pharnaces, conspiracy of, against Mithridates, 213;
+  confirmed in position of the kingdom of the Bosporus, 213.
+
+Philip, Emperor, 324.
+
+Philip V., king of Macedon, enters into a treaty with Hannibal, 107;
+  appears in the Adriatic with a fleet, and lays siege to Oricus and
+      Apollonia, 107;
+  takes Oricus, but is driven from Apollonia, and burns his fleet, 107;
+  in alliance with the Achæans, and at peace with the Ætolians and
+      Romans, 108;
+  assists Hannibal at Zama, 108;
+  attacks the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, 108;
+  treats with Antiochus for the partition of Egypt, 108;
+  besieges Athens, which is relieved by a Roman fleet, 108;
+  sues for peace after his defeat in the battle of Cynoscephalæ, 109;
+  refuses to take part with Antiochus against the Romans, 110;
+  his death, 134.
+
+Phoenicians, 68.
+
+Phalanx, 122.
+
+Phraates, king of the Parthians, 291.
+
+Picenum, 2.
+
+Piracy in the Mediterranean suppressed by Pompey, 310.
+
+Piso, Cn. Calpurnius, 218.
+
+Placentia taken and destroyed, 118.
+
+Plautia Papiria, Lex, 180.
+
+Plautus, T. Maccius, 273.
+
+_Plebiscita_, 40, 51;
+  and _Leges_, 121.
+
+Plebs, Plebeians, origin of the, 14;
+  sufferings of the, 30;
+  Ager Publicus, 30;
+  secession of Plebeians to the Sacred Mount, 31;
+  institution of Tribunes of the Plebs, 31;
+  Agrarian Law introduced by Sp. Cassius, 31.
+
+Pliny, Secundus Major, 349.
+
+Poeni, 68 (note).
+
+Pollio, Asinius, 286.
+
+Pomoerium, 9, 20.
+
+Pompædius Silo, Q., 178.
+
+Pompeiopolis, 210.
+
+Pompeius Strabo, Cn., in Social War, 180.
+
+Pompey (Cn. Pompeius Magnus), early life and career, 200-1;
+  receives the surname of Magnus, 201;
+  sent to Spain as Proconsul against Sertorius, 201;
+  failures and successes, 201;
+  defeats Perperna, 202;
+  concludes the war, 202;
+  elected Consul, with Crassus, 203;
+  restores the Tribunitian power, 203;
+  suppresses piracy in the Mediterranean, 210;
+  supersedes Lucullus in the East, 211;
+  defeats Mithridates in Lesser Armenia, 211;
+  receives the submission of Tigranes, 212;
+  his conquests in Syria and Palestine, 212-13;
+  returns to Italy, 213;
+  his Triumph, 223;
+  Senate refuses to sanction his measures in Asia, 224,
+    but afterward ratifies them, 225;
+  forms cabal with Cæsar and Crassus (first Triumvirate), 225;
+  marries Cæsar's daughter Julia, 225;
+  meets Cæsar and Crassus at Luca, 236;
+  Consul with Crassus, 236;
+  obtains government of Spain, 236;
+  his new theatre at Rome opened, 236;
+  his wife Julia dies, 237;
+  elected sole Consul, 238;
+  becomes hostile to Cæsar, 239;
+  measures in opposition to Cæsar, 239-40;
+  invested by the Senate with command of the army, 240;
+  retreats before Cæsar, 242;
+  embarks for Greece, 242;
+  besieged by Cæsar at Dyrrhachium, 244;
+  forces Cæsar to retreat, 244;
+  defeated by Cæsar at Pharsalia, 245;
+  flies to Egypt, 245;
+  slain there, 245.
+
+Pompey, Sextus, in alliance with M. Antony, 264;
+  master of the sea, 264;
+  forms alliance with Octavian and Antony, 264;
+  rupture of the alliance, 265;
+  defeats Octavian's fleet, 265;
+  his own fleet defeated by M. Agrippa, 266;
+  is taken prisoner, and put to death at Miletus, 266.
+
+Pontiffs, 12, 51.
+
+Pontine Marshes, 4.
+
+Pontius, C., defeats the Romans, 57, 58;
+  is defeated and put to death, 59.
+
+Pontius, the Samnite, 193.
+
+Pontus, 106;
+  kingdom of, 186;
+  made a Roman province, 212.
+
+Porcius Cato, M. _See_ Cato.
+
+Populus Romanus, 14.
+
+Porsena, Lars, marches against Rome in aid of Tarquin, 26;
+  bridge defended by Horatius Cocles, 26;
+  C. Mucius Scævola, 27;
+  Cloelia swims across the Tiber, 27;
+  Porsena withdraws his army, 27;
+  war with the Latins, 28;
+  battle of the Lake Regillus, 28;
+  death of Tarquinius Superbus, 28.
+
+Præneste surrenders, 193.
+
+Prætor Peregrinus, 117.
+
+Prætors, afterward called Consuls, 25.
+
+Prætors and Prætorship, 51, 117.
+
+_Principes_, 122.
+
+Privernum, conquest of, 56.
+
+Probus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Proconsuls, 118.
+
+Propertius, Sextus Aurelius (poet), 280.
+
+Proprætors, 118.
+
+_Proscriptio_, what it was, 193.
+
+Provinces, Roman, 147.
+
+_Provocatio_, 121 (note).
+
+Prusias, king of Bithynia, shelters Hannibal, 131.
+
+Publilian Law, 31 (note), 36.
+
+Publilian Laws, 51.
+
+_Publicani_, 119 (note).
+
+Pulcheria, 351.
+
+Punic War, First, 68-76;
+  Second, 82-105.
+
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, assists the Tarentines, 62;
+  defeats the Romans near Heraclea, 62;
+  sends Cineas to negotiate a peace, 63;
+  terms rejected, 63;
+  takes Præneste, 63;
+  winter quarters, at Tarentum, 63;
+  embassy of Fabricius, 63;
+  proposal to poison Pyrrhus, 64;
+  releases Roman prisoners without ransom, 64;
+  crosses over into Sicily, 64;
+  is repulsed at Lilybæum, 64;
+  returns to Italy, 64;
+  seizes the treasures of the temple of Proserpine at Locri, 65;
+  his remorse, 65;
+  is defeated at Beneventum, 65;
+  returns to Greece, and is slain, 65.
+
+
+Q.
+
+_Quæstio Perpetua_, 197.
+
+Quæstor; and Quæstorship, 4, 117.
+
+Quintilianus, M. Fabius, 348.
+
+Quintius, P., speech of Cicero for, 216.
+
+_Quirites_, 11 (note).
+
+
+R.
+
+Rabirius, C., 219.
+
+Ramnes, 12.
+
+Rasena, 5.
+
+Regillus, Lake, battle of, 28.
+
+Regulus, M. Atilius, defeats the Carthaginians, 72;
+  is defeated by Xanthippus, 73.
+
+Regulus, M. Atilius, sent, as prisoner, with an embassy, to
+    Rome, 73, 74;
+  advises the Senate to reject the terms, 74;
+  returns, and is put to death, 74.
+
+Remus and Romulus, 9;
+  Remus slain, 10.
+
+_Repetundæ_, 128 (note).
+
+Republic established at Rome, 25;
+  end of, 270.
+
+Rhea Silvia, legend of, 8.
+
+Rhodes, 107;
+  school of rhetoric at, 215.
+
+_Rogatio_ and _Lex_, 49 (note).
+
+Roma Quadrata, 9.
+
+Roman Literature, sketch of, 272-285;
+  _Poetry_: Saturnian Metre and the Drama, 272;
+  M. Livius Andronicus, 272, 273;
+  Cn. Nævius, 273;
+  Q. Ennius, 273;
+  T. Maccius Plautus, 273;
+  P. Terentius Afer, 274;
+  Q. Cæcilius, L. Afranius, 274;
+  M. Pacuvius, 275;
+  L. Accius, 275;
+  _Atellanæ Fabulæ_, _Mimes_, 275;
+  Dec. Laberius, P. Syrus, 275;
+  Fescennine Songs, 276;
+  Satires, 276;
+  C. Lucilius, 276;
+  T. Lucretius Carus, 276;
+  Valerius Catullus, 276;
+  P. Virgilius Maro, 277;
+  Q. Horatius Flaccus, 278;
+  Albius Tibullus, 280;
+  Sextus Aurelius Propertius, 280;
+  P. Ovidius Naso, 281.
+  _Prose Writers_--Q. Fabius Pictor, 282;
+  L. Cincius Alimentus, 282;
+  M. Porcius Cato, 282;
+  M. Tullius Cicero, 282;
+  M. Terentius Varro, 283;
+  C. Julius Cæsar, 283;
+  C. Sallustius Crispus, 284;
+  Cornelius Nepos, 284;
+  Titus Livius, 284.
+
+Rome, situation and first inhabitants, 7;
+  legends and early history, 8;
+  first four kings, 9-15;
+  last three kings, 16-28;
+  foundation of, 9;
+  destroyed by the Goths (Senones) under Brennus, 47;
+  rebuilt, 48;
+  pestilence at, 62;
+  sacked by Alaric, 341.
+
+Romulus, birth of, 9;
+  slays Remus, 10;
+  rape of Sabine virgins, 10;
+  war with Sabines, 10;
+  reigns conjointly with Titus Tatius, 11;
+  succeeds T. Tatius as ruler of the Sabines, and thus becomes solo
+      ruler, 11;
+  his death, 11;
+  institutions, 12.
+
+Romulus Augustus, 343.
+
+Rorarii, 123.
+
+Rufinus, 339.
+
+Rufus, Q. Curtius, 347.
+
+Rullus (Tribune), 219.
+
+Rupilius, P., captures Tauromenium and Enna, and ends the First Servile
+    War, 147.
+
+Rutilius Rufus found guilty and banished, 175.
+
+Rutilius Lupus, P., Consul, 179;
+  defeated and slain, 179.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sabellians, 3.
+
+Sabine virgins, rape of, 10.
+
+Sabini, 3, 11 (note).
+
+Sacred Mount, first secession to, 31;
+  second secession, 39.
+
+Sacrovir, 297.
+
+Saguntum captured, 81.
+
+Salii, priests of Mars, 13.
+
+Sallustius Crispus, C., 284.
+
+Salvius, leader of the slaves in Sicily, 172;
+  assumes the surname of Tryphon, 172.
+
+Salvus Julianus, 350.
+
+Samnites, history, 53;
+  tribes, 53;
+  conquer Campania and Lucania, 53;
+  attack the Sidicini and Campanians, 53;
+  enter into war with the Romans, 54;
+  are defeated at Mount Gaurus, 54;
+  peace 54;
+  second of Great War with the Romans, 57;
+  quarrel between Q. Fabius Maximus and L. Papirius Cursor, 57;
+  Samnite general, C. Pontius, defeats the Romans at the Caudine
+      Forks, 57, 58;
+  treaty rejected by the Romans, 58;
+  successes of the Romans, and peace, 58;
+  third war, 59;
+  battle of Sentinum, 59;
+  defeat, and peace, 59.
+
+Samnium and Samnites, 4.
+
+Sapor, king of Persia, 336.
+
+Sardinia obtained from Carthage, and formed into a Roman province, 77;
+  revolt in, 115;
+  Prætor for, 118.
+
+Satires, Roman, 276.
+
+Saturnian Metre, 272.
+
+Saturninus elected Tribune, 174;
+  brings in an Agrarian Law, 174;
+  murders Memmius, 174;
+  is declared a public enemy, 174;
+  pelted to death with tiles by the mob, 175.
+
+Scipio, Cneius, in Spain, 95;
+  slain there, 95.
+
+Scipio, P. Cornelius, marches to oppose Hannibal, 83;
+  killed in Spain, 95.
+
+Scipio Africanus Major, P. Cornelius, his early life, 99;
+  elected Proconsul, and goes to Spain, 100;
+  captures New Carthage, 100;
+  defeats Hasdrubal, 101;
+  master of nearly all Spain, by a victory (place uncertain), 101;
+  crosses over to Africa, 101;
+  quells insurrection and mutiny in Spain, 101;
+  captures Gades, 102;
+  returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, 102;
+  passes over to Sicily, and thence to Africa, 103;
+  besieges Utica, 103;
+  is opposed by Hasdrubal and Syphax, whom he defeats, 103;
+  defeats Hannibal near Zama, 104;
+  returns to Rome, 105;
+  prosecuted, 131;
+  retires from Rome, 131;
+  death, 131.
+
+Scipio Africanus Minor, 140;
+  captures and destroys Carthage, 142;
+  sent to Spain, 145;
+  opposes Ti. Gracchus, 153;
+  found dead in his room, 153.
+
+Scipio, L. Cornelius (Asiaticus) appointed to the command against
+    Antiochus, who had invaded the kingdom of Pergamus, 111;
+  defeats Antiochus near Magnesia, and returns to Rome, 111;
+  prosecution of, 130.
+
+Scipio Nasica, P. Cornelius, subdues the Boii, 114.
+
+Sempronian Laws, 157.
+
+Senate, 12, 119.
+
+Senators bribed by Jugurtha found guilty by a commission, 164.
+
+_Senatus Consultum_, 120.
+
+Seneca, 301;
+  his writings, 349.
+
+Seneca, M. Annæus, 348.
+
+Senones, 45.
+
+Septimius Severus, Emperor, 320;
+  penetrates to the interior of Scotland, 321.
+
+Sertorius Macro, 299.
+
+Sertorius, Q., in Spain, 200;
+  defeats Q. Metellus, 200;
+  is opposed to Pompey, 201;
+  assassinated by Perperna, 202.
+
+Servile War at Carthage, 77.
+
+Servile War in Sicily, First, 146-7;
+  Second, suppressed by M. Aquillius, 172.
+
+Servilius, Q., murdered, 178.
+
+Servius Tullius, succeeds Tarquinius Priscus, 18;
+  reforms the constitution, and divides the territory, 18;
+  increases the city, and surrounds it with a wall, 20;
+  forms an alliance with the Latins, 20;
+  his death, 22;
+  his two daughters, 22.
+
+Seven hills of Rome, 20 (note).
+
+Sextius, L., first Plebeian Consul, 50.
+
+Sicily invaded by the Romans, 69-71;
+  made subject to the Romans, except Syracuse, 76;
+  Prætor for, 118;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Sicinius Dentatus slain, 38.
+
+Sidicini, 53.
+
+Silanus, 297.
+
+Slaves under the Romans, 146.
+
+Social War, or Marsic War, 178-180.
+
+_Socii_, or Allies, 66;
+  troops furnished by, 123.
+
+_Sociorum Præfecti_, 123.
+
+Soli, afterward Pompeiopolis, occupied by pirates, 210.
+
+Spain in two provinces, 114;
+  Prætors for, 118;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Spanish Wars, 143-146.
+
+Sparta, 107.
+
+Spartacus, a gladiator, excites an insurrection of slaves, 202;
+  devastates Italy with a large army of slaves, 203;
+  defeated by Crassus, 203;
+  slain in battle, 203.
+
+_Spolia opima_ won by A. Cornelius Cossus, 43.
+
+Statius, P. Papinius, 344.
+
+Stilicho, 339.
+
+St. Chrysostom, 311.
+
+_Suffetes_, 68.
+
+Sulla, C. Cornelius, early life and character, 167;
+  Quæstor with Marius in Africa, 168;
+  gains over Bocchus, and entraps and makes a prisoner of Jugurtha, 167;
+  in Social War, 180;
+  Consul, 181;
+  rivalry with Marius, 182;
+  enters Rome with his army, and takes possession of the city, 183;
+  leaves Rome for the East, 184;
+  plunders Athens, 188;
+  victory at Orchomenus, 189;
+  makes peace with Mithridates, 189;
+  overcomes Fimbria, 189;
+  defeats the younger Marius, and enters Rome, 192;
+  battle with the Samnites and Lucanians for the possession of
+      Rome, 192;
+  Allies defeated, 193;
+  elected Dictator, 193;
+  his massacres and proscriptions, 194;
+  elected Consul, 194;
+  his Triumph, and assumed title of Felix, 194;
+  his military colonies, 194, 195;
+  his reforms, 194, 195;
+  resignation of Dictatorship, retirement, and death, 195;
+  his legislation, 190-193.
+
+Sulpicius Rufus, P., sells himself to Marius, 182;
+  put to death, 183.
+
+_Supplicatio_, 125.
+
+Synorium, fortress of, 211.
+
+Syphax, at war with Carthage, 95;
+  is visited by Scipio, but, falling in love with Sophonisba, daughter
+      of Hasdrubal, becomes an ally of the Carthaginians, 101;
+  defeated by Scipio and Masinissa, and flies into Numidia, 103;
+  is pursued and taken prisoner by Lælius and Masinissa, 103.
+
+Syracuse captured by Marcellus, 94.
+
+Syria, condition of, 106;
+  made a Roman province, 212.
+
+Syrus, P., 275.
+
+
+T.
+
+Tacitus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Tacitus, the historian, 346.
+
+Tarentum, 60, 62;
+  captured, 65.
+
+Tarpeia, 10.
+
+Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, his birth and descent, 16;
+  elected 5th king of Rome, 16;
+  defeats the Sabines and captures Collatia, 16;
+  takes also many Latin towns, and becomes ruler of all Latium, 16;
+  constructs the cloacæ, 16;
+  lays out the Circus Maximus, and institutes the games of the
+      Circus, 17;
+  increases the Senate, the Equites, and the Vestal Virgins, 17;
+  appoints Servius Tullius his successor, 18;
+  his reign and death, 18.
+
+Tarquinius Superbus, Lucius, succeeds Servius Tullius, 22;
+  his tyranny, 22;
+  alliance with the Latins, 22;
+  war with the Volscians, 23;
+  founds the temple named the Capitolium, 23;
+  purchases the three Sybilline books, 23;
+  attacks and captures Gabii, 23;
+  sends to consult the oracle at Delphi, 23;
+  besieges Ardea, 24;
+  Lucretia ravished by Sextus Tarquinius, 24;
+  death of Lucretia, 25;
+  is expelled from Rome with his sons, 25;
+  attempts to regain the throne, 25;
+  his Etruscan allies defeated, 26;
+  dies at Cumæ, 28.
+
+Terentius Afer, P., 274.
+
+Teutones and Ambrones enter France, in march for Italy, 170;
+  defeated and destroyed by Marius, 171.
+
+Theodosius, Emperor, 339.
+
+Thurii, 60.
+
+Tiberius, 201;
+  divorced from his wife, 292;
+  succeeds Augustus, 295;
+  retires to Capreæ, 298;
+  death, 299.
+
+Tibullus, Albius (poet), 280.
+
+Tigranes, king of Armenia, receives his father-in-law Mithridates, 207;
+  defeated by Lucullus at Tigranocerta, 208;
+  acts in concert with Mithridates, 209;
+  submits to Pompey, 212.
+
+Tigranes the younger revolts against his father, 212.
+
+Tities, 12.
+
+Titus takes Jerusalem, 303;
+  emperor, 304.
+
+Trajanus Decius, Emperor, 324.
+
+Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Emperor, 307;
+  conflict with the Dacians, 308;
+  leads an army into Assyria, 308;
+  death, 309.
+
+Trasimenus, Lake, Roman army destroyed at, 86.
+
+_Triarii_, 123.
+
+Triarius defeated by Mithridates, 208.
+
+Tribes, Assembly of the, 121.
+
+Tribunes, 31, 117, 121.
+
+Tribuneship degraded by Sulla's laws, 197.
+
+_Tribuni Militum_, 123.
+
+Tributum, a property-tax, 121.
+
+Triumph, the general's, 124.
+
+Triumvirate, First, 225;
+  Second, 256.
+
+Triumviri visit Greece to inquire into the laws, 37.
+
+Tullianum (dungeon), 221.
+
+Tullus Hostilius elected to succeed Numa, 13;
+  battle of the Horatii and Curiatii, 13;
+  conquers the Albans, 14;
+  conquers the Etruscans, 14;
+  punishes Mettius Fuffetius, 14;
+  destroys Alba Longa, and removes inhabitants to Rome, 14;
+  his reign and death, 14.
+
+_Turmæ_, 123.
+
+Twelve Tables, 38.
+
+
+U.
+
+Ulphilas, 338.
+
+Ulpianus, 350.
+
+Umbria, 2.
+
+Umbrians in league with the Etruscans, 59.
+
+Umbro-Sabellians, 5.
+
+
+V.
+
+Vadimo, Lake, defeat of Gauls and Etruscans there, 60.
+
+Valentinian, Emperor, 338.
+
+Valentinian III., 342.
+
+Valerian and Horatian Laws, 40.
+
+Valerian, Emperor, 324.
+
+Valerius, Corvus, M., legend of, 48.
+
+Valerius Publicola, 26.
+
+Vandals invited into Africa, 342;
+  plunder Rome, 342.
+
+Varro, M. Terentius, 283.
+
+Varus, 291.
+
+_Vectigalia_, 121.
+
+Veii besieged, 43;
+  Alban Lake, 43;
+  city captured, 44.
+
+_Velites_, 123.
+
+Veneti defeated by Cæsar, 231.
+
+Ventidius, Tribune and Consul, 265;
+  his successful wars against the Parthians, 265.
+
+Vercingetorix defeated and taken prisoner, 234.
+
+Verus, L., 314, 315.
+
+Vestal Virgins, 13, 17.
+
+_Vestini_, 3.
+
+Veto of the Tribunes, 31, 121.
+
+Vettius, L., accuses Cæsar, 222;
+  is thrown into prison, 222.
+
+_Vexillarius_, 122.
+
+Via Æmilia, Appia, Flaminina, 114, 119.
+
+Victor, Aurelius, 347.
+
+Viriathus, 144;
+  assassinated, 145.
+
+Virgilius Maro, P., 277.
+
+Vologeses III., king of the Parthians, 314.
+
+Volturcius, T., 220.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wallia, 341.
+
+
+X.
+
+Xanthippus, 72, 73.
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 325.
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Augustus.]
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by 
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19694-8.txt or 19694-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/6/9/19694/
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19694-8.zip b/19694-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91f6b53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-8.zip
diff --git a/19694-h.zip b/19694-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e87f61d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h.zip
diff --git a/19694-h/19694-h.htm b/19694-h/19694-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fee0b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/19694-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,24587 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by William Smith.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+    ul    {list-style-type: none;}
+    a img {border: none;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 1%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: left;
+                color: gray;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em;
+               padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em;
+               float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em;
+               font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;}
+
+    .bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+    .bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+    .br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .btl      {border-top: solid 2px; border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .btr      {border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+    .big      {font-size: 300%;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span.i0     {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by 
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Smaller History of Rome
+
+Author: William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2006 [EBook #19694]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image001" name="image001">
+   <img src="images/001.jpg"
+      alt="THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED."
+      title="THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME,</h1>
+
+
+<h3>FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.</h3>
+
+
+<h2>BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 479.
+BY EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image002" name="image002">
+   <img src="images/002.jpg"
+      alt="Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens"
+      title="Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens" /></a>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>Illustrated by Engravings on Wood.</h4>
+
+
+<h5>NEW YORK:<br />
+HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,<br />
+FRANKLIN SQUARE.<br />
+<br />
+1881.
+</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image003" name="image003"></a><a href="images/003large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/003.jpg"
+      alt="Map of Italy."
+      title="Map of Italy." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Map of Italy.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE STUDENT'S SERIES.</h2>
+
+<h3>12MO, CLOTH, UNIFORM IN STYLE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY</i>. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 50.</p>
+
+<p><i>THE STUDENT'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY</i>. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST</i>. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>HISTORY OF GREECE</i>. By Dr. WILLIAM SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>COX'S GENERAL HISTORY OF GREECE</i>. With Maps. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>LIDDELL'S HISTORY OF ROME</i>. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>MERIVALE'S GENERAL HISTORY OF ROME</i>. With Maps. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>GIBBON'S DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</i>. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>LYELL'S GEOLOGY</i>. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>HISTORY OF FRANCE</i>. By the Rev. W.H. JERVIS, M.A. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>HUME'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND</i>. Illustrated. Now Edition. $1 50.</p>
+
+<p><i>STRICKLAND'S QUEENS OF ENGLAND</i>. Illustrated. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>HALLAM'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND</i>. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>HALLAM'S MIDDLE AGES</i>. $1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY</i>. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY</i>. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>LEWIS'S HISTORY OF GERMANY</i>. With Maps and Illustrations. $1 50.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2>THE STUDENT'S SMALLER SERIES.</h2>
+
+<h3>16MO, CLOTH.</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>SCRIPTURE HISTORY</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>HISTORY OF GREECE</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>HISTORY OF ROME</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>COX'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF GREECE</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>HISTORY OF ENGLAND</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>SEEMANN'S MYTHOLOGY</i>. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><i>MERIVALE'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF ROME</i>. 75 cents.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h4>PUBLISHED BY HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, NEW YORK.</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/hand.jpg"  alt="Hand" title="Hand" /> <i>Any of the above books sent by mail, postage
+prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price.</i></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-five, by HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, in the Clerk's Office of
+the District Court of the Southern District of New York.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>NOTICE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The present History has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in
+schools, at the request of several teachers, and is intended to range
+with the author's Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a
+similar History of England. The author is indebted in this work to
+several of the more important articles upon Roman history in the
+Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.</p>
+
+<p>The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been
+so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the
+examination of his class, the answers to which will be found in the
+corresponding pages of the volume.</p>
+
+<p>The restoration of the Forum has been designed by Mr. P.W. Justyne.</p>
+
+<p>W.S.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image004" name="image004">
+   <img src="images/004.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)"
+      title="Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image005" name="image005">
+   <img src="images/005.jpg"
+      alt="Julius Caesar."
+      title="Julius Caesar." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Julius C&aelig;sar.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;B.C.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER I.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY&mdash;EARLY INHABITANTS.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Position of Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its boundaries</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its two Divisions</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Gallia Cisalpina</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Liguria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Venetia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. Italia, properly so called</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Etruria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Umbria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Picenum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Sabini</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Marsi</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Peligni</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Vestini</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Marrucini</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Frentani</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Latium: its two senses</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">The Campagna</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">The Pontine Marshes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Campania</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Bay of Naples</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Samnium</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Apulia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Calabria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Lucania</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Bruttii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fertility of Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its productions</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its inhabitants</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Italians proper</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">1. Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">2. Umbro-Sabellians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. Iapygians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Their name</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Their language</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Their origin</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Their two confederacies</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">1. North of the Po</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">2. South of the Apennines</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Foreign races&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">IV. Greeks</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Gauls</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER II.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Position of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its inhabitants</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Sabines</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Remarks on early Roman history</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Legend of &AElig;neas</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Legend of Ascanius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Foundation of Alba Longa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Legend of Rhea Silvia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Birth of Romulus and Remus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their recognition by Numitor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>753.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Foundation of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roma Quadrata</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pom&#339;rium</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Remus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>753-716.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Romulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Asylum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rape of Sabines</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with Sabines</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tarpeia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sabine women</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Joint reign of Romulus and Titus Tatius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Titus Tatius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sole reign of Romulus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Romulus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Institutions ascribed to Romulus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Patricians &amp; Clients</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Three tribes&mdash;Ramnes, Tities, Luceres</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Thirty Curi&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Three Hundred Gentes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Comitia Curiata</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The Senate</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The Army</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>716-673.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Numa Pompilius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Institutions ascribed to Numa Pompilius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Pontiffs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Augurs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Flamens</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Vestal Virgins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Salii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Temple of Janus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>673-641.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Tullus Hostilius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with Alba Longa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of the Horatii and Curiatii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with the Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Punishment of Mettius Fuffetius, Dictator of Alba Longa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Destruction of Alba Longa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Removal of its inhabitants to Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Origin of the Roman Plebs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Tullus Hostilius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>640-616.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Ancus Marcius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with the Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Increase of the Plebs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ostia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Janiculum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pons Sublicius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Ancus Marcius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER III.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>616-578.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Tarquinius Priscus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His early history</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His removal to Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Becomes king</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His wars</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Cloac&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Circus Maximus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Increase of the Senate</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Increase of the Equites</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Attus Navius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Increase of the Vestal Virgins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early history of Servius Tullius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Tarquinius Priscus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>578-534.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Servius Tullius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Reform of the Roman Constitution</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">1. Division of the Roman territory into Thirty Tribes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">2. Comitia Centuriata</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Census</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Five Classes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">The Equites</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Number of the Centuries</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Three sovereign assemblies&mdash;Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Curiata, Comitia Tributa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. Increase of the city: walls of Servius Tullius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. Alliance with the Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Death of Servius Tullius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>534-510.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Tarquinius Superbus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His tyranny</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His alliance with the Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His war with the Volscians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Foundation of the temple on the Capitoline Hill</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Sibylline books</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Legend of the Sibyl</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture of Gabii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">King's sons and Brutus sent to consult the oracle at Delphi</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lucretia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Expulsion of the Tarquins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>509.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Establishment of the Republic</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consuls</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>First attempt to restore the Tarquins</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Execution of the sons of Brutus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War of the Etruscans with Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Brutus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of the Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Valerius Publicola</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Dedication of the Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>508.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Second attempt to restore the Tarquins</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lars Porsena</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Horatius Cocles</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mucius Sc&aelig;vola</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cl&#339;lia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>498.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Third attempt to restore the Tarquins</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with the Latins</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of the Lake Regillus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>496.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Tarquinius Superbus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER IV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 498-451.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ascendency of the Patricians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sufferings of the Plebeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Law of debtor and creditor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ager Publicus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Object of the Plebeians to obtain a share in the political power and in the public land</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>494.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Secession to the Sacred Mount</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fable of Menenius Agrippa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Institution of the Tribunes of the Plebs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>486.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Foreign wars</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>488.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Coriolanus and the Volscians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>477.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>458.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. Cincinnatus and the &AElig;quians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>League between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER V.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>471.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Publilian Law transferring the election of the Tribunes from the Comitia of Centuries to those of the Tribes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>462.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Proposal of the Tribune Terentilius Arsa for the appointment of Decemviri</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>460.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Seizure of the Capitol by Herdonius the Sabine</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>454.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Appointment of three Commissioners to visit Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>452.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Their return to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>451.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Appointment of the Decemviri</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Ten Tables</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>450.</td>
+  <td align='left'>New Decemviri appointed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Their tyranny</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Two new Tables added, making twelve in all</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>449.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Decemviri continue in office</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Sicinius Dentatus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Virginia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Second secession to the Sacred Mount</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Resignation of the Decemvirs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Election of ten Tribunes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Valerian and Horatian Laws</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Appius Claudius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Twelve Tables</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. B.C. 448-390.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>445.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Third secession to the Sacred Mount</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lex Canuleia for intermarriage between the two orders</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Institution of Military Tribunes with consular powers</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>443.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Institution of the Censorship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>421.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Qu&aelig;storship thrown open to the Plebeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>440.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Famine at Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Sp. M&aelig;lius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Foreign wars</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Roman colonies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>War with the Etruscans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>437.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Spolia Opima won by A. Cornelius Cossus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>426.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Capture and destruction of Fiden&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>403.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Commencement of siege of Veii</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Tale of the Alban Lake</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>396.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Appointment of Camillus as Dictator</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture of Veii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>394.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War with Falerii</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tale of the Schoolmaster</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Unpopularity of Camillus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>391.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He goes into exile</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE TWO ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Gauls, or Celts</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>391.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Attack of Clusium by the Senones</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Roman ambassadors sent to Clusium</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They take part in the fight against the Senones</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Senones march upon Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>390.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of the Allia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Destruction of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of the Capitol</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Legend of M. Manlius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Appointment of Camillus as Dictator</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He delivers Rome from the Gauls</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Rebuilding of the city</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Further Gallic wars</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>361.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Legend of T. Manlius Torquatus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>349.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Legend of M. Valerius Corvus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>385.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Distress at Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>384.</td>
+  <td align='left'>M. Manlius comes forward as a patron of the poor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His fate</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>376.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Licinian Rogations proposed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Violent opposition of the Patricians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>367.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Licinian Rogations passed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>366.</td>
+  <td align='left'>L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Institution of the Pr&aelig;torship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>356.</td>
+  <td align='left'>First Plebeian Dictator</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>351.</td>
+  <td align='left'>First Plebeian Censor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>336.</td>
+  <td align='left'>First Plebeian Pr&aelig;tor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>300.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Lex Ogulnia, increasing the number of the Pontiffs and Augurs, and enacting that a certain number of them should be taken from the Plebeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>339.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Publilian Laws</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>286.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Lex Hortensia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS. B.C. 367-290.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>362.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pestilence at Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Camillus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Tale of M. Curtius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Samnites</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their history</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Division into four tribes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquer Campania and Lucania</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Samnites of the Apennines attack the Sidicini</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Campanians assist the Sidicini</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They are defeated by the Samnites</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They solicit the assistance of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>343-341.</td>
+  <td align='left'>FIRST SAMNITE WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of Mount Gaurus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peace concluded</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Reasons for the conclusion of peace</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>340-338.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE LATIN WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The armies meet near Mount Vesuvius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tale of Torquatus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decisive battle</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Self-sacrifice of Decius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture of Latin towns</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conclusion of the war</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>329.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquest of the Volscian town of Privernum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Origin of the Second Samnite War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>327.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans attack Pal&aelig;opolis and Neapolis</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>326-304.</td>
+  <td align='left'>SECOND SAMNITE WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>First Period.</i></span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roman arms successful</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>325.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quarrel between L. Papirius Dictator and Q. Fabius, his master of the horse</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>321-315.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Second Period.</i></span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Success of the Samnites</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>321.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of the Romans at the Caudine Forks by C. Pontius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ignominious treaty rejected by the Romans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>314-304.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Third Period.</i></span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Success of the Romans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>311.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">War with the Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of the Etruscans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of the Samnites</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>304.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peace with Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>300.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquests of Rome in Central Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites against Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>298-290.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THIRD SAMNITE WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>295.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decisive battle of Sentinum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Self-sacrifice of the younger Decius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>292.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Pontius taken prisoner and put to death</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER IX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY. B.C. 290-265.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>283.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War with the Etruscans and Gauls</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of the Lake Vadimo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>282.</td>
+  <td align='left'>State of Magna Gr&aelig;cia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans assist Thurii</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their fleet is attacked by the Tarentines</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Roman embassy to Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>281.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War declared against the Tarentines</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They apply for aid to Pyrrhus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pyrrhus arrives in Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>280.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His first campaign against the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Heraclea</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Remarks of Pyrrhus on the victory</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He attempts to make peace with Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Failure of his minister Cineas</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He marches upon Rome and arrives at Pr&aelig;neste</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Retires into winter quarters at Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'>Embassy of Fabricius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>279.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Second campaign of Pyrrhus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Asculum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>278.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Treachery of the physician of Pyrrhus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Truce with Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>276.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>274.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of Pyrrhus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>272.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Subjugation of Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquest of Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>273.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Three classes of Italian population:</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Cives Romani, or Roman Citizens</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">1. Of the Thirty-three tribes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">2. Of the Roman Colonies</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">3. Of the Municipal Towns</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin name</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. Socii, or Allies</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>312.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Censorship of Appius Claudius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His dangerous innovation as to the Freedmen</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>304.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Repealed in the Censorship of Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>312.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Appian Way</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Appian Aqueduct</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cn. Flavius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER X.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>814.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Foundation of Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its empire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its government</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its army</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its foreign conquests</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquest of Messana by the Mamertini</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hiero attacks the Mamertini</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They apply for assistance to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>264.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses over to Sicily to aid them</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats the forces of Syracuse and Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>263.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Hiero makes peace with the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>262.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Capture of Agrigentum by the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>260.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans build a fleet</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Naval victory of the Consul Duilius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>256.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans invade Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their naval victory</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Brilliant success of Regulus in Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Carthaginians sue in vain for peace</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>255.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Arrival of the Laced&aelig;monian Xanthippus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He restores confidence to the Carthaginians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat and capture of Regulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Destruction of the Roman fleet by a storm</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans build another fleet</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>253.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Again destroyed by a storm</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The war confined to Sicily</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>250.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Victory of Metellus at Panormus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Embassy of the Carthaginians to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Heroic conduct of Regulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>250.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of Lilyb&aelig;um</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>249.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Consul Claudius at sea</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Destruction of the Roman fleet a third time</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>247.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Appointment of Hamilcar Barca to the Carthaginian command</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He intrenches himself on Mount Herct&egrave;, near Panormus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He removes to Mount Eryx</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>241.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Victory off the &AElig;gatian Islands</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Peace with Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>End of the War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-219.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>240-238.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War of the Mercenaries with Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>She owes her safety to Hamilcar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>238.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hamilcar goes to Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>235.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Temple of Janus closed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Completion of the Thirty-five Roman Tribes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>229.</td>
+  <td align='left'>ILLYRIAN WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conquest of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>223.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Honors paid to the Romans in the Grecian cities</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>232.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Agrarian law of the Tribune Flaminius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>225.</td>
+  <td align='left'>GALLIC WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of the Gauls at Telamon in Etruria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>224.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conquest of the Boii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>223.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Romans cross the Po</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>222.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conquest of the Insubres</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marcellus wins the Spolia Opima</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>220.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>218.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Foundation of Colonies at Placentia and Cremona</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>219.</td>
+  <td align='left'>SECOND ILLYRIAN WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>235.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Hamilcar in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Oath of Hannibal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>229.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Hamilcar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hasdrubal succeeds him in the command</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>227.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Treaty with Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>221.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Hasdrubal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal succeeds him in the command</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>219.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of Saguntum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its capture</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>War declared against Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANN&AElig; B.C. 218-216.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>218.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Preparations of Hannibal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His march to the Rhone</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Arrival of the Consul Scipio at Massilia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal crosses the Rhone</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Scipio sends his brother to Spain, and returns himself to Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal crosses the Alps</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Skirmish on the Ticinus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of the Trebia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>217.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal's march through Etruria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of the Lake Trasimenus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Great defeat of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Q. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His policy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Rashness of Minucius, the Master of the Horse</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>216.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Great preparations of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Cann&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Great defeat of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Revolt of Southern Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal winters at Capua</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Note on Hannibal's passage across the Alps</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>215.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Plan of the War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal's repulse before Nola</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>214.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He attempts in vain to surprise Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>213.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He obtains possession of Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>WAR IN SICILY&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>216.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Death of Hiero</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Succession of Hieronymus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His assassination</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>214.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He takes Leontini</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He lays siege to Syracuse</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defended by Archimedes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>212.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture of Syracuse</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>WAR IN SPAIN&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>212.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture and death of the two Scipios</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of Capua</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>211.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Hannibal marches upon Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is compelled to retreat</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans recover Capua</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Punishment of its inhabitants</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>209.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans recover Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>208.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat and death of Marcellus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>207.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Hasdrubal marches into Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He besieges Placentia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>March of the Consul Nero to join his colleague Livius in Umbria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of the Metaurus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat and death of Hasdrubal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XIV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Character and early life of Scipio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>210.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He is elected Proconsul for Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He takes New Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>206.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He subdues Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He crosses over into Africa and visits Syphax</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>205.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His Consulship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He prepares to invade Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His project is opposed by Fabius and others</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>204.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He arrives in Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>203.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats the Carthaginians and Syphax</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Masinissa and Sophonisba</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Carthaginians recall Hannibal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>202.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Zama, and defeat of Hannibal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Terms of peace</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>201.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conclusion of the war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumph of Scipio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>WARS IN THE EAST: THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS. B.C. 214-188.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>State of the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Syria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pontus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Galatia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pergamus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Egypt</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>State of Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Macedonia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ach&aelig;an League</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">&AElig;tolian League</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhodes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sparta</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>214-205.</td>
+  <td align='left'>FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Its indecisive character</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>211.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treaty of the Romans with the &AElig;tolian League</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>205.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conclusion of the war</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Philip's hostile acts</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He assists the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His conduct in Greece</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>200-196.</td>
+  <td align='left'>SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>200.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First campaign: the Consul Galba</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>199.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second campaign: the Consul Villius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>198.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third campaign: the Consul Flamininus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>197.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of Cynoscephal&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>196.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Declaration of Grecian independence at the Isthmian Games</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>191-190.</td>
+  <td align='left'>SYRIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Antiochus the Third</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Intrigues of the &AElig;tolians in Greece</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">They Invite Antiochus to Greece</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hannibal expelled from Carthage</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He arrives in Syria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His advice to Antiochus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>192.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Antiochus crosses over to Greece</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>191.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Romans defeat him at Thermopyl&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He returns to Asia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>190.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Romans invade Asia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of Magnesia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Terms of peace</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hannibal flies to Prusias, king of Bithynia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>189.</td>
+  <td align='left'>&AElig;TOLIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fulvius takes Ambracia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Terms of peace</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>189.</td>
+  <td align='left'>GALATIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manlius attacks the Galatians without the authority of the Senate or the People</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>187.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He returns to Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Effects of the Eastern conquests upon the Roman character</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XVI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>WARS IN THE WEST: THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. B.C. 200-175.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>200.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE GALLIC WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Gauls take Placentia and lay siege to Cremona</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Conquest of the Insubres and Cenomani</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>191.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquest of the Boil</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>190.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Colony founded at Bononia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>180.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Via &AElig;milia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>200.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE LIGURIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Continued with intermissions for nearly 80 years</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Character of the war</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>198.</td>
+  <td align='left'>TWO PROVINCES FORMED IN SPAIN</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>195.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE SPANISH WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Consul M. Porcius Cato sent into Spain</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His success</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Spaniards again take up arms</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>180.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The war brought to a conclusion by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>178.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE ISTRIAN WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>177-175.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XVII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Review of the history of the Roman Constitution</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Political equality of the Patricians and Plebeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. THE MAGISTRATES&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The Lex Annalis</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">1. The Qu&aelig;stors</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">2. The &AElig;diles</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">3. The Pr&aelig;tors</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">4. The Consuls</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">5. The Dictators</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">6. The Censors</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">(<i>a</i>) The Census</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">(<i>b</i>) Control over the morals of the citizens</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">(<i>c</i>) Administration of the finances of the state</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. THE SENATE&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Its number</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Its mode of Election</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Its power and duties</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">1. The Comitia Curiata</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">2. The Comitia Centuriata: change in its constitution</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">3. The Comitia Tributa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The Tribunes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The Plebiscita</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">IV. FINANCES&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Tributum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Vectigalia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">V. THE ARMY&mdash;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Number of the Legion</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">1. <i>First Period</i>&mdash;Servius Tullius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">2. <i>Second Period</i>&mdash;The Great Latin War, B.C. 340</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Hastati</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Principes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Triarii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Rorarii and Accensi</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">3. <i>Third Period</i>&mdash;During the wars of the younger Scipio</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Two legions assigned to each Consul</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Division of the legion</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">The Maniples</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">The Cohorts</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">The Tribuni Militum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">The Horse-soldiers</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Infantry of the Socii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">4. <i>Fourth Period</i>&mdash;From the times of the Gracchi to the downfall of the Republic</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Changes introduced by Marius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Triumphs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XVIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND SCIPIO.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Effect of the Roman conquests in the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Debasement of the Roman character</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>192.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Infamous conduct of L. Flamininus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>193.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Worship of Bacchus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Gladiatorial exhibitions</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Rise of the new nobility</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>191.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Law against bribery</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Decay of the peasant proprietors</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>M. Porcius Cato</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>234.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His birth</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His early life</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>204.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His Qu&aelig;storship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>198.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His Pr&aelig;torship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>195.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His Consulship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Repeal of the Oppian Law</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>191.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Cato serves in the battle of Thermopyl&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Prosecution of the two Scipios</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Haughty conduct of Scipio Africanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Condemnation of Scipio Asiaticus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Prosecution of Scipio Africanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He leaves Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>188.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Hannibal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>184.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Censorship of Cato</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He studies Greek in his old age</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His character</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XIX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACH&AElig;AN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>179.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Philip and accession of Perseus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>172.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Murder of Eumenes, king of Pergamus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>171-168.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>168.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Battle of Pydna</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defeat of Perseus by L. &AElig;milius Paullus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>167.</td>
+  <td align='left'>&AElig;milius Paullus punishes the Epirotes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His triumph</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His domestic misfortunes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Haughty conduct of Rome in the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Embassy to Antiochus Epiphanes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Treatment of Eumenes, king of Pergamus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Mean conduct of Prusias, king of Bythinia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Treatment of the Rhodians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>167.</td>
+  <td align='left'>One thousand Ach&aelig;ans sent to Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span>151.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The survivors allowed to return to Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>140.</td>
+  <td align='left'>A pretender lays claim to the throne of Macedonia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He is defeated and taken prisoner</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>147-146.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE ACH&AElig;AN WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>146.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corinth taken by L. Mummius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Final conquest of Greece</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Rome jealous of Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Advice of Scipio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>War between Masinissa and Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conduct of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>149-146.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THIRD PUNIC WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>147.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scipio Africanus the younger, Consul</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His parentage and adoption</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His character</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>146.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He takes Carthage</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_142'>142</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Formation of the Roman province of Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_142'>142</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Later history of Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_142'>142</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>153.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War with the Celtiberians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>152.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Peace with the Celtiberians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>151.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War with the Lusitanians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>150.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Treacherous murder of the Lusitanians by Galba</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Success of Viriathus against the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Celtiberians again take up arms&mdash;the Numantine War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>140.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Murder of Viriathus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>138.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Brutus conquers the Gall&aelig;ci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>137.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consul Hostilius Mancinus defeated by the Numantines</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He signs a peace with the Numantines</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Senate refuse to ratify it</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>142.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Censorship of Scipio Africanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>134.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consul a second time</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He carries on the war against Numantia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>133.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He takes Numantia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Increase of slaves</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They rise in Sicily</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They elect Eunus as their leader</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Eunus assumes the title of king</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>134.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats the Roman generals</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>132.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Is himself defeated and taken prisoner</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>133.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Attalus, last king of Pergamus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>131.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Aristonicus lays claim to the kingdom of Pergamus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>130.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Is defeated and taken prisoner</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>129.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Formation of the province of Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Extent of the Roman dominions</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Necessity for reform</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Early life of Tiberius Gracchus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>137.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Qu&aelig;stor in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>133.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Elected Tribune</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Brings forward an Agrarian Law</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Opposition of the landowners</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Tribune Octavius puts his veto upon it</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Deposition of Octavius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Agrarian Law enseted</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Three Commissioners elected</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Distribution of the treasures of Pergamus among the Roman people</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Renewed opposition to Tiberius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He becomes a candidate for the Tribunate a second time</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Riots</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Tiberius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>132.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Return of Scipio to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He opposes the popular party</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span>129.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Scipio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>126.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Expulsion of the Allies from Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>125.</td>
+  <td align='left'>M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes to give the franchise to the Italians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Revolt and destruction of Fregell&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>126.</td>
+  <td align='left'>C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as Qu&aelig;stor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>124.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>123.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He is elected Tribune</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His legislation</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Laws for improving the condition of the people</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">1. Extension of the Agrarian Law</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">2. State provision for the poor</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">3. Soldiers equipped at the expense of the Republic</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. Laws to diminish the power of the Senate</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">1. Transference of the judicial power from the Senators to the Equites</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">2. Distribution of the Provinces before the election of the Consuls</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>122.</td>
+  <td align='left'>C. Gracchus Tribune a second time</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Proposes to confer the citizenship upon the Latins</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Unpopularity of this proposal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Tribune M. Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Foundation of a colony at Carthage</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Decline of the popularity of Gracchus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>121.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His murder</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C. MARIUS</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>134.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Serves at the siege of Numantia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Attracts the notice of Scipio Africanus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>119.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tribune of the Plebs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>115.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pr&aelig;tor</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>149.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Masinissa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Accession of Micipsa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>134.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Jugurtha serves at the siege of Numantia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>118.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Micipsa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Jugurtha assassinates Hiempsal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>War between Jugurtha and Adherbal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>117.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Roman commissioners divide Numidia between Jugurtha and Adherbal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fresh war between Jugurtha and Adherbal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of Cirta</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>112.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Adherbal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>111.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Romans declare war against Jugurtha</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Jugurtha bribes the Consul Calpurnius Bestia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Indignation at Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Jugurtha comes to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>111.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He murders Massiva</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Renewal of the war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>110.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Incapacity of the Consul Sp. Postumius Albinus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of his brother Aulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>109.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Bill of the Tribune C. Mamilius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Many Romans condemned</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consul Q. C&aelig;cilius Metellus lands in Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Accompanied by Marius as his lieutenant</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Metellus defeats Jugurtha</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ambitious views of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>108.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He quits Africa and arrives in Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is elected Consul</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Attacks the nobility</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Campaign of Metellus as Proconsul</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The people give Marius command of the Numidian War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>107.</td>
+  <td align='left'>First Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He arrives in Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats Jugurtha and Bocchus, king of Mauritania</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>106.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla, the Qu&aelig;stor of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Early history of Sulla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His character</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>104.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumph of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His second Consulship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY, B.C. 103-101.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their probable origin</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>113.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Consul Cn. Papirius Carbo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>109.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Consul M. Junius Silanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>107.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Consul L. Cassius Longinus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>105.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the Proconsul Cn. Servilius C&aelig;pio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>104.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Second Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Cimbri invade Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>103.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Third Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>102.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Fourth Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Cimbri return from Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>102.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Marius takes up his position near Arles</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Cimbri enter Italy by the Pass of Tridentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Great defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aqu&aelig; Sexti&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>101.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Fifth Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Great defeat of the Teutones at Vercell&aelig; by Marius and the Proconsul Catulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumph of Marius and Catulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>103-101.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Second Servile War in Sicily</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Tryphon king of the Slaves</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Succeeded by Athenio as king</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>101.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consul Aquillius puts an end to the war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXIV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>100.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Sixth Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His league with the demagogues Saturninus and Glaucia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Agrarian Law of Saturninus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Banishment of Metellus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Saturninus declared a public enemy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He is put to death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marius visits the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>92.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Condemnation of Rutilius Lupus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>91.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His measures</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Proposes to give the franchise to the Italian allies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His assassination</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>90.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Allies take up arms</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The war breaks out at Asculum in Picenum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Corfinium the new capital of the Italian confederation</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Q. Pomp&aelig;dius Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, the Italian Consuls</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat and death of the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Exploits of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Lex Julia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>89.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Success of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Lex Plautia Papiria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The franchise given to the Allies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>All the Allies lay down their arms except the Samnites and Lucanians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ten new Tribes formed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXVI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>88.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Sulla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Receives the command of the Mithridatic War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He proposes to distribute the Italians among the thirty-five Tribes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla flies from Rome to Nola</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The people give Marius the command of the Mithridatic War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla marches upon Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulpicius put to death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marius flies from Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His adventures</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is seized at Minturn&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Escapes to Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla sails to the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>87.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Riots at Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Consul Cinna invites the assistance of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marius and Cinna march upon Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They enter the city</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Proscription of their enemies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>86.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Seventh Consulship of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXVII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Kingdom of Pontus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its history</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>120.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Accession of Mithridates VI</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His early life</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His attainments</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His conquests</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His disputes with the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>88.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He invades Cappadocia and Bithynia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He invades the Roman province of Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Massacre of Romans and Italians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>87.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Grecian states declare in favor of Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla lands in Epirus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He lays siege to Athens and the Pir&aelig;us</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>86.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Takes these cities</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeats Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, at Ch&aelig;ronea</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>85.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Again defeats Archelaus at Orchomenus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>84.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Peace with Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla attacks Fimbria, the Marian general, in Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXVIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>SECOND CIVIL WAR&mdash;SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH. B.C. 83-78.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>84.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Cinna and Carbo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Cinna</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Scipio and Norbanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Preparations for war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Italians support the Marian party</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla marches from Brundusium to Campania</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeats the Consul Norbanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey, Metellus Pius, Crasus, and others, join Sulla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Papirus Carbo and the younger Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of Marius, who takes refuge in Pr&aelig;neste</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Murder of Senators in Rome by order of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Great battle before the Colline gate at Rome between Sulla and the Samnites</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of the Samnites</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Surrender of Pr&aelig;neste</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Marius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'>End of the war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla master of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Proscription</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Dreadful scenes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>81.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Sulla dictator</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He celebrates his triumph over Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His reforms in the constitution</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His military colonies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>73.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He resigns the Dictatorship</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He retires to Puteoli</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>73.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His funeral</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_196'>196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>LEGES CORNELL&AElig;&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. <i>Laws relating to the Constitution</i></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_196'>196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Deprive the Comitia Tribute of their legislative and judicial powers</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_196'>196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Increase the power of the Senate</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Increase the number of the Qu&aelig;stors and Pr&aelig;tors</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Deprive the Tribunes of all real power</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">II. <i>Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations</i></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Repeal of the Lex Domitia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Increase of the number of Pontiffs and Augurs</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">III. <i>Laws relating to the Administration of Justice</i></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Qu&aelig;stiones Perpetu&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Transference of the Judicia from the Equites to the Senators</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">IV. <i>Laws relating to the improvement of Public Morals</i></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXIX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. B.C. 78-70.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>78.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Lepidus and Catulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Lepidus attempts to repeal the laws of Sulla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is opposed by Catulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is defeated at the Mulvian Bridge</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Retires to Sardinia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>82.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Sertorius in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>79.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Carries on war against Metellus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His birth</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>89.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fights against the Italians under his father</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Joins Sulla</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>82.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Is sent into Sicily and Africa</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>80.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Enters Rome in triumph</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>78.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Supports the aristocracy against Lepidus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>76.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Is sent into Spain to assist Metellus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>72.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Assassination of Sertorius by Perperna</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>71.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey finishes the war in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>73.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War of the Gladiators: Spartacus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>72.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Spartacus defeats both Consuls</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>71.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Crassus appointed to the command of the war against the Gladiators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeats and slays Spartacus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey cuts to pieces a body of Gladiators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>70.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Pompey and Crassus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey restores the Tribunitian power</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, transferring the Judicia to the Senators, Equites, and Tribuni &AElig;rarii</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'>SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Murena invades Pontus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_205'>205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>83.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Mithridates defeats Murena</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_205'>205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>End of the Second Mithridatic War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_205'>205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Preparations of Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>71.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Mithridates defeats the Consul Cotta</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He lays siege to Cyzicus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span>73.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The siege is raised by Lucullus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Lucullus defeats Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>71.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Mithridates takes refuge in Armenia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>70.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>69.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He invades Armenia and defeats Tigranes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>68.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Lucullus defeats Tigranes and Mithridates, and lays siege to Nisibis</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>67.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Mithridates returns to Pontus and defeats the generals of Lucullus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Mutiny in the army of Lucullus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The command of the Mithridatic War given to Glabrio</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>WAR WITH THE PIRATES&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Account of the Pirates</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Command of the war given by the Gabinian Law to Pompey</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Success of Pompey</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He finishes the war</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>66.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR CONTINUED</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Command of the Mithridatic War given by the Manilian Law to Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>It is opposed by the aristocracy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>It is supported by Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey defeats Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Mithridates retires into the Cimmerian Bosporus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey invades Armenia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Submission of Tigranes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>65.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey pursues Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He advances as far as the River Phasis</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Pontus, which he reduces to the form of a Roman province</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>64.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He marches into Syria, which he makes a Roman province</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>63.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He subdues Ph&#339;nicia and Palestine</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He takes Jerusalem</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Preparations of Mithridates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conspiracy against him</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey settles the affairs of Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>62.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST: THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. 69-61.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C. JULIUS C&AElig;SAR&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>100.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His birth</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His early history</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Proscribed by Sulla</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>81.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He serves in Asia</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>77.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Accuses Dolabella</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Taken by the Pirates</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>75.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Studies in Rhodes</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>68.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>65.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Curule &AElig;dile</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Restores the statues of Marius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>M. TULLIUS CICERO&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>106.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His birth</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>80.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Serves in the Social War</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>81.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His speech for P. Quintius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>80.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>79.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He goes to Athens</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>78.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He studies in Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>77.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He returns to Rome</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_216'>216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>76.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor in Sicily</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>70.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He accuses Verres</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>68.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">&AElig;dile</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>66.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pr&aelig;tor</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He speaks on behalf of the Manilian law</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>65.</td>
+  <td align='left'>First conspiracy of Catiline</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>History of Catiline</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>63.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'>219</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Second conspiracy of Catiline</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'>219</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Catiline quits Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_220'>220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cicero seizes the conspirators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_220'>220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They are put to death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>62.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat and death of Catiline</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Popularity of Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Remarks upon the punishment of the conspirators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL. B.C. 62-57.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>62.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey arrives in Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>61.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumph of Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>State of parties in Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>60.</td>
+  <td align='left'>The Senate refuses to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>63.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pr&aelig;torship of C&aelig;sar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</a></span>61.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Propr&aelig;tor in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>60.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His victories in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>FIRST TRIUMVIRATE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>59.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Consulship of C&aelig;sar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Agrarian Law for the division of the Campanian land</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marriage of Julia, C&aelig;sar's daughter, with Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar gains over the Equites</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Vatinian Law, granting to C&aelig;sar the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_226'>226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Transalpine Gaul added</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_226'>226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>62.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Clodius profanes the rites of the Bona Dea</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_226'>226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>61.</td>
+  <td align='left'>His trial and acquittal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His enmity against Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>58.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Tribune of the Plebs</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He accuses Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Banishment of Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>57.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Riots at Rome between Clodius and Milo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Return of Cicero from banishment</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>C&AElig;SAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-51.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>58.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>First Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_229'>229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He defeats the Helvetii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_229'>229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He defeats Ariovistus and the Germans</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>57.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Second Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Belgic War</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Great victory over the Nervii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>55.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Third Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He defeats the Veneti</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He defeats the Morini and Menapii</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>55.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fourth Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C&aelig;sar crosses the Rhine</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His first invasion of Britain</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>54.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fifth Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">His second invasion of Britain</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Revolt of the Eburones</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">They destroy the detachment of T. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">They attack the camp of Q. Cicero</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>53.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Sixth Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C&aelig;sar puts down the revolt in Gaul</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">He crosses the Rhine a second time</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>52.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Seventh Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Revolt of all Gaul</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Headed by Vercingetorix</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C&aelig;sar takes Alesia and Vercingetorix</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>51.</td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Eighth Campaign</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pacification of Gaul</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXIV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>INTERNAL HISTORY FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR: EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. B.C. 57-50.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>57.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Cicero supports the Triumvirs</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_235'>235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>56.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey and Crassus meet C&aelig;sar at Luca</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fresh arrangements for the continuance of their power</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>55.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Trebonian Law, giving the two Spains to Pompey and Syria to Crassus, and prolonging Pompey's government for five years more</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Dedication of Pompey's theatre</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>54.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Crassus crosses the Euphrates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He winters in Syria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>53.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He again crosses the Euphrates</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is defeated and slain near Carrh&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>54.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Julia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>53.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Riots in Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>52.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Murder of Clodius by Milo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey sole Consul</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Trial and condemnation of Milo</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>51.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Rupture between C&aelig;sar and Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey joins the aristocratical party</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>49.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Proposition that C&aelig;sar should lay down his command</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Senate invest the Consuls with dictatorial power</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fly to C&aelig;sar's camp</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Commencement of the Civil War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO C&AElig;SAR'S DEATH, B.C. 49-44.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>49.</td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar at Ravenna</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He crosses the Rubicon</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His triumphal progress through Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey and his party fly from Rome to Brundusium</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They are pursued by C&aelig;sar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They embark for Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar goes to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He sets out for Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He conquers L. Africanus and M. Petreius, Pompey's lieutenants in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is appointed Dictator, which office he holds only eleven days</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He takes Massilia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>48.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He sails from Brundusium to Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He besieges Pompey at Dyrrhachium</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'>244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is compelled to retire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat of Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'>244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pompey flies to Egypt</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar is appointed Dictator a second time</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Alexandrine War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>47.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conclusion of the Alexandrine War</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar marches into Pontus and defeats Pharnaces</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He sails to Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>46.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Thapsus, and defeat of the Pompeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Siege of Utica</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Cato</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His triumph</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His reformation of the Calendar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Insurrection in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar sets out for Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>45.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Munda, and defeat of the Pompeians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He is undisputed master of the Roman world</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Honors conferred upon him</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Use he made of his power</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His vast projects</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>44.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Conspiracy against C&aelig;sar's life</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Brutus and Cassius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Assassination of C&aelig;sar on the Ides of March</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Reflections on his death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His character and genius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXVI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE DEATH OF C&AElig;SAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>44.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Proceedings of the conspirators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_252'>252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony and Lepidus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pretended reconciliation</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>C&aelig;sar's will</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His funeral</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Popular indignation against the conspirators</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They fly from Home</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>OCTAVIUS, C&aelig;sar's nephew, at Illyricum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is made C&aelig;sar's heir</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He proceeds to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His opposition to Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He courts the Senate</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul, and lays siege to Mutina</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>43.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Cicero's second Philippic</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Octavian and the Consuls Hirtius and Pansa march against Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They attack Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Hirtius and Pansa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony is defeated, and crosses the Alps</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Octavian marches to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is declared Consul</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Breaks with the Senate, and outlaws the murderers of C&aelig;sar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marches against Antony and Lepidus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is reconciled with them</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>SECOND TRIUMVIRATE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Triumvirs enter Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Dreadful Scenes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sextus Pompey master of Sicily and the Mediterranean</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats the fleet of the Triumvirs</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[Pg xxv]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'>Brutus obtains possession of Macedonia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cassius, of Syria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Their proceedings in the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They plunder Asia Minor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>42.</td>
+  <td align='left'>They return to Europe to meet the Triumvirs</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Philippi</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'>261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Brutus and Cassius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'>261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXVII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>41.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony remains in the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_262'>262</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_262'>262</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He accompanies her to Alexandria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Octavian returns to Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Confusion in Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Confiscation of lands</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and L. Antonius, his brother, rise against Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>They take refuge in Perusia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>40.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Capture of Perusia, and end of the war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Parthians invade Syria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony joins Sextus Pompey and lays siege to Brundusium</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Reconciliation between Antony and Octavian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fresh division of the Roman world</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony marries Octavia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>39.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ventidius, the Legate of Antony, defeats the Parthians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>38.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He again defeats the Parthians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Pacorus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>War with Sextus Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He destroys the fleet of Octavian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>37.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony comes to Tarentum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumvirate renewed for another period of five years</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>30.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Renewal of the war with Sextus Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His defeat</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He flies to Asia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Lepidus deprived of his Triumvirate</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>35.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Pompey</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>36.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Antony joins Cleopatra</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His infatuation</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He invades Parthia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His disastrous retreat</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>34.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He invades Armenia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Octavian subdues the Dalmatians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His prudent conduct</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>33.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Rupture between Octavian and Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_267'>267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>32.</td>
+  <td align='left'>War against Cleopatra</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>31.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Battle of Actium</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Defeat of Antony</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He flies to Alexandria</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>30.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Antony and Cleopatra</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Egypt made a Roman province</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>End of the Republic</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>29.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Triumph of Octavian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>27.</td>
+  <td align='left'>He receives the title of Augustus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_270'>270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His policy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_270'>270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXVIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Poetry&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Saturnian Metre</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_272'>272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Commencement of Roman Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_272'>272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>The Drama</i>&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>240.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Livius Andronicus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_272'>272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>235.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cn. N&aelig;vius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>239-169.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. Ennius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>254-184.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">T. Maccius Plautus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>195-159.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Terentius Afer</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>160.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. C&aelig;cilius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>100.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">L. Afranius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>220-180.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Pacuvius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>170-90.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">L. Accius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Com&#339;di&aelig; Togat&aelig;</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Com&#339;di&aelig; Palliat&aelig;</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[Pg xxvi]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Com&#339;di&aelig; Pr&aelig;textat&aelig;</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Atellan&aelig; Fabul&aelig;</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Mimes</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>50.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dec. Laberius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Syrus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fescennine Songs</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>Satire</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>148-103.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Lucilius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>95-51.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">T. Lucretius Carus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>87-47.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Valerius Catullus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>70-19.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Virgilius Maro</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_277'>277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>65-8.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. Horatius Flaccus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_278'>278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>30.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Albius Tibullus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_280'>280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>B.C. A.D.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aurelius Propertius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_280'>280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>43-18.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Ovidius Naso</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_281'>281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>B.C.</td>
+  <td align='left'>PROSE WRITERS&mdash;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><i>The Annalists</i></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>210.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. Fabius Pictor</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">L. Cincius Alimentus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>234-140.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Porcius Cato</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>106-43.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Tullius Cicero</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>117-28.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Terentius Varro</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_283'>283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>100-41.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Julius C&aelig;sar</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_283'>283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>86-34.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Sallustius Crispus</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'>284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>B.C. A.D.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cornelius Nepos</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'>284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>53-17.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Titus Livius</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'>284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XXXIX.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C&AElig;SAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conduct of Augustus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_286'>286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His friends</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_286'>286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Police of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_286'>286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Condition of the empire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Italy, Gaul, and Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Africa</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_288'>288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Egypt and Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_288'>288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Boundaries of the empire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Pr&aelig;torian guard</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_290'>290</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Army and navy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_290'>290</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Augustus in Spain</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_291'>291</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His family</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_291'>291</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His wife, Livia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_292'>292</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_292'>292</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cains and Lucius C&aelig;sar</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_293'>293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Birth of the Savior</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_293'>293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Augustus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_294'>294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His character and personal appearance</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_294'>294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XL.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Accession of Tiberius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_295'>295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Germanicus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_296'>296</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_296'>296</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Lex Majestas</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Delatores</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sejanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Sejanus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_298'>298</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Death of Tiberius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_299'>299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Caligula</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_299'>299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Claudius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His conduct</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Emperor Nero</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_301'>301</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His crimes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_301'>301</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Vitellius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_302'>302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Vespasian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_302'>302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fall of Jerusalem</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_303'>303</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Titus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_304'>304</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Colosseum</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_304'>304</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Domitian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_305'>305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He persecutes the Christians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_305'>305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XLI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.&mdash;COMMODUS, A.D. 180.&mdash;REIGN OF M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Emperor Nerva</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_306'>306</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Prosperity of the empire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_306'>306</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Trajan</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_307'>307</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His wise administration</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_307'>307</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Dacian war</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_308'>308</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Conquests in the East</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_308'>308</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Trajan's public works</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_309'>309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Reign of Hadrian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_309'>309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His travels</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_310'>310</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His death</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_312'>312</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Antoninus Pius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_313'>313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His excellent character</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_313'>313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marcus Aurelius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_314'>314</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His conduct</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_315'>315</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He defeats the Barbarians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The depraved Commodus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His vices</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is assassinated</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[Pg xxvii]</a></span></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XLII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pertinax made emperor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Is assassinated</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Didius Julianus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Severus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_320'>320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His severe rule</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_320'>320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Geta and Caracalla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_321'>321</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Papinian executed</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_321'>321</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cruelties of Caracalla</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_322'>322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Elagabalus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_322'>322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Alexander Severus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_322'>322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Maximin</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_323'>323</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Goths invade the empire</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_324'>324</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Valerian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Thirty tyrants</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Zenobia</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Aurelian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Emperor Tacitus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_326'>326</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Frugal habits of Carus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_326'>326</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XLIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Diocletian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_327'>327</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His colleagues</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_328'>328</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Persecution of the Christians</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_329'>329</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Abdication of Diocletian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_329'>329</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Constantine the Great</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_330'>330</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His administration</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_331'>331</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Council of Nice</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_332'>332</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Constantinople</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_332'>332</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Its magnificence</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_333'>333</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The pr&aelig;fectures</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_334'>334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Christianity the national religion</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_334'>334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Taxes</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_334'>334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Family of Constantine</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_335'>335</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>He is baptized and dies</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_335'>335</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XLIV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, A.D. 476.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The three sons of Constantine</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_336'>336</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Constantius jealous of Julian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Julian becomes emperor</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Attempts to restore Paganism</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Valentinian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_338'>338</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Huns appear in Europe</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_338'>338</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Goths cross the Danube</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_338'>338</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Theodosius the Great</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_339'>339</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Stilicho</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_339'>339</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Alaric enters Italy</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_340'>340</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Luxury of the Romans</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_340'>340</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Sack of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_341'>341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Arcadius and Honorius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_341'>341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Vandals</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_342'>342</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The Huns</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_342'>342</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Romulus Augustulus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_343'>343</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Extinction of the Empire of the West</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_343'>343</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XLV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center'><b>ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Decline of letters</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Epic poetry&mdash;Lucan</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Silius Italicus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Claudian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_345'>345</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Persius, Juvenal</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_345'>345</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Martial</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_346'>346</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>History&mdash;Velleius Paterculus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_346'>346</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Valerius Maximus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_346'>346</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Tacitus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_347'>347</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Quintus Curtius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_347'>347</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Rhetoric&mdash;Seneca the elder</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_348'>348</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Quintilian</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_348'>348</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Appuleius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_349'>349</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Philosophy&mdash;Seneca</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_349'>349</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>The elder Pliny</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_349'>349</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>His nephew</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Grammarians&mdash;Macrobius</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Marcellinus</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Legal writers&mdash;Gains</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Science and art</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_351'>351</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">[Pg xxix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image001'>The Roman Forum</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>FRONTISPIECE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image002'>Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>TITLE-PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image003'>Map of Italy</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image004'>Temple of Janus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>vi</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image005'>Julius C&aelig;sar</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>vii</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image006'>Virgil</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>xxx</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image007'>Tivoli, the ancient Tibur</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image008'>Gate of Arpinum</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image009'>The Alban Hills</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image010'>Plan of the City of Romulus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image011'>Salii carrying the Ancilia</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image012'>Arch of Volaterr&aelig;</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image013'>Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>16</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image014'>Cloaca Maxima</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image015'>Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image016'>Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image017'>The Campagna of Rome</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image018'>The Environs of Rome</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>33</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image019'>Tarpeian Rock</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image020'>View in the neighborhood of Veii</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image021'>Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image022'>Ruins at Capua</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image023'>Coin of Pyrrhus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image024'>Temple of Vesta</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image025'>Mount Ercta in Sicily</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image026'>Columna Rostrata</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>71</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image027'>Plan of Mount Ercta</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>76</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image028'>Coin of Carthage</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image029'>Coin of Hiero</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image030'>Lake Trasimenus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image031'>Map of the coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the history of the Punic Wars</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image032'>Route of Hannibal</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>89</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image033'>Plain of Cann&aelig;</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image034'>Hannibal</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image035'>The Capitoline Wolf</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image036'>Coin of Antiochus the Great</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>106</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image037'>Roman Soldiers</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>113</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image038'>Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>115</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image039'>Lictors</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>116</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image040'>A Roman general addressing the soldiers</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>125</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image041'>Scipio Africanus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>126</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image042'>Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>134</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image043'>Plan of Carthage</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image044'>Personification of the River Tiber</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>143</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image045'>Stairs of the modern Capitol</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>148</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image046'>The Forum in its present state</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>155</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image047'>Temple of Saturn at Rome</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>160</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image048'>A Roman Trophy</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>161</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image049'>Soldiers blowing Tub&aelig; and Cornua</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>168</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image050'>Caius Marius</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>169</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image051'>Fasces</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>172</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image052'>Tomb of Metella C&aelig;cilia</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>173</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image053'>Beneventum in Samnium</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>177</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image054'>Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>178</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image055'>Terracina</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image056'>Mount Arg&aelig;us in Cappadocia</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>186</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image057'>Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>189</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image058'>Brundusium</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>190</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image059'>Coin of Sulla</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>198</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image060'>Cn. Pompeius Magnus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>199</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image061'>Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>204</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image062'>Coin of Mithridates</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>205</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image063'>Coin of Tigranes</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>207</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image064'>Cicero</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>214</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image065'>Coin of Pompey</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>222</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image066'>Julius C&aelig;sar</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>223</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image067'>Temple of Hercules at Rome</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>228</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image068'>Temple of Nemausus (<i>Nimes</i>), now called the <i>Maison Carr&eacute;e</i></a></td>
+  <td align='right'>229</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image069'>Ruins on the Esquiline</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image070'>Marcus Brutus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>241</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image071'>Coin of Julius C&aelig;sar</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>250</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image072'>Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>251</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image073'>M. Antonius</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>252</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image074'>Philippi</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>259</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image075'>Coin of Antony and Cleopatra</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>261</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image076'>M. Agrippa</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>262</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image077'>Plan of Actium</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>268</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image078'>Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>271</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image079'>Horace</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>272</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image080'>M&aelig;cenas</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>285</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image081'>Aureus of Augustus C&aelig;sar</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>288</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">[Pg xxx]</a></span><a href='#image082'>Gold Coin of Agrippa</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>292</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image083'>The Carpentum or Chariot</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>293</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image084'>Medal of Augustus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>294</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image085'>Medal of Nero</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>295</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image086'>Roman Galley</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>299</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image087'>Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>306</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image088'>Trajan's Pillar</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>308</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image089'>Hadrian's Mausoleum restored</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>311</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image090'>Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoninus Pius</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>313</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image091'>Commodus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>317</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image092'>Pertinax</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>318</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image093'>Septimius Severus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>319</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image094'>Caracalla</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>321</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image095'>Alexander Severus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>323</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image096'>Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spolatro</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>327</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image097'>Constantino and Fausta</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>330</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image098'>Arch of Constantine</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>331</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image099'>Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, and Bosphorus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>333</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image100'>Map of Constantinople</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>333</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image101'>Julian the Apostate</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>336</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image102'>Juvenal</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>351</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href='#image103'>Coin of Augustus</a></td>
+  <td align='right'>361</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image006" name="image006">
+   <img src="images/006.jpg"
+      alt="Virgil."
+      title="Virgil." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Virgil.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HISTORY OF ROME.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image007" name="image007">
+   <img src="images/007.jpg"
+      alt="Tivoli, the ancient Tibur."
+      title="Tivoli, the ancient Tibur." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Tivoli, the ancient Tibur.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY&mdash;EARLY INHABITANTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which project
+from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on
+the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a natural barrier, and it
+is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its shores are washed on the
+west by the "Mare Inferum," or the Lower Sea, and on the east by the
+Adriatic, called by the Romans the "Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea.
+It may be divided into two parts, the northern consisting of the great
+plain drained by the River Padus, or <i>Po</i>, and its tributaries, and the
+southern being a long tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone
+running down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length
+of the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles.
+The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the southern
+portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till the time of
+the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of the Po in Italy. To
+this country they gave the general name of GALLIA CISALPINA, or Gaul on
+this (the Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited
+by Gauls. The western-most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian
+tribes, and was therefore called LIGURIA, while its eastern extremity
+formed the Roman province of VENETIA.</p>
+
+<p>The name ITALIA was originally applied to a very small tract of country.
+It was at first confined to the southern portion of Calabria, and was
+gradually extended northward, till about the time of the Punic wars it
+indicated the whole peninsula south of the Rivers Rubicon and Macra, the
+former separating Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, the latter Liguria and
+Etruria. Italy, properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being
+filled up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the offshoots
+or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea,
+but in others leave a considerable space of level or low country.
+Excluding the plain of the Po, it was divided into the following
+districts:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>1. ETRURIA, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the
+River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the Tiber
+also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from Umbria,
+afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. Its inhabitants
+were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being still preserved in
+the name of <i>Tuscany</i>. Besides the Tiber it possesses only one other
+river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, upon which the city of
+<i>Florence</i> now stands. Of its lakes the most considerable is the Lacus
+Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in circumference, celebrated for the
+great victory which Hannibal there gained over the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>2. UMBRIA, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the
+valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was separated on
+the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on the south by the
+&AElig;sis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sabines.</p>
+
+<p>3. PICENUM extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the &AElig;sis to
+that of the Matrinus and inland as far as the central ridge of the
+Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the south by the
+Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>bini. Its inhabitants, the
+Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is mentioned below.</p>
+
+<p>4. The SABINI inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the central chain
+of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Latium, and
+the country of the Marsi and Vestini. They were one of the most ancient
+races of Italy, and the progenitors of the far more numerous tribes
+which, under the names of Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread
+themselves to the east and south. Modern writers have given the general
+name of <i>Sabellians</i> to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other
+mountaineers, were brave, hardy, and frugal; and even the Romans looked
+up to them with admiration on account of their proverbial honesty and
+temperance.</p>
+
+<p>5. The MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, and MARRUCINI inhabited the valleys of
+the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being probably all of
+Sabine origin. The MARSI dwelt inland around the basin of the Lake
+Fucinus, which is about thirty miles in circumference, and the only
+one of any extent in the central Apennines. The PELIGNI also occupied an
+inland district east of the MARSI. The VESTINI dwelt east of the
+Sabines, and possessed on the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space
+between the mouth of the Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of
+about six miles. The MARRUCINI inhabited a narrow strip of country on
+the Adriatic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the
+Vestini and on the south by the Frentani.</p>
+
+<p>6. The FRENTANI dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the frontiers
+of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded on the west by
+the Samnites, from whom they were originally descended, but they appear
+in Roman history as an independent people.</p>
+
+<p>7. LATIUM was used in two senses. It originally signified only the land
+of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded by the Tiber
+on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the sea on the west, and
+by the Alban Hills on the south. But after the conquest of the
+Volscians, Hernici, &AElig;quians, and other tribes, originally independent,
+the name of Latium was extended to all the country which the latter had
+previously occupied. It was thus applied to the whole region from the
+borders of Etruria to those of Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris.
+The original abode of the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban
+Mountains are a great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have
+been filled with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban Lake is one of
+the most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the
+<i>Campagna</i>, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating tract,
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>tersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep
+channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is composed.
+The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient times. The malaria
+of the Campagna renders Rome itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn;
+and the Pontine Marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of
+Latium for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential.</p>
+
+<p>8. CAMPANIA extended along the coast from the Liris, which separated it
+from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the boundary of Lucania. It is
+the fairest portion of Italy. The greater part of it is an unbroken
+plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in modern times for its
+extraordinary beauty and fertility. The <i>Bay of Naples</i>&mdash;formerly called
+Sinus Cumanus and Puteolanus, from the neighboring cities of Cum&aelig; and
+Puteoli&mdash;is one of the most lovely spots in the world; and the softness
+of its climate, as well as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the
+Roman nobles, who had numerous villas along its coasts.</p>
+
+<p>9. SAMNIUM was an inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi and
+Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the west by Latium
+and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It is a mountainous country,
+being entirely filled with the masses of the Apennines. Its inhabitants,
+the Samnites, were of Sabine origin, as has been already mentioned, and
+they settled in the country at a comparatively late period. They were
+one of the most warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce
+struggle with the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>10. APULIA extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the Frentani on
+the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded on the west by the
+Apennines, which separated it from Samnium and Lucania. It consists
+almost entirely of a great plain, sloping down from the Apennines to the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>11. CALABRIA formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, and
+surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no mountains, and
+only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines running to the southwest
+through Lucania and the Bruttii.</p>
+
+<p>12. LUCANIA was bounded on the north by Campania and Samnium, on the
+east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The Apennines run
+through the province in its whole extent. The Lucanians were a branch of
+the Samnite nation, which separated from the main body of that people,
+and pressed on still farther to the south.</p>
+
+<p>13. The BRUTTII<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, ly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>ing
+south of Lucania; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed
+throughout by the chain of the Apennines.</p>
+
+<p>Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. The
+lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its shores on
+both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to
+adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest
+parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of the Apennines corn is
+produced in abundance; olives flourish on the southern slopes of the
+mountains; and the vine is cultivated in every part of the peninsula,
+the vineyards of northern Campania being the most celebrated in
+antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>The early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great
+classes&mdash;the <i>Italians</i> proper, the <i>Iapygians</i>, and the <i>Etruscans</i>,
+who are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective
+languages.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The <i>Italians</i> proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. They
+were divided into two branches, the <i>Latins</i> and the <i>Umbro-Sabellians</i>,
+including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their numerous colonies.
+The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabellians, though marked by
+striking differences, still show clearest evidence of a common origin,
+and both are closely related to the Greek. It is evident that at some
+remote period a race migrated from the East, embracing the ancestors of
+both the Greeks and Italians&mdash;that from it the Italians branched
+off&mdash;and that they again were divided into the Latins on the west and
+the Umbrians and Sabellians on the east.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The <i>Iapygians</i> dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast corner
+of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here been discovered,
+clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to a different race from
+those whom we have designated as the Italians. They were doubtless the
+oldest inhabitants of Italy, who were driven toward the extremity of the
+peninsula as the Latins and Sabellians pressed farther to the south.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) The <i>Etruscans</i>, or, as they called themselves, <i>Rasena</i>, form a
+striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the Greeks.
+Their language is radically different from the other languages of Italy;
+and their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people
+originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races. Their
+religion was of a gloomy character, delighting in mysteries and in wild
+and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. Most ancient writers relate
+that the Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to
+Italy; but this is very improbable, and it is now more generally
+believed that the Etruscans descended into Italy from, the Rh&aelig;tian Alps.
+It is expressly stated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> by ancient writers that the Rh&aelig;tians were
+Etruscans, and that they spoke the same language; while their name is
+perhaps the same as that of Rasena, the native name of the Etruscans. In
+more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans inhabited
+not only the country called Etruria, but also the great plain of the Po,
+as far as the foot of the Alps. Here they maintained their ground till
+they were expelled or subdued by the invading Gauls. The Etruscans, both
+in the north of Italy and to the south of the Apennines, consisted of a
+confederacy of twelve cities, each of which was independent, possessing
+the power of even making war and peace on its own account. In Etruria
+proper Volsinii was regarded as the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these three races, two foreign races also settled in the
+peninsula in historical times. These are the <i>Greeks</i> and the Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) The <i>Greeks</i> planted so many colonies upon the coasts of southern
+Italy that they gave to that district the name of Magna Gr&aelig;cia. The most
+ancient, and, at the same time, the most northerly Greek city in Italy,
+was Cum&aelig; in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies were situated
+farther to the south, where many of them attained to great power and
+opulence. Of these, some of the most distinguished were Tarentum,
+Sybaris, Croton, and Metapontum.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) The <i>Gauls</i>, as we have already said, occupied the greater part of
+northern Italy, and were so numerous and important as to give to the
+whole basin of the Po the name of Gallia Cisalpina. They were of the
+same race with the Gauls who inhabited the country beyond the Alps, and
+their migration and settlement in Italy were referred by the Roman
+historian to the time of the Tarquins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image008" name="image008">
+   <img src="images/008.jpg"
+      alt="Gate of Arpinum."
+      title="Gate of Arpinum." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Gate of Arpinum.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image009" name="image009">
+   <img src="images/009.jpg"
+      alt="The Alban Hills."
+      title="The Alban Hills." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Alban Hills.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only a few
+miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominions at first over
+Italy and then over the civilized world. The city lay in the central
+part of the peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and about fifteen
+miles from its mouth. Its situation was upon the borders of three of the
+most powerful races in Italy, the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Though
+originally a Latin town, it received at an early period a considerable
+Sabine population, which left a permanent impression upon the sacred
+rites and religious institutions of the people. The Etruscans exercised
+less influence upon Rome, though it appears nearly certain that a part
+of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the two Tarquins
+represent the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome. The
+population of the city may therefore be regarded as one of mixed origin,
+consisting of the three elements of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, but
+the last in much smaller proportion than the other two. That the Latin
+element predominated over the Sabine is also evident from the fact that
+the language of the Romans was a Latin and not a Sabellian dialect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The early history of Rome is given in an unbroken narrative by the Roman
+writers, and was received by the Romans themselves as a faithful record
+of facts. But it can no longer be regarded in that light. Not only is it
+full of marvelous tales and poetical embellishments, of contradictions
+and impossibilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all
+history must be based. The reader, therefore, must not receive the
+history of the first four centuries of the city as a statement of
+undoubted facts, though it has unquestionably preserved many
+circumstances which did actually occur. It is not until we come to the
+war with Pyrrhus that we can place full reliance upon the narrative as a
+trustworthy statement of facts. With this caution we now proceed to
+relate the celebrated legends of the foundation and early history of
+Home.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>&AElig;neas, son of Anchises and Venus, fled after the fall of Troy to seek a
+new home in a foreign land. He carried with him his son Ascanius, the
+Penates or household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Upon reaching
+the coast of Latium he was kindly received by Latinus, the king of the
+country, who gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. &AElig;neas now built
+a city, which he named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. But Lavinia had
+been previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. This
+youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. He was
+slain, however, by the hands of &AElig;neas; but in a new war which broke out
+three years afterward the Trojan hero disappeared amid the waters of the
+River Numicius, and was henceforward worshiped under the name of Jupiter
+Indiges, or "god of the country."</p>
+
+<p>Ascanius, who was also called Iulus, removed from Lavinium thirty years
+after its foundation, and built Alba Longa, or the "Long White City," on
+a ridge of the Alban Mount about fifteen miles southeast of Rome. It
+became the most powerful city in Latium, and the head of a confederacy
+of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the family of &AElig;neas succeeded Ascanius.
+The last of these, named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius.
+Amulius, the younger, seized the kingdom; and Numitor, who was of a
+peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. Amulius,
+fearing lest the children of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his
+usurpation, caused his only son to be murdered, and made his daughter,
+Rhea Silvia, one of the vestal virgins, who were compelled to live and
+die unmarried. But the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of
+twins. She was, in consequence, put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> to death, because she had broken
+her vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the river. The Tiber
+had overflowed its banks far and wide; and the cradle in which the babes
+were placed was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on
+the root of a wild fig-tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the
+stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them; and when
+they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred to Mars, brought
+it to them. At length, this marvelous spectacle was seen by Faustulus,
+the king's shepherd, who took the children home to his wife, Acca
+Larentia. They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew up along with the
+sons of their foster-parents on the Palatine Hill.</p>
+
+<p>A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled
+their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aventine. Remus was taken by
+a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor. His age and noble bearing made
+Numitor think of his grandsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the
+tale of the marvelous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterward
+Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor; suspicion was
+changed into certainty, and the old man recognized them as his
+grandsons. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had
+suffered. With the help of their faithful comrades they slew Amulius,
+and placed Numitor on the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left Alba to
+found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute arose between the
+brothers where the city should be built, and after whose name it should
+be called. Romulus wished to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the
+Aventine. It was agreed that the question should be decided by the gods;
+and each took his station on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the
+pleasure of the gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and
+as the day was dawning Remus saw six vultures; but at sunrise, when
+these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each
+claimed the augury in his own favor; but the shepherds decided for
+Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield.</p>
+
+<p>1. REIGN OF ROMULUS, B.C. 753-716.&mdash;Romulus now proceeded to mark out
+the boundaries of his city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a plow,
+and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine. This formed the sacred limits
+of the city, and was called the <i>Pom&#339;rium</i>. To the original city on
+the Palatine was given the name of <i>Roma Quadrata</i>, or Square Rome, to
+distinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over the seven
+hills.</p>
+
+<p>Rome is said to have been founded on the 21st of April, 753 years before
+the Christian era.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the line of the Pom&#339;rium Romulus began to raise a wall. One day
+Remus leapt over it in scorn; whereupon Romulus slew him, exclaiming,
+"So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my walls." Romulus now found
+his people too few in numbers. Accordingly, lie set apart on the
+Capitoline Hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which homicides and
+runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus became filled with men,
+but they wanted women, and the inhabitants of the neighboring cities
+refused to give their daughters to such an outcast race. Romulus
+accordingly resolved to obtain by force what he could not obtain by
+treaty. He proclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the
+god Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the
+festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers with their wives
+and children, but the Roman youths rushed upon their guests and carried
+off the virgins. The parents returned home and prepared for vengeance.
+The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, C&aelig;nina, Antemn&aelig; and
+Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were defeated by the
+Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand Acron, king of C&aelig;nina, and
+dedicated his arms and armor, as <i>spolia opima</i>, to Jupiter. These were
+offered when the commander of one army slew with his own hand the
+commander of another, and were only gained twice afterward in Roman
+history. At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of
+the Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great that
+Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to retire into
+the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus had also fortified
+the top of the Capitoline Hill, which he intrusted to the care of
+Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia, dazzled by the golden bracelets of
+the Sabines, promised to betray the hill to them "if they would give her
+what they wore on their left arms." Her offer was accepted. In the
+night-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when she claimed
+her reward they threw upon her the shields "which they wore on their
+left arms," and thus crushed her to death. One of the heights of the
+Capitoline Hill preserved her name, and it was from the Tarpeian Rock
+that traitors were afterward hurled down. On the next day the Romans
+endeavored to recover the hill. A long and desperate battle was fought
+in the valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the
+Romans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed a temple to
+Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon his men took courage and
+returned again to the combat. At length the Sabine women, who were the
+cause of the war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and
+fathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard; the two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> people not
+only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. The Romans dwelt on
+the Palatine under their king Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline
+under their king Titus Tatius.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The two kings and their senates met
+for deliberation in the valley between the two hills, which was hence
+called <i>Comitium</i>, or the place of meeting, and which afterward became
+the Roman Forum. But this union did not last long. Titus Tatius was
+slain at Lavinium by some Latins to whom he had refused satisfaction for
+outrages committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled alone over
+both Romans and Sabines. He reigned, in all, thirty-seven years. One
+day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus Martius, near the
+Goat's Fool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, and a dreadful storm
+dispersed the people. When daylight returned Romulus had disappeared,
+for his father Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot.
+Shortly afterward he appeared in more than mortal beauty to the senator
+Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell the Romans to worship him under the
+name of the god Quirinus.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+   <a id="image010" name="image010">
+   <img src="images/010.jpg"
+      alt="Plan of the City of Romulus."
+      title="Plan of the City of Romulus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Plan of the City of Romulus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As Romulus was regarded as the founder of Rome, its most an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>cient
+political institutions and the organization of the people were ascribed
+to him by the popular belief.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) The Roman people consisted only of <i>Patricians</i> and their
+<i>Clients</i>. The Patricians formed the Populus Romanus, or sovereign
+people. They alone had political rights; the Clients were entirely
+dependent upon them. A Patrician had a certain number of Clients
+attached to him personally. To these he acted as a <i>Patronus</i> or Patron.
+He was bound to protect the interests of the Client both in public and
+private, while the Client had to render many services to his patron.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) The Patricians were divided by Romulus into <i>three Tribes</i>; the
+Ramnes, or Romans of Romulus; the Tities, or Sabines of Titus Tatius;
+and the Luceres, or Etruscans of C&aelig;les, a Lucumo or Etruscan noble, who
+assisted Romulus in the war against the Sabines. Each tribe was divided
+into 10 curi&aelig;, and each curi&aelig; into 10 gentes. The 30 curi&aelig; formed the
+<i>Comitia Curiata</i>, a sovereign assembly of the Patricians. This assembly
+elected the king, made the laws, and decided in all cases affecting the
+life of a citizen.</p>
+
+<p>To assist him in the government Romulus selected a number of aged men,
+forming a <i>Senate</i>, or Council of Elders, who were called Patres, or
+Senators. It consisted at first of 100 members, which number was
+increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated in the state. The 20
+curi&aelig; of the Ramnes and Tities each sent 10 members to the senate, but
+the Luceres were not yet represented.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) Each of the three tribes was bound to furnish 1000 men for the
+infantry and 100 men for the cavalry. Thus 3000 foot-soldiers and 300
+horse-soldiers formed the original army of the Roman state, and were
+called a <i>Legion</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. REIGN OF NUMA POMPILIUS, B.C. 716-673.&mdash;On the death of Romulus, the
+Senate, at first, would not allow the election of a new king. The
+Senators enjoyed the royal power in rotation as Inter-reges, or
+between-kings. In this way a year passed. But the people at length
+insisted that a king should be chosen, and the Senate were obliged to
+give way. The choice fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a
+native of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of Tatius. The
+forty-three years of Numa's reign glided away in quiet happiness without
+any war or any calamity.</p>
+
+<p>As Romulus was the founder of the political institutions of Rome, so
+Numa was the author of the religious institutions. Instructed by the
+nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia, he instituted
+the Pontiffs, four in number, with a Pontifex Maximus at their head, who
+had the general superintendence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> of religion; the Augurs, also four in
+number, who consulted the will of the gods on all occasions, both
+private and public; three Flamens, each of whom attended to the worship
+of separate deities&mdash;Jupiter,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Mars, and Quirinus; four Vestal
+Virgins, who kept alive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba
+Longa; and twelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the
+sacred shields.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture,
+and marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed under the
+care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple of Janus, a god
+represented with two heads looking different ways. The gates of this
+temple were to be open during war and closed in time of peace.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+   <a id="image011" name="image011">
+   <img src="images/011.jpg"
+      alt="Salii carrying the Ancilia."
+      title="Salii carrying the Ancilia." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Salii carrying the Ancilia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. REIGN OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS, B.C. 673-641.&mdash;Upon the death of Numa an
+interregnum again followed; but soon afterward Tullus Hostilius, a
+Roman, was elected king. His reign was as warlike as that of Numa had
+been peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the destruction of Alba
+Longa. A quarrel having arisen between the two cities, and their armies
+having been drawn up in array against each other, the princes determined
+to avert the battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army.
+There were in the Roman army three brothers, born at the same birth,
+named Horatii; and in the Alban army, in like manner, three brothers,
+born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The two sets of brothers
+were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the people to whom the
+conquerors belonged should rule the other. Two of the Horatii were
+slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius,
+who was unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend with
+the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of them
+separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three opponents at
+unequal distances. Sud<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>denly turning round, he slew, first one, then the
+second, and finally the third. The Romans were declared the conquerors,
+and the Albans their subjects. But a tragical event followed. As
+Horatius was entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met
+him, and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii,
+her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that the anger
+of her brother was kindled, and, stabbing her with his sword, he
+exclaimed, "So perish every Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this
+murder he was condemned by the two judges of blood to be hanged upon the
+fatal tree, but he appealed to the people, and they gave him his life.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterward Tullus Hostilius made war against the Etruscans of
+Fiden&aelig; and Veii. The Albans, under their dictator Mettius Fuffetius,
+followed him to the war as the subjects of Rome. In the battle against
+the Etruscans, the Alban dictator, faithless and insolent, withdrew to
+the hills, but when the Etruscans were defeated he descended to the
+plain, and congratulated the Roman king. Tullus pretended to be
+deceived. On the following day he summoned the two armies to receive
+their praises and rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were
+surrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their sentence. Their
+dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses driven opposite ways; their
+city was to be razed to the ground; and they themselves, with their
+wives and children, transported to Rome. Tullus assigned to them the
+C&aelig;lian Hill for their habitation. Some of the noble families of Alba
+were enrolled among the Roman patricians, but the great mass of the
+Alban people were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling class.
+They were the origin of the Roman <i>Plebs</i>, who were thus quite distinct
+from the Patricians and their Clients. The Patricians still formed
+exclusively the Populus, or Roman people, properly so called. The Plebs
+were a subject-class without any share in the government.</p>
+
+<p>After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and sought to win
+the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, by prayers and divination. But
+Jupiter was angry with him, and smote him and his whole house with fire
+from heaven. Thus perished Tullus, after a reign of thirty-two years.</p>
+
+<p>4. REIGN OF ANCUS MARCIUS, B.C. 640-616.&mdash;Ancus Marcius, the successor
+of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son of Numa's daughter. He
+sought to tread in the footsteps of his grandfather by reviving the
+religious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect; but a war with the
+Latins called him from the pursuits of peace. He conquered several of
+the Latin cities, and removed many of the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+assigned them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> the Aventine for their habitation. Thus the number of the
+Plebeians was greatly enlarged. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, whose
+duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state when any dispute
+arose, to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
+commenced, and to perform the proper religious rites on the declaration
+of war. He also founded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber,
+built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans,
+and united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called the
+Pons Sublicius, because it was made of wooden piles, and erected a
+prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign of twenty-four
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image012" name="image012">
+   <img src="images/012.jpg"
+      alt="Arch of Volaterrae."
+      title="Arch of Volaterrae." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Arch of Volaterr&aelig;.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image013" name="image013">
+   <img src="images/013.jpg"
+      alt="Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina."
+      title="Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC DOWN
+TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.</h3>
+
+
+<p>5. REIGN OF LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, or the ELDER TARQUIN, B.C.
+616-578.&mdash;The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan by birth, but a Greek
+by descent. His father Demaratus was a wealthy citizen of Corinth, who
+settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, where he married an Etruscan
+wife. Their son married Tanaquil, who belonged to one of the noblest
+families in Tarquinii, and himself became a Lucumo or a noble in the
+state. But he aspired to still higher honors; and, urged on by his wife,
+who was an ambitious woman, he resolved to try his fortune at Rome.
+Accordingly, he set out for this city, accompanied by a large train of
+followers. When he had reached the Janiculum an eagle seized his cap,
+and, after carrying it away to a great height, placed it again upon his
+head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade
+her husband hope for the highest honors. Her predictions were soon
+verified. He took the name of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and gained the
+favor both of Ancus Marcius and the people. Ancus appointed the stranger
+guardian of his children; and, when he died, the senate and the people
+unanimously elected Tarquin to the vacant throne.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in war and by
+great works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and took their town
+Collatia, which he placed under his nephew Egerius, who was thence
+called Collatinus. He also captured many of the Latin towns, and became
+the ruler of all Latium; but the important works which he executed in
+peace have rendered his name still more famous. The great cloac&aelig;, or
+sewers, by which he drained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the lower parts of the city, still remain,
+after so many ages, with not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus
+Maximus, and instituted the great or Roman games performed in the
+circus. He also made some changes in the constitution of the state. He
+added to the Senate 100 new members, taken from the Luceres, the third
+tribe, and called <i>patres minorum gentium</i>, to distinguish them from the
+old Senators, who were now termed <i>patres majorum gentium</i>. To the three
+centuries of equites established by Romulus he wished to add three new
+centuries, and to call them after himself and two of his friends. But
+his plan was opposed by the augur Attus Navius, who said that the gods
+forbade it. The tale runs that the king, to test the augur, asked him to
+divine whether what he was thinking of could be done. After consulting
+the heavens, the augur replied that it could; whereupon the king said,
+"I was thinking that thou shouldst cut this whetstone with a razor."
+Navius, without a moment's hesitation, took a razor and cut it in twain.
+In consequence of this miracle, Tarquin gave up his design of
+establishing new centuries; but with each of the former centuries he
+associated another under the same name, so that henceforth there were
+the first and second Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. The number of Vestal
+Virgins was also increased from four to six, the two new vestals being
+probably taken from the Luceres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image014" name="image014">
+   <img src="images/014.jpg"
+      alt="Cloaca Maxima."
+      title="Cloaca Maxima." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Cloaca Maxima.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tarquin had a favorite, Servius Tullius, said to have been the son of a
+female slave taken at the capture of the Latin town Corniculum. His
+infancy was marked by prodigies which foreshadowed his future greatness.
+On one occasion a flame played around his head, as he was asleep,
+without harming him. Tanaquil foresaw the greatness of the boy, and from
+this time he was brought up as the king's child. Tarquin afterward gave
+him his daughter in marriage, and left the government in his hands. But
+the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin should transmit the
+crown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> to his son-in-law, hired two countrymen to assassinate the king.
+These men, feigning to have a quarrel, came before the king to have
+their dispute decided, and while he was listening to the complaint of
+one, the other gave him a deadly wound with his axe. But the sons of
+Ancus did not reap the fruit of their crime; for Tanaquil, pretending
+that the king's wound was not mortal, told them that he would soon
+return, and that he had, meantime, appointed Servius to act in his
+stead. Servius forthwith proceeded to discharge the duties of king,
+greatly to the satisfaction of the people; and when the death of Tarquin
+could no longer be concealed, he was already in firm possession of the
+regal power. Tarquin had reigned thirty-eight years.</p>
+
+<p>6. SERVIUS TULLIUS, B.C. 578-534.&mdash;Servius thus succeeded to the throne
+without being elected by the Senate and the Assembly of the Curi&aelig;. The
+reign of this king is almost as barren of military exploits as that of
+Numa. His great deeds were those of peace; and he was regarded by
+posterity as the author of the later Roman constitution, just as Romulus
+was of the earlier. Three important acts are assigned to Servius by
+universal tradition. Of these the greatest was:</p>
+
+<p>I. The reform of the Roman Constitution. In this reform his two main
+objects were to give the Plebeians political rights, and to assign to
+property that influence in the state which had previously belonged
+exclusively to birth. To carry his purpose into effect he made a twofold
+division of the Roman people, one territorial and the other according to
+property.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> It must be recollected that the only existing political
+organization was that of the Patricians into 3 tribes, 30 curi&aelig;, and 300
+gentes; but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory into <i>Thirty
+Tribes</i>, and, as this division was simply local, these tribes contained
+Plebeians as well as Patricians. But, though the institution of the
+Thirty Tribes gave the Plebeians a political organization, it conferred
+upon them no political power, nor any right to take part in the
+elections, or in the management of public affairs. At a later time the
+tribes assembled in the forum for the transaction of business, and were
+hence called <i>Comitia Tributa</i>. The Patricians were then excluded from
+this assembly, which was summoned by the Tribunes of the Plebs, and was
+entirely Plebeian.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The means by which Servius gave the Plebeians a share in the
+government was by establishing a new Popular Assembly, in which
+Patricians and Plebeians alike voted. It was so arranged that the
+wealthiest persons, whether Patricians or Plebeians, possessed the chief
+power. In order to ascertain the property of each citizen, Servius
+instituted the <i>Census</i>, which was a register of Ro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>man citizens and
+their property. All Roman citizens possessing property to the amount of
+12,500 asses and upward<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> were divided into five great <i>Classes</i>. The
+First Class contained the richest citizens, the Second Class the next in
+point of wealth, and so on. The whole arrangement was of a military
+character. Each of the five Classes was divided into a certain number of
+Centuries or Companies, half of which consisted of Seniores from the age
+of 46 to 60, and half of Juniores from the age of 17 to 45. All the
+Classes had to provide their own arms and armor, but the expense of the
+equipment was in proportion to the wealth of each Class. The Five
+<i>Classes</i> formed the infantry. To these five Classes were added two
+centuries of smiths and carpenters, and two of trumpeters and
+horn-blowers. These four centuries voted with the Classes. Those persons
+whose property did not amount to 12,500 asses were not included in the
+Classes, and formed a single century.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These consisted
+of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician Equites, as founded
+by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius Priscus, and the other twelve
+being chosen from the chief plebeian families.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Centuries formed the new National Assembly. They mustered as an army
+in the Campus Martius, or the Field of Mars, on the banks of the Tiber,
+outside the city. They voted by Centuries, and were hence called the
+<i>Comitia Centuriata</i>. Each Century counted as one vote, but did not
+consist of the same number of men. On the contrary, in order to give the
+preponderance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> wealth, the first or richest class contained a far
+greater number of Centuries than any of the other classes (as will be
+seen from the table below), although they must at the same time have
+included a much smaller number of men. The Equites and First Class alone
+amounted to 100 Centuries, or more than half of the total number; so
+that, if they agreed to vote the same way, they possessed at once an
+absolute majority. An advantage was also given to age; for the Seniores,
+though possessing an equal number of votes, must of course have been
+very inferior in number to the Juniores.</p>
+
+<p>Servius made the Comitia Centuriata the sovereign assembly of the
+nation; and he accordingly transferred to it from the Comitia Curiata
+the right of electing kings and the higher magistrates, of enacting and
+repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal from the sentence of
+a judge. But he did not dare to abolish the old Patrician assembly, and
+was even obliged to enact that no vote of the Comitia Centuriata should
+be valid till it had received the sanction of the Comitia Curiata.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in consequence of the legislation, we shall find that Rome
+subsequently possessed three sovereign assemblies: 1. The <i>Comitia
+Centuriata</i>, consisting of both Patricians and Plebeians, and voting
+according to Centuries; 2. The <i>Comitia Curiata</i>, consisting exclusively
+of Patricians, and voting according to Curi&aelig;; 3. The <i>Comitia Tributa</i>,
+exclusively of Plebeians, and voting according to Tribes.</p>
+
+<p>II. The second great work of Servius was the extension of the
+Pom&#339;rium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the completion of the
+city by incorporating with it the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline
+Hills.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> He surrounded the whole with a stone wall, called after him
+the wall of Servius Tullius; and from the Porta Collina to the Esquiline
+Gate, where the hills sloped gently to the plain, he constructed a
+gigantic mound nearly a mile in length, and a moat 100 feet in breadth
+and 30 in depth, from which the earth of the mound was dug. Rome thus
+acquired a circumference of five miles, and this continued to be the
+legal extent of the city till the time of the emperors, although suburbs
+were added to it.</p>
+
+<p>III. An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome and the cities
+of Latium became the members of one great league, was one of the great
+events which distinguished the reign of Servius.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image015" name="image015"></a><a href="images/015large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/015.jpg"
+      alt="Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills."
+      title="Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Servius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons of Tarquinius
+Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a quiet and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> gentle wife;
+Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and ambitious woman. The character of
+the two brothers was the very opposite of the wives who had fallen to
+their lot; for Lucius was proud and haughty, but Aruns unambitious and
+quiet. The wife of Aruns, enraged at the long life of her father, and
+fearing that at his death her husband would tamely resign the
+sovereignty to his elder brother, resolved to murder both her father and
+husband. Her fiendish spirit put into the heart of Lucius thoughts of
+crime which he had never entertained before. Lucius made way with his
+wife, and the younger Tullia with her husband; and the survivors,
+with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>out even the show of mourning, were straightway joined in
+unhallowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband to murder
+her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he so ardently coveted.
+Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the Patricians, who were enraged at the
+reforms of Servius; and when the plot was ripe he entered the forum
+arrayed in the kingly robes, seated himself in the royal chair, in the
+senate-house, and ordered the senators to be summoned to him as their
+king. At the first news of the commotion Servius hastened to the
+senate-house, and, standing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to come down
+from the throne; but Tarquin sprang forward, seized the old man, and
+flung him down the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king hastened
+home; but, before he reached it, he was overtaken by the servants of
+Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house and greeted her
+husband as king; but her transports of joy struck even him with horror.
+He bade her go home; and, as she was returning, her charioteer pulled up
+and pointed out the corpse of her father lying in his blood across the
+road. She commanded him to drive on; the blood of her father spirted
+over the carriage and on her dress; and from that day forward the place
+bore the name of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied; for Tarquin
+said, scoffingly, "Romulus too went without burial;" and this impious
+mockery is said to have given rise to his surname of Superbus, or the
+Proud. Servius had reigned forty-four years.</p>
+
+<p>7. Reign of LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, or, THE PROUD, B.C.
+534-510.&mdash;Tarquin commenced his reign without any of the forms of
+election. One of his first acts was to abolish all the privileges which
+had been conferred upon the Plebeians by Servius. He also compelled the
+poor to work at miserable wages upon his magnificent buildings, and the
+hardships which they suffered were so great that many put an end to
+their lives. But he did not confine his oppressions to the poor. All the
+senators and patricians whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted,
+were put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself with a
+body-guard, by whose means he was enabled to carry out his designs. But,
+although a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great influence and
+power among the surrounding nations, partly by his alliances and partly
+by his conquests. He gave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius,
+of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latins, by whose means he acquired
+great influence in Latium. Any Latin chiefs like Turnus Herdonius, who
+attempted to resist him, were treated as traitors, and punished with
+death. At the solemn meeting of the Latins at the Alban Mount, Tarquin
+sacrificed the bull on behalf of all the allies, and distributed the
+flesh to the people of the league.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Strengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarquin turned his arms against the
+Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils
+of which he commenced the erection of a magnificent temple on the
+Capitoline Hill, which his father had vowed. This temple was dedicated
+to the three gods of the Latin and Etruscan religions, Jupiter, Juno,
+and Minerva. A human head (<i>caput</i>), fresh, bleeding and undecayed, is
+said to have been found by the workmen as they were digging the
+foundations, and being accepted as a sign that the place was destined to
+become the head of the world, the name of CAPITOLIUM was given to the
+temple, and thence to the hill. In a stone vault beneath were deposited
+the Sibylline books, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. One day a
+Sibyl, a prophetess from Cum&aelig;, appeared before the king and offered to
+sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to buy them she went away and
+burned three, and then demanded the same sum for the remaining six as
+she had asked for the nine. But the king laughed, whereupon she again
+burnt three and then demanded the same sum as before for the remaining
+three. Wondering at this strange conduct, the king purchased the books.
+They were placed under the care of two patricians, and were consulted
+when the state was in danger.</p>
+
+<p>Tarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which refused to
+enter into the league. Unable to take the city by force, he had recourse
+to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill, treated by his
+father, and covered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The
+infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the command of their troops;
+and when he had obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he
+sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the city
+into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden when the
+messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking off the heads of the
+tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put to death or
+banished, on false charges, all the leading men of the place, and then
+had no difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a strange
+portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the royal palace, and
+seized on the entrails of the victim. The king, in fear, sent his two
+sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle at Delphi. They were
+accompanied by their cousin L. Junius Brutus. One of the sisters of
+Tarquin had been married to M. Brutus, a man of great wealth, who died,
+leaving two sons under age.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Of these the elder was killed by
+Tarquin, who coveted their possessions; the younger escaped his
+brother's fate only by feigning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus
+propitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick inclosed in a
+hollow staff. After executing the king's commission, Titus and Aruns
+asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after their father. The
+priestess replied, whichsoever should first kiss his mother. The princes
+agreed to keep the matter secret from Sextus, who was at Rome, and to
+cast lots between themselves. Brutus, who better understood the meaning
+of the oracle, fell, as if by chance, when they quitted the temple, and
+kissed the earth, the mother of them all.</p>
+
+<p>Soon afterward Tarquin laid siege to Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. The
+place could not be taken by force, and the Roman army lay encamped
+beneath the walls. Here, as the king's sons, and their cousin Tarquinius
+Collatinus, were feasting together, a dispute arose about the virtue of
+their wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they mounted their
+horses to visit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where
+they surprised the king's daughters at a splendid banquet. They then
+hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late in the night, they
+found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. The
+beauty and virtue of Lucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. A few
+days after he returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably received by
+Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of night he entered her
+chamber with a drawn sword, threatening that, if she did not yield to
+his desires, he would kill her and lay by her side a slave with his
+throat cut, and would declare that he had killed them both taken in
+adultery. Fear of such a shame forced Lucretia to consent; but, as soon
+as Sextus had departed, she sent for her husband and father. Collatinus
+came, accompanied by L. Brutus, her father, Lucretius, brought with him
+P. Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them what
+had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dishonor, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> then stabbed
+herself to the heart. They all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off his
+assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their head. They carried the
+corpse into the market-place of Collatia. There the people took up arms,
+and renounced the Tarquins. A number of young men attended the funeral
+procession to Rome. Brutus summoned the people, and related the deed of
+shame. All classes were inflamed with the same indignation. A decree was
+passed deposing the king, and banishing him and his family from the
+city. Brutus now set out for the army at Ardea. Tarquinius meantime had
+hastened to Rome, but found the gates closed against him. Brutus was
+received with joy at Ardea; and the army renounced their allegiance to
+the tyrant. Tarquin, with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at
+C&aelig;r&eacute;, in Etruria. Sextus fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after
+murdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death.</p>
+
+<p>Tarquin had reigned 22 years when he was driven out of Rome. In memory
+of this event an annual festival was celebrated on the 24th of February,
+called the <i>Regifugium</i> or <i>Fugalia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>THE REPUBLIC.&mdash;Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Tarquin the Proud had made
+the name of king so hateful that the people resolved to intrust the
+kingly power to two men, who were only to hold office for a year. In
+later times they were called <i>Consuls</i>, but at their first institution
+they were named <i>Pr&aelig;tors</i>. They were elected by the Comitia Curiata, and
+possessed the same honors as the king had had. The first consuls were L.
+Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus (B.C. 509). But the people so hated the
+very name and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus was obliged to resign his
+office and retire from Rome. P. Valerius was elected consul in his
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime embassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking that his private
+property should be given up to him. The demand seemed just to the Senate
+and the People; but, while the embassadors were making preparation for
+carrying away the property, they formed a conspiracy among the young
+Roman nobles for the restoration of the royal family. The plot was
+discovered by means of a slave, and among the conspirators were found
+the two sons of Brutus himself. But the consul would not pardon his
+guilty children, and ordered the lictors<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> to put them to death with
+the other traitors. The agreement to surrender the property was made
+void by this attempt at treason. The royal goods were given up to the
+people to plunder.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavored to recover the throne by
+arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused the cause of their
+Etruscan kinsmen, and marched against Rome. The two Consuls advanced to
+meet them. When Aruns, the king's son, saw Brutus at the head of the
+Roman cavalry, he spurred his horse to the charge. Brutus did not shrink
+from the combat; and both fell from their horses mortally wounded by
+each other's spears. A desperate battle between the two armies now
+followed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was heard in
+the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had conquered, as the
+Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed at this, the Etruscans fled;
+and Valerius, the surviving Consul, returned to Rome, carrying with him
+the dead body of Brutus. The matrons mourned for Brutus a whole year,
+because he had revenged the death of Lucretia.</p>
+
+<p>This was the first war for the restoration of Tarquin.</p>
+
+<p>Valerius was now left without a colleague; and as he began to build a
+house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked down upon the forum,
+the people feared that he was aiming at kingly power. Thereupon Valerius
+not only pulled down the house, but, calling an assembly of the people,
+he ordered the lictors to lower the fasces before them, as an
+acknowledgment that their power was superior to his. He likewise brought
+forward a law enacting that every citizen who was condemned by a
+magistrate should have a right of appeal to the people. Valerius became,
+in consequence, so popular that he received the surname of <i>Publicola</i>,
+or "The People's Friend."</p>
+
+<p>Valerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a successor to
+Brutus, and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius, however, lived only a
+few days, and M. Horatius was elected consul in his place. It was
+Horatius who had the honor of consecrating the temple on the Capitol,
+which Tarquin had left unfinished when he was driven from the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The second year of the republic (B.C. 508) witnessed the second attempt
+of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now applied for help to Lars
+Porsena, the powerful ruler of the Etruscan town of Clusium, who marched
+against Rome at the head of a vast army. The Romans could not meet him
+in the field; and Porsena seized without opposition the Janiculum, a
+hill immediately opposite the city, and separated from it only by the
+Tiber. Rome was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans would have
+entered the city by the Sublician bridge had not Horatius Cocles, with
+two comrades, kept the whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans broke
+down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> sent back his two
+companions, and withstood alone the attacks of the foe till the cracks
+of the falling timbers and the shouts of his countrymen told him that
+the bridge had fallen. Then praying, "O Father Tiber, take me into thy
+charge and bear me up!" he plunged into the stream and swam across in
+safety, amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a statue in his
+honor, and allowed him as much land as he could plow round in one day.
+Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gallant deed
+of Horatius, and Roman writers loved to tell</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"How well Horatius kept the bridge<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In the brave days of old."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon began
+to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mucius,
+resolved to deliver his country by murdering the invading king. He
+accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp; but, ignorant of the person
+of Porsena, killed the royal secretary instead. Seized and threatened
+with torture, he thrust his right hand into the fire on the altar, and
+there let it burn, to show how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his
+courage, the king bade him depart in peace; and Mucius, out of
+gratitude, advised him to make peace with Rome, since three hundred
+noble youths, he said, had sworn to take the life of the king, and he
+was the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucius was henceforward
+called Sc&aelig;vola, or the <i>Left-handed</i>, because his right hand had been
+burnt off. Porsena, alarmed for his life, which he could not secure
+against so many desperate men, forthwith offered peace to the Romans on
+condition of their restoring to the Veientines the land which they had
+taken from them. These terms were accepted, and Porsena withdrew his
+troops from the Janiculum after receiving ten youths and ten maidens as
+hostages from the Romans. Cl&#339;lia, one of the maidens, escaped from
+the Etruscan camp, and swam across the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back
+by the Romans to Porsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not
+only set her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of the
+hostages whom she pleased.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by force.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his son-in-law,
+Octavius Mamilius, of Tusculum. The thirty Latin cities now espoused the
+cause of the exiled king, and declared war against Rome. The contest was
+decided by the battle of the Lake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> Regillus, which was long celebrated
+in Roman story, and the account of which resembles one of the battles in
+the Iliad. The Romans were commanded by the Dictator,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> A. Postumius,
+and by T. &AElig;butius, the Master of the Horse; at the head of the Latins
+were Tarquin and Octavius Mamilius. The struggle was fierce and bloody,
+but the Latins at length fled. Almost all the chiefs on either side fell
+in the conflict, or were grievously wounded. Titus, the son of Tarquin,
+was killed; and the aged king was wounded, but escaped with his life. It
+was related in the old tradition that the Romans gained this battle by
+the assistance of the gods Castor and Pollux, who were seen charging the
+Latins at the head of the Roman cavalry, and who afterward carried to
+Rome the tidings of the victory. A temple was built in the forum on the
+spot where they appeared, and their festival was celebrated yearly.</p>
+
+<p>This was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins. The Latins
+were completely humbled by this victory. Tarquinius Superbus had no
+other state to which he could apply for assistance. He had already
+survived all his family; and he now fled to Cum&aelig;, where he died a
+wretched and childless old man (B.C. 496).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image016" name="image016">
+   <img src="images/016.jpg"
+      alt="Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors."
+      title="Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image017" name="image017">
+   <img src="images/017.jpg"
+      alt="The Campagna of Rome."
+      title="The Campagna of Rome." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Campagna of Rome.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 498-451.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The history of Rome for the next 150 years consists internally of the
+struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians, and externally of the
+wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, &AElig;quians, and other tribes in the
+immediate neighborhood of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The internal history of Rome during this period is one of great
+interest. The Patricians and Plebeians formed two distinct orders in the
+state. After the banishment of the kings the Patricians retained
+exclusive possession of political power. The Plebeians, it is true,
+could vote in the Comitia Centuriata, but, as they were mostly poor,
+they were outvoted by the Patricians and their clients. The Consuls and
+other magistrates were taken entirely from the Patricians, who also
+possessed the exclusive knowledge and administration of the law. In one
+word, the Patricians were a ruling and the Plebeians a subject class.
+But this was not all.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> The Patricians formed not only a separate
+<i>class</i>, but a separate <i>caste</i>, not marrying with the Plebeians, and
+worshiping the gods with different religious rites. If a Patrician man
+married a Plebeian wife, or a Patrician woman a Plebeian husband, the
+state refused to recognize the marriage, and the offspring was treated
+as illegitimate.</p>
+
+<p>The Plebeians had to complain not only of political, but also of private
+wrongs. The law of debtor and creditor was very severe at Rome. If the
+borrower did not pay the money by the time agreed upon, his person was
+seized by the creditor, and he was obliged to work as a slave.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Nay,
+in certain cases he might even be put to death by the creditor; and if
+there were more than one, his body might be cut in pieces and divided
+among them. The whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the
+Plebeians; and what rendered the case still harder was, that they were
+frequently compelled, through no fault of their own, to become
+borrowers. They were small landholders, living by cultivating the soil
+with their own hands; but as they had to serve in the army without pay,
+they had no means of engaging laborers in their absence. Hence, on their
+return home, they were left without the means of subsistence or of
+purchasing seed for the next crop, and borrowing was their only
+resource.</p>
+
+<p>Another circumstance still farther aggravated the hardships of the
+Plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land called <i>Ager
+Publicus</i>, or the "Public Land." This land originally belonged to the
+kings, being set apart for their support; and it was constantly
+increased by conquest, as it was the practice on the subjugation of a
+people to deprive them of a certain portion of their land. This public
+land was let by the state subject to a rent; but as the Patricians
+possessed the political power, they divided the public land among
+themselves, and paid for it only a nominal rent. Thus the Plebeians, by
+whose blood and unpaid toil much of this land had been won, were
+excluded from all participation in it.</p>
+
+<p>It was not to be expected that the Plebeians would submit to such
+grievous injustice. The contest was twofold. It was a struggle of a
+subject against a ruling class, and of rich against poor. The Plebeians
+strove to obtain an equal share not only in the political power, but
+also in the public land.</p>
+
+<p>The cruelty of the Patrician creditors was the most pressing evil, and
+led to the first reform. In B.C. 494 the Plebeians, after a campaign
+against the Volscians, instead of returning to Rome, retired to the
+Sacred Mount, a hill about two miles from the city,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> near the junction
+of the Arno and the Tiber. Here they determined to settle and found a
+new town, leaving Rome to the Patricians and their clients. This event
+is known as the <i>Secession to the Sacred Mount</i>. The Patricians,
+alarmed, sent several of their number to persuade the Plebeians to
+return. Among the deputies was the aged Menenius Agrippa, who had great
+influence with the Plebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of
+the Belly and the Members.</p>
+
+<p>"Once upon a time," he said, "the Members refused to work any longer for
+the Belly, which led a lazy life, and grew fat upon their toils. But
+receiving no longer any nourishment from the Belly, they soon began to
+pine away, and found that it was to the Belly they owed their life and
+strength."</p>
+
+<p>The fable was understood, and the Plebeians agreed to treat with the
+Patricians. It was decided that existing debts should be canceled, and
+that all debtors in bondage should be restored to freedom. It was
+necessary, however, to provide security for the future, and the
+Plebeians therefore insisted that two of their own number should be
+elected annually, to whom the Plebeians might appeal for assistance
+against the decisions of the Patrician magistrates. These officers were
+called <i>Tribunes of the Plebs</i>. Their persons were declared sacred and
+inviolate; they were never to quit the city during their year of office;
+and their houses were to remain open day and night, that all who were in
+need of help might apply to them. Their number was soon afterward
+increased to five, and at a later time to ten. They gradually gained
+more and more power, and obtained the right of putting a veto<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> upon
+any public business.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> At the Sacred Mount the Plebeians also obtained
+the privilege of having two &AElig;diles of their order appointed. These
+officers had at a later time the care of the public buildings and roads,
+and the superintendence of the police of the city.</p>
+
+<p>Emboldened by this success, the Plebeians now demanded a share in the
+public land. And in this they found an unexpected supporter among the
+Patricians themselves. Sp. Cassius, one of the most distinguished men in
+the state, who had formed the league between the Romans, Latins, and
+Hernicans, brought forward in his third consulship a law, by which a
+portion of the public land was to be divided among the Plebeians (B.C.
+486). This was the first Agrarian Law mentioned in Roman history. It
+must be rec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>ollected that all the Agrarian laws dealt only with the
+public land, and never touched the property of private persons.
+Notwithstanding the violent opposition of the Patricians, the law was
+passed; but it was never carried into execution, and the Patricians soon
+revenged themselves upon its author. In the following year he was
+accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned to death. He was
+scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>We now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the kings Rome had
+risen to a superiority over her neighbors, and had extended her dominion
+over the southern part of Etruria and the greater part of Latium. The
+early history of the republic presents a very different spectacle. For
+the next 100 years she is engaged in a difficult and often dubious
+struggle with the Etruscans on the one hand, and the Volscians and
+&AElig;quians on the other. It would be unprofitable to relate the details of
+these petty campaigns; but there are three celebrated legends connected
+with them which must not be passed over.</p>
+
+<p>1. CORIOLANUS AND THE VOLSCIANS, B.C. 488.&mdash;C. Marcius, surnamed
+Coriolanus, from his valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli,
+was a brave but haughty Patrician youth. He was hated by the Plebeians,
+who refused him the consulship. This inflamed him with anger; and
+accordingly, when the city was suffering from famine, and a present of
+corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus advised the Senate not to distribute
+it among the Plebeians unless they gave up their Tribunes. Such
+insolence enraged the Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on
+the spot had not the tribunes summoned him before the Comitia of the
+Tribes. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but defiance; and his
+kinsmen and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned to
+exile. He now turned his steps to Antium, the capital of the Volscians,
+and offered to lead them against Rome. Attius Tullius, king of the
+Volscians, persuaded his countrymen to appoint Coriolanus their general.
+Nothing could check his victorious progress; town after town fell before
+him; and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging the lands
+of the Plebeians, but sparing those of the Patricians. The city was
+filled with despair. The ten first men in the Senate were sent in hopes
+of moving his compassion. But they were received with the utmost
+sternness, and told that the city must submit to his absolute will. Next
+day the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and all the priests, came in their
+robes of office, and in vain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed
+lost; but Rome was saved by her women. Next morning the noblest matrons,
+headed by Veturia, the aged mother of Cor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>olanus, and by his wife
+Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to his tent.
+Their lamentations turned him from his purpose. "Mother," he said,
+bursting into tears, "thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He then
+led the Volscians home, but they put him to death because he had spared
+Rome. Others relate that he lived among the Volscians to a great age,
+and was often heard to say that "none but an old man can feel how
+wretched it is to live in a foreign land."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image018" name="image018"></a><a href="images/018large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/018.jpg"
+      alt="The Environs of Rome."
+      title="The Environs of Rome." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Environs of Rome.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. THE FABIA GENS AND THE VEIENTINES, B.C. 477.&mdash;The Fabii were one of
+the most powerful of the Patrician houses. For seven successive years
+one of the Consuls was always a Fabius. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> Fabii had been among the
+leading opponents of the Agrarian Law; and K&aelig;so Fabius had taken an
+active part in obtaining the condemnation of Sp. Cassius. But shortly
+afterward we find this same K&aelig;so the advocate of the popular rights, and
+proposing that the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into
+effect. He was supported in his new views by his powerful house, though
+the reasons for their change of opinion we do not know. But the Fabii
+made no impression upon the great body of the Patricians, and only
+earned for themselves the hearty hatred of their order. Finding that
+they could no longer live in peace at Rome, they determined to leave the
+city, and found a separate settlement, where they might still be useful
+to their native land. One of the most formidable enemies of the republic
+was the Etruscan city of Veii, situated about twelve miles from Rome.
+Accordingly, the Fabian house, consisting of 306 males of full age,
+accompanied by their wives and children, clients and dependents, marched
+out of Rome by the right-hand arch of the Carmental Gate, and proceeded
+straight to the Cremera, a river which flows into the Tiber below Veii.
+On the Cremera they established a fortified camp, and, sallying thence,
+they laid waste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained
+the whole weight of the Veientine war; and all the attempts of the
+Veientines to dislodge them proved in vain. But at length they were
+enticed into an ambuscade, and were all slain. The settlement was
+destroyed, and no one of the house survived except a boy who had been
+left behind at Rome, and who became the ancestor of the Fabii, afterward
+so celebrated in Roman history. The Fabii were sacrificed to the hatred
+of the Patricians; for the consul T. Menenius was encamped a short way
+off at the time, and he did nothing to save them.</p>
+
+<p>3. CINCINNATUS AND THE &AElig;QUIANS, B.C. 458.&mdash;The &AElig;quians in their numerous
+attacks upon the Roman territory generally occupied Mount Algidus, which
+formed a part of the group of the Alban Hills in Latium. It was
+accordingly upon this mount that the battles between the Romans and
+&AElig;quians most frequently took place. In the year 458 B.C. the Roman
+consul L. Minucius was defeated on the Algidus, and surrounded in his
+camp. Five horsemen, who made their escape before the Romans were
+completely encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The Senate
+forthwith appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator.</p>
+
+<p>L. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story. When the
+deputies of the Senate came to him to announce his elevation to the
+dictatorship they found him driving a plow, and clad only in his tunic
+or shirt. They bade him clothe himself, that he might hear the commands
+of the Senate. He put on his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> toga, which his wife Racilia brought him.
+The deputies then told him of the peril of the Roman army, and that he
+had been made Dictator. The next morning, before daybreak, he appeared
+in the forum, and ordered all the men of military age to meet him in the
+evening in the Field of Mars, with food for five days, and each with
+twelve stakes. His orders were obeyed; and with such speed did he march,
+that by midnight he reached Mount Algidus. Placing his men around the
+&AElig;quian camp, he told them to raise the war-cry, and at the same time to
+begin digging a trench and raising a mound, on the top of which the
+stakes were to be driven in. The other Roman army, which was shut in,
+hearing the war-cry, burst forth from their camp, and fought with the
+&AElig;quians all night. The Dictator's troops thus worked without
+interruption, and completed the intrenchment by the morning. The &AElig;quians
+found themselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced to
+surrender. The Dictator made them pass under the yoke, which was formed
+by two spears fixed upright in the ground, while a third was fastened
+across them. Cincinnatus entered Rome in triumph only twenty-four hours
+after he had quitted it, having thus saved a whole Roman army from
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>In reading the wars of the early Republic, it is important to recollect
+the League formed by Spurius Cassius, the author of the Agrarian Law
+between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans. This League, to which
+allusion has been already made, was of the most intimate kind, and the
+armies of the three states fought by each other's sides. It was by means
+of this League that the &AElig;quians and Volscians were kept in check, for
+they were two of the most warlike nations in Italy, and would have been
+more than a match for the unsupported arms of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image019" name="image019">
+   <img src="images/019.jpg"
+      alt="Tarpeian Rock."
+      title="Tarpeian Rock." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Tarpeian Rock.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.</h3>
+
+
+<p>From the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of the Decemvirs
+was a period of more than thirty years. During the whole of this time
+the struggle between the Patricians and the Plebeians was increasing.
+The latter constantly demanded, and the former as firmly refused, the
+execution of the Agrarian Law of Cassius. But, though the Plebeians
+failed in obtaining this object, they nevertheless made steady progress
+in gaining for themselves a more important position in the city. In B.C.
+471 the Publilian Law was carried, by which the election of the Tribunes
+and Plebeian &AElig;diles was transferred from the Comitia of the Centuries to
+those of the Tribes.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> From this time the Comitia of the Tribes may be
+regarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, ranking with
+those of the Centuries and the Curies. But the Patricians still retained
+exclusive possession of the administrative and judicial powers, and
+there were no written laws to limit their authority and to regulate
+their decisions. Under these circum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>stances, the Tribune C. Terentilius
+Arsa proposed, in B.C. 462, that a commission of Ten Men (Decemviri)
+should be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by which a check might be
+put to the arbitrary power of the Patrician magistrates. This
+proposition, as might have been expected, met with the most vehement
+opposition from the Patricians. But the Plebeians were firm, and for
+five successive years the same Tribunes were re-elected. It was during
+this struggle that an attempt was made upon the Capitol by Herdonius, a
+Sabine chief, with a band of outlaws and slaves. It was a turbulent
+period, and the Patricians had recourse even to assassination. At
+length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was effected, and
+it was arranged that Three Commissioners (Triumviri) were to be sent
+into Greece to collect information respecting the laws of Solon at
+Athens, as well as of the other Greek states. After an absence of two
+years the three commissioners returned to Rome (B.C. 452), and it was
+now resolved that a Council of Ten, or Decemvirs, should be appointed to
+draw up a code of laws, and, at the same time, to carry on the
+government and administer justice. All the other magistrates were
+obliged to abdicate, and no exception was made even in favor of the
+Tribunes. The Decemvirs were thus intrusted with supreme power in the
+state. They entered upon their office at the beginning of B.C. 451. They
+were all Patricians. At their head stood Appius Claudius and T.
+Genucius, who had been already appointed consuls for the year. They
+discharged the duties of their office with diligence, and dispensed
+justice with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day
+in succession, and the fasces were carried only before the one who
+presided for the day. They drew up a Code of Ten Tables, in which equal
+justice was dealt out to both orders. The Ten Tables received the
+sanction of the Comitia of the Centuries, and thus became law.</p>
+
+<p>On the expiration of their year of office all parties were so well
+satisfied with the manner in which the Decemvirs had discharged their
+duties that it was resolved to continue the same form of government for
+another year, more especially as some of them said that their work was
+not finished. A new Council of Ten was accordingly elected, of whom
+Appius Claudius alone belonged to the former body. He had so carefully
+concealed his pride and ambition during the previous year that he had
+been the most popular member of the council, and the Patricians, to
+prevent his appointment for another year, had ordered him to preside at
+the Comitia for the elections, thinking that he would not receive votes
+for himself. But Appius set such scruples at defiance, and not only
+returned himself as elected, but took care that his nine colleagues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+should be subservient to his views. He now threw off the mask he had
+hitherto worn, and acted as the tyrant of Rome. Each Decemvir was
+attended by twelve lictors, who earned the fasces with the axes in them,
+so that 120 lictors were seen in the city instead of 12. The Senate was
+rarely summoned. No one was now safe, and many of the leading men
+quitted Rome. Two new Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in
+all; but these new laws were of the most oppressive kind, and confirmed
+the Patricians in their most odious privileges.</p>
+
+<p>When the year came to a close the Decemvirs neither resigned nor held
+Comitia for the election of successors, but continued to hold their
+power in defiance of the Senate and of the People. Next year (B.C. 449)
+the Sabines and &AElig;quians invaded the Roman territory, and two armies were
+dispatched against them, commanded by some of the Decemvirs. Appius
+remained at Rome to administer justice. But the soldiers fought with no
+spirit under the command of men whom they detested, and two acts of
+outrageous tyranny caused them to turn their arms against their hated
+masters. In the army fighting against the Sabines was a centurion named
+L. Sicinius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had fought in 120
+battles; he had slain eight of the enemy in single combat; had received
+40 wounds, all in front; he had accompanied the triumphs of nine
+generals; and had war-crowns and other rewards innumerable. As Tribune
+of the Plebs four years before, he had taken an active part in opposing
+the Patricians, and was now suspected of plotting against the Decemvirs.
+His death was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a company of
+soldiers as if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. But in a lonely spot
+they fell upon him and slew him, though not until he had destroyed most
+of the traitors. His comrades, who were told that he had fallen in an
+ambush of the enemy, discovered the foul treachery that had been
+practiced when they saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers who had
+evidently been slain by him. The Decemvirs prevented an immediate
+outbreak only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, but the troops were
+ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation.</p>
+
+<p>In the other army sent against the &AElig;quians there was a well-known
+centurion named Virginius. He had a beautiful daughter, betrothed to L.
+Icilius, an eminent leader of the Plebeian order. The maiden had
+attracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius Claudius. He at first tried
+bribes and allurements, but when these failed he had recourse to an
+outrageous act of tyranny. One morning, as Virginia, attended by her
+nurse, was on the way to her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> school, which was in one of the booths
+surrounding the forum, M. Claudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the
+damsel and claimed her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help
+brought a crowd around them, and all parties went before the Decemvir.
+In his presence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that
+Virginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been imposed
+upon Virginius by his wife, who was childless. He farther stated that he
+would prove this to Virginius as soon as he returned to Rome, and he
+demanded that the girl should meantime be handed over to his custody.
+Appius, fearing a riot, said that he would let the cause stand over till
+the next day, but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he
+should know how to maintain the laws. Straightway two friends of the
+family made all haste to the camp, which they reached the same evening.
+Virginius immediately obtained leave of absence, and was already on his
+way to Rome, when the messenger of Appius arrived, instructing his
+colleagues to detain him. Early next morning Virginius and his daughter
+came into the forum with their garments rent. The father appealed to the
+people for aid, and the women in their company sobbed aloud. But, intent
+upon the gratification of his passions, Appius cared not for the misery
+of the father and the girl, and hastened to give sentence, by which he
+consigned the maiden to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a
+large body of patricians and their clients, ordered his lictors to
+disperse the mob. The people drew back, leaving Virginius and his
+daughter alone before the judgment-seat. All help was gone. The unhappy
+father then prayed the Decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to the
+nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was
+really his daughter. The request was granted. Virginius drew them both
+aside, and, snatching up a butcher's-knife from one of the stalls,
+plunged it into his daughter's breast, exclaiming, "There is no way but
+this to keep thee free." In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The
+crowd made way for him, and, holding his bloody knife on high, he rushed
+to the gate of the city and hastened to the army. His comrades espoused
+his cause, expelled their commanders, and marched toward Rome. They were
+soon joined by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius had
+carried the tidings. The Plebeians in the city flocked to them, and they
+all resolved to retire once more to the Sacred Mount.</p>
+
+<p>This second secession extorted from the Patricians the second great
+charter of the Plebeian rights. The Patricians compelled the Decemvirs
+to resign, and sent L. Valerius and M. Horatius, two of the most eminent
+men of their order, to negotiate with the Plebeians. It was finally
+agreed that the Tribunes should be restored,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> that the authority of the
+Comitia Tributa should be recognized, and that the right of appeal to
+the people against the power of the supreme magistrates should be
+confirmed. The Plebeians now returned to the city, and elected, for the
+first time, ten Tribunes instead of five, a number which remained
+unchanged down to the latest times. Virginius, Icilius, and Numitorius
+were among the new Tribunes.</p>
+
+<p>Two Consuls were elected in place of the Decemvirs, and the choice of
+the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius and Horatius. The
+new Consuls now redeemed their promises to the Plebeians by bringing
+forward the laws which are called after them, the Valerian and Horatian
+Laws. These celebrated laws enacted:</p>
+
+<p>1. That every Roman citizen should have the right of appeal against the
+sentence of the supreme magistrate. This was, in fact, a solemn
+confirmation of the old law of Valerius Publicola, passed in the first
+year of the republic. It was enacted again a third time in B.C. 300, on
+the proposal of M. Valerius, the Consul. These repeated enactments gave
+a still farther sanction to the law. In the same way the Great Charter
+of England was ratified several times.</p>
+
+<p>2. That the <i>Plebiscita</i>, or resolutions passed by the Plebeians in the
+Comitia Tributa, should have the force of laws, and should be binding
+alike upon Patricians and Plebeians.</p>
+
+<p>3. That the persons of the Tribunes, &AElig;diles, and other Plebeian
+magistrates should be sacred, and whoever injured them should be sold as
+a slave.</p>
+
+<p>Virginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into prison to
+await his trial. But the proud Patrician, seeing that his condemnation
+was certain, put an end to his own life. Oppius, another of the
+Decemvirs, and the personal friend of Appius, was condemned and
+executed. The other Decemvirs were allowed to go into exile, but they
+were all declared guilty, and their property confiscated to the state.</p>
+
+<p>The Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation of the Roman
+law, and long continued to be held in the highest estimation. But they
+probably did little more than fix in a written form a large body of
+customary law, though even this was a benefit to the Plebeians, as they
+were no longer subject to the arbitrary decisions of the Patrician
+magistrates. The Patricians still retained their exclusive privileges;
+and the eleventh table even gave the sanction of law to the old custom
+which prohibited all intermarriage (<i>connuubium</i>) between the two
+orders.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image020" name="image020">
+   <img src="images/020.jpg"
+      alt="View in the neighborhood of Veii."
+      title="View in the neighborhood of Veii." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">View in the neighborhood of Veii.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. B.C. 448-390.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The efforts of the leaders of the Plebeians were now directed to two
+subjects, the removal of the prohibition of intermarriage between the
+two orders, and the opening of the Consulship to their own order. They
+attained the first object four years after the Decemvirate by the Lex
+Canuleia, proposed by Canuleius, one of the Tribunes (B.C. 445). But
+they did not carry this law without a third secession, in which they
+occupied the Janiculum. At the same time a compromise was effected with
+respect to the Consulship. The Patricians agreed that the supreme power
+in the state should be intrusted to new officers bearing the title of
+<i>Military Tribunes with Consular Power</i>, who might be chosen equally
+from Patricians and Plebeians. Their number varied in different years
+from three to six. In B.C. 444 three Military Tribunes were nominated
+for the first time. In the following year (443) two new magistrates,
+called <i>Censors</i>, were appointed. They were always to be chosen from the
+Patricians; and the reason of the institu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>tion clearly was to deprive
+the Military Tribunes of some of the most important functions, which had
+been formerly discharged by the Consuls. The Censors originally held
+office for a period of five years, which was called a <i>lustrum</i>; but
+their tenure was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
+its institution (B.C. 443), by a law of the Dictator Mamercus &AElig;milius,
+though they continued to be appointed only once in five years.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>Though the Military Tribunes could from their first institution be
+chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the Patricians
+in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till B.C. 400, or nearly
+forty years afterward, that any Plebeians were actually elected. In B.C.
+421 the Qu&aelig;storship was also thrown open to them. The Qu&aelig;stors were the
+paymasters of the state; and as the Censors had to fill up vacancies in
+the Senate from those who had held the office of Qu&aelig;stor, the Plebeians
+thus became eligible for the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>During these struggles between the two orders an event took place which
+is frequently referred to by later writers. In the year 440 B.C. there
+was a great famine at Rome. Sp. M&aelig;lius, one of the richest of the
+Plebeian knights, expended his fortune in buying up corn, which he sold
+to the poor at a small price, or distributed among them gratuitously.
+The Patricians thought, or pretended to think, that he was aiming at
+kingly power: and in the following year (439) the aged Quintius
+Cincinnatus, who had saved the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was
+appointed Dictator. He nominated C. Servilius Ahala his Master of the
+Horse. During the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were
+garrisoned by the Patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus appeared in
+the forum with a strong force, and summoned M&aelig;lius to appear before his
+tribunal. But seeing the fate which awaited him, he refused to go,
+whereupon Ahala rushed into the crowd and struck him dead upon the spot.
+His property was confiscated, and his house was leveled to the ground.
+The deed of Ahala is frequently mentioned by Cicero and other writers in
+terms of the highest admiration, but it was regarded by the Plebeians at
+the time as an act of murder. Ahala was brought to trial, and only
+escaped condemnation by a voluntary exile.</p>
+
+<p>In their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful, and, aided
+by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> steady progress in
+driving back their old enemies the Volscians and &AElig;quians. About this
+time they planted several colonies in the districts which they
+conquered. These Roman colonies differed widely from those of ancient
+Greece and of modern Europe. They were of the nature of garrisons
+established in conquered towns, and served both to strengthen and extend
+the power of Rome. The colonists received a portion of the conquered
+territory, and lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who
+retained the use of the land.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans now renewed their wars with the Etruscans; and the capture of
+the important city of Veii was the first decisive advantage gained by
+the Republic. The hero of this period was Camillus, who stands out
+prominently as the greatest general of the infant Republic, who saved
+Rome from the Gauls, and whom later ages honored as a second Romulus.</p>
+
+<p>Veii, however, was only taken after a long and severe struggle. It was
+closely allied with Fiden&aelig;, a town of Latium, not more than five or six
+miles from Rome. The two cities frequently united their arms against
+Rome, and in one of these wars Lars Tolumnius, the king of Veii, was
+slain in single combat by A. Cornelius Cossus, one of the Military
+Tribunes, and his arms dedicated to Jupiter, the second of the three
+instances in which the <i>Spolia Opima</i> were won (B.C. 437). A few years
+afterward Fiden&aelig; was taken and destroyed (B.C. 426), and at the same
+time a truce was granted to the Veientines for twenty years. At the
+expiration of this truce the war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to
+subdue Veii as they had done Fiden&aelig;. The siege of Veii, like that of
+Troy, lasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as
+marvelous as the wooden horse by which Troy was taken. The waters of the
+Alban Lake rose to such a height as to deluge the neighboring country.
+An oracle declared that Veii could not be taken until the waters of the
+lake found a passage to the sea. This reached the ears of the Romans,
+who thereupon constructed a tunnel to carry off its superfluous
+waters.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The formation of this tunnel is said to have suggested to
+the Romans the means of taking Veii. M. Furius Camillus, who was
+appointed Dictator, commenced digging a mine beneath the city, which was
+to have its outlet in the citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian
+deity of Veii. When the mine was finished, the attention of the
+inhabitants was diverted by feigned assaults against the walls.
+Camillus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> led the way into the mine at the head of a picked body of
+troops. As he stood beneath the temple of Juno, he heard the soothsayer
+declare to the king of the Veientines that whoever should complete the
+sacrifice he was offering would be the conqueror. Thereupon the Romans
+burst forth and seized the flesh of the victim, which Camillus offered
+up. The soldiers who guarded the walls were thus taken in the rear, the
+gates were thrown open, and the city soon filled with Romans. The booty
+was immense, and the few citizens who escaped the sword were sold as
+slaves. The image of Juno was carried to Rome, and installed with great
+pomp on Mount Aventine, where a temple was erected to her. Camillus
+entered Rome in a chariot drawn by four white horses. Rome had never yet
+seen so magnificent a triumph (B.C. 396).</p>
+
+<p>One circumstance, which occurred during the siege of Veii, deserves
+notice. As the Roman soldiers were obliged to pass the whole year under
+arms, in order to invest the city during the winter as well as the
+summer, they now, for the first time, received pay.</p>
+
+<p>Veii was a more beautiful city than Rome, and, as it was now without
+inhabitants, many of the Roman people wished to remove thither. At the
+persuasion of Camillus the project was abandoned; but the territory of
+Veii was divided among the Plebeians.</p>
+
+<p>Falerii was almost the only one of the Etruscan cities which had
+assisted Veii, and she was now exposed single-handed to the vengeance of
+the Romans. It is related that, when Camillus appeared before Falerii, a
+schoolmaster of the town treacherously conducted the sons of the noblest
+families into the Roman camp, but that Camillus, scorning the baseness
+of the man, ordered his arms to be tied behind him, and the boys to flog
+him back into the town; whereupon the inhabitants, overcome by such
+generosity, gave up their arms, and surrendered to the Romans (B.C.
+394).</p>
+
+<p>Camillus was one of the proudest of the Patricians; and he now incurred
+the hatred of the Plebeians by calling upon every man to refund a tenth
+of the booty taken at Veii; because he had made a vow to consecrate to
+Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He was accused of having appropriated the
+great bronze gates at Veii, and was impeached by one of the Tribunes.
+Seeing that his condemnation was certain, he went into exile, praying as
+he left the walls that the Republic might soon have cause to regret him
+(B.C. 491). His prayer was heard, for the Gauls had already crossed the
+Apennines, and next year Rome was in ashes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image021" name="image021">
+   <img src="images/021.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored."
+      title="Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE TWO
+ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Gauls or Celts were in ancient times spread over the greater part of
+Western Europe. They inhabited Gaul and the British isles, and had in
+the time of the Tarquins crossed the Alps and taken possession of
+Northern Italy. But they now spread farther south, crossed the
+Apennines, and laid waste with fire and sword the provinces of Central
+Italy. Rome fell before them, and was reduced to ashes; but the details
+of its capture are clearly legendary. The common story runs as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, led by their chief Brennus, laid
+siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan city over which Lars Porsena
+once reigned. Such reputation had Rome gained through her conquests in
+Etruria, that Clusium applied to her for aid (B.C. 391). The Senate sent
+three embassadors, sons of the chief pontiff, Fabius Ambustus, to warn
+the barbarians not to touch an ally of Rome. But the Gauls treated their
+message with scorn; and the embassadors, forgetting their sacred
+character, fought in the Clusine ranks. One of the Fabii slew with his
+own hands a Gallic chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off his
+armor. Bren<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>nus therefore sent to Rome to demand satisfaction. The Roman
+people not only refused to give it, but elected the three Fabii as
+Military Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this insult, the
+Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened southward toward Rome.
+All the inhabitants fled before them into the towns. They pursued their
+course without injuring any one, crying to the guards upon the walls of
+the towns they passed, "Our way lies for Rome." On the news of their
+approach the Roman army hurried out of the city, and on the 16th of July
+(B.C. 300), a day ever after regarded as disastrous, they met the Gauls
+on the Allia, a small river which flows into the Tiber, on its left
+bank, about eleven miles from Rome. Brennus attacked the Romans on the
+flank, and threw them into confusion. A general panic seized them: they
+turned and fled. Some escaped across the Tiber to Veii, and a few
+reached Rome, but the greater number were slain by the Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>The loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were not left to
+guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved that those in the
+vigor of their age should withdraw to the Capitol, taking with them all
+the provisions in the city; that the priests and Vestal Virgins should
+convey the objects of religious reverence to C&aelig;r&eacute;; and that the rest of
+the population should disperse among the neighboring towns. But the aged
+senators, who had been Consuls or Censors, seeing that their lives were
+no longer of any service to the state, sat down in the forum on their
+curule thrones awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the city they
+found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on, without seeing a human
+being till they came to the forum. Here they beheld the aged senators
+sitting immovable, like beings of another world. For some time they
+gazed in awe at this strange sight, till at length one of the Gauls
+ventured to go up to M. Papirius and stroke his white beard. The old man
+struck him on the head with his ivory sceptre; whereupon the barbarian
+slew him, and all the rest were massacred. The Gauls now began
+plundering the city; fires broke out in several quarters; and with the
+exception of a few houses on the Palatine, which the chiefs kept for
+their own residence, the whole city was burnt to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only one steep way
+leading up to it, and all the assaults of the besiegers were easily
+repelled. They thereupon turned the siege into a blockade, and for seven
+months were encamped amid the ruins of Rome. But their numbers were soon
+thinned by disease, for they had entered Rome in the most unhealthy time
+of the year, when fevers have always prevailed. The failure of
+provisions obliged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> them to ravage the neighboring countries, the people
+of which began to combine for defense against the marauders. Meantime
+the scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veii, and here
+resolved to recall Camillus from banishment, and appoint him Dictator.
+In order to obtain the consent of the Senate, a daring youth, named
+Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across the Tiber and climb the
+Capitol. He reached the top unperceived by the enemy, obtained the
+approval of the Senate to the appointment of Camillus, and returned
+safely to Veii. But next day some Gauls observed the traces of his
+steps, and in the dead of night they climbed up the same way. The
+foremost of them had already reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels
+and the dogs, when the cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from sleep.
+These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared notwithstanding the
+gnawings of hunger; and the Romans were now rewarded for their piety. M.
+Manlius thrust down the Gaul who had clambered up, and gave the alarm.
+The Capitol was thus saved; and down to latest times M. Manlius was
+honored as one of the greatest heroes of the early Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Still no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol. The
+Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay the barbarians
+1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their quitting the city and its
+territory. Brennus brought false weights, and, when the Romans exclaimed
+against this injustice, the Gallic chief threw his sword also into the
+scale, crying, "Woe to the vanquished!" But at this very moment Camillus
+marched into the forum, ordered the gold to be taken away, and drove the
+Gauls out of the city. Another battle was fought on the road to Gabii,
+in which the Gauls were completely destroyed, and their leader Brennus
+taken prisoner. This tale, however, is an invention of Roman vanity. We
+learn from other sources that the Gauls retreated because their
+settlements in Northern Italy were attacked by the Venetians; and there
+can be little doubt that their departure was hastened by a present of
+Roman gold. The Gauls frequently repeated their inroads, and for many
+years to come were the constant dread of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>When the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was once their city
+their hearts sank within them. The people shrank from the expense and
+toil of rebuilding their houses, and loudly demanded that they should
+all remove to Veii, where the private dwellings and public buildings
+were still standing. But Camillus and the Patricians strongly urged them
+not to abandon the homes of their fathers, and they were at length
+persuaded to remain. The state granted bricks, and stones were fetched
+from Veii. Within a year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> the city rose from its ashes; but the streets
+were narrow and crooked; the houses were frequently built over the
+sewers; and the city continued to show, down to the great fire of Nero,
+evident traces of the haste and irregularity with which it had been
+rebuilt. Rome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her
+territory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins and
+Hernicans dissolved the League with the Romans, and wars broke out on
+every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillus was the soul of
+the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman legions against their
+enemies, and always with success. The rapidity with which the Romans
+recovered their power after so terrible a disaster would seem
+unaccountable but for the fact that the other nations had also suffered
+greatly from the inroads of the Gauls, who still continued to ravage
+Central Italy. Two of their invasions of the Roman territory are
+commemorated by celebrated legends, which may be related here, though
+they belong to a later period.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 361 the Gauls and Romans were encamped on either bank of the
+Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the ranks and insultingly
+challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius, a Roman youth, obtained
+permission from his general to accept the challenge, slew the giant, and
+took from the dead body the golden chain (<i>torques</i>) which the barbarian
+wore around his neck. His comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus,
+which he handed down to his descendants.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 349 another distinguished Roman family earned its surname from a
+single combat with a Gaul. Here again a Gallic warrior of gigantic size
+challenged any one of the Romans to single combat. His challenge was
+accepted by M. Valerius, upon whose helmet a raven perched; and as they
+fought, the bird flew into the face of the Gaul, striking at him with
+its beak and flapping his wings. Thus Valerius slew the Gaul, and was
+called in consequence "Corvus," or the "Raven."</p>
+
+<p>It is now necessary to revert to the internal history of Rome. Great
+suffering and discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined homes and
+ravaged lands, the poor citizens had been obliged to borrow money to
+rebuild their houses and cultivate their farms. The law of debtor and
+creditor at Rome, as we have already seen, was very severe, and many
+unfortunate debtors were carried away to bondage. Under these
+circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, came forward as
+the patron of the poor. This distinguished man had been bitterly
+disappointed in his claims to honor and gratitude. While Camillus, his
+personal enemy, who had shared in none of the dangers of the siege, was
+repeatedly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> raised to the highest honors of the state, he, who had saved
+the Capitol, was left to languish in a private station. Neglected by his
+own order, Manlius turned to the Plebeians. One day he recognized in the
+forum a soldier who had served with him in the field, and whom a
+creditor was carrying away in fetters. Manlius paid his debt upon the
+spot, and swore that, as long as he had a single pound, he would not
+allow any Roman to be imprisoned for debt. He sold a large part of his
+property, and applied the proceeds to the liberation of his
+fellow-citizens from bondage. Supported now by the Plebeians, he came
+forward as the accuser of his own order, and charged them with
+appropriating to their own use the gold which had been raised to ransom
+the city from the Gauls. The Patricians in return accused him, as they
+had accused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he was brought
+to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries in the Campus Martius, he
+proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors whom he had slain, the
+forty military distinctions which he had won in battle, and the
+innumerable scars upon his breast, and then turning toward the Capitol
+he prayed the immortal gods to remember the man who had saved their
+temples from destruction. After such an appeal, his condemnation was
+impossible, and his enemies therefore contrived to break up the
+assembly. Shortly afterward he was arraigned on the same charges before
+the Comitia of the Curies in the Peteline Grove. Here he was at once
+condemned, and was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. His house, which was
+on the Capitol, was razed to the ground (B.C. 384).</p>
+
+<p>The death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check to the
+Plebeian cause. A few years afterward the contest came to a crisis. In
+B.C. 376 C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L. Sextius, being Tribunes of
+the Plebs, determined to give the Plebeians an equal share in the
+political power, to deprive the Patricians of the exclusive use of the
+public land, and to remove the present distress of the Plebeians. For
+this purpose they brought forward three laws, which are celebrated in
+history under the name of THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> These were:</p>
+
+<p>I. That in future Consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be
+appointed, and that one of the two Consuls <i>must</i> be a Plebeian.</p>
+
+<p>II. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugera<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> of the
+public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures more than 100 head
+of large and 500 of small cattle, under penalty of a heavy fine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>III. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should be
+deducted from the principal, and that the remainder should be repaid in
+three yearly instalments.</p>
+
+<p>These great reforms naturally excited the most violent opposition, and
+the Patricians induced some of the Plebeians to put their veto upon the
+measures of their colleagues. But Licinius and Sextius were not to be
+baffled in this way, and they exercised their veto by preventing the
+Comitia of the Centuries from electing any magistrates for the next
+year. Hence no Consuls, Military Tribunes, Censors, or Qu&aelig;stors could be
+appointed; and the Tribunes of the Plebs and the &AElig;diles, who were
+elected by the Comitia of the Tribes, were the only magistrates in the
+state. For five years did this state of things continue. C. Licinius and
+L. Sextius were re-elected annually, and prevented the Comitia of the
+Centuries from appointing any magistrates. At the end of this time they
+allowed Military Tribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with the
+Latins; but so far were they from yielding any of their demands, that to
+their former Rogations they now added another: That the care of the
+Sibylline books, instead of being intrusted to two men (duumviri), both
+Patricians, should be given to ten men (decemviri), half of whom should
+be Plebeians.</p>
+
+<p>Five years more did the struggle last; but the firmness of the Tribunes
+at length prevailed. In B.C. 367 the Licinian Rogations were passed, and
+L. Sextius was elected the first Plebeian Consul for the next year. But
+the Patricians made one last effort to evade the law. By the Roman
+constitution, the Consuls, after being elected by the Comitia
+Centuriata, received the Imperium, or sovereign power, from the Comitia
+Curiata. The Patricians thus had it in their power to nullify the
+election of the Centuries by refusing the Imperium. This they did when
+L. Sextius was elected Consul; and they made Camillus, the great
+champion of their order, Dictator, to support them in their new
+struggle. But the old hero saw that it was too late, and determined to
+bring about a reconciliation between the two orders. A compromise was
+effected. The Imperium was conferred upon L. Sextius; but the judicial
+duties were taken away from the Consuls, and given to a new magistrate
+called <i>Pr&aelig;tor</i>. Camillus vowed to the goddess Concord a temple for his
+success.</p>
+
+<p>The long struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians was thus brought
+to a virtual close. The Patricians still clung obstinately to the
+exclusive privileges which they still possessed; but when the Plebeians
+had once obtained a share in the Consulship, it was evident that their
+participation in the other offices of the state could not be much longer
+delayed. We may therefore anticipate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> course of events by narrating
+in this place that the first Plebeian Dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus in
+B.C. 356; that the same man was the first Plebeian Censor five years
+afterward (B.C. 351); that the Pr&aelig;torship was thrown open to the
+Plebeians in B.C. 336; and that the Lex Ogulnia in B.C. 300, which
+increased the number of the Pontiffs from four to eight, and that of the
+Augurs from four to nine, also enacted that four of the Pontiffs and
+five of the Augurs should be taken from the Plebeians.</p>
+
+<p>About thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another important
+reform, which abridged still farther the privileges of the Patricians,
+was effected by the PUBLILIAN LAWS, proposed by the Dictator Q.
+Publilius Philo in B.C. 339. These were:</p>
+
+<p>I. That the Resolutions of the Plebs should be binding on all the
+Quirites,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> thus giving to the Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the
+Tribes the same force as the Laws passed at the Comitia of the
+Centuries.</p>
+
+<p>II. That all laws passed at the Comitia of the Centuries should receive
+previously the sanction of the Curies; so that the Curies were now
+deprived of all power over the Centuries.</p>
+
+<p>III. That one of the Censors must be a Plebeian.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these laws seems to be little move than a re-enactment of
+one of the Valerian and Horatian laws, passed after the expulsion of the
+Decemvirs;<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> but it is probable that the latter had never been really
+carried into effect. Even the Publilian Law upon this subject seems to
+have been evaded; and it was accordingly enacted again by the Dictator
+Q. Hortensius in B.C. 286. In this year the last Secession of the
+Plebeians took place, and the LEX HORTENSIA is always mentioned as the
+law which gave to Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the Tribes the
+full power of laws binding upon the whole nation. From this time we hear
+of no more civil dissensions till the times of the Gracchi, a hundred
+and fifty years afterward, and the Lex Hortensia may therefore be
+regarded as the termination of the long struggle between the two orders.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image022" name="image022">
+   <img src="images/022.jpg"
+      alt="Ruins at Capua."
+      title="Ruins at Capua." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Ruins at Capua.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS. B.C.
+367-290.</h3>
+
+
+<p>United at home, the Romans were now prepared to carry on their foreign
+wars with more vigor; and their conquests of the Samnites and Latins
+made them the virtual masters of Italy. But the years which immediately
+followed the Licinian laws were times of great suffering. A pestilence
+raged in Rome, which carried off many of the most distinguished men, and
+among others the aged Camillus (B.C. 362). The Tiber overflowed its
+banks, the city was shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in
+the forum. The soothsayers declared that the gulf could never be filled
+up ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>cept by throwing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The
+tale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods could mean, a
+noble youth named M. Curtius came forward, and, declaring that Rome
+possessed nothing so valuable as her brave citizens, mounted his steed
+and leaped into the abyss in full armor, whereupon the earth closed over
+him. This event is assigned to the year 362 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>During the next few years the Gauls renewed their inroads, of which we
+have already spoken, and in the course of which Manlius Torquatus and
+Valerius Corvus gained such glory. The Romans steadily extended their
+dominion over the southern part of Etruria and the country of the
+Volscians, and the alliance with the Latins was renewed. Fifty years had
+elapsed since the capture of the city by the Gauls, and Rome was now
+strong enough to enter into a contest with the most formidable enemy
+which her arms had yet encountered. The SAMNITES were at the height of
+their power, and the contest between them and the Romans was virtually
+for the supremacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have already seen, were
+a people of Sabine origin, and had emigrated to the country which they
+inhabited at a comparatively late period. They consisted of four
+different tribes or cantons, the Pentri, Hirpini, Caraceni, and Caudini,
+of whom the two former were the most important. They inhabited that part
+of the Apennines which lies between Campania and Lucania, but they were
+not contented with their mountain-homes, and overran the rich plains
+which lay at their feet. They became the masters of Campania and
+Lucania, and spread themselves almost to the southern extremity of
+Italy. But the Samnites of Campania and Lucania had in course of time
+broken off all connection with the parent nation, and sometimes were
+engaged in hostilities with the latter. It was a contest of this kind
+that led to the war between the Romans and the Samnites of the
+Apennines. On the borders of Campania and Samnium dwelt a people, called
+the Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their independence. Being
+attacked by the Samnites, this people implored the assistance of the
+Campanians, which was readily granted. Thereupon the Samnites turned
+their arms against the Campanians, and, after occupying Mount Tifata,
+which overlooks the city of Capua, they descended into the plain, and
+defeated the Campanians in a pitched battle at the very gates of Capua.
+The Campanians, being shut up within the city, now applied for
+assistance to Rome, and offered to place Capua in their hands. The
+Romans had only a few years previously concluded an alliance with the
+Samnites; but the bait of the richest city and the most fertile soil in
+Italy was irresistible, and they resolved to comply with the request.
+Thus began the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace,
+lasted 53 years.</p>
+
+<p>FIRST SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 343-341.&mdash;The Romans commenced the war by
+sending two consular armies against the Samnites; and the first battle
+between the rival nations was fought at the foot of Mount Gaurus, which
+lies about three miles from Cum&aelig;. The Samnites were defeated with great
+loss; and it has been justly remarked that this battle may be regarded
+as one of the most memorable in history, since it was a kind of omen of
+the ultimate issue of the great contest which had now begun between the
+Samnites and Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained two
+other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city in triumph.
+But two causes prevented the Romans from prosecuting their success. In
+the first place, the Roman army, which had been wintering in Capua, rose
+in open mutiny; and the poorer Plebeians in the city, who were oppressed
+by debt, left Rome and joined the mutineers. In the second place, the
+increasing disaffection of the Latins warned the Romans to husband their
+resources for another and more terrible struggle. The Romans, therefore,
+abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians, concluded a treaty of peace and
+alliance with the Samnites in B.C. 341, so that in the great Latin war,
+which broke out in the following year, the Samnites fought on the side
+of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>THE LATIN WAR, B.C. 340-338.&mdash;The Latins had, as already stated, renewed
+their league with Rome in B.C. 356, and consequently their troops had
+fought along with the Romans in the war against the Samnites. But the
+increasing power of Rome excited their alarm; and it became evident to
+them that, though nominally on a footing of equality, they were, in
+reality, becoming subject to Rome. This feeling was confirmed by the
+treaty of alliance which the Romans had formed with the Samnites. The
+Latins, therefore, determined to bring matters to a crisis, and sent two
+Pr&aelig;tors, who were their chief magistrates, to propose to the Romans that
+the two nations should henceforth form one state; that half of the state
+should consist of Latins, and that one of the two Consuls should be
+chosen from Latium. These requests excited the greatest indignation at
+Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. The Senate met in the
+Temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive the Latin deputation, and,
+after hearing their proposals, the Consul, T. Manlius Torquatus, the
+same who had slain the Gaul in single combat, declared that, if the
+Republic should cowardly yield to these demands, he would come into the
+senate-house sword in hand and cut down the first Latin he saw there.
+The tale goes on to say that in the discussion which followed, when both
+parties<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> were excited by anger, the Latin Pr&aelig;tor defied the Roman
+Jupiter; that thereupon an awful peal of thunder shook the building; and
+that, as the impious man hurried down the steps from the temple, he fell
+from top to bottom, and lay there a corpse.</p>
+
+<p>War was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were made on both
+sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome should become a Latin
+town, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The Romans had elected to the
+consulship two of their most distinguished men. The Patrician Consul
+was, as already mentioned, T. Manlius Torquatus; his Plebeian colleague
+was P. Decius Mus, who had gained great renown in the recent war against
+the Samnites. The two Consuls marched through Samnium into Campania, and
+threatened Capua, thus leaving Rome exposed to the attacks of the
+Latins. But the Consuls foresaw that the Latins would not abandon Capua,
+their great acquisition; and the event proved their wisdom. The contest
+was thus withdrawn from the territory of Rome and transferred to
+Campania, where the Romans could receive assistance from the neighboring
+country of their Samnite allies. It was at the foot of Mount Vesuvius
+that the two armies met, and here the battle was fought which decided
+the contest. It was like a civil war. The soldiers of the two armies
+spoke the same language, had fought by each others' sides, and were well
+known to one another. Under these circumstances, the Consuls published a
+proclamation that no Roman should engage in single combat with a Latin
+on pain of death. But the son of Torquatus, provoked by the insults of a
+Tusculan officer, accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and
+carried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. The Consul had
+within him the heart of Brutus; he would not pardon this breach of
+discipline, and ordered the unhappy youth to be beheaded by the lictor
+in the presence of the assembled army.</p>
+
+<p>In the night before the battle a vision appeared to each Consul,
+announcing that the general of one side and the army of the other were
+doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the one whose wing first began
+to waver should devote himself and the army of the enemy to the gods of
+the lower world. Decius commanded the left wing; and when it began to
+give way, he resolved to fulfill his vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus,
+he repeated after him the form of words by which he devoted himself and
+the army of the enemy to the gods of the dead and the mother earth; then
+leaping upon his horse, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and
+was slain. The Romans gained a signal victory. Scarcely a fourth part of
+the Latins escaped (B.C. 340).</p>
+
+<p>This victory made the Romans masters of Campania, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> Latins did
+not dare to meet them again in the field. The war continued two years
+longer, each city confining itself to the defense of its own walls, and
+hoping to receive help from others in case of an attack. But upon the
+capture of Pedum in B.C. 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and
+garrisons were placed in their towns. The Romans were now absolute
+masters of Latium, and their great object was to prevent the Latin
+cities from forming any union again. For this purpose not only were all
+general assemblies forbidden, but, in order to keep the cities
+completely isolated, the citizens of one town could not marry or make a
+legal contract of bargain or sale with another.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Tibur and Pr&aelig;neste,
+the two most powerful cities of the League, which had taken the most
+active part in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but
+were allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving their own
+laws, and renewing from time to time their treaties with Rome. The
+inhabitants of several other towns, such as Tusculum and Lanuvium,
+received the Roman franchise; their territory was incorporated in that
+of the Republic; and two new tribes were created to carry these
+arrangements into effect. Many of the most distinguished Romans sprung
+from these Latin towns.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and the
+commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this time the Roman arms
+continued to make steady progress. One of their most important conquests
+was that of the Volscian town of Privernum in B.C. 329, from which time
+the Volscians, so long the formidable enemies of Rome, disappear as an
+independent nation. The extension of the Roman power naturally awakened
+the jealousy of the Samnites; and the assistance rendered by them to the
+Greek cities of Pal&aelig;opolis and Neapolis was the immediate occasion of
+the Second Samnite War. These two cities were colonies of the
+neighboring Cum&aelig;, and were situated only five miles from each other. The
+position of Pal&aelig;opolis, or the "Old City," is uncertain; but Neapolis,
+or the "New City," stands on the site of a part of the modern Naples.
+The Romans declared war against the two cities in B.C. 327, and sent the
+Consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce them to subjection. The Greek
+colonists had previously formed an alliance with the Samnites, and now
+received powerful Samnite garrisons. Publilius encamped between the
+cities; and as he did not succeed in taking them before his year of
+office expired, he was continued in the command with the title of
+<i>Proconsul</i>, the first time that this office was created. At the
+beginning of the following year Pal&aelig;opolis was taken; and Neapolis only
+escaped the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> same fate by concluding an alliance with the Romans.
+Meanwhile the Romans had declared war against the Samnites.</p>
+
+<p>SECOND OR GREAT SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 326-304.&mdash;The Second Samnite War
+lasted 22 years, and was by far the most important of the three wars
+which this people waged with Rome. During the first five years (B.C.
+326-322) the Roman arms were generally successful. The Samnites became
+so disheartened that they sued for peace, but obtained only a truce for
+a year. It was during this period that the well-known quarrel took place
+between L. Papirius Cursor and Q. Fabius Maximus, the two most
+celebrated Roman generals of the time, who constantly led the armies of
+the Republic to victory. In B.C. 325 L. Papirius was Dictator, and Q.
+Fabius his Master of the Horse. Recalled to Rome by some defect in the
+auspices, the Dictator left the army in charge of Fabius, but with
+strict orders not to venture upon an engagement. Compelled or provoked
+by the growing boldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked and defeated them
+with great loss. But this victory was no extenuation for his offense in
+the eyes of the Dictator. Papirius hastened back to the camp, burning
+with indignation that his commands had been disobeyed, and ordered his
+lictors to seize Fabius and put him to death. The soldiers, whom Fabius
+had led to victory, rose in his defense; and in the night he escaped to
+Rome, to implore the protection of the Senate. He was stating the case
+to the Fathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house, followed by his
+lictors, and demanded that the offender should be given up for
+execution. But the Senate, the people, and the aged father of Maximus
+interceded so strongly for his life, that the Dictator was obliged to
+give way and to grant an ungracious pardon.</p>
+
+<p>The year's truce had not expired when the Samnites again took up arms,
+and for the next seven years (B.C. 321-315) the balance of success
+inclined to their side. This appears to have been mainly owing to the
+military abilities of their general C. Pontius, who deserves to be
+ranked among the chief men of antiquity. In the first year of his
+command he inflicted upon the Romans one of the severest blows they ever
+sustained in the whole course of their history.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 321 the two Consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, marched into
+Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum. Near the town of Caudium
+they entered the celebrated pass called the CAUDINE FORKS (Furcul&aelig;
+Caudin&aelig;). It consisted of two narrow defiles or gorges, between which
+was a tolerably spacious plain, but shut in on each side by mountains.
+The Romans, thinking the Samnites to be far distant, had marched through
+the first pass and the plain; but when they came to the second they
+found it blocked up by works and trunks of trees, so as to be quite
+impassable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> Retracing their steps to the pass by which they had
+entered, they found that the enemy had meantime taken possession of this
+also. They were thus blocked up at either end, and, after making vain
+attempts to force their way through, were obliged to surrender at
+discretion. Thus both Consuls and four legions fell into the hands of
+the Samnites. C. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. He agreed
+to dismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore the ancient
+alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and to give up all the
+places which they had conquered during the war. The Consuls and the
+other superior officers swore to these terms in the name of the
+Republic, and six hundred Roman knights were given as hostages. The
+whole Roman army was now allowed to depart, and each Roman soldier
+marched out singly under the yoke.</p>
+
+<p>When the news of this disaster reached Rome the Senate refused to ratify
+the peace, and resolved that the two Consuls and all the officers who
+had sworn to the peace should be delivered up to the Samnites as persons
+who had deceived them. They were conducted to Caudium by a Fetialis; and
+when they appeared before the tribunal of C. Pontius, Postumius, with
+superstitious folly, struck the Fetialis with his foot, saying that he
+was now a Samnite citizen, and that war might be renewed with justice by
+the Romans, since a Samnite had insulted the sacred envoy of the Roman
+people. But Pontius refused to accept the persons who were thus offered,
+and told them, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the
+army to the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions returned to
+Rome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the hands of the Samnites.</p>
+
+<p>The disaster of Caudium shook the fate of many of the Roman allies, and
+the fortune of war was for some years in favor of the Samnites. But in
+B.C. 314 the tide of success again turned, and the decisive victory of
+the Consuls in that year opened the way into the heart of Samnium. From
+this time the Romans were uniformly successful; and it seemed probable
+that the war was drawing to a close, when the Etruscans created a
+powerful diversion by declaring war against Rome in B.C. 311. But the
+energy and ability of Q. Fabius Maximus averted this new danger. He
+boldly carried the war into the very heart of Etruria, and gained a
+decisive victory over the forces of the League. The Samnites also were
+repeatedly defeated; and after the capture of Bovianum, the chief city
+of the Pentri, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was granted them
+in B.C. 304, on condition of their acknowledging the supremacy of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>At the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the &AElig;quians and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> Hernicans
+were reduced to subjection after a brief struggle. A part of the &AElig;quian
+territory was incorporated in that of Rome by the addition of two new
+tribes, and two colonies were planted in the other portion. The Marsi,
+Marrucini, Peligni, and other nations of Central Italy, entered into a
+league with the Romans on equal terms. Thus, in B.C. 300, the power of
+Rome seemed firmly established in Central Italy. But this very power
+awakened the jealousy of the surrounding nations, and the Samnites
+exerted themselves to form a new and formidable coalition. The Etruscans
+and Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and called in the
+assistance of the Senonian Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>THIRD SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 298-290.&mdash;As soon as the Etruscans and Umbrians
+were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded Lucania. The Lucanians
+invoked the assistance of the Romans, who forthwith declared war against
+the Samnites. The Republic had now to contend at one and the same time
+against the Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls, and Samnites; but she carried on
+the struggle with the utmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians,
+and Gauls in the north, and the Samnites in the south. At length, in
+B.C. 295, the Samnites joined their confederates in Umbria. In this
+country, near the town of Sentinum, a desperate battle was fought, which
+decided the fortune of the war. The two Roman Consuls were the aged Q.
+Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus. The victory was long doubtful. The
+wing commanded by Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the
+Gauls, when he determined to imitate the example of his father, and to
+devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death gave fresh
+courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete and decisive victory.
+Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, who had taken the most active
+part in forming the coalition, was slain. But, though the League was
+thus broken up, the Samnites continued the struggle for five years
+longer. During this period C. Pontius, who had defeated the Romans at
+the Caudine Forks, again appeared, after twenty-seven years, as the
+leader of the Samnites, but was defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great
+loss and taken prisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as
+the triumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol (B.C. 292). This
+shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest stains on
+the Roman annals. Two years afterward the Samnites were unable to
+continue any longer the hopeless struggle, and became the subjects of
+Rome. The third and last Samnite war was brought to a close in B.C. 290.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image023" name="image023">
+   <img src="images/023.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Pyrrhus."
+      title="Coin of Pyrrhus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Pyrrhus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY. B.C.
+290-265.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Ten years elapsed from the conclusion of the third Samnite war to the
+arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the Etruscans and Gauls
+renewed the war in the north, but were defeated with great slaughter
+near the Lake Vadimo. This decisive battle appears to have completely
+crushed the Etruscan power; and it inflicted so severe a blow upon the
+Gauls that we hear no more of their ravages for the next sixty years.</p>
+
+<p>In the south the Lucanians also rose against Rome. The extension of the
+Roman dominion in the south of the peninsula had brought the state into
+connection with the Greek cities, which at one period were so numerous
+and powerful as to give to this part of Italy the name of Magna
+Gr&aelig;cia.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Many of these cities had now fallen into decay through
+internal dissensions and the conquests of the Lucanians and other
+Sabellian tribes; but Tarentum, originally a Laced&aelig;monian colony, still
+maintained her former power and splendor. The Tarentines naturally
+regarded with extreme jealousy the progress of the Roman arms in the
+south of Italy, and had secretly instigated the Etruscans and Lucanians
+to form a new coalition against Rome. But the immediate cause of the war
+between the Lucanians and Romans was the assistance which the latter had
+rendered to the Greek city of Thurii. Being attacked by the Lucanians,
+the Thurians applied to Rome for aid, and the Consul C. Fabricius not
+only relieved Thurii, but defeated the Lucanians and their allies in
+several engagements (B.C. 252). Upon the departure of Fabricius a Roman
+garrison was left in Thurii. The only mode now of maintaining
+communication between Rome and Thurii was by sea; but this was virtually
+forbidden by a treaty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> which the Romans had made with Tarentum nearly
+twenty years before, in which treaty it was stipulated that no Roman
+ships of war should pass the Lacinian promontory. But circumstances were
+now changed, and the Senate determined that their vessels should no
+longer be debarred from the Gulf of Tarentum. There was a small squadron
+of ten ships in those seas under the command of L. Valerius; and one
+day, when the Tarentines were assembled in the theatre, which looked
+over the sea, they saw the Roman squadron sailing toward their harbor.
+This open violation of the treaty seemed a premeditated insult, and a
+demagogue urged the people to take summary vengeance. They rushed down
+to the harbor, quickly manned some ships, and gained an easy victory
+over the small Roman squadron. Only half made their escape, four were
+sunk, one taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this the Tarentines
+marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants to dismiss the Roman
+garrison, and then plundered the town.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these outrages and
+to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, was introduced with his colleagues into the theatre, to state
+to the assembled people the demands of the Roman Senate. He began to
+address them in Greek, but his mistakes in the language were received
+with peals of laughter from the thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a
+hearing, much less an answer, Postumius was leaving the theatre, when a
+drunken buffoon rushed up to him and sullied his white robe in the most
+disgusting manner. The whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and
+clapping of hands, which became louder and louder when Postumius held up
+his sullied robe and showed it to the people. "Laugh on now," he cried,
+"but this robe shall be washed in torrents of your blood."</p>
+
+<p>War was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an embassy to
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him, in the name of all the Italian
+Greeks, to cross over into Italy in order to conduct the war against the
+Romans. They told him that they only wanted a general, and that all the
+nations of Southern Italy would flock to his standard. Pyrrhus needed no
+persuasion to engage in an enterprise which realized the earliest dreams
+of his ambition. The conquest of Italy would naturally lead to the
+sovereignty of Sicily and Africa, and he would then be able to return to
+Greece with the united forces of the West to overcome his rivals and
+reign as master of the world. But as he would not trust the success of
+his enterprise to the valor and fidelity of Italian troops, he began to
+make preparations to carry over a powerful army. Meantime he sent Milo,
+one of his generals, with a detachment of 3000 men, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> garrison the
+citadel of Tarentum. Pyrrhus himself crossed over from Epirus toward the
+end of B.C. 281, taking with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, and 20
+elephants.</p>
+
+<p>Upon reaching Tarentum he began to make preparations to carry on the war
+with activity. The Tarentines soon found they had obtained a master
+rather than an ally. He shut up the theatre and all other public places,
+and compelled their young men to serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all
+his activity, the Romans were first in the field. The Consul M. Valerius
+L&aelig;vinus marched into Lucania; but as the army of Pyrrhus was inferior to
+that of the Romans, he attempted to gain time by negotiation in order
+that he might be joined by his Italian allies. He accordingly wrote to
+the Consul, offering to arbitrate between Rome and the Italian states;
+but L&aelig;vinus bluntly told him to mind his own business and retire to
+Epirus. Fearing to remain inactive any longer, although he was not yet
+joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the Romans with his
+own troops and the Tarentines. He took up his position between the towns
+of Pandosia and Heraclea, on the River Siris. The Romans, who were
+encamped on the other side of the river, were the first to begin the
+battle. They crossed the river, and were immediately attacked by the
+cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led them to the charge in person, and
+distinguished himself as usual by the most daring acts of valor. The
+Romans, however, bravely sustained the attack; and Pyrrhus, finding that
+his cavalry could not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance.
+The battle was still contested most furiously: seven times did both
+armies advance and retreat; and it was not till Pyrrhus brought forward
+his elephants, which bore down every thing before them, that the Romans
+took to flight, leaving their camp to the conqueror (B.C. 280).</p>
+
+<p>This battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he had
+undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the Romans forming their
+line as they crossed the river, he said to his officers, "In war, at any
+rate, these barbarians are not barbarous;" and afterward, as he saw the
+Roman dead lying upon the field with all their wounds in front, he
+exclaimed, "If these were my soldiers, or if I were their general, we
+should conquer the world." And, though his loss had been inferior to
+that of the Romans, still so large a number of his officers and best
+troops had fallen, that he said, "Another such victory, and I must
+return to Epirus alone." He therefore resolved to avail himself of this
+victory to conclude, if possible, an advantageous peace. He sent his
+minister Cineas to Rome with the proposal that the Romans should
+recognize the independence of the Greeks in Italy, restore to the
+Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians, and Bruttians all the possessions which
+they had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> lost in war, and make peace with himself and the Tarentines.
+As soon as peace was concluded on these terms he promised to return all
+the Roman prisoners without ransom. Cineas, whose persuasive eloquence
+was said to have won more towns for Pyrrhus than his arms, neglected no
+means to induce the Romans to accept these terms. The prospects of the
+Republic seemed so dark and threatening that many members of the Senate
+thought it would be more prudent to comply with the demands of the king;
+and this party would probably have carried the day had it not been for
+the patriotic speech of the aged Ap. Claudius Caucus, who denounced the
+idea of a peace with a victorious foe with such effect that the Senate
+declined the proposals of the king, and commanded Cineas to quit Rome
+the same day.</p>
+
+<p>Cineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for nothing from
+negotiation; that the city was like a temple of the gods, and the Senate
+an assembly of kings. Pyrrhus now advanced by rapid marches toward Rome,
+ravaging the country as he went along, and without encountering any
+serious opposition. He at length arrived at Pr&aelig;neste, which fell into
+his hands. He was now only 24 miles from Rome, and his outposts advanced
+six miles farther. Another march would have brought him under the walls
+of the city; but at this moment he learned that peace was concluded with
+the Etruscans, and that the other Consul had returned with his army to
+Rome. All hope of compelling the Romans to accept the peace was now
+gone, and he therefore resolved to retreat. He retired slowly into
+Campania, and from thence withdrew into winter quarters to Tarentum.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the Romans sent an
+embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom or exchange of prisoners. The
+embassadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most distinguished manner;
+and his interviews with C. Fabricius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, form one of the most famous stories in Roman history. Fabricius
+was a fine specimen of the sturdy Roman character. He cultivated his
+farm with his own hands, and, like his contemporary Curius, was
+celebrated for his incorruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain
+to work upon his cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large
+sums of money offered by Pyrrhus; and when an elephant, concealed behind
+him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius remained
+unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that Pyrrhus attempted to
+persuade him to enter into his service and accompany him to Greece. The
+object of the embassy failed. The king refused to exchange the
+prisoners; but, to show them his trust in their honor, he allowed them
+to go to Rome in order to celebrate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> Saturnalia, stipulating that
+they were to return to Tarentum if the Senate would not accept the terms
+which he had previously offered through Cineas. The Senate remained firm
+in their resolve, and all the prisoners returned to Pyrrhus, the
+punishment of death having been denounced against those who should
+remain in the city.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year (B.C. 279) the war was renewed, and a battle was
+fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their camp, which was so near to
+the field of battle that not more than 6000 fell, while Pyrrhus lost
+more than half this number. The victory yielded Pyrrhus little or no
+advantage, and he was obliged to retire to Tarentum for the winter
+without effecting any thing more during the campaign. In the last
+battle, as well as in the former, the brunt of the action had fallen
+almost exclusively upon his Greek troops; and the state of Greece, which
+this year was overrun by the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect
+any re-enforcements from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard
+his surviving Greeks by another campaign with the Romans, and
+accordingly lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily,
+who begged him to come to their assistance against the Carthaginians. It
+was necessary, however, first to suspend hostilities with the Romans,
+who were likewise anxious to get rid of so formidable an opponent, that
+they might complete the subjugation of Southern Italy without farther
+interruption. When both parties had the same wishes it was not difficult
+to find a fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion. This was
+afforded at the beginning of the following year (B.C. 278) by one of the
+servants of Pyrrhus deserting to the Romans, and proposing to the
+Consuls to poison his master. They sent back the deserter to the king,
+saying that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. Thereupon
+Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome with all the Roman
+prisoners, without ransom and without conditions; and the Romans granted
+him a truce.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Milo with part of his troops in possession of Tarentum, Pyrrhus
+now crossed over into Sicily. He remained there upward of two years. At
+first he met with brilliant success, and deprived the Carthaginians of a
+great part of the island. Subsequently, however, he received a severe
+repulse in an attempt which he made upon the impregnable town of
+Lilyb&aelig;um. The fickle Greeks now began to form cabals and plots against
+him. This led to retaliation on his part, and he soon became as anxious
+to abandon the island as he had been before to leave Italy. Accordingly,
+when his Italian allies again begged him to come to their assistance, he
+readily complied with their request, and arrived in Italy in the autumn
+of B.C. 276. His troops were now almost the same in number as when he
+first landed in Italy, but very different in quality. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> faithful
+Epirots had for the most part fallen, and his present soldiers consisted
+chiefly of mercenaries, whom he had levied in Italy. One of his first
+operations was the recovery of Locri, which had revolted to the Romans;
+and as he here found himself in great difficulties for want of money to
+pay his troops, he was induced to take possession of the treasures of
+the Temple of Proserpine in that town; but the ships conveying the money
+were wrecked. This circumstance deeply affected the mind of Pyrrhus; he
+ordered the treasures which were saved to be restored to the temple, and
+from this time became haunted by the idea that the wrath of Proserpine
+was pursuing him, and dragging him down to ruin.</p>
+
+<p>The following year (B.C. 274) closed the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. The
+Consul M'. Curius marched into Samnium, and his colleague into Lucania.
+Pyrrhus advanced against Curius, who was encamped in the neighborhood of
+Beneventum, and resolved to fight with him before he was joined by his
+colleague. As Curius did not wish to risk a battle with his own army
+alone, Pyrrhus planned a night-attack upon his camp. But he
+miscalculated the time and the distance; the torches burnt out, the men
+missed their way, and it was already broad daylight when he reached the
+heights above the Roman camp. Still their arrival was quite unexpected;
+but, as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led out his men. The troops
+of Pyrrhus, exhausted by fatigue, were easily put to the rout; two
+elephants were killed and eight more taken. Encouraged by this success,
+Curius no longer hesitated to meet the king in the open plain, and
+gained a decisive victory. Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum with only a few
+horsemen. Shortly afterward he crossed over to Greece, leaving Milo with
+a garrison at Tarentum. Two years afterward he perished in an attack
+upon Argos, ingloriously slain by a tile hurled by a woman from the roof
+of a house.</p>
+
+<p>The departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian tribes
+exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless continued the
+hopeless struggle a little longer; but in B.C. 272 Tarentum fell into
+the hands of Rome, and in a few years afterward every nation in Italy,
+to the south of the Macra and the Rubicon, owned the supremacy of Rome.
+She had now become one of the first powers in the ancient world. The
+defeat of Pyrrhus attracted the attention of the nations of the East;
+and in B.C. 273, Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, sent an embassy to
+Rome, and concluded a treaty with the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>The dominion which Rome had acquired by her arms was confirmed by her
+policy. She pursued the same system which she had adopted upon the
+subjugation of Latium, keeping the cities isolated from one another, but
+at the same time allowing them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> manage their own affairs. The
+population of Italy was divided into three classes. <i>Cives Romani</i>,
+<i>Nomen Latinum</i>, and <i>Socii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I. CIVES ROMANI, or ROMAN CITIZENS.&mdash;These consisted: (1.) Of the
+citizens of the thirty-three Tribes into which the Roman territory was
+now divided, and which extended north of the Tiber a little beyond Veii,
+and southward as far as the Liris; though even in this district there
+were some towns, such as Tibur and Pr&aelig;nest&eacute;, which did not possess the
+Roman franchise. (2.) Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in
+different parts of Italy. (3.) Of the citizens of municipal towns upon
+whom the Roman franchise was conferred. In some cases the Roman
+franchise was granted without the right of voting in the Comitia
+(<i>civitas sine suffragio</i>), but in course of time this right also was
+generally conceded.</p>
+
+<p>II. NOMEN LATINUM, or the LATIN NAME.&mdash;This term was applied to the
+colonies founded by Rome which did not enjoy the rights of Roman
+citizenship, and which stood in the same position with regard to the
+Roman state as had been formerly occupied by the cities of the Latin
+League. The name originated at a period when colonies were actually sent
+out in common by the Romans and Latins, but similar colonies continued
+to be founded by the Romans alone long after the extinction of the Latin
+League. In fact, the majority of the colonies planted by Rome were of
+this kind, the Roman citizens who took part in them voluntarily
+resigning their citizenship, in consideration of the grants of land
+which they obtained. But the citizen of any Latin colony might emigrate
+to Rome, and be enrolled in one of the Roman tribes, provided he had
+held a magistracy in his native town. These Latin colonies&mdash;the <i>Nomen
+Latinum</i>&mdash;were some of the most flourishing towns in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>III. SOCII, or ALLIES, included the rest of Italy. Each of the towns
+which had been conquered by Rome had formed a treaty (<i>f&#339;dus</i>) with
+the latter, which determined their rights and duties. These treaties
+were of various kinds, some securing nominal independence to the towns,
+and others reducing them to absolute subjection.</p>
+
+<p>The political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the Latin wars,
+have been already in great part anticipated. Appius Claudius, afterward
+named C&aelig;cus, or the Blind, introduced a dangerous innovation in the
+constitution during the Second Samnite War. Slavery existed at Rome, as
+among the other nations of antiquity; and as many slaves, from various
+causes, acquired their liberty, there gradually sprung up at Rome a
+large and indigent population of servile origin. These Freedmen were
+Roman citizens, but they could only be enrolled in the four city-tribes,
+so that, however numerous they might become, they could influence only
+the votes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his Censorship (B.C.
+312), when making out the lists of citizens, allowed the Freedmen to
+enroll themselves in any tribe they pleased; but this dangerous
+innovation was abolished by the Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius
+Mus (B.C. 304), who restored all the Freedmen to the four city-tribes.
+The Censorship of Appius is, however, memorable for the great public
+works which he executed. He made the great military road called the
+Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome to Capua, a distance of 120
+miles, which long afterward was continued across the Apennines to
+Brundusium. He also executed the first of the great aqueducts (Aqua
+Appia) which supplied Rome with such an abundance of water.</p>
+
+<p>Cn. Flavius, the son of a Freedman, and Secretary to Appius Claudius,
+divulged the forms and times to be observed in legal proceedings. These
+the Patricians had hitherto kept secret; they alone knew the days when
+the courts would be held, and the technical pleadings according to which
+all actions must proceed. But Flavius, having become acquainted with
+these secrets, by means of his patron, published in a book a list of the
+formularies to be observed in the several kinds of actions, and also set
+up in the forum a whited tablet containing a list of all the days on
+which the courts could be held. In spite of his ignominious birth, he
+was made a Senator by Appius Claudius, and was elected Curule &AElig;dile by
+the people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image024" name="image024">
+   <img src="images/024.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.)"
+      title="Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image025" name="image025">
+   <img src="images/025.jpg"
+      alt="Mount Ercta in Sicily."
+      title="Mount Ercta in Sicily." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Mount Ercta in Sicily.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Rome, now mistress of Italy, entered upon a long and arduous straggle
+with Carthage, which ruled without a rival the western waters of the
+Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was founded by the
+Ph&#339;nicians<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> of Tyre in B.C. 814, according to the common
+chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a branch of the Semitic
+race, to which the Hebrews also belonged. Carthage rose to greatness by
+her commerce, and gradually extended her empire over the whole of the
+north of Africa, from the Straits of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene.
+Her Libyan subjects she treated with extreme harshness, and hence they
+were always ready to revolt against her so soon as a foreign enemy
+appeared upon her soil.</p>
+
+<p>The two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually out of a few
+of the chief families, and were called <i>Suffetes</i>.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> There was a
+Senate of Three Hundred members, and also a smaller Council of One
+Hundred, of which the latter were the most powerful, holding office for
+life, and exercising an almost sovereign sway over the other authorities
+in the state. The government was a complete oligarchy; and a few old,
+rich, and powerful families divided among themselves the influence and
+power of the state. These great families were often opposed to each
+other in bitter feuds, but concurred in treating with contempt the mass
+of the people.</p>
+
+<p>In her foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops, which her
+great wealth enabled her to procure in abundance from Spain, Italy, and
+Greece, as well as from Libya. Sardinia and Corsica were among her
+earliest conquests, and Sicily was also one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> of the first objects of her
+military enterprise. The Ph&#339;nician colonies in this island came under
+her dominion as the power of Tyre declined; and having thus obtained a
+firm footing in Sicily, she carried on a long struggle for the supremacy
+with the Greek cities. It was here that she came into contact with the
+Roman arms. The relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been
+peaceful, and a treaty, concluded between the two states in the first
+years of the Roman republic, had been renewed more than once. But the
+extension of Roman dominion had excited the jealousy of Carthage, and
+Rome began to turn longing eyes to the fair island at the foot of her
+empire. It was evident that a struggle was not far distant, and Pyrrhus
+could not help exclaiming, as he quitted Sicily, "How fine a
+battle-field are we leaving to the Romans and Carthaginians!"</p>
+
+<p>The city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide Sicily from
+Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. They were a body of
+Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian origin, who had served under
+Agathocles, and after the death of that tyrant (B.C. 289) were marched
+to Messana, in order to be transported to Italy. Being hospitably
+received within the city, they suddenly rose against the inhabitants,
+massacred the male population, and made themselves masters of their
+wives and property. They now took the name of Mamertini, or "Children of
+Mars," from Mamers, a Sabellian name for that deity. They rapidly
+extended their power over a considerable portion of the north of Sicily,
+and were formidable enemies to Syracuse. Hiero, having become king of
+Syracuse, determined to destroy this nest of robbers, advanced against
+them with a large army, defeated them in battle, and shut them up within
+Messana. The Mamertines were obliged to look out for help; one party
+wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and the other to invoke the
+assistance of Rome. The latter ultimately prevailed, and an embassy was
+sent to implore immediate aid. The temptation was strong, for the
+occupation of Messana by a Carthaginian garrison might prove dangerous
+to the tranquillity of Italy. Still the Senate hesitated; for only six
+years before Hiero had assisted the Romans in punishing the Campanian
+mercenaries, who had seized Rhegium in the same way as the Mamertines
+had made themselves masters of Messana. The voice of justice prevailed,
+and the Senate declined the proposal. But the Consuls, thirsting for
+glory, called together the popular assembly, who eagerly voted that the
+Mamertines should be assisted; in other words, that the Carthaginians
+should not be allowed to obtain possession of Messana. The Consul App.
+Claudius, the son of the blind Censor, was to lead an army into Sicily.
+But during this delay the Carthaginian party in Messana had obtained the
+ascendency, and Hanno,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> with a Carthaginian garrison, had been admitted
+into the citadel. Hiero had concluded peace with the Mamertines through
+the mediation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer even a
+pretext for the interference of the Romans. But a legate of the Consul
+App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded the Mamertines to
+expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and the Carthaginians now
+proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea and land, and the Romans no
+longer hesitated to declare war against Carthage. Such was the
+commencement of the first Punic War (B.C. 264).</p>
+
+<p>The Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, while the
+Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. But the Consul App.
+Claudius, having contrived to elude the Carthaginian squadron, landed
+near the town of Messana, and defeated in succession the forces of
+Syracuse and Carthage. In the following year (263) the Romans followed
+up their success against Hiero. The two Consuls advanced to the walls of
+Syracuse, ravaging the territory of the city and capturing many of its
+dependent towns. The king became alarmed at the success of the Romans;
+and thinking that they would prove more powerful than the Carthaginians,
+he concluded a peace with Rome. From this time till his death, a period
+of nearly fifty years, Hiero remained the firm and steadfast ally of the
+Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, now freed from the hostility of Syracuse, laid siege to
+Agrigentum, the second of the Greek cities in Sicily, which had espoused
+the cause of the Carthaginians at the commencement of the war. The siege
+lasted seven months, and numbers perished on both sides. But at length
+the Romans gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian army which
+had been sent to raise the siege, and obtained possession of the town
+(B.C. 262).</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+   <a id="image026" name="image026">
+   <img src="images/026.jpg"
+      alt="Columna Rostrata."
+      title="Columna Rostrata." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Columna Rostrata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first three years of the war had already made the Romans masters of
+the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy were exposed to the
+ravages of the Carthaginian fleet, and the Romans saw that they could
+not hope to bring the war to a successful termination so long as
+Carthage was mistress of the sea. They had only a small number of
+triremes, galleys with three banks of oars, and were quite unable to
+cope with the quinqueremes, or large vessels with five banks of oars, of
+which the Carthaginian navy consisted. The Senate, with characteristic
+energy, determined to build a fleet of these larger vessels. A
+Carthaginian quinquereme, which had been wrecked upon the coast of
+Italy, served as a model; and in the short space of sixty days from the
+time the trees were felled, 130 ships were launched. While the ships
+were building, the rowers were trained on scaffolds placed upon the land
+like benches of ships at sea. We can not but feel astonished at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+daring of the Romans, who, with ships thus hastily and clumsily built,
+and with crews imperfectly trained, sailed to attack the navy of the
+first maritime state in the world. This was in the fifth year of the war
+(B.C. 260). One of the Consuls, Cn. Cornelius, first put to sea with
+only 17 ships, but was surprised near Lipara, and taken prisoner with
+the whole of his squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, now took the
+command of the rest of the fleet. He saw that the only means of
+conquering the Carthaginians by sea was to deprive them of all the
+advantages of man&#339;uvring, and to take their ships by boarding. For
+this purpose, every ship was provided with a boarding-bridge 36 feet in
+length, which was pulled up by a rope and fastened to a mast in the fore
+part of the ship. As soon as an enemy's ship came near enough, the rope
+was loosened, the bridge fell down, and became fastened by means of an
+iron spike in its under side. The boarders then poured down the bridge
+into the enemy's ship. Thus prepared, Duilius boldly sailed out to meet
+the fleet of the enemy. He found them off the Sicilian coast, near Myl&aelig;.
+The Carthaginians hastened to the fight as if to a triumph, but their
+ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges, and when it came to a
+close fight their crews were no match for the veteran soldiers of Rome.
+The victory of Duilius was complete. Thirty-one of the enemy's ships
+were taken, and fourteen destroyed; the rest only saved themselves by an
+ignominious flight. On his return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a
+magnificent triumph. Public honors were conferred upon him; he was to be
+escorted home in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and
+the sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of the
+conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata, was set up in
+the forum.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>For the next few years the war languished, and nothing of importance was
+effected on either side; but in the ninth year of the struggle (B.C.
+256) the Romans resolved by strenuous exertions to bring it to a
+conclusion. They therefore made preparations for invading Africa with a
+great force. The two Consuls, M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius, set
+sail with 330 ships, took the legions on board in Sicily, and then put
+out to sea in order to cross over to Africa. The Carthaginian fleet,
+consisting of 350 ships, met them near Ecnomus, on the southern coast of
+Sicily. The battle which ensued was the greatest sea-fight that the
+ancient world had yet seen. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again
+annihilated all the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was
+decisive. They lost only 24 ships, while they destroyed 30 of the
+enemy's vessels, and took 64 with all their crews. The passage to Africa
+was now clear, and the remainder of the Carthaginian fleet hastened home
+to defend the capital. The Romans landed near the town of Clupea, or
+Aspis, which they took, and there established their head-quarters. From
+thence they laid waste the Carthaginian territory with fire and sword,
+and collected an immense booty from the defenseless country. On the
+approach of winter, Manlius, one of the Consuls, by order of the Senate,
+returned to Rome with half of the army, while Regulus remained with the
+other half to prosecute the war. He carried on his operations with the
+utmost vigor, and was greatly assisted by the incompetency of the
+Carthaginian generals. The enemy had collected a considerable force,
+which they intrusted to three commanders, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and
+Hamilcar; but these generals avoided the plains, where their cavalry and
+elephants would have given them an advantage over the Roman army, and
+withdrew into the mountains. There they were attacked by Regulus, and
+utterly defeated with great loss; 15,000 men were killed in battle, and
+5000 men, with 18 elephants, were taken. The Carthaginian troops retired
+within the walls of the capital, and Regulus now overran the country
+without opposition. Many towns fell into the power of the Romans, and
+among others Tunis, which was at the distance of only 20 miles from
+Carthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering their
+independence, and their roving bands completed the devastation of the
+country. The Carthaginians, in despair, sent a herald to Regulus to
+solicit peace; but the Roman general, intoxicated with success, would
+only grant it on such intolerable terms that the Carthaginians resolved
+to continue the war and hold out to the last. In the midst of their
+distress and alarm, succor came to them from an unexpected quarter.
+Among the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage was a
+Laced&aelig;monian of the name of Xanthippus. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> pointed out to the
+Carthaginians that their defeats were owing to the incompetency of their
+generals, and not to the superiority of the Roman arms; and he inspired
+such confidence in the government, that he was forthwith placed at the
+head of their troops. Relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants,
+Xanthippus boldly marched into the open country to meet the enemy,
+though his forces were very inferior in number to the Romans. Regulus
+readily accepted battle thus offered; but it ended in his total
+overthrow. Thirty thousand Romans were slain; scarcely 2000 escaped to
+Clupea, and Regulus himself, with 500 more, was taken prisoner. This was
+in the year B.C. 255.</p>
+
+<p>Another disaster awaited the Romans in this year. Their fleet, which had
+been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of the army of Regulus, had
+not only succeeded in their object, but had gained a victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet. They were returning home when they were overtaken
+off Camarina, in Sicily, by a fearful storm. Nearly the entire fleet was
+destroyed, and the coast was strewed for miles with wrecks and corpses.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to work to build a
+new fleet, and in less than three months 220 ships were ready for sea.
+But the same fate awaited them. In B.C. 253 the Consuls had ravaged the
+coasts of Africa, but, on their return, were again surprised by a
+fearful storm off Cape Palinurus. A hundred and fifty ships were
+wrecked. This blow, coming so soon after the other, damped the courage
+even of the Romans; they determined not to rebuild the fleet, and to
+keep only 60 ships for the defense of the coast of Italy and the
+protection of the transports.</p>
+
+<p>The war was now confined to Sicily; but, since the defeat of Regulus,
+the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the elephants, that
+their generals did not venture to attack the Carthaginians. At length,
+in B.C. 250, the Roman proconsul, L. Metellus, accepted battle under the
+walls of Panormus, and gained a decisive victory. The Carthaginians lost
+20,000 men; 13 of their generals adorned the triumph of Metellus; and
+104 elephants were also led in the triumphal procession. This was the
+most important battle that had been yet fought in Sicily, and had a
+decisive influence upon the issue of the contest. It so raised the
+spirits of the Romans that they determined once more to build a fleet of
+200 sail. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring
+the war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome to propose an
+exchange of prisoners, and to offer terms of peace.</p>
+
+<p>Regulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed to
+accompany the embassadors, with the promise that he would return to
+Carthage if their proposals were declined. This embassy is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> the subject
+of one of the most celebrated stories in the Roman annals. The orators
+and poets relate how Regulus at first refused to enter the city as a
+slave of the Carthaginians; how afterward he would not give his opinion
+in the Senate, as he had ceased by his captivity to be a member of that
+illustrious body; how, at length, when induced by his countrymen to
+speak, he endeavored to dissuade the Senate from assenting to a peace,
+or even to an exchange of prisoners; and when he saw them wavering, from
+their desire to redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the
+Carthaginians had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate
+his life; and how, finally, when the Senate, through his influence,
+refused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the
+persuasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to Carthage,
+where a martyr's death awaited him. It is related that he was placed in
+a barrel covered over with iron nails, and thus perished. Other writers
+state, in addition, that, after his eyelids had been cut off, he was
+first thrown into a dark dungeon, and then suddenly exposed to the full
+rays of a burning sun. When the news of the barbarous death of Regulus
+reached Rome, the Senate is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, two
+of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who
+revenged themselves by putting them to death with cruel torments.</p>
+
+<p>Regulus was one of the favorite characters of early Roman story. Not
+only was he celebrated for his heroism in giving the Senate advice which
+secured him a martyr's death, but also on account of his frugality and
+simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius, he lived on his
+hereditary farm, which he cultivated with his own hands; and subsequent
+ages loved to tell how he petitioned the Senate for his recall from
+Africa when he was in the full career of victory, as his farm was going
+to ruin in his absence, and his family was suffering from want.</p>
+
+<p>The Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the northwestern
+corner of the island, and Lilyb&aelig;um and Drepanum were the only two towns
+remaining in their hands. Lilyb&aelig;um, situated upon a promontory at the
+western extremity of the island, was the strong-hold of the Carthaginian
+power; and accordingly the Romans determined to concentrate all their
+efforts, and to employ the armies of both Consuls in attacking this
+city. This siege, which is one of the most memorable in ancient history,
+commenced in B.C. 250, and lasted till the termination of the war. In
+the second year of the siege (B.C. 249), the Consul P. Claudius, who lay
+before Lilyb&aelig;um, formed the design of attacking the Carthaginian fleet
+in the neighboring harbor of Drepanum. In vain did the auguries warn
+him. The keeper of the sacred chickens told<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> him that they would not
+eat. "At any rate," said he, "let them drink;" and he ordered them to be
+thrown overboard. His impiety met with a meet reward. He was defeated
+with great loss; 93 of his ships were taken or destroyed, and only 30
+escaped. Great was the indignation at Rome. He was recalled by the
+Senate, ordered to appoint a Dictator, and then to lay down his office.
+Claudius, in scorn, named M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his
+freedmen. But the Senate would not brook this insult; they deprived the
+unworthy man of the honor, and appointed in his place A. Atilius
+Calatinus.</p>
+
+<p>The other Consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He was sailing
+along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800 vessels, intended to
+relieve the wants of the army at Lilyb&aelig;um, when he was overtaken by one
+of those terrible storms which had twice before proved so fatal to the
+Roman fleets. The transports were all dashed to pieces, and of his 105
+ships of war only two escaped. Thus the Roman fleet was a third time
+destroyed. These repeated misfortunes compelled the Romans to abandon
+any farther attempts to contest the supremacy of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>About this time a really great man was placed at the head of the
+Carthaginian army&mdash;a man who, at an earlier period of the war, might
+have brought the struggle to a very different termination. This was the
+celebrated Hamilcar Barca,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> the father of the still more celebrated
+Hannibal. He was still a young man at the time of his appointment to the
+command in Sicily (B.C. 247). His very first operations were equally
+daring and successful. Instead of confining himself to the defense of
+Lilyb&aelig;um and Drepanum, with which the Carthaginian commanders had been
+hitherto contented, he made descents upon the coast of Italy, and then
+suddenly landed on the north of Sicily, and established himself, with
+his whole army, on a mountain called Herct&egrave; (the modern <i>Monte
+Pellegrino</i>), which overhung the town of Panormus (the modern
+<i>Palermo</i>), one of the most important of the Roman possessions. Here he
+maintained himself for nearly three years, to the astonishment alike of
+friends and foes, and from hence he made continual descents into the
+enemy's country, and completely prevented them from making any vigorous
+attacks either upon Lilyb&aelig;um or Drepanum. All the efforts of the Romans
+to dislodge him were unsuccessful; and he only quitted Herct&egrave; in order
+to seize Eryx, a town situated upon the mountain of this name, and only
+six miles from Drepanum. This position he held for two years longer; and
+the Romans, despairing of driving the Carthaginians out of Sicily so
+long as they were masters of the sea, resolved to build another fleet.
+In B.C.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> 242 the Consul Lutatius Catulus put to sea with a fleet of 200
+ships, and in the following year he gained a decisive victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet, commanded by Hanno, off the group of islands called
+the &AElig;gates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image027" name="image027">
+   <img src="images/027.jpg"
+      alt="Plan of Mount Ercta."
+      title="Plan of Mount Ercta." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption"> Plan of Mount Ercta. A. Ercta, now <i>Monte Pellegrino</i>. B. Panormus, the modern <i>Palermo</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This victory gave the Romans the supremacy by sea. Lilyb&aelig;um, Drepanum,
+and Eryx might now be reduced by famine. The Carthaginians were weary of
+the war, and indisposed to make any farther sacrifices. They therefore
+sent orders to Hamilcar to make peace on the best terms he could. It was
+at length concluded on the following conditions: that Carthage should
+evacuate Sicily and the adjoining islands; that she should restore the
+Roman prisoners without ransom, and should pay the sum of 3200 talents
+within the space of ten years (B.C. 241). All Sicily, with the exception
+of the territory of Hiero, now became a portion of the Roman dominions,
+and was formed into a Province, governed by a Pr&aelig;tor, who was sent
+annually from Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image028" name="image028">
+   <img src="images/028.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Carthage."
+      title="Coin of Carthage." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Carthage.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-210.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. The
+power of Carthage, though crippled, was not destroyed; and Hamilcar
+returned home, burning with hatred against Rome, and determined to renew
+the war upon a favorable opportunity. But a new and terrible danger
+threatened Carthage upon her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had
+been transported from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war,
+being unable to obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny. Their
+leaders were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and Matho, a Libyan.
+They were quickly joined by the native Libyans, and brought Carthage
+almost to the brink of destruction. They laid waste the whole country
+with fire and sword, made themselves masters of all the towns except the
+capital, and committed the most frightful atrocities. Carthage owed her
+safety to the genius and abilities of Hamilcar. The struggle was fierce
+and sanguinary, but was at length brought to a successful issue, after
+it had lasted more than three years, by the destruction of all the
+mercenaries. It was called the War without Peace, or the Inexpiable War
+(B.C. 238).</p>
+
+<p>The Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition of Carthage to
+demand from her the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and the payment of
+a farther sum of 1200 talents. The mercenary troops in Sardinia, who had
+also revolted, had applied to Rome for assistance; and the Senate
+menaced her rival with war unless she complied with these unjust
+demands. Resistance was impossible, and Sardinia and Corsica were now
+formed into a Roman prov<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>ince, governed, like Sicily, by a Pr&aelig;tor sent
+annually from Rome (B.C. 238). This act of robbery added fresh fuel to
+the implacable animosity of Hamilcar against the grasping Republic. He
+now departed for Spain, where for many years he steadily worked to lay
+the foundation of a new empire, which might not only compensate for the
+loss of Sicily and Sardinia, but enable him at some time to renew
+hostilities against Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Rome was now at peace, and in B.C. 235 the Temple of Janus, which had
+remained open since the days of Numa, was closed for a second time. Two
+new tribes were added to the Roman territory, thus making their total
+number thirty-five.</p>
+
+<p>The Temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The Illyrians, who dwelt
+near the head of the Adriatic upon its eastern side, were a nation of
+pirates, who ravaged the coasts of this sea. The Senate having sent
+embassadors to the Illyrian queen, Teuta, to complain of these outrages,
+she not only refused to attend to their complaints, but caused one of
+the embassadors to be murdered. War was straightway declared, and a
+Roman army for the first time crossed the Adriatic (B.C. 229). Demetrius
+of Pharos, an unprincipled Greek, who was the chief counselor of Teuta,
+deserted his mistress, and surrendered to the Romans the important
+island of Corcyra. Teuta was obliged to yield to the Romans every thing
+they demanded, and promised that the Illyrians should not appear south
+of Lissa with more than two vessels. The suppression of piracy in the
+Adriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Grecian states, and deserves
+notice as the first occasion upon which the Romans were brought into
+immediate contact with Greece. The Consul Postumius, who had wintered in
+Illyria, sent envoys to Athens, Corinth, and other Grecian cities, to
+explain what had been done. The envoys were received with honor, and
+thanks were returned to Rome (B.C. 228).</p>
+
+<p>The Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end when they
+became involved in a formidable struggle with their old enemies the
+Gauls. Since the conquest of the Senones in B.C. 289, and of the Boii in
+B.C. 283, the Gauls had remained quiet. The Romans had founded the
+colony of Sena after the subjugation of the Senones; and in B.C. 268
+they had still farther strengthened their dominion in those parts by
+founding the colony of Ariminum. But the greater part of the soil from
+which the Senones were ejected became Public Land. In B.C. 232 the
+Tribune C. Flaminius carried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this
+portion of the public land, known by the name of the "Gallic Land,"<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+should be distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii,
+who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the
+assistance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined by
+them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the Alps, they set
+out for Rome.</p>
+
+<p>All Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of the disaster
+of the Allia. The Sibylline Books being consulted, declared that Rome
+must be twice occupied by a foreign foe; whereupon the Senate ordered
+that two Gauls and a Grecian woman should be buried alive in the forum.
+The allies eagerly offered men and supplies to meet a danger which was
+common to the whole peninsula. An army of 150,000 foot and 6000 horse
+was speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near Telamon in
+Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the armies of the two Consuls.
+As many as 40,000 of their men were slain, and 10,000 taken prisoners
+(B.C. 225). The Romans followed up their success by invading the country
+of the Boii, who submitted in the following year (B.C. 224).</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 223 the Romans for the first time crossed the Po, and the Consul
+C. Flaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. The Consuls
+of the next year, Cn. Cornelius Scipio and M. Claudius Marcellus,
+continued the war against the Insubres, who called in to their aid a
+fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcellus slew with his own hand
+Viridomarus, the chief of the Insubrian Gauls, and thus gained the third
+<i>Spolia Opima</i>. At the same time Scipio took Mediolanum (Milan), the
+chief town of the Insubres. This people now submitted without
+conditions, and the war was brought to an end. To secure their recent
+conquests, the Romans determined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at
+Placentia and Cremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded
+in B.C. 218, and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia, a road
+constructed by C. Flaminius during his consulship (B.C. 220), from Rome
+to Ariminum, secured the communication with the north of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>While the Romans were engaged in the Gallic wars, the traitor Demetrius
+of Pharos had usurped the chief power in Illyria, and had ventured upon
+many acts of piracy. In B.C. 219 the Consul L. &AElig;milius Paullus crossed
+the Adriatic, and soon brought this second Illyrian war to an end.
+Demetrius fled to Philip of Macedon, where we shall shortly afterward
+see him prompting this king to make war against Rome. The greater part
+of Illyria was restored to the native chiefs; but the Romans retained
+possession of Corcyra, and of the important towns of Apollonia and
+Oricum on the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Hamilcar had been steadily pursuing his conquests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> in Spain.
+The subjugation of this country was only a means to an end. His great
+object, as already stated, was to obtain the means of attacking, and, if
+possible, crushing that hated rival who had robbed his country of
+Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. His implacable animosity against Rome is
+shown by the well-known tale that, when he crossed over to Spain in B.C.
+235, taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years old, he made
+him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. During the eight years
+that Hamilcar continued in Spain he carried the Carthaginian arms into
+the heart of the country. While he conquered several states in war, he
+gained over others by negotiation, and availed himself of their services
+as allies or mercenaries. He fell in battle in B.C. 229, and was
+succeeded in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. His plans were
+ably carried out by his successor. The conciliatory manners of Hasdrubal
+gained him the affections of the Spaniards; and he consolidated the
+Carthaginian empire in Spain by the foundation of New Carthage, now
+Cartagena, in a situation admirably chosen on account of its excellent
+harbor and easy communication with Africa, as well as from its proximity
+to the silver mines, which supplied him with the means of paying his
+troops. The conduct of his warlike enterprises was intrusted to the
+youthful Hannibal, who had been trained in arms under the eye of his
+father, and who already displayed that ability for war which made him
+one of the most celebrated generals in ancient or modern times. The
+successes of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal could not fail to attract the notice
+of the Romans, and in B.C. 227 they concluded a treaty with the latter,
+by which the River Iberus (Ebro) was fixed as the northern boundary of
+the Carthaginian empire in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Hasdrubal was assassinated in B.C. 221 by a slave whose master he had
+put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such a remarkable ascendency
+over the army that the soldiers unanimously proclaimed him
+commander-in-chief, and the government at Carthage hastened to ratify an
+appointment which they had not, in fact, the power to prevent. Hannibal
+was at this time in the 26th year of his age. There can be no doubt that
+he already looked forward to the invasion and conquest of Italy as the
+goal of his ambition; but it was necessary for him first to complete the
+work which had been so ably begun by his two predecessors, and to
+establish the Carthaginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. This he
+accomplished in two campaigns, in the course of which he brought all the
+nations south of the Iberus into subjection to Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the spring of B.C. 219 he proceeded to lay siege to Saguntum, a
+city of Greek origin, founded by the Zacynthians. Though situated to the
+south of the Iberus, and therefore not in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>cluded under the protection of
+the treaty between Hasdrubal and the Romans, Sagantum had concluded an
+alliance with the latter people. There could be little doubt, therefore,
+that an attack upon this city would inevitably bring on a war with Rome;
+but for this Hannibal was prepared, or, rather, it was unquestionably
+his real object. The immediate pretext of his invasion was the same of
+which the Romans so often availed themselves&mdash;some injury inflicted by
+the Saguntines upon one of the neighboring tribes, who invoked the
+assistance of Hannibal. But the resistance of the city was long and
+desperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly eight months that
+he made himself master of the place. During all this period the Romans
+sent no assistance to their allies. They had, indeed, as soon as they
+heard of the siege, dispatched embassadors to Hannibal, but he referred
+them for an answer to the government at home, and they could obtain no
+satisfaction from the Carthaginians, in whose councils the war-party had
+now a decided predominance. A second embassy was sent, after the fall of
+Saguntum, to demand the surrender of Hannibal, in atonement for the
+breach of the treaty. After much discussion, Q. Fabius, one of the Roman
+embassadors, holding up a fold of his toga, said, "I carry here peace
+and war; choose ye which ye will." "Give us which you will," was the
+reply. "Then take war," said Fabius, letting fall his toga. "We accept
+the gift," cried the Senators of Carthage. Thus commenced the Second
+Punic War.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image029" name="image029">
+   <img src="images/029.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Hiero."
+      title="Coin of Hiero." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Hiero.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image030" name="image030">
+   <img src="images/030.jpg"
+      alt="Lake Trasimenus."
+      title="Lake Trasimenus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Lake Trasimenus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANN&AElig;. B.C.
+218-216.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Second Punic War was not so much a contest between the powers of two
+great nations&mdash;between Carthage and Rome&mdash;as between the individual
+genius of Hannibal on one hand, and the combined energies of the Roman
+people on the other. The position of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar.
+His command in Spain, and the powerful army there, which was entirely at
+his own disposal, rendered him in great measure independent of the
+government at Carthage, and the latter seemed disposed to devolve all
+responsibility upon him. Even now they did little themselves to prepare
+for the impending contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after the
+conquest of Saguntum, had returned once more to New Carthage for the
+winter, and was there actively engaged in preparations for transporting
+the scene of war in the ensuing campaign from Spain into Italy. At the
+same time he did not neglect to provide for the defense of Spain and
+Africa during his absence. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> former country he placed his brother
+Hasdrubal, with a considerable army, great part of which was composed of
+Africans, while he sent over a large body of Spanish troops to
+contribute to the defense of Africa, and even of Carthage itself.</p>
+
+<p>All his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted his winter
+quarters at New Carthage in the spring of B.C. 218, and crossed the
+Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. The tribes between
+that river and the Pyrenees offered at first a vigorous resistance, and,
+though they were quickly subdued, Hannibal thought it necessary to leave
+behind him a force of 11,000 men under Hanno to maintain this
+newly-acquired province. His forces were farther thinned by desertion
+during the passage of the Pyrenees, which obliged him to send home a
+large body of his Spanish troops. With a greatly diminished army, but
+one on which he could securely rely, he now continued his march from the
+foot of the Pyrenees to the Rhone without meeting with any opposition;
+for the Gaulish tribes through which he passed were favorably disposed
+to him, or had been previously gained over by his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed to Spain, but
+various causes had detained him in Italy, and upon landing at Massilia
+(Marseilles) he found that Hannibal was already advancing toward the
+Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian general effected his passage across the
+river, notwithstanding the opposition of the Gauls; and when Scipio
+marched up the left bank of the river he found that Hannibal had
+advanced into the interior of Gaul, and was already three days in
+advance of him. Despairing, therefore, of overtaking Hannibal, he
+determined to sail back to Italy and await him in Cisalpine Gaul; but as
+the Republic had already an army in that province, he sent the greater
+part of his own forces into Spain under the command of his brother Cn.
+Scipio. This prudent step probably saved Rome; for if the Carthaginians
+had maintained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have
+concentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italy, and have
+sent him such strong re-enforcements after the battle of Cann&aelig; as would
+have compelled Rome to submit.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal, after crossing the Rhone, continued his march up the left bank
+of the river as far as its confluence with the Is&egrave;re. Here he interposed
+in a dispute between two rival chiefs of the Allobroges, and, by lending
+his aid to establish one of them firmly on the throne, secured the
+co-operation of an efficient ally, who greatly facilitated his farther
+progress. But in his passage across the Alps he was attacked by the
+barbarians, and as he struggled through the narrow and dangerous defiles
+the enemy destroyed numbers of his men. It was some days before he
+reached the summit of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from
+hostile attacks, but the descent was difficult and dangerous. The
+natural difficulties of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season
+(the beginning of October, at which time the snows had already commenced
+in the high Alps), caused him almost as much loss as the opposition of
+the barbarians on the other side of the mountains. So heavy were his
+losses from these combined causes, that, when he at length emerged from
+the valley of Aosta into the plains of the Po and encamped in the
+friendly country of the Insubres, he had with him no more than 20,000
+foot and 6000 horse.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Such were the forces with which he descended
+into Italy to attempt the overthrow of a power that a few years before
+was able to muster a disposable force of above 700,000 fighting men.</p>
+
+<p>Five months had been employed in the march from New Carthage to the
+plains of Italy, of which the actual passage of the Alps had occupied
+fifteen days. Hannibal's first care was now to recruit the strength of
+his troops, exhausted by the hardships and fatigues they had undergone.
+After a short interval of repose, he turned his arms against the
+Taurinians (a tribe bordering on, and hostile to, the Insubrians), whom
+he quickly reduced, and took their principal city (Turin). The news of
+the approach of P. Scipio next obliged him to turn his attention toward
+a more formidable enemy. In the first action, which took place in the
+plains westward of the Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops of
+the two armies were alone engaged, and the superiority of Hannibal's
+Numidian horse at once decided the combat in his favor. The Romans were
+completely routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded; in consequence
+of which he hastened to retreat beyond the Ticinus and the Po, under the
+walls of Placentia. Hannibal crossed the Po higher up, and, advancing to
+Placentia, offered battle to Scipio; but the latter declined the combat,
+and withdrew to the hills on the left bank of the Trebia. Here he was
+soon after joined by the other Consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus, who had
+hastened from Ariminum to his support. Their combined armies were
+greatly superior to that of the Carthaginians, and Sempronius was eager
+to bring on a general battle, of which Hannibal, on his side, was not
+less desirous, notwithstanding the great inferiority of his force. The
+result was decisive; the Romans were completely defeated, with heavy
+loss; and the remains of their shattered army, together with the two
+Consuls, took refuge within the walls of Placentia. The battles of the
+Ticinus and Trebia had been fought in December, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> winter had
+already begun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal's troops suffered
+severely from cold, and all his elephants perished except one. But his
+victory had caused all the wavering tribes of the Gauls to declare in
+his favor, and he was now able to take up his winter quarters in
+security, and to levy fresh troops among the Gauls while he awaited the
+approach of spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image031" name="image031"></a><a href="images/031large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/031.jpg"
+      alt="Coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the History of the Punic."
+      title="Coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the History of the Punic." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the History of the Punic.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As soon as the season permitted the renewal of military operations (B.C.
+217), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian tribes, who had
+lately declared in his favor, and descended by the valley of the Macra
+into the marshes on the banks of the Arno. He had apparently chosen this
+route in order to avoid the Roman armies, which guarded the more obvious
+passes of the Apennines; but the hardships and difficulties which he
+encountered in struggling through the marshes were immense; great
+numbers of his horses and beasts of burden perished, and he himself lost
+the sight of one eye by a violent attack of ophthalmia. At length,
+however, he reached F&aelig;sul&aelig; in safety, and was able to allow his troops a
+short interval of repose.</p>
+
+<p>The Consuls for this year were Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius. The
+latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which occasioned
+the Gallic War, and in his first consulship he had gained a great
+victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>). He had been raised to his
+second consulship by popular favor, in spite of the opposition of the
+Senate; and he hurried from Rome before the Ides of March,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> lest the
+Senate might throw any obstacle in the way of his entering upon his
+consulship. He was a man of great energy, but headstrong and reckless.
+When Hannibal arrived at F&aelig;sul&aelig;, Flaminius was with his army at
+Arretium. It was always the object of Hannibal to bring the Roman
+commanders to a battle, and therefore, in moving from F&aelig;sul&aelig;, he passed
+by the Roman general, and advanced toward Perugia, laying waste the
+fertile country on his line of march. Flaminius immediately broke up his
+camp, and, following the traces of Hannibal, fell into the snare which
+was prepared for him. His army was attacked under the most
+disadvantageous circumstances, where it was hemmed in between rocky
+heights, previously occupied by the enemy, and the Lake of Trasimenus.
+Its destruction was almost complete. Thousands fell by the sword, among
+whom was the Consul himself; thousands more perished in the lake, and no
+less than 15,000 prisoners fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his
+side is said to have lost only 1500 men. Hannibal's treatment of the
+captives on this occasion, as well as after the battle of the Trebia,
+was marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> by the same policy on which he afterward uniformly acted;
+the Roman citizens alone were retained as prisoners, while their Italian
+allies were dismissed without ransom to their respective homes. By this
+means he hoped to excite the nations of Italy against their Roman
+masters, and to place himself in the position of the leader of a
+national movement rather than that of a foreign invader. It was probably
+in order to give time for this feeling to display itself that he did
+not, after so decisive a victory, push on toward Rome itself; but, after
+an unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman colony of Spoletium, he turned
+aside through the Apennines into Picenum, and thence into the northern
+part of Apulia. Here he spent a great part of the summer, and was able
+effectually to refresh his troops, who had suffered much from the
+hardships of their previous marches; but no symptoms appeared of the
+insurrections he had looked for among the Italians.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Romans had collected a fresh army, which they placed under
+the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had been elected Dictator by the
+Comitia of the Centuries. Fabius formed a different plan for the
+campaign. He determined to keep the heights, and not to risk a battle,
+but at the same time to watch the Carthaginian army, cut off its
+supplies, and harass and annoy it in every possible way. From pursuing
+this policy he received the surname of <i>Cunctator</i>, or the <i>Lingerer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the rich plains of
+Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that fertile territory.
+But he was unable either to make himself master of any of the towns, or
+to draw the wary Fabius to a battle. The Roman general contented himself
+with occupying the mountain passes leading from Samnium into Campania,
+by which Hannibal must of necessity retreat, and believed that he had
+caught him, as it were, in a trap; but Hannibal eluded his vigilance by
+an ingenious stratagem, passed the defiles of the Apennines without
+loss, and established himself in the plains of Apulia, where he
+collected supplies from all sides, in order to prepare for the winter.
+Meantime the Romans, having become impatient at the inactivity of
+Fabius, raised Minucius, the Master of the Horse, to an equality in
+command with Fabius. His rashness very nearly gave Hannibal the
+opportunity, for which he was ever on the watch, to crush the Roman army
+by a decisive blow; but Fabius was able to save his colleague from
+destruction; and Hannibal, after obtaining only a partial advantage,
+took up his winter quarters at the small town of Geronium. Minucius
+acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master of the Horse.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> an
+unusually large force into the field. The people thought that it needed
+only a man of energy and decision at the head of an overwhelming force
+to bring the war to a close. They therefore raised to the consulship C.
+Terentius Varro, said to have been the son of a butcher, who had been
+for some time regarded as the champion of the popular party. The Senate
+regarded this election with dismay, as Varro possessed no military
+experience; and they therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his
+colleague L. &AElig;milius Paullus, who had distinguished himself by the way
+in which he had conducted the Illyrian war during his consulship.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (B.C. 216), when,
+compelled to move by the want of provisions, he surprised the Roman
+magazines at Cann&aelig;, a small town of Apulia, and established his
+head-quarters there until the harvest could be got in. Meanwhile the two
+Roman Consuls arrived at the head of an army of little less than 90,000
+men. To this mighty host Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the right
+bank of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cann&aelig;. We have no statement
+of the numbers of his army, but it is certain that it must have been
+greatly inferior to that of the enemy; notwithstanding which, the
+excellence of his cavalry, and the disciplined valor of his African and
+Spanish infantry, gave him the most decisive victory. The immense army
+of the Romans was not only defeated, but annihilated, and between forty
+and fifty thousand men are said to have fallen in the field, among whom
+was the Consul &AElig;milius Paullus, both the Consuls of the preceding year,
+the late Master of the Horse, Minucius, above eighty senators, and a
+multitude of the wealthy knights who composed the Roman cavalry. The
+other Consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small
+band of resolute men forced their way from the Roman camp to Canusium;
+all the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal has
+been generally blamed for not following up his advantage at once, after
+so decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon Rome itself&mdash;a
+measure which was strongly urged upon him by Maharbal. "Only send me on
+with the cavalry," said this officer, "and within five days thou shalt
+sup in the Capitol." Whatever may be the motives that deterred Hannibal
+from marching upon Rome, we can not but be surprised at his apparent
+inactivity after the battle. He probably expected that so brilliant a
+success would immediately produce a general rising among the nations of
+Italy, and remained for a time quietly in Apulia, until they should have
+had time to declare themselves. Nor were his hopes disappointed; the
+Hirpinians, all the Samnites (except the Pentrian tribe), and almost all
+the Apulians, Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favor of Car<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>thage.
+But, though the whole of the south of Italy was thus apparently lost to
+the Romans, yet the effect of this insurrection was not so decisive as
+it would at first appear; for the Latin colonies, which still, without
+exception, remained faithful, gave the Romans a powerful hold upon the
+revolted provinces; and the Greek cities on the coast, though mostly
+disposed to join the Carthaginians, were restrained by the presence of
+Roman garrisons. Hence it became necessary to support the insurrection
+in the different parts of Italy with a Carthaginian force. Hannibal
+marched first into Samnium, and from thence into Campania, where he
+obtained possession of the important city of Capua, the gates of which
+were opened to him by the popular party. Here he established his army in
+winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war, in which
+Hannibal had met with uninterrupted success. Three great victories in
+three years, followed by the revolt of a city scarcely inferior to Rome
+itself in importance, seemed to promise a speedy termination of the war.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image032" name="image032">
+   <img src="images/032.jpg"
+      alt="Route of Hannibal. (See p. 90.)"
+      title="Route of Hannibal. (See p. 90.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Route of Hannibal. (See p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+<h4>NOTE ON HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS.</h4>
+
+<p class="center" >(See p. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.)</p>
+
+
+<p>The narrative in the text is taken from that of the Greek historian
+Polybius, which is certainly by far the most trustworthy that has
+descended to us; but that author has nowhere clearly stated by which of
+the passes across the Alps Hannibal effected his march; and this
+question has given rise to much controversy both in ancient and modern
+times. Into this discussion our limits will not allow us to enter, but
+the following may be briefly stated as the general results: 1. That
+after a careful examination of the text of Polybius, and comparison of
+the different localities, his narrative will be found, on the whole, to
+agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed the Graian Alps,
+or <i>Little St. Bernard</i>; though it can not be denied that there are some
+difficulties attending this line, especially in regard to the descent
+into Italy. 2. That C&aelig;lius Antipater certainly represented him as taking
+this route (Liv., xxi., 38); and as he is known to have followed the
+Greek history of Silenus, who is said to have accompanied Hannibal in
+many of his campaigns, his authority is of the greatest weight. 3. That
+Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose him to have crossed the
+Cottian Alps, or <i>Mont Gen&egrave;vre</i>. But the main argument that appears to
+have weighed with Livy, as it has done with several modern writers on
+the subject, is the assumption that Hannibal descended in the first
+instance into the country of the Taurinians, which is opposed to the
+direct testimony of Polybius, who says expressly that he descended among
+the Insubrians, and <i>subsequently</i> mentions his attack on the
+Taurinians. 4. That, as according to Livy himself (xxi., 29), the
+Gaulish emissaries who acted as Hannibal's guides were Boians, it was
+natural that these should conduct him by the passage that led directly
+into the territory of their allies and brothers-in-arms, the Insubrians,
+rather than into that of the Taurinians, a Ligurian tribe, who were at
+this very time in a state of hostility with the Insubrians. And this
+remark will serve to explain why Hannibal chose apparently a longer
+route, instead of the more direct one of Mont Gen&egrave;vre. Lastly, it is
+remarkable that Polybius, though he censures the exaggerations and
+absurdities with which earlier writers had encumbered their narrative,
+does not intimate that any doubt was entertained as to the line of
+march; and Pompey, in a letter to the Senate, written in 73 B.C.,
+alludes to the route of Hannibal across the Alps as something well
+known. Hence it appears clear that the passage by which he crossed them
+must have been one of those frequented in subsequent times by the
+Romans. This argument seems decisive against the claims of <i>Mont Cenis</i>,
+which have been advocated by some modern writers, that pass having
+apparently never been used till the Middle Ages&mdash;See <i>Dict. of Greek and
+Roman Biography</i>, vol. ii., p. 334, 335.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image033" name="image033">
+   <img src="images/033.jpg"
+      alt="Plain of Cannae."
+      title="Plain of Cannae." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Plain of Cann&aelig;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE BATTLE
+OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, and the enervating
+effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal became a favorite
+theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later ages. The futility of such
+declamations is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that the
+superiority of that army in the field remained as decided as ever. Still
+it may be truly said that the winter spent at Capua (B.C. 216-215) was
+in great measure the turning-point of Hannibal's fortune, and from this
+time the war assumed an altered character. The experiment of what he
+could effect with his single army had now been fully tried, and,
+notwithstanding all his victories, it had decidedly failed; for Rome was
+still unsubdued, and still provided with the means of maintaining a
+protracted contest. But Hannibal had not relied on his own forces alone,
+and he now found himself, apparently at least, in a condition to
+commence the execution of his long-cherished plan&mdash;that of arming Italy
+itself against the Romans, and crushing the ruling power by means of her
+own subjects. It was to this object that his attention was henceforth
+mainly directed. From this time, also, the Romans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> changed their plan of
+operations, and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one great army in the
+field, they hemmed in his movements on all sides, guarded all the most
+important towns with strong garrisons, and kept up an army in every
+province of Italy to thwart the operations of his lieutenants and check
+the rising disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to follow in
+detail the complicated operations of the subsequent campaigns, during
+which Hannibal himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions,
+appearing suddenly wherever his presence was called for, and astonishing
+and often baffling the enemy by the rapidity of his marches. All that we
+can do is to notice very briefly the leading events which distinguished
+each successive campaign.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of B.C. 215 was not marked by any decisive events. The
+Consuls were Q. Fabius Maximus (whose plan of conducting the war had
+been fully vindicated by the terrible defeat of Cann&aelig;) and Tiberius
+Sempronius Gracchus. With the advance of spring Hannibal took up his
+camp on Mount Tifata, where, while awaiting the arrival of
+re-enforcements from Carthage, he was at hand to support his partisans
+in Campania and oppose the Roman generals in that province. But his
+attempts on Cum&aelig; and Neapolis were foiled, and even after he had been
+joined by a force from Carthage (very inferior, however, to what he had
+expected), he sustained a repulse before Nola, which was magnified by
+the Romans into a defeat. As the winter approached he withdrew into
+Apulia, and took up his quarters in the plains around Arpi. But other
+prospects were already opening before him. In his camp on Tifata he had
+received embassies from Philip, king of Macedon, and Hieronymus of
+Syracuse, both of which he had eagerly welcomed, and thus sowed the
+seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two formidable enemies against
+the Roman power.</p>
+
+<p>These two collateral wars in some degree drew off the attention of both
+parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans still opposed to the
+Carthaginian general a chain of armies which fettered all his
+operations; and though Hannibal was ever on the watch for the
+opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign of B.C. 214 was still less
+decisive than that of the preceding year. Fabius was again elected
+Consul, and Marcellus was appointed his colleague. Early in the summer
+Hannibal advanced from Apulia to his former station on Mount Tifata to
+watch over the safety of Capua; from thence he had descended to the Lake
+Avernus, in hopes of making himself master of Puteoli, when a prospect
+was held out to him of surprising the important city of Tarentum.
+Thither he hastened by forced marches, but arrived too late; Tarentum
+had been secured by a Roman force. After this his operations were of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+little importance, until he again took up his winter quarters in Apulia.</p>
+
+<p>During the following summer (B.C. 213), while all eyes were turned
+toward the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost wholly inactive in
+the neighborhood of Tarentum, the hopes he still entertained of making
+himself master of that important city rendering him unwilling to quit
+that quarter of Italy. Before the close of the ensuing winter he was
+rewarded with the long-looked-for prize, and Tarentum was betrayed into
+his hands by two of its citizens. The advantage, however, was
+incomplete, for a Roman garrison still held possession of the citadel,
+from which he was unable to dislodge them. The next year (B.C. 212) was
+marked by important events in Sicily and Spain, to which we must now
+direct our attention.</p>
+
+<p>Hiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the battle
+of Cann&aelig; (B.C. 216), and was succeeded by his grandson Hieronymus, a
+vain youth, who abandoned the alliance of Rome for that of Carthage. But
+he was assassinated after a reign of fifteen months, and a republican
+form of government was established in Syracuse. A contest ensued between
+the Roman and Carthaginian parties in Syracuse, but the former
+ultimately prevailed, and Epicydes and Hippocrates, two brothers whom
+Hannibal had sent to Syracuse to espouse his interests, had to quit the
+city, and took refuge at Leontini. Such was the state of affairs when
+the Consul Marcellus arrived in Sicily (B.C. 214). He forthwith marched
+against Leontini, which Epicydes and Hippocrates defended with a
+considerable force. He took the city by storm, and, though he spared the
+inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Roman deserters whom he found
+among the troops that had formed the garrison. This sanguinary act at
+once alienated the minds of the Sicilians, and alarmed the mercenary
+troops in the service of Syracuse. The latter immediately joined
+Hippocrates and Epicydes, who had made their escape to Herbessus; the
+gates of Syracuse were opened to them by their partisans within the
+walls, and the party hostile to Rome was thus established in the
+undisputed command of that city. Marcellus now appeared before Syracuse
+at the head of his army, and, after a fruitless summons to the
+inhabitants, proceeded to lay siege to the city both by sea and land.
+His attacks were vigorous and unremitting, and were directed especially
+against the quarter of Achradina<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> from the side of the sea; but,
+though he brought many powerful military engines against the walls,
+these were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and science
+of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> the besieged. All the
+efforts of the assailants were baffled; and the Roman soldiers were
+inspired with so great a dread of Archimedes and his engines,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> that
+Marcellus was compelled to give up all hopes of carrying the city by
+open force, and to turn the siege into a blockade. The siege was
+prolonged far on into the summer of B.C. 212, nor did there appear any
+prospect of its termination, as the communications of the besieged by
+sea were almost entirely open. In this state of things Marcellus
+fortunately discovered a part of the walls more accessible than the
+rest; and, having prepared scaling ladders, effected an entrance at this
+point during the night which followed a great festival, and thus made
+himself master of Epipol&aelig;. The two quarters called Tych&eacute; and Neapolis
+were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder; but Epicydes still
+held the island-citadel and the important quarter of Achradina, which
+formed two separate and strong fortresses. Marcellus, however, made
+himself master of the fort of Euryalus, and had closely invested
+Achradina, when the Carthaginian army under Himilco and Hippocrates
+advanced to the relief of the city. Their efforts were, however, in
+vain; all their attacks on the camp of Marcellus were repulsed, and they
+were unable to effect a junction with Epicydes and the Syracusan
+garrison. The unhealthiness of the country soon gave rise to a
+pestilence which carried off both the Carthaginian generals and led to
+the entire break-up of the army. Shortly afterward the treachery of a
+leader of Spanish mercenaries in the Syracusan service opened to
+Marcellus the gates of Achradina, and in the general attack that ensued
+he made himself master of the island of Ortygia also. The city was given
+up to plunder, and Archimedes was slain by a Roman soldier, being so
+intent upon a mathematical problem at the time that he did not answer a
+question that was asked him. He was deeply regretted by Marcellus, who
+gave orders for his burial, and befriended his surviving relatives.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>The booty found in the captured city was immense: besides the money in
+the royal treasury, which was set apart for the coffers of the state,
+Marcellus carried off many of the works of art with which the city had
+been adorned, to grace his own triumph and the temples at Rome. This was
+the first instance of a practice which afterward became so general; and
+it gave great offense not only to the Greeks of Sicily, but to a large
+party at Rome itself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately, by the
+subjugation of the whole island by the Romans; but these successes were
+counterbalanced by the defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain. We
+have already seen that P. Scipio, when he landed at Massilia and found
+himself unable to overtake Hannibal in Gaul, sent his brother Cneius
+with the army into Spain, while he himself returned to Italy. In the
+following year (B.C. 217) Publius himself crossed over into Spain, where
+he found that his brother had already obtained a firm footing. They
+continued in Spain for several years, during which they gained many
+victories, and prevented Hasdrubal from marching into Italy to support
+his victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled to Africa to oppose
+Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, who was carrying on war against
+Carthage, the Scipios availed themselves of his absence to strengthen
+their power still farther. They gained over new tribes to the Roman
+cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians into their pay, and felt themselves so
+strong in B.C. 212 that they resolved to cross the Iberus and to make a
+vigorous effort to drive the Carthaginians out of Spain. They
+accordingly divided their forces; but the result was fatal. Publius was
+destroyed, with the greater part of his troops; and Cneius was also
+defeated, and fell in battle, twenty-nine days after the death of his
+brother. These victories seemed to establish the superiority of Carthage
+in Spain, and open the way for Hasdrubal to join his brother in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy (B.C. 212) the two Consuls Appius Claudius and Q. Fulvius began
+to draw together their forces for the purpose of besieging Capua.
+Hannibal advanced to relieve it, and compelled the Consuls to withdraw;
+but he was unable to force either of them to fight. Shortly afterward he
+returned again to the south to urge on the siege of the citadel of
+Tarentum, which still held out; and he spent the winter and the whole of
+the ensuing spring (B.C. 211) in its immediate neighborhood. But during
+his absence the Consuls had renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted
+it with such activity, that they had succeeded in surrounding the city
+with a double line of intrenchments. The pressing danger once more
+summoned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented himself before
+the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from without, while the
+garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous sally from the walls. Both
+attacks were however repulsed, and Hannibal, foiled in his attempt to
+raise the siege by direct means, determined on the bold man&#339;uvre of
+marching directly upon Rome itself, in hopes of thus compelling the
+Consuls to abandon their designs upon Capua, in order to provide for the
+defense of the city. But this daring scheme was again frustrated; the
+appearance of Hanni<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>bal before the gates of Rome for a moment struck
+terror through the city; but a considerable body of troops was at the
+time within the walls; and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of
+Hannibal's march, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from
+Capua, while he still left with the other Consul a force amply
+sufficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed in the
+main object of his advance, and he had no means of effecting any thing
+against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius confined themselves
+strictly to the defensive, allowing him to ravage the whole country
+without opposition, up to the very walls of Rome. Nothing therefore
+remained for him but to retreat, and he accordingly recrossed the Anio,
+and marched slowly and sullenly through the land of the Sabines and
+Samnites, ravaging the country which he traversed. From thence he
+retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua to its fate. The city soon after
+surrendered to the Romans. Its punishment was terrible. All the leaders
+of the insurrection were beheaded; the chief men were imprisoned; and
+the rest of the people were sold. The city and its territory were
+confiscated, and became part of the Roman domain.</p>
+
+<p>The commencement of the next season (B.C. 210) was marked by the fall of
+Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to Marcellus; but this
+loss was soon avenged by the total defeat and destruction of the army of
+the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. The Consul Marcellus, on his
+part, carefully avoided an action for the rest of the campaign, while he
+harassed his opponent by every possible means. Thus the rest of that
+summer too wore away without any important results. But this state of
+comparative inactivity was necessarily injurious to the cause of
+Hannibal; the nations of Italy that had espoused that cause when
+triumphant now began to waver in their attachment; and in the course of
+the following summer (B.C. 209) the Samnites and Lucanians submitted to
+Rome, and were admitted to favorable terms. A still more disastrous blow
+to the Carthaginian cause was the loss of Tarentum, which was betrayed
+into the hands of Fabius, as it had been into those of Hannibal. In vain
+did the latter seek to draw the Roman general into a snare; the wary
+Fabius eluded his toils. The recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit
+in the military life of the aged Fabius, and was a noble completion to
+his long list of achievements. From the time of the battle of Cann&aelig; he
+had directed almost exclusively the councils of his country, and his
+policy had been pre-eminently successful; but the times now demanded
+bolder measures, and something else was necessary than the caution of
+the Lingerer to bring the war to a close.</p>
+
+<p>After the fall of Tarentum Hannibal still traversed the open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> country
+unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies. Yet we can not
+suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate success from any efforts
+of his own; his object was doubtless now only to maintain his ground in
+the south until his brother Hasdrubal should appear in the north of
+Italy, an event to which he had long anxiously looked forward. Yet the
+following summer (B.C. 208) was marked by some brilliant achievements.
+The two Consuls, Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to Hannibal
+in Lucania, allowed themselves to be led into an ambush, in which
+Marcellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally wounded. Marcellus was one
+of the ablest of the Roman generals. Hannibal displayed a generous
+sympathy for his fate, and caused due honors to be paid to his remains.</p>
+
+<p>The following year (B.C. 207) decided the issue of the war in Italy. The
+war in Spain during the last few years had been carried on with
+brilliant success by the young P. Scipio, of whose exploits we shall
+speak presently. But in B.C. 208, Hasdrubal, leaving the two other
+Carthaginian generals to make head against Scipio, resolved to set out
+for Italy to the assistance of his brother. As Scipio was in undisputed
+possession of the province north of the Iberus, and had secured the
+passes of the Pyrenees on that side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains
+near their western extremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul. After
+spending a winter in that country, he prepared to cross the Alps in the
+spring of B.C. 207, and to descend into Italy. The two Consuls for this
+year were C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius. Nero marched into Southern
+Italy to keep a watch upon Hannibal; Livius took up his quarters at
+Ariminum to oppose Hasdrubal. The latter experienced little loss or
+difficulty in crossing the Alps. The season of the year was favorable,
+and the Gauls were friendly to his cause. But instead of pushing on at
+once into the heart of Italy, he allowed himself to be engaged in the
+siege of Placentia, and lost much precious time in fruitless efforts to
+reduce that colony. When at length he abandoned the enterprise, he sent
+messengers to Hannibal to apprize him of his movements, and concert
+measures for their meeting in Umbria. But his dispatches fell into the
+hands of the Consul Nero, who formed the bold resolution of instantly
+marching with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, and fall
+upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal could receive
+any information of his brother's movements. Nero executed his design
+with equal secrecy and rapidity. Hannibal knew nothing of his departure,
+and in a week's time Nero marched 250 miles to Sena, where his colleague
+was encamped in presence of Hasdrubal. He entered the camp of Livius in
+the night, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> his arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians.
+After a day's rest the two Consuls proceeded to offer battle; but
+Hasdrubal, perceiving the augmented numbers of the Romans, and hearing
+the trumpet sound twice, felt convinced that the Consuls had united
+their forces, and that his brother had been defeated. He therefore
+declined the combat, and in the following night commenced his retreat
+toward Ariminum. The Romans pursued him, and he found himself compelled
+to give them battle on the right bank of the Metaurus. On this occasion
+Hasdrubal displayed all the qualities of a consummate general; but his
+forces were greatly inferior to those of the enemy, and his Gaulish
+auxiliaries were of little service. The gallant resistance of the
+Spanish and Ligurian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the Romans;
+but all was of no avail, and seeing the battle irretrievably lost, he
+rushed into the midst of the enemy, and fell, sword in hand, in a manner
+worthy of the son of Hamilcar and the brother of Hannibal. The Consul
+Nero hastened back to Apulia almost as speedily as he had come, and
+announced to Hannibal the defeat and death of his brother by throwing
+into his camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. "I recognize," said
+Hannibal, sadly, "the doom of Carthage."</p>
+
+<p>The victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, decisive of
+the fate of the war in Italy, and the conduct of Hannibal shows that he
+felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned all thoughts of
+offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons from Metapontum and
+other towns that he still held in Lucania, collected together his forces
+within the peninsula of the Bruttii. In the fastnesses of that wild and
+mountainous region he maintained his ground for nearly four years, while
+the towns that he still possessed on the coast gave him the command of
+the sea.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image034" name="image034">
+   <img src="images/034.jpg"
+      alt="Hannibal."
+      title="Hannibal." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Hannibal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>SECOND PUNIC WAR. THIRD PERIOD: FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE
+CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.</h3>
+
+
+<p>After the battle of the Metaurus, the chief interest of the war was
+transferred to Spain and Africa. The Roman armies were led by a youthful
+hero, perhaps the greatest man that Rome ever produced, with the
+exception of Julius C&aelig;sar. The remaining period of the war is little
+more than the history of P. Scipio. This extraordinary man was the son
+of P. Scipio, who fell in Spain in B.C. 212, as already related. In his
+early years he acquired, to an extraordinary extent, the confidence and
+admiration of his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe
+that he was a special favorite of heaven; and he never engaged in any
+public or private business without first going to the Capitol, where he
+sat some time alone, enjoying communion with the gods. For all he
+proposed or executed he alleged the divine approval: he believed himself
+in the revelations which he asserted had been vouchsafed to him; and the
+extraordinary success which attended all his enterprises deepened this
+belief.</p>
+
+<p>P. Scipio is first mentioned in B.C. 218 at the battle of the
+Ticinus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father,
+though he was then only 17 years of age. He fought at Cann&aelig; two years
+afterward (B.C. 216), when he was already a tribune of the soldiers, and
+was one of the few Roman officers who survived that fatal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> day. He was
+chosen along with Appius Claudius to command the remains of the army,
+which had taken refuge at Canusium; and it was owing to his youthful
+heroism and presence of mind that the Roman nobles, who had thought of
+leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their rash
+project into effect. He had already gained the favor of the people to
+such an extent that he was unanimously elected &AElig;dile in B.C. 212. On
+this occasion he gave indications of the proud spirit, and of the
+disregard of all the forms of law, which distinguished him throughout
+life; for when the tribunes objected to the election, because he was not
+of the legal age, he haughtily replied, "If all the Quirites wish to
+make me &AElig;dile, I am old enough." After the death of Scipio's father and
+uncle, C. Nero was sent out as Propr&aelig;tor to supply their place; but
+shortly afterward the Senate resolved to increase the army in Spain, and
+to place it under the command of a Proconsul to be elected by the
+people. But when they were assembled for this purpose, none of the
+generals of experience ventured to apply for so dangerous a command. At
+length Scipio, who was then barely twenty-four, to the surprise of every
+one, offered himself as a candidate. But the confidence which he felt in
+himself he communicated to the people, and he was accordingly chosen
+with enthusiasm to take the command.</p>
+
+<p>Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of B.C. 210. He found that the
+three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal, son of Barca, Hasdrubal, son of
+Gisco, and Mago, were not on good terms, and were at the time engaged in
+separate enterprises in distant parts of the peninsula. Instead of
+attacking any of them singly, he formed the project of striking a deadly
+blow at the Carthaginian power by a sudden and unexpected attack upon
+New Carthage. He gave the command of the fleet to his intimate friend
+L&aelig;lius, to whom alone he intrusted the secret of the expedition, while
+he led the land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The
+project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian garrison did
+not amount to more than a thousand men, and before any succor could
+arrive New Carthage was taken by assault. The hostages who had been
+given by the various Spanish tribes to the Carthaginians had been placed
+for security in the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who
+treated them with kindness; and the hostages of those people who
+declared themselves in favor of the Romans were restored without ransom.
+Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines of arms, corn, and other
+necessaries, for the Carthaginians had there deposited their principal
+stores.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. Many of
+the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> when Scipio
+took the field in the following year (B.C. 209) Mandonius and Indibilis,
+two of the most powerful and hitherto the most faithful supporters of
+Carthage, quitted the camp of Hasdrubal Barca, and awaited the arrival
+of the Roman commander. Hasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near
+the town of B&aelig;cula, in the upper valley of the B&aelig;tis (Guadalquiver),
+where he was attacked and defeated by Scipio. He succeeded, however, in
+making good his retreat, and retired into northern Spain. He
+subsequently crossed the Pyrenees, and marched into Italy to the
+assistance of his brother Hannibal, as already narrated.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 207 Scipio gained possession of nearly the whole of Spain, by a
+decisive victory near a place variously called Silpia or Elinga, but the
+position of which is quite uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and Mago, took refuge within the walls of
+Gades, which was almost the only place that now belonged to the
+Carthaginians; and all the native chiefs hastened to acknowledge the
+supremacy of Rome. But the victories of Scipio had had but a small share
+in winning Spain. His personal influence had won far more people than
+his arms had conquered. He had gained such an ascendency over the
+Spaniards by his humanity and courage, his courtesy and energy, that
+they were ready to lay down their lives for him, and wished to make him
+their king.</p>
+
+<p>The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a means to an
+end. He had formed the project of transferring the war to Africa, and
+thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. He
+therefore resolved, before returning to Rome, to cross over into Africa,
+and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of some of the
+native princes. His personal influence had already secured the
+attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the Massylians, or
+Western Numidians, who was serving in the Carthaginian army in Spain;
+and he trusted that the same personal ascendency might gain the more
+powerful support of Syphax, the king of the Mass&aelig;sylians, or Eastern
+Numidians. With only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province
+and repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old adversary,
+Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, who had crossed over from Gades for the same
+purpose; and the two generals spent several days together in friendly
+intercourse. Scipio made a great impression upon Syphax; but the charms
+of Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in
+marriage to Syphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax
+married her, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally of
+the Carthaginians.</p>
+
+<p>During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection had broken
+out in Spain; but on his return it was speedily put down,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> and terrible
+vengeance was inflicted upon the town of Illiturgis, which had taken the
+principal share in the revolt. Scarcely had this danger passed away when
+Scipio was seized with a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman
+soldiers, discontented with not having received their usual pay, availed
+themselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny; but Scipio
+quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy. He crushed the last
+remains of the insurrection in Spain; and to crown his other successes,
+Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. Mago had quitted Spain, and
+crossed over into Liguria, to effect a diversion in favor of his brother
+Hannibal, and there was therefore now no longer any enemy left in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Scipio returned to Rome in B.C. 206, and immediately offered himself as
+a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for the following year
+(B.C. 205) by the unanimous votes of all the centuries, although he had
+not yet filled the office of Pr&aelig;tor, and was only 30 years of age. His
+colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus, who could not,
+therefore, leave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on
+abroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. The
+latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the contest to
+an end at the gates of Carthage; but the older members of the Senate,
+and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed the project, partly through
+timidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All that
+Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permission to
+invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage of the Republic;
+but the Senate resolutely refused him an army, thus making the
+permission of no practical use. The allies had a truer view of the
+interests of Italy than the Roman Senate; from all the towns of Italy
+volunteers flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. The Senate
+could not refuse to allow him to enlist these volunteers; and such was
+the enthusiasm in his favor that he was able to cross over to Sicily
+with an army and a fleet, contrary to the expectations and even the
+wishes of the Senate. While busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent
+over L&aelig;lius to Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of
+co-operation with Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly
+succeeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had no authority
+in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of Locri, and after the
+conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius in command. The latter had
+been guilty of such acts of excesses against the inhabitants, that they
+sent an embassy to Rome to complain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus
+eagerly availed himself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against
+the conduct of Scipio, and to urge his im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>mediate recall. Scipio's
+magnificent style of living, and his love of Greek literature and art,
+were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations upon old Roman
+manners and frugality. It was asserted that the time which ought to be
+given to the exercise and the training of his troops was wasted in the
+Greek gymnasia or in literary pursuits. Though the Senate lent a willing
+ear to these attacks, they did not venture upon his immediate recall,
+but sent a commission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army.
+During the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations;
+and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his army
+and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners were
+astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to return to Rome,
+they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, in B.C. 204, Scipio, who was now Proconsul, sailed from
+Lilyb&aelig;um and landed in Africa, not far from Utica. He was immediately
+joined by Masinissa, who rendered him the most important services in the
+war. He commenced the campaign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his
+quarters on a projecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot
+which long bore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the
+Carthaginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under the
+command of Hasdrubal, son of Cisco, Scipio's old opponent in Spain; and
+Syphax came to their assistance with a great force.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of B.C. 203 Scipio planned a night-attack upon the two
+camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With the assistance of
+Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with success: the two camps were
+burned to the ground, and only a few of the enemy escaped the fire and
+the sword. Among these, however, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax; the
+former fled to Carthage, where he persuaded the Senate to raise another
+army, and the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he
+likewise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again
+defeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his appearance
+again in Carthage, and Syphax once more fled into Numidia. Scipio did
+not give the Numidian prince any repose; he was pursued by L&aelig;lius and
+Masinissa, and finally taken prisoner. Among the captives who fell into
+their hands was Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long
+loved, and had expected to marry when she was given to his rival.
+Masinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity, but, to
+prevent her falling into the hands of the Romans, determined to marry
+her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly celebrated without delay;
+but Scipio, fearful of the influence which she might exercise over his
+ally, sternly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> upbraided him with his weakness, and insisted on the
+immediate surrender of the princess. Unable to resist this command,
+Masinissa spared her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl
+of poison, which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to
+her own life.</p>
+
+<p>These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that they resolved
+to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted Italy in B.C. 203, to the
+great joy of the Romans. For more than 15 years had he carried on the
+war in that country, laying it waste from one extremity to another; and
+during all this period his superiority in the field had been
+uncontested. The Romans calculated that in these 15 years their losses
+in the field alone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men; a
+statement which will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the
+continued combats in which they were engaged by their ever-watchful foe.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Carthaginians
+revived, and they looked forward to a favorable termination of the war.
+Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of the real state of affairs;
+he saw that the loss of a battle would be the ruin of Carthage, and he
+was therefore anxious to conclude a peace before it was too late.
+Scipio, who was eager to have the glory of bringing the war to a close,
+and who feared lest his enemies in the Senate might appoint him a
+successor, was equally desirous of a peace. The terms, however, which
+the Roman general proposed seemed intolerable to the Carthaginians; and
+as Hannibal, at a personal interview with Scipio, could not obtain any
+abatement of the hard conditions, he was forced, against his will, to
+continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which are related
+very differently, our limits will not permit us to enter. The decisive
+battle was at length fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, on the
+Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama; and Hannibal, according to the
+express testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occasion all the
+qualities of a consummate general. But he was now particularly deficient
+in that formidable cavalry which had so often decided the victory in his
+favor; his elephants, of which he had a great number, were rendered
+unavailing by the skillful management of Scipio; and the battle ended in
+his complete defeat, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran
+infantry. Twenty thousand of his men fell on the field of battle, as
+many were made prisoners, and Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped
+the pursuit of Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first
+to admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the
+impossibility of the farther prosecution of the war. The terms, however,
+now imposed by Scipio were much more se<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>vere than before. Carthage had
+no alternative but submission; but the negotiations were continued for
+some time, and a final treaty was not concluded till the following year
+(B.C. 201). By this treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to
+preserve their independence and territory in Africa, but to give up all
+claims to any foreign possessions; that they were to surrender all
+prisoners and deserters, all their ships of war except ten triremes, and
+all their elephants; that they were not to make war in Africa, or out of
+Africa, without the consent of Rome; that they were to acknowledge
+Masinissa as king of Numidia; that they were to pay 10,000 talents in
+silver in the course of fifty years.</p>
+
+<p>Scipio returned to Italy in B.C. 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He
+was received with universal enthusiasm; the surname of Africanus was
+conferred upon him, and the people, in their gratitude, were anxious to
+distinguish him with the most extraordinary marks of honor. It is
+related that they wished to make him Consul and Dictator for life, and
+to erect his statue in the Comitia, the Senate-house, and even in the
+Capitol, but that he prudently declined all these invidious
+distinctions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image035" name="image035">
+   <img src="images/035.jpg"
+      alt="The Capitoline Wolf."
+      title="The Capitoline Wolf." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Capitoline Wolf.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image036" name="image036">
+   <img src="images/036.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Antiochus the Great."
+      title="Coin of Antiochus the Great." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Antiochus the Great.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<h3>WARS IN THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS. B.C.
+214-188.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Second Punic War made the Romans undisputed masters of the western
+shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica were Roman
+provinces; Spain owned the Roman supremacy; Carthage was completely
+humbled, and her powerful neighbor Masinissa was the steadfast ally of
+Rome. The Roman Republic was now the most powerful state in the ancient
+world. Her legions had been trained to war by long struggles with Gauls,
+Spaniards, and Africans, and were superior to all other troops in
+discipline, experience, and valor. She now naturally turned her eyes
+toward the East, whose effeminate nations seemed to offer an easy
+conquest.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of Alexander the
+Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The mighty kingdom of SYRIA,
+which had once extended from the Indus to the &AElig;gean Sea, had now lost
+some of its fairest provinces. The greater part of Asia Minor no longer
+owned the authority of the Syrian kings. PONTUS was governed by its own
+rulers. A large body of Gauls had settled in the northern part of
+Phrygia, which district was now called GALATIA after them. A new kingdom
+was founded in Mysia, to which the name of PERGAMUS was given from its
+chief city; and Attalus, who was king of Pergamus during the Second
+Punic War, formed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Syria
+and Macedonia. The king of Syria at this time was Antiochus III., who,
+from his victory over the Parthians, had received the surname of the
+Great.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>EGYPT was governed by the Greek monarchs who bore the name of Ptolemy.
+They had, even as early as the time of Pyrrhus, formed an alliance with
+Rome (see p. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>). The kingdom had since declined in power, and upon the
+death of Ptolemy IV., surnamed Philopator, in B.C. 205, the ministers of
+his infant son Ptolemy Epiphanes, dreading the ambitious designs of
+the Macedonian and Syrian kings, placed him under the protection of the
+Roman Senate, who consented to become his guardians.</p>
+
+<p>The Republic of RHODES was the chief maritime power in the &AElig;gean Sea. It
+extended its dominion over a portion of the opposite coasts of Caria and
+Lycia, and over several of the neighboring islands. Like the king of
+Pergamus, the Rhodians had formed an alliance with Rome as a protection
+against Macedonia.</p>
+
+<p>MACEDONIA was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time by Philip
+V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended the throne in B.C.
+220, at the early age of seventeen. His dominion extended over the
+greater part of Greece; but two new powers had sprung up since the death
+of Alexander, which served as some counterpoise to the Macedonian
+supremacy. Of these the most important was the ACH&AElig;AN LEAGUE, which
+embraced Corinth, Arcadia, and the greater part of the Peloponnesus.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+The &AElig;TOLIAN LEAGUE included at this time a considerable portion of
+Central Greece. ATHENS and SPARTA still retained their independence, but
+with scarcely a shadow of their former greatness and power.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the state of the Eastern world when it came into contact with
+the arms of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen that during the Second Punic War Philip had been
+engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic. Demetrius of Pharos, who
+had been driven by the Romans from his Illyrian dominions,[37] had taken
+refuge at the court of Philip, and soon acquired unbounded influence
+over the mind of the young king. This wily Greek urged him to take up
+arms against the grasping Republic; and the ambition of Philip was still
+farther excited by the victories of Hannibal. After the battle of Cann&aelig;
+(B.C. 216) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal; but, instead of
+supporting the Carthaginian army and fleet, his proceedings were marked
+by an unaccountable degree of hesitation and delay. It was not till B.C.
+214 that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, and laid siege to
+Oricus and Apollonia, which the Romans had retained possession of at the
+close of the Illyrian war.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> He succeeded in taking Oricus; but the
+arrival of a small Roman force, under the command of M. Valerius
+L&aelig;vinus, compelled him to raise the siege of Apollonia, and to burn his
+own ships to prevent their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> falling into the hands of the enemy. For the
+next three years the war was carried on with unaccountable slackness on
+both sides; but in B.C. 211 it assumed a new character in consequence of
+the alliance which the Romans formed with the &AElig;tolian League. Into the
+details of the campaigns which followed it is unnecessary to enter; but
+the attention of the Romans was soon afterward directed to affairs in
+Spain, and the &AElig;tolians were left almost alone to cope with Philip. The
+Ach&aelig;ans also joined Philip against the &AElig;tolians, and the latter people
+were so hard pressed that they were glad to make peace with the
+Macedonian king. Shortly afterward the Romans, who were desirous of
+turning their undivided attention to the invasion of Africa, also
+concluded peace with him (B.C. 205).</p>
+
+<p>The peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War, was probably
+regarded by both parties as little more than a suspension of
+hostilities. Philip even went so far as to send to the Carthaginians in
+Africa a body of 4000 men, who fought at Zama under the command of
+Hannibal. At the same time he proceeded to carry out his plans for his
+own aggrandizement in Greece, with out any regard to the Roman alliances
+in that country. In order to establish his naval supremacy in the &AElig;gean
+Sea, he attacked the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, both of
+whom were allies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with
+Antiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian
+monarchy, which was placed under the guardianship of the Roman people.</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible for the Senate to pass over these acts of hostility,
+and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of the Second Punic
+War, the Consul P. Sulpicius Galba proposed to the Comitia of the
+Centuries that war should be declared against Philip. But the people
+longed for repose, and rejected the proposition by the almost unanimous
+vote of every century. It was only by the most earnest remonstrance, and
+by representing to them that, unless they attacked Philip in Greece, he
+would invade Italy, like Hannibal, that they were induced to reverse
+their decision and declare war (B.C. 200).</p>
+
+<p>Philip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which had joined
+Attalus and the Rhodians. The Consul Galba crossed over to Epirus, and
+Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet; but before he withdrew, Philip,
+prompted by anger and revenge, displayed his barbarism by destroying the
+gardens and buildings in the suburbs, including the Lyecum and the
+tombs of the Attic heroes; and in a second incursion which he made with
+large re-enforcements he committed still greater excesses. For some
+time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> however, the war lingered on without any decided success on
+either side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in B.C. 199,
+effected nothing of importance, and it was not till the appointment of
+the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to the command that the war was
+earned on with energy and vigor (B.C. 198). He forced his way through
+the passes of Antigonea, which were occupied by the enemy, invaded
+Thessaly, and took up his winter quarters in Phocis and Locris. In the
+following year (B.C. 197) the struggle was brought to a termination by
+the battle of Cynoscephal&aelig; (Dogs' Heads), a range of hills near
+Scotussa, in Thessaly. The Roman legions gained an easy victory over the
+once formidable Macedonian phalanx: 8000 Macedonians were killed and
+5000 taken prisoners, while Flamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was
+obliged to sue for peace, and in the following year (B.C. 196) a treaty
+was ratified by which the Macedonians were compelled to renounce their
+supremacy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian towns, to
+surrender their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the
+war, half at once, and half by annual instalments in the course of ten
+years. Thus ended the SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.</p>
+
+<p>At the ensuing Isthmian games, which were celebrated at Corinth in the
+summer of this year, Flamininus was present, and a herald at his command
+solemnly proclaimed the independence and freedom of Greece. This
+unexpected news was received with overwhelming gratitude and joy; the
+throngs of people that crowded round Flamininus to catch a sight of
+their liberator, or to touch his garment, were so enormous as almost to
+endanger his life. Flamininus remained two years longer in Greece in
+order to settle the affairs of the country. He seems to have been
+actuated by a sincere desire to restore the internal peace and welfare
+of Greece; and whenever his actions appear at variance with this object,
+he was under the influence of the policy of the Republic. Thus, though
+he made war upon Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and deprived him of the
+southern portion of Laconia, he did not expel him from Sparta, that he
+might serve as a useful check upon the Ach&aelig;ans. When Flamininus returned
+to Italy in B.C. 194, he withdrew the Roman garrisons from all the
+Grecian towns, even from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, the three
+strongest fortresses in the country, which were called the Fetters of
+Greece. On his departure he convoked an assembly of the Greeks at
+Corinth, in which he exhorted them to use their freedom wisely, and to
+remain faithful to Rome. Flamininus had been absent five years. His
+reputation was second only to that of Scipio Africanus. His triumph,
+which was most magnificent, lasted three days.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an alliance with
+Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great, for the dismemberment
+of the Egyptian monarchy. During the war between Philip and the Romans,
+Antiochus had occupied Asia Minor, and was preparing to cross into
+Greece. Upon the conclusion of this war, Flamininus sternly forbade him
+to set foot in Europe, and for a time he shrank from a contest with the
+victorious arms of Rome. But the &AElig;tolians, who had fought on the Roman
+side, were discontented with the arrangements of Flamininus. Their
+arrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory of
+Cynoscephal&aelig;, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the spoils of
+the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before the &AElig;tolians
+endeavored to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antiochus to enter into a
+league against the Romans. Philip at once refused, but Nabis took up
+arms, and Antiochus willingly entered into the designs of the &AElig;tolians.
+At this time Hannibal appeared as an exile at the Syrian court. After
+the Second Punic War he had set himself to work, like his father
+Hamilcar at the end of the previous war, to prepare means for renewing
+the contest at no distant period. He introduced various reforms in the
+constitution, and seems to have deprived the Oligarchy of their
+exclusive power; but they avenged themselves by denouncing him to the
+Romans as engaged in negotiations with Antiochus to induce him to take
+up arms against Rome. The Senate sent envoys to Carthage to inquire into
+these charges; and Hannibal, seeing that his enemies were too strong for
+him, secretly took flight, and reached the court of Antiochus in safety.
+He was received with the highest honors, and urged the king to place an
+army at his disposal with which he might invade Italy. But Antiochus was
+persuaded by the &AElig;tolians to cross over into Greece, and accordingly
+landed at Demetrias in Thessaly in B.C. 192. The Romans now declared war
+against Antiochus, and in the following year (B.C. 191) the Consul
+Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly. The king had intrenched himself
+in the passes of Thermopyl&aelig;, that he might prevent the Romans from
+penetrating into Central Greece. But there was, as is well known, a
+difficult passage across Mount &#338;ta, by which the Persians had
+descended to fight with Leonidas. This passage was now forced by M.
+Cato, who was serving as one of the Consul's lieutenants, and as soon as
+he appeared in the rear of the Syrian army they fled in confusion, and
+the battle was won. Antiochus now hastened back to Asia, abandoning all
+farther hopes of conquest in Greece. As soon as he had placed the sea
+between himself and the Romans he thought that he was safe; but
+Hanni<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>bal warned him of his error, and said that he wondered that the
+Romans had not already followed him.</p>
+
+<p>Next year (B.C. 190) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the great
+Africanus, and C. L&aelig;lius, the intimate friend of the latter, were
+Consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the command of the war against
+Antiochus; but the Senate had not much confidence in his ability, and it
+was only in consequence of his brother Africanus offering to serve under
+him as his lieutenant that he obtained the command which he desired.
+Meantime Antiochus had collected a vast army from all parts of his
+dominions, and, advancing northward from Ephesus, laid waste the kingdom
+of Pergamus. But upon the approach of the Roman army, which entered Asia
+by crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus retreated southward; and the
+decisive battle was fought near Magnesia, at the foot of Mount Sipylus.
+The Romans obtained an easy and bloodless victory over the vast but
+disorderly rabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 Romans fell, while
+Antiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave up the contest in despair,
+and humbly sued for peace. The conditions were hard. He had to cede all
+his dominions west of Mount Taurus (that is, the whole of Asia Minor),
+to pay 15,000 Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his
+elephants and ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans Hannibal and
+some others who had taken refuge at his court. Hannibal foresaw his
+danger, and made his escape to Crete, from whence he afterward repaired
+to the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia.</p>
+
+<p>L. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing with him
+enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he assumed the surname
+of ASIATICUS.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans were now at leisure to punish the &AElig;tolians, who had to make
+head against the Romans by themselves. The Consul M. Fulvius Nobilior
+(B.C. 189) took their chief town, Ambracia, after an obstinate
+resistance, and compelled them to sue for peace. This was granted, but
+on the most humiliating conditions. They were required to acknowledge
+the supremacy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests they had recently
+made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid
+the Romans in their wars. The power of the &AElig;tolian league was thus
+forever crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till
+a much later period.</p>
+
+<p>The colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Vulso, who had
+received Asia as his province, that he might conclude the peace which
+his predecessor, Scipio Asiaticus, had made with Antiochus, and arrange
+the affairs of Asia. But Manlius was not content with the subordinate
+part allotted to him; and being anx<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>ious for booty as much as for glory,
+he attacked the Galatians in Asia Minor, without waiting for any
+instructions from the Senate, and in direct opposition to the ten
+commissioners who had been sent to arrange conjointly with him the
+affairs of Asia. This was the first instance in which a Roman general
+had made war without the authority of the Senate or the People; a
+dangerous precedent, which was afterward only too faithfully followed.
+The Galatians were, as has been already said, a body of Gauls, who,
+after laying waste a great part of Asia Minor, had settled in the north
+of Phrygia. They had fought in the army of Antiochus at Magnesia, and
+this supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching against them. He
+defeated them in two battles, and compelled them to sue for peace. The
+campaign greatly enriched Manlius and his legions, as the Gauls had
+accumulated enormous wealth by their many conquests in Asia.</p>
+
+<p>Manlius remained another year (B.C. 188) in the East as Proconsul, and,
+in conjunction with the ten commissioners, formally concluded the peace
+with Antiochus, and settled the affairs of Asia. Eumenes, the king of
+Pergamus, received Mysia, Lydia, and part of Caria. The Rhodians
+obtained the remaining portion of Caria, together with Lycia and
+Pisidia. Manlius returned to Rome in B.C. 187, and his triumph, like
+that of Scipio Asiaticus, was most magnificent. But his soldiers, like
+that of Scipio, introduced into the city the luxuries of the East. These
+campaigns, as we shall presently see, exercised a most injurious
+influence upon the character of the Roman nobles and people, teaching
+them to love war for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them to
+acts of robbery and rapine.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image037" name="image037">
+   <img src="images/037.jpg"
+      alt="Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)"
+      title="Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>WARS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. B.C. 200-175.</h3>
+
+
+<p>While the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth and winning
+easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the West were carrying
+on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls, Ligurians, and Spaniards.
+The Romans had hardly concluded the Second Punic War when they received
+intelligence that Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, had excited several
+tribes in Northern Italy to take up arms against Rome. These were the
+Gauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardy
+mountaineers, inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime Alps. They
+commenced the war in B.C. 200 by the capture and destruction of the
+Roman colony of Placentia, and by laying siege to that of Cremona, the
+two strong-holds of the Roman dominion in Northern Italy. The Romans now
+set themselves to work, with the characteristic stubbornness of their
+nation, to subdue thoroughly these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> tribes. The Insubres and the
+Cenomani, to the north of the Po, were the first to yield; but the Boii
+resisted for some years all the efforts of the Romans, and it was not
+till B.C. 191 that the Consul P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their
+final submission. He slaughtered the Boii without mercy, and made it one
+of the claims of his triumph that he had left only children and old men
+alive. This warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from
+henceforth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and gradually adopted
+the language and customs of Rome. The submission of the people was
+secured by the foundation of new colonies and the formation of military
+roads. In B.C. 190 a colony was established at Bononia, now Bologna, in
+the country of the Boii, and six years afterward others were also
+founded at Mutina (Modena) and Parma. A military road made by M. &AElig;milius
+Lepidus, Consul for B.C. 180, and called the Via &AElig;milia, was a
+continuation of the Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past Placentia,
+Mutina, and Parma to Placentia. The subjugation of the Ligurians was a
+longer and more difficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued the
+war, with intermissions, for a period of eighty years. The Romans, after
+penetrating into the heart of Liguria, were seldom able to effect more
+than to compel the enemy to disperse, and take refuge in their villages
+and castles, of which the latter were mountain fastnesses, in which they
+were generally able to defy their pursuers. But into the details of
+these long-protracted and inglorious hostilities it is unnecessary to
+enter.</p>
+
+<p>The conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Carthaginians out of
+Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in that country. Accordingly,
+soon after the end of the Second Punic War (about B.C. 198), the Romans
+proceeded to consolidate their dominion in Spain by dividing it into two
+provinces, each governed by a Pr&aelig;tor, which were called Hispania
+Citerior, or Hither Spain, and Hispania Ulterior, or Farther Spain, and
+divided from each other by the Iberus or the Ebro. But it was little
+more than the eastern part of the peninsula that was really subject to
+Rome. The powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the
+Lusitanians in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gall&aelig;cians in the
+northwest, still maintained their independence. The division of the
+country into two provinces showed that the Romans intended to occupy it
+permanently, and occasioned a general insurrection.</p>
+
+<p>The Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more fully presently,
+was sent to put down this insurrection (B.C. 195). The whole country was
+in arms; but his military genius and indefatigable industry soon
+re-established the superiority of Rome. He gained several decisive
+victories, contrived to set tribe against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> tribe, and took native
+mercenaries into his pay. The details of his campaign are full of
+horrors. We read of the wholesale slaughter of men who had laid down
+their arms, of multitudes sold as slaves, and of many more who had put
+themselves to death to escape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel
+any compunctions of conscience in the performance of what he considered
+a rigorous public task. He boasted of having destroyed more towns in
+Spain than he had spent days in that country. When he had reduced the
+whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, and temporary submission, he
+returned to Rome, and was rewarded with a triumph.</p>
+
+<p>The severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. They again
+took up arms, and continued to resist the Roman Pr&aelig;tors for the next
+sixteen years, till Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the father of the
+celebrated tribunes, after gaining several brilliant victories over the
+Celtiberians, granted them an honorable peace. By his wise measures and
+conciliatory conduct he won the affections of the natives, and induced
+them to submit to the Roman supremacy (B.C. 179).</p>
+
+<p>It remains to mention two other wars in the West. The Sardinians and
+Corsicans revolted, and held out for two years against the Conqueror of
+Spain (B.C. 177-175). But Gracchus effected their complete subjugation,
+and brought to Rome so large a number of captives for sale as to give
+rise to the proverb "Sardi venales" for any thing that was cheap and
+worthless.</p>
+
+<p>The Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been conquered by
+the Romans just before the Second Punic War. But their complete
+subjugation was now necessary, on account of their proximity to the
+newly-formed province of Cisalpine Gaul. Accordingly, the Consuls
+invaded Istria in B.C. 178, and in the following year the whole people
+was reduced to submission.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image038" name="image038">
+   <img src="images/038.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a Coin.)"
+      title="Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a Coin.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a Coin.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image039" name="image039">
+   <img src="images/039.jpg"
+      alt="Lictors."
+      title="Lictors." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Lictors.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The career of foreign conquest upon which the Republic had now entered
+continued with little or no interruption till the establishment of the
+Empire. We may here pause to take a brief survey of the form of
+government, as well as of the military organization by which these
+conquests were effected.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier history of the Roman constitution has been already related.
+We have seen how, after a long struggle, the Plebeians acquired complete
+political equality with the Patricians. In the Second Punic War, the
+antagonism between the two orders had almost disappeared, and the only
+mark of separation between them in political matters was the regulation
+that, of the two Consuls and two Censors, one must be a Patrician and
+the other a Plebeian. Even this fell into disuse upon the rise of the
+new Nobility, of which we shall speak in the next chapter. The
+Patricians gradually dwindled away, and it became the custom to elect
+both Consuls and Censors from the Plebeians.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>I. THE MAGISTRATES.&mdash;Every Roman citizen who aspired to the consulship
+had to pass through a regular gradation of public offices, and the
+earliest age at which he could become a candidate for them was fixed by
+a law passed in B.C. 179, and known by the name of the Lex Annalis. The
+earliest age for the Qu&aelig;storship, which was the first of these
+magistracies, was 27 years; for the &AElig;dileship, 37; for the Pr&aelig;torship,
+40; and for the Consulship, 43.</p>
+
+<p>All magistrates at Rome were divided into <i>Curules</i> and those who were
+not Curules. The Curule Magistrates were the Dictators, Censors,
+Consuls, Pr&aelig;tors, and Curule &AElig;diles, and were so called because they had
+the right of sitting upon the <i>Sella Curulis</i>, originally an emblem of
+kingly power, imported, along with other insignia of royalty, from
+Etruria.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Qu&aelig;stors</i> were the paymasters of the state. It was their duty to
+receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary payments for the
+military and civil services. There were originally only two Qu&aelig;stors,
+but their number was constantly increased with the conquests of the
+Republic. Besides two Qu&aelig;stors who always remained at Rome, every Consul
+or Pr&aelig;tor who conducted a war or governed a province was attended by one
+of these magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>&AElig;dileship</i> was originally a Plebeian office, instituted at the
+same time as the Tribuneship of the Plebs.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> To the two Plebeian
+&AElig;diles two Curule &AElig;diles were added in B.C. 365. The four &AElig;diles in
+common had the charge of the public buildings,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> the care of the
+cleansing and draining of the city, and the superintendence of the
+police. They had also the regulation of the public festivals; and the
+celebration of the Ludi Magni, or Great Games, was their especial
+function. Originally they received a sum of money from the state to
+defray the expenses of these games, but the grant was withdrawn about
+the time of the First Punic War; a measure attended with important
+consequences, since the higher magistracies were thus confined to the
+wealthy, who alone could defray the charges of these costly
+entertainments. After the Macedonian and Syrian wars, the Curule &AElig;diles
+often incurred a prodigious expense, with the view of pleasing the
+people, and securing their votes in future elections.</p>
+
+<p>3. The institution of the <i>Pr&aelig;torship</i> in B.C. 366 has been already
+narrated. There was originally only one Pr&aelig;tor, subsequently called
+Pr&aelig;tor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the administration of justice. In
+B.C. 246 a second Pr&aelig;tor was added, who had to decide cases in which
+foreigners were concerned, and who was hence called Pr&aelig;tor Peregrinus.
+When the territories of the state extended beyond Italy, new Pr&aelig;tors
+were created to govern the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> provinces. Two Pr&aelig;tors were appointed to
+take the administration of Sicily and Sardinia (B.C. 227), and two more
+were added when the two Spanish provinces were formed (B.C. 197). There
+were thus six Pr&aelig;tors, two of whom staid in the city and the other four
+went abroad. Each Pr&aelig;tor was attended by six Lictors.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Consuls</i> were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome, and were
+at the head both of the state and the army. They convoked the Senate and
+the Assembly of the Centuries; they presided in each, and had to see
+that the resolutions of the Senate and the People were carried into
+effect. They had the supreme command of the armies in virtue of the
+Imperium conferred upon them by a special vote of the People. At the
+head of the army, they had full power of life and death over their
+soldiers. They were preceded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of
+power was enjoyed by them month by month in turn.</p>
+
+<p>The magistrates above-mentioned were elected annually, but it was the
+practice frequently to prolong the command of the Consuls or Pr&aelig;tors in
+the provinces under the titles of Proconsuls or Propr&aelig;tors. In the later
+times of the Republic it was usual for both Consuls and several Pr&aelig;tors
+to remain at Rome during their year of office, and at its close to take
+the command of provinces, with the titles of Proconsuls or Propr&aelig;tors.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Dictatorship</i>, which occurs so often in the early history of the
+Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic War. As the
+Republic became powerful, and had no longer to dread any enemies in
+Italy, there was no necessity for such an extraordinary magistracy as
+the Dictatorship, but whenever internal dangers seemed to require a
+stronger executive, the Senate invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Censors</i> were two in number, elected every five years, but they
+held their office for a year and a half. They were taken, as a general
+rule, from those who had been previously Consuls, and their office was
+regarded as the highest dignity in the state. Their duties, which were
+very extensive and very important, may be divided into three classes,
+all of which, however, were closely connected.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>). Their first and most important duty was to take the Census. This
+was not simply a list of the population, according to the modern use of
+the word, but a valuation of the property of every Roman citizen. This
+valuation was necessary, not only for the assessment of the
+property-tax, but also for determining the posi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>tion of every citizen in
+the state, which was regulated, in accordance with the constitution of
+Servius Tullius, by the amount of his property. Accordingly, the Censors
+had to draw up lists of the Classes and Centuries. They also made out
+the lists of the Senators and Equites, striking out the names of all
+whom they deemed unworthy, and filling up all vacancies in the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b.</i>) The Censors possessed a general control over the conduct and
+morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important power they
+were not guided by any rules of law, but simply by their own sense of
+duty. They punished acts of private as well as public immorality, and
+visited with their censure not only offenses against the laws, but every
+thing opposed to the old Roman character and habits, such as living in
+celibacy, extravagance, luxury, etc. They had the power of degrading
+every citizen to a lower rank, of expelling Senators from the Senate, of
+depriving the Equites of their horses, and of removing ordinary citizens
+from their tribes, and thus excluding them from all political rights.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c.</i>) The Censors also had the administration of the finances of the
+state, under the direction of the Senate. They let out the taxes to the
+highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five years.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> They
+likewise received from the Senate certain sums of money to keep the
+public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in repair,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and to construct
+new public works in Rome and other parts of Italy. Hence we find that
+many of the great public roads, such as the Via Appia and Via Flaminia,
+were made by Censors.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>II. THE SENATE.&mdash;The Senate was in reality the executive government of
+Rome, and the Magistrates, of whom we have been speaking, were only its
+ministers. The Senate consisted of Three Hundred members, who held the
+dignity for life unless expelled by the Censors for reasons already
+mentioned, but they could not transmit the honor to their sons. All
+vacancies in the body were filled up by the Censors every five years
+from those who had held the Qu&aelig;storship or any higher magistracy. The
+Censors were thus confined in their selection to those who had already
+received the confidence of the people, and no one could therefore enter
+the Senate unless he had some experience in political affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the Senate was very great. It exercised a control over
+legislation, since no law could be proposed to the Assemblies of the
+People unless it had first received the approval of the Sen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>ate. In many
+cases "Senatus consulta"<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> were passed, which had the force of laws
+without being submitted to the Popular Assemblies at all. This was
+especially the case in matters affecting religion, police,
+administration, the provinces, and all foreign relations.</p>
+
+<p>In foreign affairs the authority of the Senate was absolute, with the
+exception of declaring war and making peace, which needed the sanction
+of the Centuries. The Senate assigned the provinces into which the
+Consuls and Pr&aelig;tors were to be sent; they determined the manner in which
+a war was to be conducted, and the number of troops to be levied; they
+prolonged the command of a general or superseded him at their pleasure,
+and on his return they granted or refused him a triumph; they alone
+carried on negotiations with foreign states, and all embassadors to
+foreign powers were appointed by the Senate from their own body.</p>
+
+<p>In home affairs they had the superintendence in all matters of religion.
+They had also the entire administration of the finances. When the
+Republic was in danger the Senate had the power of suspending the laws
+by the appointment of a Dictator, or by investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power, as already mentioned.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES.&mdash;1. The <i>Comitia Curiata</i>, the Patrician
+assembly, had become a mere form as early as the First Punic War. The
+gradual decline of its power has been already traced. It continued to
+meet for the transaction of certain matters pertaining to the Patrician
+gentes, but was represented simply by 30 lictors.</p>
+
+<p>2. The constitution of the <i>Comitia Centuriata</i>, as established by
+Servius Tullius,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> had undergone a great change between the time of
+the Licinian Rogations and the Punic Wars, but both the exact time and
+nature of this change are unknown. It appears, however, that its object
+was to give more power and influence to the popular element in the
+state. For this purpose the 35 tribes were taken as the basis of the new
+Constitution of the Centuries. Each tribe was probably divided into five
+property Classes, and each Classis was subdivided into two Centuries,
+one of Seniores and the other of Juniores. Each tribe would thus contain
+10 Centuries, and, consequently, the 35 tribes would have 350 Centuries,
+so that, with the 18 Centuries of the Knights, the total number of the
+Centuries would be 368.</p>
+
+<p>The Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the higher
+magistrates, the power of enacting laws, of declaring war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> and making
+peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accusations for treason
+were brought before the Centuries, and in all criminal matters every
+Roman citizen could appeal to them.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> But, notwithstanding these
+extensive powers, their influence in the state was gradually superseded
+by the Assembly of the Tribes.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Comitia Tributa</i> obtained its superior influence and power
+mainly through its Tribunes. The Assembly of the Centuries, being
+summoned and presided over by the Consuls, was, to a great extent, an
+instrument in the hands of the Senate, while that of the Tribes, being
+guided by its own magistrates, and representing the popular element, was
+frequently opposed to the Senate, and took an active part in the
+internal administration of the state. The increasing power of the
+Tribunes naturally led to a corresponding increase in the power of the
+Tribes. The right of Intercession<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> possessed by the Tribunes was
+extended to all matters. Thus we find the Tribunes preventing the
+Consuls from summoning the Senate and from proposing laws to the Comitia
+of the Centuries. As the persons of the Tribunes were sacred, the Senate
+could exercise no control over them, while they, on the contrary, could
+even seize a Consul or a Censor, and throw him into prison. The only
+effective check which the Senate had upon the proceedings of the
+Tribunes was, that one Tribune could put his veto upon the acts of his
+colleagues. Consequently, by securing the support of one member of the
+body, the Senate were able to prevent the other Tribunes from carrying
+out their plans.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Plebiscita</i> enacted by the Tribes had the same force as the <i>Leges</i>
+of the Centuries.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> There were thus two sovereign assemblies at Rome,
+each independent of the other; that of the Tribes, as already observed,
+was the most important at the period which we have now reached.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>IV. FINANCES.&mdash;The ordinary expenditure of the Roman state was not
+large. All the magistrates discharged their duties without pay; and the
+allied troops, which formed so large a portion of a Roman army, were
+maintained by the allies themselves. The expenses of war were defrayed
+by a property-tax called <i>Tributum</i>, which was usually one in a
+thousand, or one tenth per cent., but after the last war with Macedonia
+the treasury received such large sums from the provinces that the
+tributum was abolished. From this time the expenses of the state were
+almost entirely defrayed by the taxes levied in the provinces. The other
+revenues of the state, which bore the general name of <i>Vectigalia</i>, may
+be dismissed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> with a few words. They consisted of the rents arising from
+the public lands, of the customs' duties, of the taxes upon mines, salt,
+etc.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>V. THE ARMY.&mdash;The Roman army was originally called <i>Legio</i>; and this
+name, which is coeval with the foundation of Rome, continued down to the
+latest times. The Legion was therefore not equivalent to what we call a
+regiment, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms, infantry,
+cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively employed, artillery
+also. The number of soldiers who, at different periods, were contained
+in a legion, does not appear to have been absolutely fixed, but to have
+varied within moderate limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000
+foot-soldiers. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
+the Second Punic War the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
+infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
+ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries after Marius
+the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally approaching to the
+higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard to the infantry, 300
+horsemen formed the regular complement of the legion. The organization
+of the legion differed at different periods.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>First Period. Servius Tullius.</i>&mdash;The legion of Servius is so closely
+connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
+discussed,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> and it is only necessary to state here that it was a
+phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the front ranks being furnished
+with a complete suit of armor, their weapons being long spears, and
+their chief defense the round Argolic shield (<i>clipeus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Second Period. The Great Latin War</i>, B.C. 340.&mdash;The legion in B.C.
+340 had almost entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now
+drawn up in three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The
+soldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of youths in the
+first bloom of manhood, distributed into 15 companies or maniples
+(<i>manipuli</i>), a moderate space being left between each. The maniple
+contained 60 privates, 2 centurions (<i>centuriones</i>), and a
+standard-bearer (<i>vexillarius</i>). The second line, the Principes, was
+composed of men in the full vigor of life, divided in like manner into
+15 maniples, all heavily armed. The two lines of the Hastati and
+Principes taken together amounted to 30 maniples, and formed the
+Antepilani. The third line, the Triarii, composed of tried veterans, was
+also in 15 divisions, but each of these was triple, containing 3
+maniples. In these triple maniples the veterans, or Triarii proper,
+formed the front ranks; immediately be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>hind them stood the Rorarii,
+inferior in age and prowess, while the Accensi, or supernumeraries, less
+trustworthy than either, were posted in the extreme rear.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio.</i>&mdash;Under
+ordinary circumstances four legions were levied yearly, two being
+assigned to each Consul. It must be observed that a regular consular
+army no longer consisted of Roman legions only, but, as Italy became
+gradually subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
+bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies usually exceeded
+that of the citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly distinct, both
+in the camp and in the battle-field.</p>
+
+<p>The men belonging to each legion were separated into four divisions. 1.
+1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart to form the Velites, the
+light-armed troops or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next
+in age (or who were of the same age with the preceding, but more
+wealthy) formed the Hastati. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full
+vigor of manhood, formed the Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most
+experienced formed the Triarii. When the number of soldiers in the
+legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
+proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the same.
+The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into 10 companies,
+called Maniples. The Velites were not divided into companies, but were
+distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. Each
+maniple was subdivided into two centuries, commanded by a centurion.
+Each legion had six superior officers, called Tribuni Militum. The
+legion was also divided into 10 cohorts; and as the cohorts were all
+equal to each other, the strength of the cohort varied from time to time
+with the strength of the legion, and thus at different periods ranged
+between the limits of 300 and 600.</p>
+
+<p>Three hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion, divided
+into 10 troops (<i>turm&aelig;</i>), out of which three officers were chosen named
+Decuriones.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry furnished by the Socii was for the most part equal in
+number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as numerous,
+and the whole were divided equally between the two consular armies. Each
+Consul named 12 superior officers, who were termed Pr&aelig;fecti Sociorum,
+and corresponded by the Legionary Tribunes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall of the
+Republic.</i><a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>&mdash;After the times of the Gracchi the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> changes in
+military affairs may be noticed: In the first consulship of Marius the
+legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades, without distinction
+of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were armed and equipped in the
+same manner, all being now furnished with the pilum. The legionaries,
+when in battle-order, were no longer arranged in three lines, each
+consisting of ten maniples with an open space between each maniple, but
+in two lines, each consisting of five cohorts, with a space between each
+cohort. The younger soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in
+reserve, the van being composed of veterans. As a necessary result of
+the above arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, Principes, and
+Triarii ceased to exist. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
+included under the general term Levis Armatura, consisted for the most
+part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in the use of some
+national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers, the Cretan archers
+(<i>sagittarii</i>), and the Moorish dartmen. When operations requiring great
+activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by mere
+skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, and
+marched without baggage for these special services.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The cavalry of
+the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous to that which
+took place with regard to the light-armed troops. The Roman Equites
+attached to the army were very few in number, and were chiefly employed
+as aids-de-camp and on confidential missions. The bulk of the cavalry
+consisted of foreigners, and hence we find the legions and the cavalry
+spoken of as completely distinct from each other. After the termination
+of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants of Italy became Roman
+citizens, the ancient distinction between the Legiones and the Socii
+disappeared, and all who had served as Socii became incorporated with
+the Legiones.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the history the Triumphs granted to victorious generals
+have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief description of
+them may appropriately close this sketch of the Roman army. A Triumph
+was a solemn procession, in which a victorious general entered the city
+in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was preceded by the captives and
+spoils taken in war, was followed by his troops, and, after passing in
+state along the Via Sacra, ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in
+the Temple of Jupiter. From the beginning of the Republic down to the
+extinction of liberty a Triumph was recognized as the summit of military
+glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman general.
+After any decisive battle had been won, or a province subdued by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> a
+series of successful operations, the general forwarded to the Senate a
+laurel-wreathed dispatch containing an account of his exploits. If the
+intelligence proved satisfactory the Senate decreed a public
+thanksgiving.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> After the war was concluded, the general, with his
+army, repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a given
+day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the Senate was held
+without the walls, that he might have an opportunity of urging his
+pretensions in person, and these were then scrutinized and discussed
+with the most jealous care. If the Senate gave their consent, they at
+the same time voted a sum of money toward defraying the necessary
+expenses, and one of the Tribunes applied for a plebiscitum to permit
+the Imperator to retain his imperium on the day when he entered the
+city. This last form could not be dispensed with, because the imperium
+conferred by the Comitia did not include the city itself; and
+accordingly the military power of the general ceased as soon as he
+re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been previously
+suspended by a special enactment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image040" name="image040">
+   <img src="images/040.jpg"
+      alt="A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.)"
+      title="A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image041" name="image041">
+   <img src="images/041.jpg"
+      alt="Scipio Africanus."
+      title="Scipio Africanus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Scipio Africanus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND
+SCIPIO.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The conquests of the Romans in the East had exercised a most pernicious
+influence upon the national character. They were originally a hardy,
+industrious, and religious race, distinguished by unbending integrity
+and love of order. They lived with great frugality upon their small
+farms, which they cultivated with their own hands; but they were stern
+and somewhat cruel, and cared little or nothing for literature and the
+arts. Upon such a people the sudden acquisition of wealth produced its
+natural effects. They employed it in the gratification of their
+appetites, and in coarse sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles,
+such as Scipio Africanus, Flamininus (the conqueror of Philip), and
+others, acquired a love for Greek literature and art; but the great mass
+of the nation imitated only the vices of the Greeks. Cooks, who had
+formerly been the cheapest kind of slaves at Rome, now became the most
+valuable. A love of luxury and a general depravity gradually spread
+through all classes of society. A striking instance of the growing
+licentiousness of the times was brought to light in B.C. 186. It was
+discovered that the worship of Bacchus had been introduced from Southern
+Italy into Rome and other towns, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> that secret societies were formed,
+which, under the cloak of this worship, indulged in the most abominable
+vices. A stringent inquiry was made into these practices; the most
+guilty were put to death; and a decree of the Senate was passed,
+forbidding the worship of Bacchus in Rome and throughout Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Another circumstance will illustrate the manners of the times. L.
+Flamininus, the brother of the conqueror of Philip, and Consul in B.C.
+192, took with him into Cisalpine Gaul a beautiful Carthaginian boy, to
+whom he was attached. The youth complained of leaving Rome just before
+the exhibition of the games of the gladiators. Shortly after reaching
+the province, when Flamininus was feasting with his favorite, a Boian
+chief came into the Consul's tent to implore his protection. Flamininus
+seized this opportunity to please the boy, and, telling him that he
+should be rewarded for not seeing the gladiators, he ordered an
+attendant to stab the Gaul, that his favorite might enjoy the dying
+agonies of the man.</p>
+
+<p>The increasing love of gladiatorial combats was another indication of
+the national character. These brutalizing sports are said to have taken
+their origin from the Etruscans, who were accustomed to kill slaves and
+captives at the funerals of their relatives. They were first exhibited
+at Rome in the beginning of the First Punic War (B.C. 264). At first
+confined to funerals, they were afterward exhibited by the &AElig;diles at the
+public games, with the view of pleasing the people. The passion for this
+brutalizing amusement rose to a great height toward the end of the
+Republic and under the Empire. Great pains were taken with the training
+of gladiators, who were divided into different classes according to
+their arms and modes of fighting.</p>
+
+<p>Among many other important consequences of these foreign wars, two
+exercised an especial influence upon the future fate of the Republic.
+The nobles became enormously rich, and the peasant proprietors almost
+entirely disappeared. The wealthy nobles now combined together to keep
+in their own families the public offices of the state, which afforded
+the means of making such enormous fortunes. Thus a new Nobility was
+formed, resting on wealth, and composed alike of plebeian and patrician
+families. Every one whose ancestry had not held any of the curule
+magistracies<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> was called a New Man, and was branded as an
+upstart.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> It became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> more and more difficult for a New Man to rise to
+office, and the Nobles were thus almost an hereditary aristocracy in the
+exclusive possession of the government. The wealth they had acquired in
+foreign commands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious expense in
+the celebration of the public games in their &aelig;dileship, with the view of
+gaining the votes of the people at future elections, but also to spend
+large sums of money in the actual purchase of votes. The first law
+against bribery<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> was passed in B.C. 181, a sure proof of the growth
+of the practice.</p>
+
+<p>The decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable consequence of
+these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the earlier times the
+citizen-soldier, after a few weeks' campaign, returned home to cultivate
+his land; but this became impossible when wars were carried on out of
+Italy. Moreover, the soldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found
+life in the camp more pleasant than the cultivation of the ground. He
+was thus as ready to sell his land as the nobles were anxious to buy it.
+But money acquired by plunder is soon squandered. The soldier, returning
+to Rome, swelled the ranks of the poor; and thus, while the nobles
+became richer and richer, the lower classes became poorer and poorer. In
+consequence of the institution of slavery there was little or no demand
+for free labor, and as prisoners taken in war were sold as slaves, the
+slave-market was always well supplied. The estates of the wealthy were
+cultivated by large gangs of slaves; and even the mechanical arts, which
+give employment to such large numbers in the modern towns of Europe,
+were practiced by slaves, whom their masters had trained for the
+purpose. The poor at Rome were thus left almost without resources; their
+votes in the popular assembly were nearly the only thing they could turn
+into money, and it is therefore not surprising that they were ready to
+sell them to the highest bidder.</p>
+
+<p>Many distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman virtues
+disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corruptions of the
+national character. Of this party the most conspicuous member was M.
+Porcius Cato, who may be taken as a type of the old Roman character. He
+was born at Tusculum in B.C. 234. When a young man, the death of his
+father put him in possession of a small hereditary estate in the Sabine
+territory, at a distance from his native town. It was here that he
+passed the greater part of his boyhood, hardening his body by healthful
+exercise, and su<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>perintending and sharing the operations of the farm.
+Near his estate was an humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after
+three triumphs, by its owner M. Curius Dentatus, whose warlike exploits
+and simple character were often talked of with admiration in the
+neighborhood. The ardor of the youthful Cato was kindled. He resolved to
+imitate the character, and hoped to rival the glory, of Dentatus.
+Opportunity was not wanting. He took his first military lessons in the
+campaigns against Hannibal, and gained the favor and friendship of
+Fabius Maximus. He was also patronized by L. Valerius Flaccus, a Roman
+noble in his neighborhood, and a warm supporter of the old Roman
+manners, who had observed Cato's eloquence, as well as his martial
+spirit. Encouraged by Fabius and Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for
+office, and was elected Qu&aelig;stor in B.C. 204. He followed P. Scipio
+Africanus to Sicily, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation
+between Cato and Scipio which ought to subsist between a Qu&aelig;stor and his
+Proconsul. Fabius had opposed the permission given to Scipio to carry
+the attack into the enemy's home, and Cato, whose appointment was
+intended to operate as a check upon Scipio, adopted the views of his
+friend. Cato was Pr&aelig;tor in Sardinia in B.C. 198, where he took the
+earliest opportunity of illustrating his principles by his practice. He
+diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a single
+attendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and restrained
+usury with unsparing severity. He had now established a reputation for
+pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue. He was looked upon as the
+living type and representative of the ideal ancient Roman. To the
+advancement of such a man opposition was vain. In B.C. 195 he was
+elected Consul with his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus.
+During his consulship a strange scene took place peculiarly illustrative
+of Roman manners. In B.C. 215, at the height of the Punic War, a law had
+been passed, proposed by the Tribune Oppius, that no woman should
+possess more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a garment of divers
+colors, nor drive a carriage with horses within a mile of the city,
+except for the purpose of attending the public celebration of religious
+rites. Now that Hannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded with
+Carthaginian wealth, there being no longer any necessity for women to
+contribute toward the exigencies of an impoverished treasury the savings
+spared from their ornaments and pleasures, two Tribunes thought it time
+to propose the abolition of the Oppian law; but they were opposed by two
+of their colleagues. The most important affairs of state excited far
+less interest and zeal than this singular contest. The matrons blockaded
+every avenue to the forum, and intercepted their husbands as they
+approached, beseech<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>ing them to restore the ancient ornaments of the
+Roman matrons. Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague Cato was
+inexorable. Finally, the women carried the day. Worn out by their
+importunity, the two Tribunes withdrew their opposition, and the hated
+law was abolished by the suffrage of all the tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Cato's campaign in Spain during his Consulship, which added greatly to
+his military reputation, has been already related. He afterward served
+in Greece under M. Glabrio, where he distinguished himself at the battle
+of Thermopyl&aelig; fought against Antiochus (B.C. 191).</p>
+
+<p>The victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first man in the
+Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies. But the party of
+Fabius still cherished their old animosity against him, and Cato
+inherited the hatred of his friend and patron. After the return of P.
+Scipio and his brother Lucius from the war against Antiochus, they were
+charged with having been bribed to let off the Syrian monarch too
+leniently, and of having appropriated to their own use a portion of the
+money which had been paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. The first
+blow was directed against Lucius Scipio. At the instigation of Cato, the
+two Petillii Tribunes of the people required Lucius to render an account
+of all sums of money which he had received from Antiochus. Lucius
+accordingly prepared his accounts; but, as he was in the act of
+delivering them up, the proud conqueror of Hannibal indignantly snatched
+them out of his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying "it was unworthy
+to call to account for a few thousands a man who had paid millions into
+the treasury." But this haughty conduct appears to have produced an
+unfavorable impression, and his brother, when brought to trial in the
+course of the tame year, was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a
+heavy fine. The Tribune ordered him to be dragged to prison, and there
+detained till the money was paid; whereupon Africanus, still more
+enraged at this fresh insult to his family, and setting himself above
+the laws, rescued his brother from the hands of the Tribune's officer.
+The contest would probably have been attended with fatal results had not
+Tib. Gracchus, the father of the celebrated Tribune, and then Tribune
+himself, had the prudence, although he disapproved of the violent
+conduct of Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from the sentence of
+imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>The successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened his enemies
+to bring the great Africanus himself before the people. His accuser was
+the Tribune M. N&aelig;vius. When the trial came on, Scipio did not condescend
+to say a single word in refutation of the charges that had been brought
+against him, but descanted long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> and eloquently upon the signal services
+he had rendered to the commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the
+trial was adjourned till the following day. Early next morning, when the
+Tribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was
+summoned, he proudly reminded the people that this was the anniversary
+of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal at Zama, and called upon
+them to neglect all disputes and lawsuits, and follow him to the
+Capitol, there to return thanks to the immortal gods, and pray that they
+would grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a
+chord which vibrated in every heart; their veneration for the hero
+returned; and he was followed by such crowds to the Capitol that the
+Tribunes were left alone in the rostra. Having thus set all the laws at
+defiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to his country
+seat at Liternum. The Tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but
+Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never returned to
+Rome. He would neither submit to the laws, nor aspire to the sovereignty
+of the state, and he therefore resolved to expatriate himself forever.
+He passed his remaining days in the cultivation of his estate at
+Liternum, and at his death is said to have requested that his body might
+be buried there, and not in his ungrateful country (B.C. 183).</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent. Scipio was the
+only member of the Senate who opposed the unworthy persecution which the
+Romans employed against their once dreaded foe. Each of these great men,
+possessing true nobility of soul, could appreciate the other's merits. A
+story is told that Scipio was one of the embassadors sent to Antiochus
+at Ephesus, at whose court Hannibal was then residing, and that he there
+had an interview with the great Carthaginian, who declared him the
+greatest general that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a manner
+the most flattering to Scipio. The latter had asked, "Who was the
+greatest general?" "Alexander the Great," was Hannibal's reply. "Who was
+the second?" "Pyrrhus." "Who was the third?" "Myself," replied the
+Carthaginian. "What would you have said, then, if you had conquered me?"
+asked Scipio, in astonishment. "I should then have placed myself above
+Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all other generals."</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already seen, took
+up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there found for some
+years a secure asylum. But the Romans could not be at ease so long as
+Hannibal lived, and T. Flamininus was at length dispatched to the court
+of Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. The Bithynian king
+was unable to resist; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> Hannibal, who had long been in expectation of
+such an event, took poison to avoid falling into the hands of his
+implacable foes.</p>
+
+<p>We now return to Cato, whose Censorship (B.C. 184) was a great epoch in
+his life. He applied himself strenuously to the duties of his office,
+regardless of the enemies he was making. He repaired the water-courses,
+paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the rents paid by the
+publicani for farming the taxes, and diminished the contract-prices
+disbursed by the state to the undertakers of public works. There can be
+no doubt that great abuses existed in the management of the public
+finances, with which nothing but the undaunted courage and
+administrative abilities of Cato could have successfully grappled. He
+was disturbing a nest of hornets, and all his future life was troubled
+by their buzz, and their attempts to sting. But, though he was accused
+no fewer than forty-four times during the course of his life, it was
+only once that his enemies prevailed against him. His enactments against
+luxury were severe and stringent. He levied a heavy tax upon expensive
+slaves and costly furniture and dress. He justly degraded from the
+Senate L. Flamininus for the act of abominable cruelty in Gaul which has
+been already narrated.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>The strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminished in
+force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old age to the
+study of Greek literature, with which in youth he had no acquaintance,
+although he was not ignorant of the Greek language. Himself an historian
+and orator, the excellences of Demosthenes and Thucydides made a deep
+impression upon his kindred mind. But throughout life his conduct was
+guided by prejudices against classes and nations whose influence he
+deemed to be hostile to the simplicity of the old Roman character. When
+Eumenes, king of Pergamus, visited Rome after the war with Antiochus,
+and was received with honor by the Senate, and splendidly entertained by
+the nobles, Cato was indignant at the respect paid to the monarch,
+refused to go near him, and declared that "kings were naturally
+carnivorous animals." He had an antipathy to physicians, because they
+were mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted with Roman lives.
+He loudly cautioned his eldest son against them, and dispensed with
+their attendance. When Athens sent three celebrated philosophers,
+Carneades, Diogenes, and Critola&uuml;s, to Rome, in order to negotiate a
+remission of the 500 talents which the Athenians had been awarded to pay
+to the Oropians, Carneades excited great attention by his philosophical
+conversation and lectures, in which he preached the pernicious doctrine
+of an expediency distinct from justice, which he illustrated by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+example of Rome herself: "If Rome were stripped of all that she did not
+justly gain, the Romans might go back to their huts." Cato, offended
+with his principles, and jealous of the attention paid to the Greek,
+gave advice which the Senate followed: "Let these deputies have an
+answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible."</p>
+
+<p>Cato was an unfeeling and cruel master. His conduct toward his slaves
+was detestable. The law held them to be mere chattels, and he treated
+them as such, without any regard to the rights of humanity. After supper
+he often severely chastised them, thong in hand, for trifling acts of
+negligence, and sometimes condemned them to death. When they were worn
+out, or useless, he sold them, or turned them out of doors. He treated
+the lower animals no better. His war-horse, which bore him through his
+campaign in Spain, he sold before he left the country, that the state
+might not be charged with the expenses of its transport. As years
+advanced he sought gain with increasing eagerness, but never attempted
+to profit by the misuse of his public functions. He accepted no bribes;
+he reserved no booty to his own use; but he became a speculator, not
+only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial waters, and
+pleasure-grounds. In this, as in other points, he was a representative
+of the old Romans, who were a money-getting and money-loving people.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image042" name="image042">
+   <img src="images/042.jpg"
+      alt="Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges."
+      title="Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACH&AElig;AN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, the last
+monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of Philip had been
+spent in preparations for a renewal of the war, which he foresaw to be
+inevitable; and when Perseus ascended the throne, he found himself amply
+provided with men and money for the impending contest. But, whether from
+a sincere desire of peace, or from irresolution of character, he sought
+to avert an open rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts
+of his reign was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the treaty which
+they had concluded with his father. It is probable that neither party
+was sincere in the conclusion of this peace, at least neither could
+entertain any hope of its duration; yet a period of seven years elapsed
+before the mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into open
+hostilities. Meanwhile, Perseus was not idle; he secured the attachment
+of his subjects by equitable and popular measures, and formed alliances
+not only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but also with the
+Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>rounded his dominions.
+The Romans naturally viewed these proceedings with jealousy and
+suspicion; and at length, in 172, Perseus was formally accused before
+the Roman Senate by Eumenes, king of Pergamus, in person, of
+entertaining hostile designs against the Roman power. The murder of
+Eumenes near Delphi, on his return homeward, of which Perseus was
+suspected, aggravated the feeling against him at Rome, and in the
+following year war was declared.</p>
+
+<p>Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army, but of
+all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians, ventured to support
+him against so formidable a foe. Yet the war was protracted three years
+without any decisive result; nay, the balance of success seemed on the
+whole to incline in favor of Perseus, and many states, which before were
+wavering, now showed a disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed
+parsimony restrained him from taking advantage of their offers, and in
+B.C. 168 the arrival of the Consul L. &AElig;milius Paullus completely changed
+the aspect of affairs. Perseus was driven from a strong position which
+he had taken up on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna,
+and, finally, to accept an engagement near that town. At first the
+serried ranks of the phalanx seemed to promise superiority; but its
+order having been broken by the inequalities of the ground, the Roman
+legionaries penetrated the disordered mass, and committed fearful
+carnage, to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to
+Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the sacred
+island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to surrender himself to
+a Roman squadron. He was treated with courtesy, but was reserved to
+adorn the triumph of his conqueror. Such was the end of the Macedonian
+empire. The Senate decreed that Macedonia should be divided into four
+districts, each under the jurisdiction of an oligarchical council.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the Senate to inflict a
+terrible punishment upon the Epirotes, because they had favored Perseus.
+Having placed garrisons in the seventy towns of Epirus, he razed them
+all to the ground in one day, and carried away 150,000 inhabitants as
+slaves. Epirus never recovered from this blow. In the time of Augustus
+the country was still a scene of desolation, and the inhabitants had
+only ruins and villages to dwell in.</p>
+
+<p>Paullus arrived in Italy toward the close of B.C. 167. The booty which
+he brought with him from Macedonia, and which he paid into the Roman
+treasury, was of enormous value; and his triumph, which lasted three
+days, was the most splendid that Rome had yet seen. Before his triumphal
+car walked the captive monarch of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> Macedonia, and behind it, on
+horseback, were his two eldest sons, Q. Fabius Maximus, and P. Scipio
+Africanus the younger, both of whom had been adopted into other
+families. But his glory was darkened by the death of his two younger
+sons, one dying a few days before, and the other a few days after his
+triumph.</p>
+
+<p>After the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but, in consequence
+of the intercession of Paullus, he was released, and permitted to end
+his days in an honorable captivity at Pella. His son Alexander learned
+the Latin language, and became a public clerk at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real mistress of the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The most haughty monarchs trembled
+before the Republic. Antiochus Epiphanes had invaded Egypt, and was
+marching upon Alexandria, when he was met by three Roman commissioners,
+who presented him with a decree of the Senate, commanding him to abstain
+from hostilities against Egypt. The king, having read the decree,
+promised to take it into consideration with his friends, whereupon
+Popillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping forward, drew a
+circle round the king with his staff, and told him that he should not
+stir out of it till he had given a decisive answer. The king was so
+frightened by this boldness that he immediately promised to withdraw his
+troops. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, whose conduct during the war with
+Perseus had excited the suspicion of the Senate, hastened to make his
+submission in person, but was not allowed to enter Rome. Prusias, king
+of Bithynia, had the meanness to appear at Rome with his head shaven,
+and in the dress of a liberated slave. The Rhodians, who had offered
+their mediation during the war with Perseus, were deprived of Lycia and
+Caria. In Greece itself the Senate acted in the same arbitrary manner.
+It was evident that they meant to bring the whole country under their
+sway. In these views they were assisted by various despots and traitors
+in the Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a man of great
+influence among the Ach&aelig;ans, who for many years had lent himself as the
+base tool of the Romans. He now denounced more than a thousand Ach&aelig;ans
+as having favored the cause of Perseus. Among them were the historian
+Polybius, and the most distinguished men in every city of the League.
+They were all apprehended and sent to Italy, where they were distributed
+among the cities of Etruria, without being brought to trial. Polybius
+alone was allowed to reside at Rome in the house of &AElig;milius Paullus,
+where he became the intimate friend of his son Scipio Africanus the
+younger. The Ach&aelig;an League continued to exist, but it was really subject
+to Callicrates. The Ach&aelig;an exiles lan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>guished in confinement for
+seventeen years. Their request to be allowed to return to their native
+land had been more than once refused; but the younger Scipio Africanus
+at length interceded on their behalf, and prevailed upon Cato to
+advocate their return. The conduct of the aged Senator was kinder than
+his words. He did not interpose till the end of a long debate, and then
+simply asked, "Have we nothing better to do than to sit here all day
+long debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to
+their graves here or in Achaia?" A decree of the Senate gave the exiles
+permission to return; but, when Polybius was anxious to obtain from the
+Senate restoration to their former honors, Cato bade him, with a smile,
+beware of returning to the Cyclops' den to fetch away any trifles he had
+left behind him.</p>
+
+<p>The Ach&aelig;an exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from 1000 to 300,
+landed in Greece (B.C. 151) with feelings exasperated by their long
+confinement, and ready to indulge in any rash enterprise against Rome.
+Polybius, who had returned with the other exiles, in vain exhorted them
+to peace and unanimity, and to avoid a hopeless struggle with the Roman
+power. Shortly afterward an adventurer laid claim to the throne of
+Macedonia (B.C. 149). He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but
+he pretended to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name of
+Philippus. At first he met with some success, and defeated the Roman
+Pr&aelig;tor Juventius, but, after reigning scarcely a year, he was conquered
+and taken prisoner by Q. Metellus.</p>
+
+<p>The temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war-party in the
+Ach&aelig;an League. Polybius had quitted the country to join his friend
+Scipio in Africa; and Di&aelig;us and Critola&uuml;s, the most violent enemies of
+Rome, had now undisputed sway in the League. Di&aelig;us incited the Ach&aelig;ans
+to attack Sparta, on the ground that, instead of appealing to the League
+respecting a boundary question, as they ought to have done, they had
+violated its laws by sending a private embassy to Rome. The Spartans,
+feeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to the
+Romans for assistance; and in B.C. 147 two Roman commissioners were sent
+to Greece to settle these disputes. The commissioners decided that not
+only Sparta, but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of
+Achaia, should be restored to independence. Their decision occasioned
+serious riots at Corinth. All the Spartans in the town were seized, and
+even the Roman commissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return
+to Rome a fresh embassy was dispatched to demand satisfaction for these
+outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Critola&uuml;s, then
+Strategus of the League, rendered all attempts at accom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>modation
+fruitless, and, after the return of the embassadors, the Senate declared
+war against the League. The cowardice and incompetence of Critola&uuml;s as a
+general were only equaled by his previous insolence. On the approach of
+the Romans from Macedonia under Metellus he did not even venture to make
+a stand at Thermopyl&aelig;; and, being overtaken by them near Scarphea, in
+Locris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Di&aelig;us, who
+succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage,
+and made preparations to defend Corinth. Metellus had hoped to have had
+the honor of bringing the war to a conclusion, and had almost reached
+Corinth, when the Consul L. Mummius landed on the Isthmus and assumed
+the command. The struggle was soon brought to a close. Di&aelig;us was
+defeated in battle; and Corinth was immediately evacuated, not only by
+the troops of the League, but also by the greater part of the
+inhabitants. On entering the city, Mummius put to the sword the few
+males who remained, sold the women and children as slaves, and, having
+earned away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (B.C. 146).
+Corinth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art; but Mummius was so
+insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with those who
+contracted to convey them to Italy that, if any were lost in the
+passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value! Mummius then
+employed himself in chastising and regulating the whole of Greece; and
+ten commissioners were sent from Rome to settle its future condition.
+The whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was formed
+into a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, derived from that
+confederacy which had made the last struggle for political existence.
+The Roman commissioners then proceeded northward, and also formed
+Macedonia into a province. Polybius, who had hastened to Greece
+immediately after the capture of Corinth, exerted all his influence to
+alleviate the misfortunes of his countrymen, and to procure for them
+favorable terms. As a friend of Scipio he was received by the Roman
+commissioners with great distinction, and obtained from them a
+relaxation of some of the most severe enactments which had been made
+against the Ach&aelig;ans.</p>
+
+<p>Metellus and Mummius both triumphed on their return to Rome, the former
+taking the surname of Macedonicus, the latter that of Achaicus.</p>
+
+<p>Carthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same year as
+Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the battle of Zama had
+restored some degree of prosperity to the state; and, though the Roman
+party obtained the supremacy after he had been compelled to fly to
+Antiochus, the commercial activity of the Car<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>thaginians restored to the
+city much of its former influence. Rome looked with a jealous eye upon
+its reviving power, and encouraged Masinissa to make repeated
+aggressions upon its territory. At length the popular party, having
+obtained more weight in the government, made a stand against these
+repeated encroachments of Masinissa. Thereupon Cato recommended an
+instant declaration of war against Carthage; but this met with
+considerable opposition in the Senate, and it was at length arranged
+that an embassy should be sent to Africa to gain information as to the
+real state of affairs. The ten embassadors, of whom Cato was the chief,
+offered their arbitration, which was accepted by Masinissa, but rejected
+by the Carthaginians, who had no confidence in Roman justice. The
+deputies accurately observed the warlike preparations and the defenses
+of the frontier. They then entered the city, and saw the strength and
+population it had acquired since the Second Punic War. Upon their return
+Cato was the foremost in asserting that Rome would never be safe as long
+as Carthage was so powerful, so hostile, and so near. One day he drew a
+bunch of early ripe figs from beneath his robe, and, throwing it upon
+the floor of the Senate-house, said to the assembled fathers, who were
+astonished at the freshness and fineness of the fruit, "Those figs were
+gathered but three days ago at Carthage; so close is our enemy to our
+walls." From that time forth, whenever he was called upon for his vote
+in the Senate, though the subject of debate bore no relation to
+Carthage, his words were, "Delenda est Carthago," "Carthage must be
+destroyed."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cato's opinion prevailed, and the Senate only waited for a favorable
+opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred. The popular party
+having driven into exile the powerful partisans of Masinissa, the old
+Numidian king invaded the Carthaginian territory, and defeated the army
+which had been raised to oppose him (B.C. 150). This led to a change in
+the government, and the aristocratical party, once more restored to
+power, hastened to make their submission to Rome. But the Romans had
+resolved upon war, and, when the Carthaginian embassadors arrived at
+Rome, the two Consuls were already levying troops. The embassadors,
+knowing that resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger of the
+Senate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to send 300 youths
+of the noblest families to meet the Consuls at Lilyb&aelig;um, and were told
+that the Consuls would acquaint them with the farther orders of the
+Senate. At Lilyb&aelig;um the Consuls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> found the hostages awaiting them, and
+then promised the Carthaginian envoys that the decision of the Senate
+should be announced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica, which
+surrendered to them in despair, the Consuls informed the Carthaginians
+that, as their state would henceforth be under the protection of Rome,
+they had no longer any occasion for arms, and must surrender all the
+munitions of war. Even this demand was complied with, and the Roman
+commissioners who were sent to Carthage brought to the Roman camp
+200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 catapults. The Consuls, thinking that
+the state was now defenseless, threw off the mask, and announced the
+final resolution of the Senate: "That Carthage must be destroyed, and
+that its inhabitants must build another city ten miles distant from the
+coast." When this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage
+seized all the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than submit to
+so perfidious a foe. All the Italians within the walls were massacred;
+the members of the former government took to flight, and the popular
+party once more obtained the power. Almost superhuman efforts were made
+to obtain means of defense; corn was collected from every quarter; arms
+were manufactured day and night; the women cut off their long hair to be
+made into strings for the catapults, and the whole city became one vast
+work-shop. The Consuls now saw that it would be necessary to have
+recourse to force; but they had no military ability, and their attacks
+were repulsed with great loss. The younger Scipio Africanus, who was
+then serving in the army as military tribune, displayed great bravery
+and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army from
+destruction. Still no permanent success was gained, and Scipio returned
+to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the soldiers that he would come
+back as their commander. In the following year (B.C. 148) the new Consul
+L. Calpurnius Piso was even less successful than his predecessors. The
+soldiers became discontented; the Roman Senate and people, who had
+anticipated an easy conquest, were indignant at their disappointment,
+and all eyes were turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became a
+candidate for the &aelig;dileship for the ensuing year (B.C. 147), he was
+unanimously elected Consul, though he was only thirty-seven years old,
+and had not, therefore, attained the legal age for the office.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son of L. &AElig;milius
+Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was adopted by P. Scipio, the
+son of the great Africanus, and is therefore called Scipio Africanus
+Minor, to distinguish him from his grandfather by adoption. To these
+names that of &AElig;milianus is sometimes added to mark the family of his
+birth, so that his full desig<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>nation was P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus
+&AElig;milianus. His intimacy with the historian Polybius has been already
+mentioned. He appears from his earliest years to have devoted himself
+with ardor to the study of literature; and he eagerly availed himself of
+the superior knowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary
+pursuits. He was accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all his
+campaigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, lost no
+opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature and
+philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did he neglect
+the literature of his own country, for Terence was admitted to his
+intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted him in the composition of
+his comedies. His friendship with L&aelig;lius, whose tastes and pursuits were
+so congenial to his own, has been immortalized by Cicero's celebrated
+treatise "On Friendship."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image043" name="image043">
+   <img src="images/043.jpg"
+      alt="Plan of Carthage."
+      title="Plan of Carthage." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Plan of Carthage.<br /><br />A. Inner Port.<br />B. Outer Port.<br />C. Outlet to Sea.<br />D. Scipio's Mole.<br />E. New Outlet to Sea, cut by the Carthaginians.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Scipio landed in Africa in B.C. 147. His first step was to restore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+discipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb of
+Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a work across the entrance of
+the harbor to cut off the city from all supplies by sea. But the
+Carthaginians defended themselves with a courage and an energy rarely
+paralleled in history. While Scipio was engaged in this laborious task,
+they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner port, and cut a new
+channel communicating with the sea. Hence, when Scipio at length
+succeeded in blocking up the entrance of the harbor, he found all his
+labor useless, as the Carthaginians sailed out to sea by the new outlet.
+But this fleet was destroyed after an obstinate engagement which lasted
+three days. At length, in the following year (B.C. 146), Scipio had made
+all his preparations for the final assault. The Carthaginians defended
+themselves with the courage of despair. They fought from street to
+street, and from house to house, and the work of destruction and
+butchery went on for six days. The fate of this once magnificent city
+moved Scipio to tears; and, anticipating that a similar catastrophe
+might one day befall Rome, he is said to have repeated the lines of the
+Iliad over the flames of Carthage: "The day shall come when sacred Troy
+shall perish, and Priam and his people shall be slain."</p>
+
+<p>Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a splendid
+triumph on account of his victory. The surname of Africanus, which he
+had inherited by adoption, had now been acquired by his own exploits.</p>
+
+<p>A portion of the dominions of Carthage was assigned to Utica. The
+remainder was formed into a Roman province under the name of Africa.
+Carthage itself was leveled to the ground, and a curse pronounced upon
+any who should rebuild the city. C. Gracchus, however, only twenty-four
+years afterward, attempted to found a new city upon the ancient site
+under the name of Junonia; but evil prodigies at its foundation, and the
+subsequent death of Gracchus, interrupted this design. The project was
+revived by Julius C&aelig;sar, and was carried into effect by Augustus; and
+Roman Carthage, built at a short distance from the former city, became
+the capital of Africa, and one of the most flourishing cities in the
+ancient world. In the fifth century it was taken by Genseric, and made
+the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It was retaken by
+Belisarius, but was finally captured and destroyed by the Arabs in A.D.
+647. Its site is now desolate, marked only by a few ruins.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image044" name="image044">
+   <img src="images/044.jpg"
+      alt="Personification of the River Tiber."
+      title="Personification of the River Tiber." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Personification of the River Tiber.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XX.</h2>
+
+<h3>SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The generous policy of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in B.C. 179<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> had
+secured for Spain a long period of tranquillity. But in B.C. 153, the
+inhabitants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the walls of their
+town, which was forbidden by one of the articles in the treaty of
+Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many years. The
+Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, and the Consul Q.
+Fabius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign against them. His
+successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, grandson of the Marcellus
+who was celebrated in the Second Punic War, carried on the war with
+vigor, and concluded a peace with the enemy on very fair terms (B.C.
+152). The Consul of the following year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding
+the Celtiberians at peace, turned his arms against the Vacc&aelig;i, Cantabri,
+and other nations as yet unknown to the Romans. At the same time the
+Pr&aelig;tor Ser. Sulpicius Galba invaded Lusitania, but, though he met with
+some advantage at first, he was subsequently defeated with great loss,
+and escaped with only a few horsemen. In the following year (B.C. 150)
+he again invaded the country from the south, while Lucullus attacked it
+from the north. The Lusitanians therefore sent embassadors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> to Galba to
+make their submission. He received them with kindness, lamented the
+poverty of their country, and promised to assign them more fertile
+lands, if they would meet him in three bodies, with their wives and
+children, in three places which he fixed upon. The simple people
+believed him. But he meditated one of the most atrocious acts of
+treachery and cruelty recorded in history. He fell upon each body
+separately, and butchered them, men, women, and children, without
+distinction. Among the very few who escaped was Viriathus, the future
+avenger of his nation. Galba was brought to trial on his return to Rome
+on account of this outrage; and Cato, then in the 85th year of his age,
+inveighed against his treachery and baseness. But Galba was eloquent and
+wealthy, and the liberal employment of his money, together with the
+compassion excited by his weeping children and ward, obtained his
+acquittal.</p>
+
+<p>Viriathus appears to have been one of those able guerrilla chiefs whom
+Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is said to have
+been first a shepherd and afterward a robber, but he soon acquired
+unbounded influence over the minds of his countrymen. After the massacre
+of Galba, those Lusitanians who had not left their homes rose as a man
+against the rule of such treacherous tyrants. Viriathus at first avoided
+all battles in the plains, and waged an incessant predatory warfare in
+the mountains; and he met with such continued good fortune, that numbers
+flocked to his standard. The aspect of affairs seemed at length so
+threatening that in B.C. 145 the Romans determined to send the Consul Q.
+Fabius Maximus into the country. In the following year Fabius defeated
+Viriathus with great loss; but this success was more than
+counterbalanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest and most
+noble-minded of the Spaniards. The war is usually known by the name of
+the Numantine, from Numantia, a town on the River Douro, and the capital
+of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Henceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one in the north
+against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south against Viriathus
+and the Lusitanians. The war against the Lusitanians was at first
+brought to a conclusion. In B.C. 141 Viriathus surprised the Proconsul
+Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where escape was impossible. He
+used his victory with moderation, and suffered the Romans to depart
+uninjured, on condition of their allowing the Lusitanians to retain
+undisturbed possession of their own territory, and recognizing him as a
+friend and ally of Rome. This treaty was ratified by the Roman people;
+but the Consul Q. Servilius C&aelig;pio, who succeeded Fabius in the command
+in south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>ern Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and
+renewed the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to C&aelig;pio to
+propose fresh terms of peace; but the Roman Consul persuaded them, by
+promises of large rewards, to murder their general. On their return they
+assassinated him in his own tent, and made their escape to the Roman
+camp before the Lusitanians were aware of the death of their chief. But,
+when the murderers claimed their reward, the Consul coolly told them
+that the Romans did not approve of the murder of a general by his own
+soldiers. The Lusitanians continued in arms a little longer, but the war
+virtually terminated by the death of Viriathus. Their country was
+finally reduced to subjection by the Consul D. Junius Brutus in B.C.
+138, who also crossed the rivers Douro and Minho, and received the
+surname of Calla&iuml;cus in consequence of his receiving the submission of
+the Calla&iuml;ci, or Gall&aelig;ci, a people in the northwest of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with success by
+the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his Pr&aelig;torship had
+defeated the pretender to the Macedonian throne. But the successors of
+Metellus experienced repeated disasters, and at length, in B.C. 137, the
+Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus, being entirely surrounded by the
+Celtiberians, was obliged to sign a peace with them, in which he
+recognized their independence. He only obtained these terms on condition
+that his Qu&aelig;stor, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, who was greatly respected by
+the Spaniards for his father's sake, should become responsible for the
+execution of the treaty. The Senate refused to ratify it, and went
+through the hypocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus, bound and
+naked, to the enemy. But the Numantines, like the Samnites in a similar
+case, declined to accept the offering.</p>
+
+<p>The Numantine war continued in the same disastrous manner to the Roman
+arms, and the people now called upon Scipio Africanus to bring it to a
+conclusion. We have already traced the career of this eminent man till
+the fall of Carthage. In B.C. 142 he was Censor with L. Mummius. In the
+administration of the duties of his office he followed in the footsteps
+of Cato, and attempted to repress the growing luxury and immorality of
+his contemporaries; but his efforts were thwarted by his colleague. He
+vainly wished to check in the people the appetite for foreign conquests;
+and in the solemn prayer which he offered at the conclusion of the
+lustrum he changed the usual supplication for the enlargement of the
+Republic into one for its preservation. He was now elected Consul a
+second time, and was sent into Spain in B.C. 134. His first efforts were
+directed, as in Africa, to the restoration of discipline in the army,
+which had become disorganized and demoralized by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> every kind of
+indulgence. Two remarkable men served under Scipio in this war. Marius,
+afterward seven times Consul, and the Numidian prince Jugurtha. Having
+brought his troops into an effective condition, Scipio, in the following
+year, proceeded to lay siege to Numantia. The town was defended by its
+inhabitants with the courage and perseverance which has pre-eminently
+distinguished the Spaniards in all ages in the defense of their walled
+towns. It was not till they had suffered the most dreadful extremities
+of famine, eating even the bodies of the dead, that they surrendered the
+place (B.C. 133). Fifty of the principal inhabitants were selected to
+adorn Scipio's triumph; the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was
+leveled to the ground. He now received the surname of Numantinus, in
+addition to that of Africanus.</p>
+
+<p>During the Numantine war Rome was menaced by a new danger, which
+revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic. We have already had
+occasion to describe the decay of the free population in Italy, and the
+great increase in the number of slaves from the foreign conquests of the
+state.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> As slaves were cheap, in consequence of the abundant supply,
+the masters did not care for their lives, and treated them with great
+barbarity. A great part of the land in Italy was turned into
+sheep-walks. The slaves were made responsible for the sheep committed to
+their care, and were left to supply themselves with food as they best
+could. It was an aggravation of their wretched lot, that almost all
+these slaves had once been freemen, and were not distinguished from
+their masters by any outward sign, like the negroes in the United
+States. In Sicily the free population had diminished even more than in
+Italy; and it was in this island that the first Servile War broke out.
+Damophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna, had treated his slaves with
+excessive barbarity. They entered into a conspiracy against their cruel
+master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name of Eunus, who belonged
+to another master. This Eunus pretended to the gift of prophecy, and
+appeared to breathe flames of fire from his mouth. He not only promised
+them success, but joined in the enterprise himself. Having assembled to
+the number of about 400 men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and, being
+joined by their fellow-citizens within the town, quickly made themselves
+masters of it. Great excesses were committed, and almost all the freemen
+were put to death with horrid tortures. Eunus had, while yet a slave,
+prophesied that he should become king. He now assumed the royal diadem,
+and the title of King Antiochus. Sicily was at this time swarming with
+slaves, a great proportion of them Syrians, who flocked to the standard
+of their countryman and fellow-bonds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>man. The revolt now became general,
+and the island was delivered over to the murderous fury of men maddened
+by oppression, cruelty, and insult. The Pr&aelig;tors, who first led armies
+against them, were totally defeated; and in B.C. 134 it was thought
+necessary to send the Consul C. Fulvius Flaccus to subdue the
+insurrection. But neither he, nor the Consul of the following year,
+succeeded in this object; and it was not till B.C. 132 that the Consul
+P. Rupilius brought the war to an end by the capture of Tauromenium and
+Enna, the two strong-holds of the insurgents. The life of Eunus was
+spared, probably with the intention of carrying him to Rome, but he died
+in prison at Morgantia.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time died Attalus Philometor, the last king of Pergamus,
+leaving no children (B.C. 133). He beqeuathed his kingdom and treasures
+to the Roman people; but Aristonicus, a natural son of Eumenes, the
+father of Attalus, laid claim to the crown. He even defeated the Consul
+P. Licinius Crassus, who fell in the engagement (B.C. 131), but he was
+himself defeated and taken prisoner in the following year. The kingdom
+of Pergamus was formed into a Roman province under the name of Asia
+(B.C. 129).</p>
+
+<p>The foreign dominions of Rome now comprised the ten following provinces,
+to which is added the date of the formation of each: 1. Sicily, B.C.
+241. 2. Sardinia and Corsica, B.C. 238. 3, 4. The two Spains, Citerior
+and Ulterior, B.C. 205. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, B.C. 191. 6. Macedonia,
+B.C. 146. 7. Illyricum, probably formed at the same time as Macedonia.
+8. Achaia, that is, Southern Greece, virtually a province after the
+capture of Corinth, B.C. 146, though the exact date of its formation is
+unknown. 9. Africa, consisting of the dominions of Carthage, B.C. 146.
+10. Asia, including the kingdom of Pergamus, B.C. 129. To these an
+eleventh was added in B.C. 118 by the conquest of the southern portion
+of Transalpine Gaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with
+the other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the
+"Provincia," a name which has been retained in the modern Provence.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image045" name="image045">
+   <img src="images/045.jpg"
+      alt="Stairs of the modern Capitol."
+      title="Stairs of the modern Capitol." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Stairs of the modern Capitol.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The more thoughtful Romans had foreseen the dangers with which Rome was
+menaced by the impoverishment of her free population, and the alarming
+increase in the number of slaves. It is said that L&aelig;lius, the friend of
+the elder Scipio Africanus, had at the close of the Second Punic War
+meditated some reforms to arrest the growing evil, but had given them up
+as impracticable. The Servile War in Sicily had lately revealed the
+extent of the peril to which the Republic was exposed. It must have been
+felt by many that the evil would never have reached its present height
+if the Livinian Law had been observed, if men had been appointed to
+watch over its execution, and if the newly-acquired public lands had
+from time to time been distributed among the people. But the nobles,
+from long possession, had come to regard the public land as their own;
+many had acquired their portions by purchase, inheritance,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> or marriage;
+and every one shrank from interfering with interests supported by long
+prescription and usage. Still, unless something was done, matters would
+become worse; the poor would become poorer, and the slaves more
+numerous, and the state would descend more rapidly into the yawning
+abyss beneath it. Under these circumstances, two young men, belonging to
+one of the noblest families in Rome, came forward to save the Republic,
+but perished in the attempt. Their violent death may be regarded as the
+beginning of the Civil Wars, which ended in the destruction of freedom,
+and the establishment of the despotism of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus,
+whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for so many years.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
+They lost their father at an early age, but they were educated with the
+utmost care by their mother, Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus
+the elder, who had inherited from her father a love of literature, and
+united in her person the severe virtue of the ancient Roman matron with
+the superior knowledge and refinement which then prevailed in the higher
+classes at Rome. She engaged for her sons the most eminent Greek
+teachers; and it was mainly owing to the pains she took with their
+education that they surpassed all the Roman youths of their age.
+Tiberius was nine years older than his brother Caius. The latter had
+more ability, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and won all hearts by
+the simplicity of his demeanor and his graceful and persuasive
+eloquence. So highly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he reached
+the age of manhood he was elected Augur, and at the banquet given at his
+installation Appius Claudius, then Chief of the Senate, offered him his
+daughter in marriage. When Appius returned home and informed his wife
+that he had just betrothed their daughter, she exclaimed, "Why in such a
+hurry, unless you have got Tib. Gracchus for her husband?" Sempronia,
+the only sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Scipio
+Africanus. Tiberius was thus, by birth and marriage, connected with the
+noblest families in the Republic&mdash;the grandson of the conqueror of
+Hannibal&mdash;the son-in-law of the Chief of the Senate&mdash;and the
+brother-in-law of the destroyer of Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the first
+who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was Qu&aelig;stor in B.C. 137, and
+accompanied the Consul C. Hostilius to Spain, where he saved the army by
+obtaining a treaty with the Numantines, which the Senate refused to
+ratify.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> In passing through Etruria, on his way to Spain, Tiberius
+had observed with grief and indignation the deserted state of that
+fertile country. Thousands of foreign slaves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> were tending the flocks
+and cultivating the soil of the wealthy landowners, while Roman
+citizens, thus thrown out of employment, could scarcely procure their
+daily bread, and had not a clod of earth to call their own. He now
+conceived the design of applying a remedy to this state of things, and
+with this view became a candidate for the Tribunate, and was elected for
+the year B.C. 133.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure which he
+brought forward had previously received the approbation of some of the
+wisest and noblest men in the state; of his own father-in-law Appius
+Claudius; of P. Mucius Sc&aelig;vola, the great jurist, who was then Consul;
+and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It was proposed to re-enact the
+Licinian Law of B.C. 364&mdash;which had, in fact, never been repealed&mdash;but
+with some modifications and additions. As in the Licinian Law, no one
+was to be allowed to possess more than 500 jugera of public land; but,
+to relax the stringency of this rule, every possessor might hold in
+addition 250 jugera for each of his sons. All the rest of the public
+land was to be taken away from them and distributed among the poor
+citizens, who were not to be permitted to alienate these lots, in order
+that they might not be again absorbed into the estate of the wealthy. An
+indemnity was to be given from the public treasury for all buildings
+erected upon lands thus taken away. Three commissioners (Triumviri) were
+to be elected by the tribes in order to carry this law into execution.</p>
+
+<p>The Law affected only Public Lands, but it was no less a revolutionary
+measure. It is true that no prescription can, as a general rule, be
+pleaded against the rights of the state, but the possessors of the
+public lands had enjoyed them without question for so long a period that
+they had come to regard these lands as their private property. In many
+cases, as we have already said, they had been acquired by <i>bon&acirc; fide</i>
+purchase, and the claim of the state, now advocated by Gracchus, was
+regarded as downright robbery. Attacks upon property have produced the
+greatest convulsions in all states, and the Roman landowners were ready
+to have recourse to any measures to defeat the law. But the thousands
+who would be benefited by it were determined to support Tiberius at any
+risk. He told them that "the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and
+holes, and hiding-places, while the men who fought and bled in defense
+of Italy wandered about with their wives and children without a spot of
+ground to rest upon." It was evident that the law would be carried, and
+the landowners therefore resorted to the only means left to them. They
+persuaded M. Octavius, one of the Tribunes, to put his veto upon the
+measure of his colleague. This was a fatal and unexpected obstacle. In
+vain did Tiberius implore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> Octavius to withdraw his veto. The contest
+between the Tribunes continued for many days. Tiberius retaliated by
+forbidding the magistrates to exercise any of their functions, and by
+suspending, in fact, the entire administration of the government. But
+Octavius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to depose him
+from his office. He summoned an Assembly of the People and put the
+question to the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had
+already voted for the deposition of Octavius, and the addition of one
+tribe would reduce him to a private condition, when Tiberius stopped the
+voting, anxious, at the last moment, to prevent the necessity of so
+desperate a measure. Octavius, however, would not yield. "Complete what
+you have begun," was his only answer to the entreaties of his colleague.
+The eighteenth tribe voted, and Tiberius ordered him to be dragged from
+the rostra. Octavius had only exercised his undoubted rights, and his
+deposition was clearly a violation of the Roman constitution. This gave
+the enemies of Gracchus the handle which they needed. They could now
+justly charge him not only with revolutionary measures, but with
+employing revolutionary means to carry them into effect.</p>
+
+<p>The Agrarian Law was passed without farther opposition, and the three
+commissioners elected to put it in force were Tiberius himself, his
+father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother Caius, then a youth of
+twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Numantia. About the same time news
+arrived of the death of Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamus, who had
+bequeathed his kingdom and treasures to the Republic. Tiberius therefore
+proposed that these treasures should be distributed among the people who
+had received assignments of lands, to enable them to stock their farms
+and to assist them in their cultivation. He even went so far as to
+threaten to deprive the Senate of the regulation of the new province,
+and to bring the subject before the Assembly of the People. The
+exasperation of the Nobility was intense. They tried every means to
+blacken the character of the Tribune, and even spread a report that he
+had received, a diadem and a purple robe from the envoy from Pergamus,
+and that he meditated making himself King of Rome. It was evident that
+his life would be no longer safe when he ceased to be protected by the
+sanctity of the Tribune's office. Accordingly, he became a candidate for
+the Tribunate for the following year. The Tribunes did not enter upon
+their office till December, but the election took place in June, at
+which time the country people, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged
+in getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had already voted in his
+favor, when the nobility interrupted the election by maintaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> that
+it was illegal, since no man could be chosen Tribune for two consecutive
+years. After a violent debate the Assembly was adjourned till the
+following day. Tiberius now became alarmed lest his enemies should get
+the upper hand, and he went round the forum with his child, appealing to
+the sympathy of the people and imploring their aid. They readily
+responded to his appeal, escorted him home, and a large crowd kept watch
+around his house all night.</p>
+
+<p>Next day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the open space in
+front of the Temple of Jupiter. The Senate also assembled in the Temple
+of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica, the leader of the more violent party
+in the Senate, called upon the Consul Mucius Sc&aelig;vola to stop the
+re-election, but the Consul declined to interfere. Fulvius Flaccus, a
+Senator, and a friend of Tiberius, hastened to inform him of the speech
+of Nasica, and told him that his death was resolved upon. Thereupon the
+friends of Tiberius prepared to resist force by force; and as those at a
+distance could not hear him, on account of the tumult and confusion, the
+Tribune pointed with his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was
+in danger. His enemies exclaimed that he was asking for the crown. The
+news reached the Senate. Nasica appealed to the Consul to save the
+Republic, but as Sc&aelig;vola still refused to have recourse to violence,
+Nasica sprung up and exclaimed, "The Consul is betraying the Republic!
+let those who wish to save the state follow me." He then rushed out of
+the Senate-house, followed by many of the Senators. The people made way
+for them; and they, breaking up the benches, armed themselves with
+sticks, and rushed upon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to
+the Temple of Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, and
+in his flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising he
+received the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was quickly
+dispatched. Upward of 300 of his partisans were slain on the same day.
+Their bodies were thrown into the Tiber. This was the first blood shed
+at Rome in civil strife since the expulsion of the kings.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding their victory, the Nobles did not venture to propose the
+repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new Commissioner was chosen in the
+place of Tiberius. The popular indignation was so strongly excited
+against Scipio Nasica that his friends advised him to withdraw from
+Italy, though he was Pontifex Maximus, and therefore ought not to have
+quitted the country. He died shortly afterward at Pergamus.</p>
+
+<p>All eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned to Rome in
+B.C. 132. When Scipio received at Numantia the news<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> of the death of
+Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed in the verse of Homer<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"So perish all who do the like again."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The people may have thought that the brother-in-law of Tiberius would
+show some sympathy with his reforms and some sorrow for his fate. They
+were, however, soon undeceived. Being asked in the Assembly of the
+Tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, the Tribune, who was now the leader of the
+popular party, what he thought of the death of Tiberius, he boldly
+replied that "he was justly slain." The people, who had probably
+expected a different answer, loudly expressed their disapprobation;
+whereupon Scipio, turning to the mob, bade them be silent, since Italy
+was only their step-mother.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The people did not forget this insult;
+but such was his influence and authority that the Nobility were able to
+defeat the bill of Carbo by which the Tribunes might be re-elected as
+often as the people pleased. Scipio was now regarded as the acknowledged
+leader of the Nobility, and the latter resolved to avail themselves of
+his powerful aid to prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from being
+carried into effect. The Italians were alarmed at the prospect of losing
+some of their lands, and Scipio skillfully availed himself of the
+circumstance to propose in the Senate (B.C. 129) that all disputes
+respecting the lands of the Italians should be taken out of the hands of
+the Commissioners and transferred to the Consuls. This would have been
+equivalent to an abrogation of the law, and accordingly the three
+Commissioners offered the most vehement opposition to his proposal. In
+the forum he was attacked by Carbo, with the bitterest invectives, as
+the enemy of the people; and upon his again expressing his approval of
+the death of Tiberius, the people shouted out, "Down with the tyrant!"
+In the evening he went home accompanied by the Senate and a great number
+of the Italians. He retired to his sleeping-room with the intention of
+composing a speech for the following day. Next morning Rome was thrown
+into consternation by the news that Scipio was found dead in his room.
+The most contradictory rumors were circulated respecting his death, but
+it was the general opinion that he was murdered. Suspicion fell upon
+various persons, but Carbo was most generally believed to have been the
+murderer. There was no inquiry into the cause of his death (B.C. 129).</p>
+
+<p>Scipio was only 56 at the time of his death. To the Republic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> his loss
+was irreparable. By his last act he had come forward as the patron of
+the Italians. Had he lived he might have incorporated them in the Roman
+state, and by forming a united Italy have saved Rome from many of the
+horrors and disasters which she afterward suffered.</p>
+
+<p>The leaders of the popular party perceived the mistake they had made in
+alienating the Italians from their cause, and they now secured their
+adhesion by offering them the Roman citizenship if they would support
+the Agrarian Law. As Roman citizens they would, of course, be entitled
+to the benefits of the law, while they would, at the same time, obtain
+what they had so long desired&mdash;an equal share in political power. But
+the existing citizens, who saw that their own importance would be
+diminished by an increase in their numbers, viewed such a proposal with
+the utmost repugnance. So strong was their feeling that, when great
+numbers of the Italians had flocked to Rome in B.C. 126, the Tribune M.
+Junius Pennus carried a law that all aliens should quit the city. Caius
+Gracchus spoke against this law, and his friends still remained faithful
+to the cause of the Italians. In the following year (B.C. 125), M.
+Fulvius Flaccus, who was then Consul, brought forward a Reform Bill,
+granting the Roman citizenship to all the Italian allies. But it was
+evident that the Tribes would reject this law, and the Senate got rid of
+the proposer by sending him into Transalpine Gaul, where the Massilians
+had implored the assistance of Rome against the Salluvians. In the
+previous year Caius Gracchus had gone to Sardinia as Qu&aelig;stor, so that
+the Senate had now removed from Rome two of their most troublesome
+opponents, and the Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons.
+Bitter was the disappointment of the Italians. Fregell&aelig;, a town of
+Latium, and one of the eighteen Latin colonies which had remained
+faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War, took up arms, but its
+example was not followed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of the
+unequal contest. It was quickly reduced by the Pr&aelig;tor L. Opimius; the
+city was utterly destroyed; and the insurrection, which a slight success
+would have made universal, was thus nipped in its bud (B.C. 125).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image046" name="image046">
+   <img src="images/046.jpg"
+      alt="The Forum in its present state."
+      title="The Forum in its present state." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Forum in its present state.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Caius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs since his
+brother's death. He had spoken only twice in public: once in favor of
+the law of Carbo for the re-election of Tribunes, and a second time in
+opposition to the Alien Act of Junius Pennus, as already mentioned. But
+the eyes of the people were naturally turned toward him. His abilities
+were known, and the Senate dreaded his return to Rome. He had been
+already two years in Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him
+there another year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> by sending fresh troops to the province, and by
+commanding the Proconsul to remain in the island. But Caius suddenly
+appeared at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (B.C. 124). His enemies
+brought him before the Censors to account for his conduct, but he
+defended himself so ably that not only was no stigma put upon him, but
+he was considered to have been very badly used. He showed that he had
+served in the army twelve years, though required to serve only ten; that
+he had acted as Qu&aelig;stor two years, though the law demanded only one
+year's service; and he added that he was the only soldier who took out
+with him a full purse and brought it back empty.</p>
+
+<p>Exasperated by the persecution of the Senate, Caius determined to become
+a candidate for the Tribuneship, and to reform the Roman constitution.
+He was elected for the year B.C. 123, and lost no time in bringing
+forward a number of important measures which are known as the Sempronian
+Laws. His legislation was directed to two objects: the amelioration of
+the condition of the poor, and the weakening of the power of the Senate.
+Caius was the greatest orator of all his contemporaries; the contagion
+of his eloquence was irresistible, and the enthusiasm of the people
+enabled him to carry every thing before him.</p>
+
+<p>I. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people were:</p>
+
+<p>1. The extension of the Agrarian Law of his brother by planting new
+colonies in Italy and the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that corn should be sold to
+every citizen at a price much below its market value. This was the first
+of the <i>Leges Frumentari&aelig;</i>, which were attended with the most injurious
+effects. They emptied the treasury, at the same time that they taught
+the poor to become state paupers, instead of depending upon their own
+exertions for a living.</p>
+
+<p>3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped at the
+expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted from their pay,
+as had hitherto been the case.</p>
+
+<p>II. The most important laws designed to diminish the power of the Senate
+were:</p>
+
+<p>1. The law by which the Judices were to be taken only from the Equites,
+and not from the Senators, as had been the custom hitherto. This was a
+very important enactment, and needs a little explanation. All offenses
+against the state were originally tried in the Popular Assembly; but
+when special enactments were passed for the trial of particular
+offenses, the practice was introduced of forming a body of Judices for
+the trial of these offenses. This was first done upon the passing of the
+Calpurnian Law (B.C., 149) for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> the punishment of provincial magistrates
+for extortion in their government (<i>De Repetendis</i>). Such offenses had
+to be tried before the Pr&aelig;tor and a jury of Senators; but as these very
+Senators either had been or hoped to be provincial magistrates, they
+were not disposed to visit with severity offenses of which they
+themselves either had been or were likely to be guilty. By depriving the
+Senators of this judicial power, and by transferring it to the Equites,
+Gracchus also made the latter a political order in the state apart from
+their military character. The name of Equites was now applied to all
+persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as Judices, whether
+they served in the army or not. From this time is dated the creation of
+an <i>Ordo Equestris</i>, whose interests were frequently opposed to those of
+the Senate, and who therefore served as a check upon the latter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings of the
+Senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the Senate had
+assigned the provinces to the Consuls after their election, and thus had
+had it in their power to grant wealthy governments to their partisans,
+or unprofitable ones to those opposed to them. It was now enacted that,
+before the election of the Consuls, the Senate should determine the two
+provinces which the Consuls should have; and that they should,
+immediately after election, settle between themselves, by lot or
+otherwise, which province each should take.</p>
+
+<p>These laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he became
+for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re-elected Tribune for the
+following year (B.C. 122), though he did not offer himself as a
+candidate. M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had been Consul in B.C. 125, was also
+chosen as one of his colleagues. Flaccus, it will be recollected, had
+proposed in his consulship to give the Roman franchise to the Italian
+allies, and it was now determined to bring forward a similar measure.
+Caius therefore brought in a bill conferring the citizenship upon all
+the Latin colonies, and making the Italian allies occupy the position
+which the Latins had previously held. This wise measure was equally
+disliked in the forum and the Senate. Neither the influence nor the
+eloquence of Gracchus could induce the people to view with satisfaction
+the admission of the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with
+themselves. The Senate, perceiving that the popularity of Gracchus had
+been somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his colleague, M. Living
+Drusus&mdash;who was noble, well-educated, wealthy, and eloquent&mdash;to
+undermine his influence with the people. With the sanction of the
+Senate, Drusus now endeavored to outbid Gracchus. He played the part of
+a demagogue in order to supplant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> the true friend of the people. He gave
+to the Senate the credit of every popular law which he proposed, and
+gradually impressed the people with the belief that the Nobles were
+their best friends. Gracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum
+and Capua, and named among the founders some of the most respectable
+citizens. Drusus introduced a law for establishing no fewer than twelve
+colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each. Gracchus, in the
+distribution of the public land, reserved a rent payable to the public
+treasury. Drusus abolished even this payment. He also gained the
+confidence of the people by asking no favor for himself; he took no part
+in the foundation of colonies, and left to others the management of
+business in which any money had to be expended. Gracchus, on the other
+hand, superintended every thing in person; and the people, always
+jealous in pecuniary matters, began to suspect his motives. During his
+absence in Africa, whither he had gone as one of the three Commissioners
+for founding a colony upon the ruins of Carthage, Drusus was able to
+weaken his popularity still farther. On his return he endeavored in vain
+to reorganize his party and recover his power. Both he and Flaccus
+failed in being re-elected Tribunes; while L. Opimius and Q. Fabius, two
+personal enemies of Gracchus, were raised to the Consulship. The two new
+Consuls had no sooner entered upon office (B.C. 121) than they resolved
+to drive matters to extremities. One of the first measures of Opimius
+was a proposal to repeal the law for colonizing Carthage, because it had
+been established upon the site which Scipio had cursed. It was evident
+that a pretext was only sought for taking the life of Gracchus, and
+Flaccus urged him to repel violence by force. Caius shrunk from this
+step, but an accident gave his enemies the pretext which they longed
+for. The tribes had assembled at the Capitol to decide upon the colony
+at Carthage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against
+Gracchus, insolently cried out, "Make way for honest men, you rascals."
+Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look, and the man was
+immediately stabbed by an unknown hand. The assembly immediately broke
+up, and Gracchus returned home, foreseeing the advantage which this
+unfortunate occurrence would give to his enemies. The Senate declared
+Gracchus and Flaccus public enemies, and invested the Consuls with
+dictatorial powers. During the night Opimius took possession of the
+Temple of Castor and Pollux, which overlooked the forum; summoned a
+meeting of the Senate for the following morning, and ordered all the
+partisans of the Senate to be present, each with two armed slaves.
+Flaccus seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine, and distributed arms
+to his followers: here he was joined by Gracchus. Civil war was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> thus
+declared. After some fruitless attempts at negotiation, the Consul
+proceeded to attack the Aventine. Little or no resistance was made, and
+Flaccus and Gracchus took to flight, and crossed the Tiber by the
+Sublician bridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of the Furies,
+accompanied only by a single slave. When the pursuers reached the spot
+they found both of them dead. The slave had first killed his master and
+then himself. The head of Gracchus was cut off, and carried to Opimius,
+who gave to the person who brought it its weight in gold. Flaccus was
+also put to death, together with numbers of his party. Their corpses
+were thrown into the Tiber, their houses demolished, and their property
+confiscated. Even their widows were forbidden to wear mourning. After
+the bloody work had been finished, the Consul, by order of the Senate,
+dedicated a temple to Concord!</p>
+
+<p>At a later time statues of the two Gracchi were set up in public places,
+and the spots on which they fell were declared holy ground; but for the
+present no one dared to show any sympathy for their fate. Their mother
+Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she was visited by the most
+distinguished men. She loved to recount to her guests the story of her
+noble sons, and narrated their death without showing sorrow or shedding
+tears, as if she had been speaking of heroes of the olden time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image047" name="image047">
+   <img src="images/047.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Saturn at Rome."
+      title="Temple of Saturn at Rome." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Saturn at Rome.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image048" name="image048">
+   <img src="images/048.jpg"
+      alt="A Roman Trophy."
+      title="A Roman Trophy." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">A Roman Trophy.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII.</h2>
+
+<h3>JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The murder of C. Gracchus and his adherents left the Nobility undisputed
+masters of the state, till their scandalous conduct in the Jugurthan War
+provoked a reaction against them, and raised to power a more terrible
+opponent than the Gracchi had ever been. This man, who took such signal
+vengeance upon the Nobility, was the lowborn MARIUS. He was a native of
+Arpinum, and was said to have worked for wages as a common peasant
+before he entered the ranks of the army. He first served in Spain, and
+was present at the siege of Numantia in B.C. 134. Here he distinguished
+himself so much that he attracted the notice of Scipio Africanus, and
+received from him many marks of honor. Scipio indeed admitted him to his
+table; and on a certain occasion, when one of the guests asked Scipio
+where the Roman people would find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> such another general after his death,
+he is said to have laid his hand on the shoulder of Marius, and said,
+"Perhaps here." The name of Marius does not occur again for many years,
+but he doubtless continued to serve in the army, and became so
+distinguished that he was at length raised to the Tribunate of the Plebs
+in B.C. 119, though not till he had attained the mature age of 38. Only
+two years had elapsed since the death of C. Gracchus; and the Nobles,
+flushed with victory, resolved to put down with a high hand the least
+invasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had the boldness to
+propose a law for the purpose of giving greater freedom at elections;
+and when the Senate attempted to overawe him, he ordered one of his
+officers to carry the Consul Metellus to prison. Marius now became a
+marked man. He lost his election to the &AElig;dileship, and with difficulty
+obtained the Pr&aelig;torship (B.C. 115); but he added to his influence by his
+marriage with Julia, the sister of C. Julius C&aelig;sar, the father of the
+future ruler of Rome. His military abilities recommended him to the
+Consul Metellus (B.C. 100), who was anxious to restore discipline in the
+army and to retrieve the glory of the Roman name, which had been
+tarnished by the incapacity and corruption of the previous generals in
+the Jugurthan War, which now requires our attention.</p>
+
+<p>Masinissa, the ruler of Numidia, and so long the faithful ally of the
+Romans, had died in B.C. 149, at the advanced age of 90, leaving three
+sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa, among whom his kingdom was
+divided by Scipio Africanus, according to the dying directions of the
+old king. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in their brother's lifetime,
+Micipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was a bastard son of Mastanabal; but
+Micipsa brought him up with his own sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal.
+Jugurtha distinguished himself so much that he began to excite the
+jealousy of Micipsa. In order to remove him to a distance, and not
+without a hope that he might perish in the war, Micipsa sent him, in
+B.C. 134, with an auxiliary force, to assist Scipio against Numantia;
+but this only proved to the young man a fresh occasion of distinction.
+By his zeal, courage, and ability he gained the favor not only of his
+commander, but of all the leading nobles in the Roman camp, by many of
+whom he was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes for
+acquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia; and notwithstanding the
+contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk deep into the
+mind of Jugurtha. On his return he was received with every demonstration
+of honor by Micipsa; nor did he allow his ambitious projects to break
+forth during the lifetime of the old man. Micipsa, on his death-bed,
+though but too clearly foreseeing what would happen, commended the two
+young princes to the care<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> of Jugurtha; but at the very first interview
+which took place between them after his decease (B.C. 118) their
+dissensions broke out with the utmost fierceness. Shortly afterward
+Jugurtha found an opportunity to surprise and assassinate Hiempsal;
+whereupon Adherbal and his partisans rushed to arms, but were defeated
+in battle by Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to the Roman
+province, from whence he hastened to Rome to lay his cause before the
+Senate. Jugurtha had now the opportunity, for the first time, of putting
+to the test that which he had learnt in the camp before Numantia of the
+venality and corruption of the Roman nobility. He sent embassadors to
+Rome to counteract, by a lavish distribution of bribes, the effect of
+the just complaints of Adherbal, and by these means succeeded in
+averting the indignation of the Senate. A decree was, however, passed
+for the division of the kingdom of Numidia between the two competitors,
+and a committee of Senators sent to enforce its execution; but as soon
+as these arrived in Africa, Jugurtha succeeded in gaining them over by
+the same unscrupulous methods, and obtained, in the partition of the
+kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauritania, by far the larger
+and richer portion of the two (B.C. 117). But this advantage was far
+from contenting him, and shortly afterward he invaded the territories of
+his rival with a large army. Adherbal was defeated in the first
+engagement, his camp taken, and he himself with difficulty made his
+escape to the strong fortress of Cirta. Here he was closely blockaded by
+Jugurtha. The garrison surrendered on a promise of their lives being
+spared; but these conditions were shamefully violated by Jugurtha, who
+immediately put to death Adherbal and all his followers (B.C. 112).</p>
+
+<p>Indignation was now loud at Rome against the Numidian king; yet so
+powerful was the influence of those whose favor he had gained by his
+gold, that he would probably have prevailed upon the Senate to overlook
+all his misdeeds, had not one of the Tribunes, C. Memmius, by bringing
+the matter before the people, compelled the Senators to give way. War
+was accordingly declared against him, and one of the Consuls, L.
+Calpurnius Bestia, landed in Africa with a large army, and immediately
+proceeded to invade Numidia (B.C. 111). But Jugurtha easily bribed
+Bestia and M. Scaurus, who acted as his principal lieutenant, to grant
+him a favorable peace, on condition only of a pretended submission,
+together with the surrender of thirty elephants and a small sum of
+money. As soon as the tidings of this disgraceful transaction reached
+Rome, the indignation excited was so great that, on the proposition of
+C. Memmius, it was agreed to send the Pr&aelig;tor L. Cassius, a man of the
+highest integrity, to Numidia, in order to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> prevail on the king to
+repair in person to Rome, the popular party hoping to be able to convict
+the leaders of the Nobility by means of his evidence. The safe-conduct
+granted him by the state was religiously observed; but the scheme failed
+of its effect, for, as soon as Jugurtha was brought forward in the
+assembly of the people to make his statement, one of the Tribunes, who
+had been previously gained over by the friends of Scaurus and Bestia,
+forbade him to speak. He nevertheless remained at Rome for some time
+longer, and engaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been
+ultimately crowned with success had he not in the mean time ventured to
+assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting in a claim to the
+Numidian throne. It was impossible to overlook so daring a crime,
+perpetrated under the very eyes of the Senate. Jugurtha was ordered to
+quit Italy without delay. It was on this occasion that he is said, when
+leaving Rome, to have uttered the memorable words, "A city for sale, and
+destined to perish quickly, if it can find a purchaser."</p>
+
+<p>War was now inevitable; but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius Albinus, who
+arrived to conduct it (B.C. 110), and still more that of his brother
+Aulus, whom he left to command in his absence, when called away to hold
+the elections at Rome, proved as favorable to Jugurtha as the corruption
+of their predecessors. Aulus, having penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia, suffered himself to be surprised in his camp; great part of his
+army was cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the
+ignominy of passing under the yoke. But Jugurtha had little reason to
+rejoice in this success, great as it might at first appear; for the
+disgrace at once roused all the spirit of the Roman people; the treaty
+concluded by Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions made to
+raise troops, and one of the Consuls for the new year (B.C. 109), Q.
+C&aelig;cilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the honor of the
+Roman arms. But this did not satisfy the people. The scandalous conduct
+of so many of the Nobles had given fresh life to the popular party; and
+the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill for the appointment of three
+Commissioners to inquire into the conduct of all of those who had
+received bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, though one of the most guilty,
+managed to be put upon the Commission. But he dared not shield his
+confederates. Many men of the highest rank were condemned, among whom
+were Bestia, Albinus, and Opimius. The last named was the Opimius who
+acted with such ferocity toward Caius Gracchus and his party. He died in
+exile at Dyrrhachium some years afterward, in great poverty.</p>
+
+<p>The Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the strictest
+integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his lieutenant, in B.C. 109.
+As soon as Jugurtha discovered the character of the new commander he
+began to despair of success, and made overtures for submission in
+earnest. These were apparently entertained by Metellus, while he sought
+in fact to gain over the adherents of the king, and induce them to
+betray him to the Romans, at the same time that he continued to advance
+into the enemy's territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his
+designs, attacked him suddenly on his march with a numerous force, but
+was, after a severe struggle, repulsed, and his army totally routed.
+Metellus ravaged the greater part of the country, but failed in taking
+the important town of Zama before he withdrew into winter quarters. But
+he had produced such an effect upon the Numidian king, that Jugurtha was
+induced, in the course of the winter, to make offers of unqualified
+submission, and even surrendered all his elephants, with a number of
+arms and horses, and a large sum of money, to the Roman general; but
+when called upon to place himself personally in the power of Metellus,
+his courage failed him, he broke off the negotiation, and once more had
+recourse to arms. Marius had greatly distinguished himself in the
+preceding campaign. The readiness with which he shared the toils of the
+common soldiers, eating of the same food, and working at the same
+trenches with them, had endeared him to them, and through their letters
+to their friends at Rome his praises were in everybody's mouth. His
+increasing reputation and popularity induced him to aspire to the
+Consulship. His hopes were increased by a circumstance which happened to
+him at Utica. While sacrificing at this place the officiating priest
+told him that the victims predicted some great and wonderful events, and
+bade him execute whatever purpose he had in his mind. Marius thereupon
+applied to Metellus for leave of absence, that he might proceed to Rome
+and offer himself as a candidate. The Consul, who belonged to a family
+of the highest nobility, at first tried to dissuade Marius from his
+presumptuous attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure; and when
+he could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he civilly evaded
+his request by pleading the exigencies of the public service, which
+required his presence and assistance. But, as Marius still continued to
+press him for leave of absence, Metellus said to him on one occasion,
+"You need not be in such a hurry to go to Rome; it will be quite time
+enough for you to apply for the Consulship along with my son." The
+latter, who was then serving with the army, was a youth of only twenty
+years of age, and could not, therefore, become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the next twenty years. This insult was never forgotten by
+Marius. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> now began to intrigue against his general, and to represent
+that the war was purposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own
+vanity and love of military power. He openly declared that with one half
+of the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains; and as all his
+remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people began to regard him
+as the only person competent to finish the war. Metellus at last allowed
+him to leave Africa, but only twelve days before the election. Meeting
+with a favorable wind, he arrived at Rome in time, and was elected
+Consul with an enthusiasm which bore down all opposition. He received
+from the people the province of Numidia, although the Senate had
+previously decreed that Metellus should continue in his command. The
+exultation of Marius knew no bounds. In his speeches to the public, he
+gloried in his humble origin. He upbraided the Nobles with their
+effeminacy and licentiousness; he told them that he looked upon the
+Consulship as a trophy of his conquest over them; and he proudly
+compared his own wounds and military experience with their indolence and
+ignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the people and a great
+humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made them drink to the dregs
+the bitter cup. While engaged in these attacks upon the Nobility, he at
+the same time carried on a levy of troops with great activity, and
+enrolled any persons who chose to offer for the service, however poor
+and mean, instead of taking them from the five classes according to
+ancient custom.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>Meantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as Proconsul
+(B.C. 108). But the campaign was not productive of such decisive results
+as might have been expected. Jugurtha avoided any general action, and
+eluded the pursuit of Metellus by the rapidity of his movements. Even
+when driven from Thala, a strong-hold which he had deemed inaccessible
+from its position in the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among
+the G&aelig;tulians, and quickly succeeded in raising among those wild tribes
+a fresh army, with which he once more penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia. A still more important accession was that of Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, who had been prevailed upon to raise an army, and advance to
+the support of Jugurtha. Metellus, however, having now relaxed his own
+efforts, from disgust at hearing that C. Marius had been appointed to
+succeed him in the command, remained on the defensive, while he sought
+to amuse the Moorish king by negotiation. The arrival of Marius (B.C.
+107) infused fresh vigor into the Roman arms. He quickly reduced in
+succession almost all the strong-holds that still remained to Jugurtha,
+in some of which the king<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> had deposited his principal treasures; and
+the latter, seeing himself thus deprived step by step of all his
+dominions, at length determined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his
+fortunes by one grand effort. He with difficulty prevailed on the
+wavering Bocchus, by the most extensive promises in case of success, to
+co-operate with him in this enterprise; and the two kings, with their
+united forces, attacked Marius on his march, when he was about to retire
+into winter quarters. Though the Roman general was taken by surprise for
+a moment, his consummate skill and the discipline of his troops proved
+again triumphant; the Numidians were repulsed, and their army, as usual
+with them in case of a defeat, dispersed in all directions. Jugurtha
+himself, after displaying the greatest courage in the action, cut his
+way almost alone through a body of Roman cavalry, and escaped from the
+field of battle. He quickly again gathered round him a body of Numidian
+horse; but his only hope of continuing the war now rested on Bocchus.
+The latter was for some time uncertain what course to adopt, but was at
+length gained over by Sulla, the Qu&aelig;stor of Marius, to the Roman cause,
+and joined in a plan for seizing the person of the Numidian king.
+Jugurtha fell into the snare; he was induced, under pretense of a
+conference, to repair with only a few followers to meet Bocchus, when he
+was instantly surrounded, his attendants cut to pieces, and he himself
+made prisoner, and delivered in chains to Sulla, by whom he was conveyed
+directly to the camp of Marius. This occurred early in the year B.C.
+106.</p>
+
+<p>L. Cornelius Sulla, the Qu&aelig;stor of Marius, who afterward plays such a
+distinguished part in Roman history, was descended from a Patrician
+family which had been reduced to great obscurity. But his means were
+sufficient to secure him a good education. He studied the Greek and
+Roman writers with diligence and success, and early imbibed that love of
+literature and art by which he was distinguished throughout his life.
+But he was also fond of pleasure, and was conspicuous even among the
+Romans for licentiousness and debauchery. He was in every respect a
+contrast to Marius. He possessed all the accomplishments and all the
+vices which the old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he
+was one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek profligacy
+who had since Cato's time become more and more common among the Roman
+Nobles. But Sulla's love of pleasure did not absorb all his time, nor
+enfeeble his mind; for no Roman during the latter days of the Republic,
+with the exception of Julius C&aelig;sar, had a clearer judgment, a keener
+discrimination of character, or a firmer will. Upon his arrival in
+Africa, Marius was not well pleased that a Qu&aelig;stor had been assigned to
+him who was only known for his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> profligacy, and who had had no
+experience in war; but the zeal and energy with which Sulla attended to
+his new duties soon rendered him a useful and skillful officer, and
+gained for him the unqualified approbation of his commander,
+notwithstanding his previous prejudices against him. He was equally
+successful in winning the affections of the soldiers. He always
+addressed them with the greatest kindness, seized every opportunity of
+conferring favors upon them, was ever ready to take part in all the
+jests of the camp, and at the same time never shrank from sharing in all
+their labors and dangers. It is a curious circumstance that Marius gave
+to his future enemy and the destroyer of his family and party the first
+opportunity of distinguishing himself. The enemies of Marius claimed for
+Sulla the glory of the betrayal of Jugurtha, and Sulla himself took the
+credit of it by always wearing a signet ring representing the scene of
+the surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Marius continued more than a year in Africa after the capture of
+Jugurtha. He entered Rome on the first of January, B.C. 104, leading
+Jugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was then thrown into a dungeon,
+and there starved to death. Marius, during his absence, had been elected
+Consul a second time, and he entered upon his office on the day of his
+triumph. The reason of this unprecedented honor will be related in the
+following chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image049" name="image049">
+   <img src="images/049.jpg"
+      alt="Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of Trajan.)"
+      title="Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of Trajan.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Soldiers blowing Tub&aelig; and Cornua. (From Column of Trajan.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image050" name="image050">
+   <img src="images/050.jpg"
+      alt="Caius Marius."
+      title="Caius Marius." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Caius Marius.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101.&mdash;SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
+B.C. 103-101.</h3>
+
+
+<p>A greater danger than Rome had experienced since the time of Hannibal
+now threatened the state. Vast numbers of barbarians, such as spread
+over the south of Europe in the later times of the Roman Empire, had
+collected together on the northern side of the Alps, and were ready to
+pour down upon Italy. The two leading nations of which they consisted
+are called Cimbri and Teutones, of whom the former were probably Celts
+and the latter Germans, but the exact parts of Europe from which they
+came can not be ascertained. The whole host is said to have contained
+300,000 fighting men, besides a much larger number of women and
+children. The alarm at Rome was still farther increased by the ill
+success which had hitherto attended the arms of the Republic against
+these barbarians. Army after army had fallen before them. The Cimbri
+were first heard of in B.C. 113, in Noricum, whence they descended into
+Illyricum, and defeated a Roman army under the command of Cn. Papirius
+Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzerland, where they were
+joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones. They next poured over Gaul,
+which they plundered and ravaged in every direction. The Romans sent
+army after army to defend the southwestern part of the country, which
+was now a Roman province; but all in vain. In B.C. 109 the Consul M.
+Junius Silanus was defeated by the Cimbri; in B.C. 107 the Tigurini cut
+in pieces, near the Lake of Geneva, the army of the Consul L. Cassius
+Lon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>ginus, the colleague of Marias, who lost his life in the battle; and
+shortly afterward M. Aurelius Scaurus was also defeated and taken
+prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was still to come. In B.C. 105 two
+consular armies, commanded by the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
+Proconsul Cn. Servilius C&aelig;pio, consisting of 80,000 men, were completely
+annihilated by the barbarians: only two men are said to have escaped the
+slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>These repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one at Rome
+felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the state, and he
+was accordingly elected Consul by the unanimous votes of all parties
+while he was still absent in Africa. He entered Rome in triumph, as we
+have already said, on the 1st of January, B.C. 104, which was the first
+day of his second Consulship. Meantime the threatened danger was for a
+while averted. Instead of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy,
+as had been expected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged
+for the next two or three years. This interval was advantageously
+employed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming them to
+hardships and toil. It was probably during this time that he introduced
+the various changes into the organization of the Roman army which are
+usually attributed to him. Notwithstanding the sternness and severity
+with which he punished the least breach of discipline, he was a favorite
+with his new soldiers, who learned to place implicit confidence in their
+general, and were delighted with the strict impartiality with which he
+visited the offenses of the officers as well as of the privates. As the
+enemy still continued in Spain, Marius was elected Consul a third time
+for the year B.C. 103, and also a fourth time for the following year,
+with Q. Lutatius Catulus as his colleague. It was in this year (B.C.
+102) that the long-expected barbarians arrived. The Cimbri, who had
+returned from Spain, united their forces with the Teutones. Marius first
+took up his position in a fortified camp upon the Rhone, probably in the
+vicinity of the modern Arles; and as the entrance of the river was
+nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his soldiers in digging a
+canal from the Rhone to the Mediterranean, that he might the more easily
+obtain his supplies from the sea.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Meantime the barbarians had
+divided their forces. The Cimbri marched round the northern foot of the
+Alps, in order to enter Italy by the northeast, crossing the Tyrolese
+Alps by the defiles of Tridentum (<i>Trent</i>). The Teutones and Ambrones,
+on the other hand, marched against Marius, intending, as it seems, to
+penetrate into Italy by Nice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious
+to ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>custom his soldiers to the savage and strange appearance of the
+barbarians, would not give them battle at first. The latter resolved to
+attack the Roman camp; but as they were repulsed in this attempt, they
+pressed on at once for Italy. So great were their numbers, that they are
+said to have been six days in marching by the Roman camp. As soon as
+they had advanced a little way, Marius followed them; and thus the
+armies continued to march for a few days, the barbarians in the front
+and Marius behind, till they came to the neighborhood of Aqu&aelig; Sexti&aelig;
+(<i>Aix</i>). Here the decisive battle was fought. An ambush of 3000
+soldiers, which Marius had stationed in the rear of the barbarians, and
+which fell upon them when they were already retreating, decided the
+fortune of the day. Attacked both in front and rear, and also dreadfully
+exhausted by the excessive heat of the weather, they at length broke
+their ranks and fled. The carnage was dreadful; the whole nation was
+annihilated, for those who escaped put an end to their lives, and their
+wives followed their example. Immediately after the battle, as Marius
+was in the act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which was
+intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to him, and
+greeted him with the news of his being elected Consul for the fifth
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy. The
+colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of defending the
+passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a strong position on the Athesis
+(Adige); but, in consequence of the terror of his soldiers at the
+approach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat even beyond the
+Po, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of Lombardy exposed to
+their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled to Rome. The Senate offered
+him a triumph for his victory over the Teutones, which he declined while
+the Cimbri were in Italy, and proceeded to join Catulus, who now
+commanded as Proconsul (B.C. 101). The united armies of the Consul and
+Proconsul crossed the Po, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, whom
+they found to the westward of Milan, near Vercell&aelig;, searching for the
+Teutones, of whose destruction they had not yet heard. The Cimbri met
+with the same fate as the Teutones; the whole nation was annihilated;
+and the women, like those of the Tentones, put an end to their lives.
+Marius was hailed as the savior of the state; his name was coupled with
+the gods in the libations and at banquets; and he received the title of
+third founder of Rome. He celebrated his victories by a brilliant
+triumph, in which, however, he allowed Catulus to share.</p>
+
+<p>During the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been exposed to the
+horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> broke out in the east
+of the island, where the slaves elected as their king one Salvius, a
+soothsayer. He displayed considerable abilities, and in a short time
+collected a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse. After defeating a Roman
+army he assumed all the pomp of royalty, and took the surname of
+Tryphon, which had been borne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The
+success of Salvius led to an insurrection in the western part of the
+island, where the slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio,
+who joined Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the death of
+Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had now assumed such a
+formidable aspect that, in B.C. 101, the Senate sent the Consul M.
+Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded in subduing the insurgents, and
+killed Athenio with his own hand. The survivors were sent to Rome, and
+condemned to fight with wild beasts; but they disdained to minister to
+the pleasures of their oppressors, and slew each other with their own
+hands in the amphitheatre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image051" name="image051">
+   <img src="images/051.jpg"
+      alt="Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)"
+      title="Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image052" name="image052">
+   <img src="images/052.jpg"
+      alt="Tomb of Metella Caecilia."
+      title="Tomb of Metella Caecilia." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Tomb of Metella C&aelig;cilia.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES TO
+THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The career of Marius had hitherto been a glorious one, and it would have
+been fortunate for him if he had died on the day of his triumph. The
+remainder of his life is full of horrors, and brings out into prominent
+relief the worst features of his character. As the time for the consular
+elections approached, Marius became again a candidate for the
+Consulship. He wished to be first in peace as well as in war, and to
+rule the state as well as the army. But he did not possess the qualities
+requisite for a popular leader at Rome; he had no power of oratory, and
+lost his presence of mind in the noise and shouts of the popular
+assemblies. In order to secure his election, he entered into close
+connection with two of the worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome,
+Saturninus and Glaucia. The former was a candidate for the Tribunate,
+and the latter for the Pr&aelig;torship; and by their means, as well as by
+bribing the Tribes, Marius secured his election to the Consulship for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+the sixth time. Glaucia also obtained the Pr&aelig;torship, but Saturninus was
+not equally successful. He lost his election chiefly through the
+exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in his stead. But Nonius paid
+dearly for the honor, for on the evening of his election he was murdered
+by the emissaries of Saturninus and Glaucia, and next morning, at an
+early hour, before the forum was full, Saturninus was chosen to fill up
+the vacancy.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (B.C. 100) he brought
+forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the soldiers of Marius the
+lands in Gaul which had been lately occupied by the Cimbri. He added to
+the law a clause that, if it was enacted by the people, every Senator
+should swear obedience to it within five days, and that whoever refused
+to do so should be expelled from the Senate, and pay a fine of twenty
+talents. This clause was specially aimed at Metellus, who, it was well
+known, would refuse to obey the requisition. In order to insure a
+refusal on the part of Metellus, Marius rose in the Senate, and declared
+that he would never take the oath, and Metellus made the same
+declaration; but when the law had been passed, and Saturninus summoned
+the Senators to the rostra to comply with the demands of the law,
+Marius, to the astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and
+advised the Senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused
+compliance; and on the following day Saturninus sent his beadle to drag
+him out of the Senate-house. Not content with this victory, Saturninus
+brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. The friends of Metellus
+were ready to take up arms in his defense; but he declined their
+assistance, and withdrew privately from the city. Saturninus brought
+forward other popular measures, of which our information is very scanty.
+He proposed a <i>Lex Frumentaria</i>, by which the state was to sell corn to
+the people at a very low price; and also a law for founding new colonies
+in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. In the election of the magistrates for
+the following year Saturninus was again chosen Tribune. Glaucia was at
+the same time a candidate for the Consulship, the two other candidates
+being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of Antonius was certain,
+and the struggle lay between Glaucia and Memmius. As the latter seemed
+likely to carry his election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired some
+ruffians, who murdered him openly in the comitia. All sensible people
+had previously become alarmed at the mad conduct of Saturninus and his
+partisans, and this last act produced a complete reaction against them.
+The Senate felt themselves now sufficiently strong to declare them
+public enemies, and invested the Consuls with dictatorial power. Marius
+was unwilling to act against his associates, but he had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> alternative,
+and his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of others. Driven out
+of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the Qu&aelig;stor Saufeius took refuge
+in the Capitol, but the partisans of the Senate cut off the pipes which
+supplied the citadel with water before Marius began to move against
+them. Unable to hold out any longer, they surrendered to Marius. The
+latter did all he could to save their lives: as soon as they descended
+from the Capitol, he placed them, for security, in the Curia Hostilia;
+but the mob pulled off the tiles of the Senate-house, and pelted them
+till they died. The Senate gave their sanction to the proceeding by
+rewarding with the citizenship a slave of the name of Sc&aelig;va, who claimed
+the honor of having killed Saturninus.</p>
+
+<p>Marius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself with such
+unprincipled adventurers. In the following year (B.C. 99) he left Rome,
+in order that he might not witness the return of Metellus from exile, a
+measure which he had been unable to prevent. He set sail for Cappadocia
+and Galatia under the pretense of offering sacrifices which he had vowed
+to the Great Mother. He had, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these
+countries. Finding that he was losing his popularity while the Republic
+was at peace, he was anxious to recover his lost ground by gaining fresh
+victories in war, and accordingly repaired to the court of Mithridates,
+in hopes of rousing him to attack the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which Marius had
+fallen, had given new strength to the Senate. They judged the
+opportunity favorable for depriving the Equites of the judicial power
+which they had enjoyed, with only a temporary cessation, since the time
+of C. Gracchus. The Equites had abused their power, as the Senate had
+done before them. They were the capitalists who farmed the public
+revenues in the provinces, where they committed peculation and extortion
+with habitual impunity. When accused, they were tried by accomplices and
+partisans. Their unjust condemnation of Rutilius Rufus had shown how
+unfit they were to be intrusted with judicial duties. Rutilius was a man
+of spotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucius
+Sc&aelig;vola, Proconsul of Asia in B.C. 95, he displayed so much honesty and
+firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers of the taxes, that
+he became an object of fear and hatred to the whole body. Accordingly,
+on his return to Rome, a charge of malversation was trumped up against
+him, he was found guilty, and compelled to withdraw into banishment
+(B.C. 92).</p>
+
+<p>The following year (B.C. 91) witnessed the memorable Tribunate of M.
+Livius Drusus. He was the son of the celebrated opponent of C. Gracchus.
+He was a man of boundless activity and extraor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>dinary ability. Like his
+father, he was an advocate of the party of the Nobles. He took up arms
+against Saturninus, and supported the Senate in the dispute for the
+possession of the judicial power. His election to the Tribunate was
+hailed by the Nobles with delight, and for a time he possessed their
+unlimited confidence. He gained over the people to the party of the
+Senate by various popular measures, such as the distribution of corn at
+a low price, and the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily. He
+was thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform of the judicia,
+which were, that the Senate should be increased from 300 to 600 by the
+addition of an equal number of Equites, and that the Judices should be
+taken from the Senate thus doubled in numbers. Drusus seems to have been
+actuated by a single-minded desire to do justice to all, but the measure
+was acceptable to neither party. The Senators viewed with dislike the
+elevation to their own rank of 300 Equites, while the Equites had no
+desire to transfer to a select few of their own order the profitable
+share in the administration of justice which they all enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>Another measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular with the
+people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian allies the promise
+of the Roman franchise. Some of the most eminent men of Rome had long
+been convinced of the necessity of this reform. It had been meditated by
+the younger Scipio Africanus, and proposed by C. Gracchus. The Roman
+people, however, always offered it the most violent opposition. But
+Drusus still had many partisans. The Italian allies looked up to him as
+their leader, and loudly demanded the rights which had been promised
+them. It was too late to retreat; and, in order to oppose the formidable
+coalition against him, Drusus had recourse to sedition and conspiracy. A
+secret society was formed, in which the members bound themselves by a
+solemn oath to have the same friends and foes with Drusus, and to obey
+all his commands. The ferment soon became so great that the public peace
+was more than once threatened. The Allies were ready to take up arms at
+the first movement. The Consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator,
+resolved to meet his plots by counterplots. But he knew his danger, and
+whenever he went into the city kept a strong body-guard of attendants
+close to his person. The end could not much longer be postponed; and the
+civil war was on the point of breaking out, when one evening Drusus was
+assassinated in his own house, while dismissing the crowds who were
+attending him. A leather-cutter's knife was found sticking in his loins.
+Turning round to those who surrounded him, he asked them, as he was
+dying, "Friends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> and neighbors, when will the Commonwealth have a
+citizen like me again?"</p>
+
+<p>Even in the lifetime of Drusus the Senate had repealed all his laws.
+After his death the Tribune Q. Varius brought forward a law declaring
+all persons guilty of high treason who had assisted the cause of the
+Allies. Many eminent men were condemned under this law. This measure,
+following the assassination of Drusus, roused the indignation of the
+Allies to the highest pitch. They clearly saw that the Roman people
+would yield nothing except upon compulsion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image053" name="image053">
+   <img src="images/053.jpg"
+      alt="Beneventum in Samnium."
+      title="Beneventum in Samnium." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Beneventum in Samnium.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image054" name="image054">
+   <img src="images/054.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation."
+      title="Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXV.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Rome had never been exposed to greater danger than at this time. Those
+who had been her bravest defenders now rose against her; and she would
+probably have perished had the whole Italian people taken part in the
+war. But the insurrection was confined almost exclusively to the
+Sabellians and their kindred races. The Etruscans and Umbrians stood
+aloof, while the Sabines, Volscians, and other tribes who already
+possessed the Roman franchise, supported the Republic, and furnished the
+materials of her armies. The nations which composed the formidable
+conspiracy against Rome were eight in number&mdash;the Marsians, Pelignians,
+Marrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samnites, Apulians, and Lucanians.
+Of these the Marsians were particularly distinguished for their courage
+and skill in war; and from the prominent part which they took in the
+struggle, it was frequently termed the Marsic as well as the Social War.</p>
+
+<p>The war broke out at Asculum in Picenum. The Proconsul Q. Servilius, who
+had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing that the inhabitants of
+Asculum were organizing a revolt, entered the town, and endeavored to
+persuade them to lay aside their hostile intentions. But he was
+murdered, together with his legate, by the exasperated citizens, and all
+the Romans in the place were likewise put to death. The insurrection now
+became general. The Allies entered upon the war with feelings of bitter
+hatred against their former rulers. They resolved to destroy Rome, and
+fixed upon Corfinium, a strong city of the Peligni, to which they gave
+the name of Italica, as the new capital of the Italian Confederation.
+The government of the new Republic was borrowed from that of Rome. It
+was to have two Consuls, twelve Pr&aelig;tors, and a Senate of 500 members. Q.
+Pomp&aelig;dius Silo, a Marsian, one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> the chief instigators of the war, and
+C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, who cherished the hereditary hatred of his
+countrymen against the Romans, were chosen Consuls. Under them were many
+able lieutenants, who had learned the art of war under the best Roman
+generals. The soldiers had also served, in the Roman armies, and were
+armed and disciplined in the same way, so that the contest partook of
+all the characters of a civil war. But the Romans had the great
+advantage which a single state always possesses over a confederation.</p>
+
+<p>Of the details of the war our information is meagre and imperfect. But
+in the military operations we clearly see that the Allies formed two
+principal groups: the one composed of the Marsians, with their neighbors
+the Marrucinians, Pelignians, Vestinians, and Picentines; the other of
+the Samnites, with the Lucanians and Apulians. The two Consuls, L.
+Julius C&aelig;sar and P. Rutilius Lupus, took the field with powerful armies,
+and under them served Marius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals
+of the time. The Romans were fully aware of the formidable nature of the
+struggle, which was one for existence, and not for victory. In the first
+campaign the advantage was on the side of the Allies. The Samnites,
+under their Consul Papius, overran Campania, took most of the towns, and
+laid siege to Acerr&aelig;, into which C&aelig;sar threw himself. Pomp&aelig;dius Silo was
+still more successful. He defeated the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus
+with great slaughter, Rutilius himself being slain in the battle. This
+disaster was to some extent repaired by Marius, who commanded a separate
+army in the neighborhood, and compelled the victorious Allies to retire.
+The old general then intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither
+the stratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him from his
+advantageous position. "If you are a great general," said Pomp&aelig;dius,
+"come down and fight;" to which the veteran replied, "Nay, do <i>you</i>, if
+you are a great general, compel me to fight against my will." The Romans
+considered that Marius was over-cautious and too slow; and Plutarch says
+that his age and corpulence rendered him incapable of enduring the
+fatigue of very active service. But it is more probable that he was not
+very willing to destroy the Allies, who had been among his most active
+partisans, and to whom he still looked for support in his future
+struggles with the Nobility.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans now saw the necessity of making some concessions. The Lex
+Julia, proposed by the Consul Julius C&aelig;sar, granted the franchise to all
+the Latin colonies, and to those of the Allies who had remained faithful
+to Rome, or had laid down their arms. The effects of this concession
+were immediately seen. Several of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> Allies hastened to avail
+themselves of it, and disunion and distrust were produced among the
+rest.</p>
+
+<p>The next campaign (B.C. 89) was decidedly favorable to the Romans. The
+Consuls were Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of the celebrated Triumvir,
+and L. Porcius Cato. The latter, it is true, was slain at the
+commencement of the campaign; but his loss was more than compensated by
+his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in consequence, the supreme command. He
+carried on the war with the utmost vigor, and completely eclipsed his
+old commander Marius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued the
+Hirpini, and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium. Here he
+defeated Papius Mutilus, the Samnite Consul, and followed up his victory
+by the capture of the strong town of Bovianum.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in the north.
+Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate siege. The Marrucinians,
+Vestinians, Pelignians, and finally the Marsians, laid down their arms
+before the end of the year. Their submission was facilitated by the Lex
+Plautia Papiria, proposed by the Tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C.
+Papirius Carbo (B.C. 89), which completed the arrangements of the Lex
+Julia, and granted, in fact, every thing which the Allies had demanded
+before the war. All citizens of a town in alliance with Rome could
+obtain, by this law, the Roman franchise, provided they were at the time
+resident in Italy, and registered their names with the Pr&aelig;tor within
+sixty days.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>The war was thus virtually brought to a conclusion within two years, but
+300,000 men, the flower of Rome and Italy, perished in this short time.
+The only nations remaining in arms were the Samnites and Lucanians, who
+still maintained a guerrilla warfare in their mountains, and continued
+to keep possession of the strong fortress of Nola, in Campania, from
+which all the efforts of Sulla failed to dislodge them.</p>
+
+<p>It now remained to be settled in what way the new citizens were to be
+incorporated in the Roman state. If they were enrolled in the
+thirty-five tribes, they would outnumber the old citizens. It was
+therefore resolved to form ten new tribes, which should consist of the
+new citizens exclusively; but, before these arrangements could be
+completed, the Civil War broke out.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image055" name="image055">
+   <img src="images/055.jpg"
+      alt="Terracina."
+      title="Terracina." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Terracina.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.</h3>
+
+
+<p>One reason which induced the Senate to bring the Social War to a
+conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king of Pontus,
+one of the ablest monarchs with whom Rome ever came into contact. The
+origin and history of this war will be narrated in the following
+chapter. The dispute between Marias and Sulla for the command against
+Mithridates was the occasion of the first Civil War. The ability which
+Sulla had displayed in the Social War, and his well-known attachment to
+the Senatorial party, naturally marked him out as the man to whom this
+important dignity was to be granted. He was accordingly elected Consul
+for the year 88 B.C., with Q. Pompeius Rufus as his colleague; and he
+forthwith received the command of the Mithridatic War. But Marius had
+long coveted this distinction; he quitted the magnificent villa which he
+had built at Misenum, and took up his residence at Rome; and in order to
+show that neither his age nor his corpulency had destroyed his vigor, he
+repaired daily to the Cam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>pus Martius, and went through the usual
+exercises with the young men. He was determined not to yield without a
+struggle to his hated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune
+Saturninus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument
+for his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus. Sulpicius was one of
+the greatest orators of the age, and had acquired great influence by his
+splendid talents. He was an intimate friend of the Tribune M. Livius
+Drusus, and had been himself elected Tribune for B.C. 88, through the
+influence of the Senatorial party, who placed great hopes in him; but,
+being overwhelmed with debt, he now sold himself to Marius, who promised
+him a liberal share of the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Accordingly,
+Sulpicius brought forward a law by which the Italians were to be
+distributed among the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the
+old Roman citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in each
+tribe, and would certainly confer upon Marius the command of the
+Mithridatic War. To prevent the Tribune from putting these rogations to
+the vote, the Consuls declared a justitium, during which no business
+could be legally transacted. But Sulpicius was resolved to carry his
+point; with an armed band of followers he entered the forum and called
+upon the Consuls to withdraw the justitium; and upon their refusal to
+comply with his demand he ordered his satellites to draw their swords
+and fall upon them. Pompeius escaped, but his son Quintus, who was also
+the son-in-law of Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself took refuge in the
+house of Marius, which was close to the forum, and in order to save his
+life he was obliged to remove the justitium.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging Nola, which
+was still held by the Samnites (see p. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>). The city was now in the
+hands of Sulpicius and Marius, and the rogations passed into law without
+opposition, as well as a third, conferring upon Marius the command of
+the Mithridatic War. Marius lost no time in sending some Tribunes to
+assume on his behalf the command of the army at Nola; but the soldiers,
+who loved Sulla, and who feared that Marius might lead another army to
+Asia, and thus deprive them of their anticipated plunder, stoned his
+deputies to death. Sulla found his soldiers ready to respond to his
+wishes; they called upon him to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city
+from the tyrants. He therefore hesitated no longer, but at the head of
+six legions broke up from his encampment at Nola, and marched toward the
+city. His officers, however, refused to serve against their country, and
+all quitted him, with the exception of one Qu&aelig;stor. This was the first
+time that a Roman had ever marched at the head of Roman troops against
+the city. Marius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> was taken by surprise. Such was the reverence that the
+Romans entertained for law, that it seems never to have occurred to him
+or to his party that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against the
+state. Marius attempted to gain time for preparations by forbidding
+Sulla, in the name of the Republic, to advance any farther; but the
+Pr&aelig;tors who carried the command narrowly escaped being murdered by the
+soldiers; and Marius, as a last resource, offered liberty to the slaves
+who would join him. But it was all in vain. Sulla forced his way into
+the city, and Marius took to flight with his son and a few followers.
+Sulla used his victory with moderation. He protected the city from
+plunder; and only Marius, Sulpicius, and ten others of his bitterest
+enemies, were declared public enemies by the Senate. Sulpicius was
+betrayed by one of his slaves and put to death, but Marius and his son
+succeeded in making their escape. Marius himself embarked on board a
+ship at Ostia, with a few companions, and then sailed southward along
+the coast of Italy. At Circeii he and his companions were obliged to
+land on account of the violence of the wind and the want of provisions.
+After wandering about for a long time, they learned from some peasants
+that a number of horsemen had been in search of them; and they
+accordingly turned aside from the road, and passed the night in a deep
+wood in great want. But the indomitable spirit of the old man did not
+fail him; and he consoled himself and encouraged his companions by the
+assurance that he should still live to see his seventh Consulship, in
+accordance with a prediction that had been made to him in his youth.
+Shortly afterward, when they were near to Minturn&aelig;, they descried a
+party of horsemen galloping toward them. In great haste they hurried
+down to the sea, and swam off to two merchant vessels, which received
+them on board. The horsemen bade the crew bring the ship to land or
+throw Marius overboard; but, moved by his tears and entreaties, they
+refused to surrender him. The sailors soon changed their minds; and,
+fearing to keep Marius, they cast anchor at the mouth of the Liris,
+where they persuaded him to disembark, and rest himself from his
+fatigues till a wind should rise; but they had no sooner landed him than
+they immediately sailed away. Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps
+and marshes through which the Liris flows. With difficulty he reached
+the hut of an old man, who concealed him in a hole near the river, and
+covered him with reeds; but hearing shortly afterward the noise of his
+pursuers, he crept out of his hiding-place and threw himself into the
+marsh. He was discovered, and dragged out of the water; and, covered
+with mud, and with a rope round his neck, was delivered up to the
+authorities of Minturn&aelig;. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> magistrates then deliberated whether they
+should comply with the instruction that had been sent from Rome to all
+the municipal towns to put Marius to death as soon as they found him.
+After some consultation they resolved to obey it, and sent a Cimbrian
+slave to carry out their orders. The room in which the old general was
+confined was dark; and, to the frightened barbarian, the eyes of Marius
+seemed to dart forth fire, and from the darkness a terrible voice
+shouted out, "Man! durst thou slay C. Marius?" The barbarian immediately
+threw down his sword, and rushed out of the house, exclaiming, "I can
+not kill C. Marius!" Straightway there was a revulsion of feeling among
+the inhabitants of Minturn&aelig;. They repented of their ungrateful conduct
+toward a man who had saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for his
+departure, provided him with every thing necessary for the voyage, and,
+with prayers and wishes for his safety, placed him on board. The wind
+carried him to the island of &AElig;naria (now Ischia), where he found the
+rest of his friends; and from thence he set sail for Africa, which he
+reached in safety. He landed near the site of Carthage, but he had
+scarcely put his foot on shore before the Pr&aelig;tor Sextilius sent an
+officer to bid him leave the country, or else he would carry into
+execution the decree of the Senate. This last blow almost unmanned
+Marius: grief and indignation for a time deprived him of speech, and his
+only reply was, "Tell the Pr&aelig;tor that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive
+sitting on the ruins of Carthage." Shortly afterward Marius was joined
+by his son, and they crossed over to the island of Cercina, where they
+remained unmolested.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which prepared the way
+for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla's soldiers were impatient for
+the plunder of Asia, and he therefore contented himself with repealing
+the Sulpician laws. He then sent forward his legions to Capua, that they
+might be ready to embark for Greece, but he himself remained in Rome
+till the Consuls were elected for the following year. The candidates
+whom he recommended were rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius,
+who belonged to the aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute
+man, and on L. Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side. Sulla
+did not attempt to oppose their election: to have recalled his legions
+to Rome would have been a dangerous experiment when the soldiers were so
+eager for the spoils of the East; and he only took the vain precaution
+of making Cinna promise that he would make no attempt to disturb the
+existing order of things. But as soon as Sulla had quitted Italy, Cinna
+brought forward again the law of Sulpicius for incorporating the new
+Italian citizens among the thirty-five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> tribes. The two Consuls had
+recourse to arms, Octavius to oppose and Cinna to carry the law. A
+dreadful conflict took place in the forum. The party of Octavius
+obtained the victory, and Cinna was driven out of the city with great
+slaughter. But Cinna, by means of the new citizens, whose cause he
+espoused, was soon at the head of a formidable army. As soon as Marius
+heard of these changes he set sail from Africa, and offered to serve
+under Cinna, who gladly accepted his proposal, and named him Proconsul;
+but Marius refused all marks of honor. The sufferings and privations he
+had endured had exasperated his proud and haughty spirit almost to
+madness, and nothing but the blood of his enemies could appease his
+resentment. He continued to wear a mean and humble dress, and his hair
+and beard had remained unshorn from the day he had been driven out of
+Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted the war with great vigor.
+He first captured the corn-ships, and thus cut off Rome from its usual
+supply of food. He next took Ostia and the other towns on the sea-coast,
+and, moving down the Tiber, encamped on the Janiculum. Famine began to
+rage in the city, and the Senate was obliged to yield. They sent a
+deputation to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but
+entreating them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the deputies
+sitting in his chair of office, and gave them a kind answer. Marius
+stood in silence by the side of the Consul, but his actions spoke louder
+than words. After the audience was over they entered the city. The most
+frightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain while seated in
+his curule chair. The streets ran with the noblest blood of Rome. Every
+one whom Marius hated or feared was hunted out and put to death; and no
+consideration, either of rank, talent, or former friendship, induced him
+to spare the victims of his vengeance. The great orator M. Antonius fell
+by the hands of his assassins; and his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who
+had triumphed with him over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his
+own life. Cinna was soon tired of the butchery; but the appetite of
+Marius seemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh
+victims for its gratification. Without going through the form of an
+election, Marius and Cinna named themselves Consuls for the following
+year (B.C. 86), and thus was fulfilled the prediction that Marius should
+be seven times Consul. But he did not long enjoy the honor: he was now
+in his seventy-first year; his body was worn out by the fatigues and
+sufferings he had recently undergone; and on the eighteenth day of his
+Consulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after a few days' illness.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image056" name="image056">
+   <img src="images/056.jpg"
+      alt="Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia."
+      title="Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Mount Arg&aelig;us in Cappadocia.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being on the coast of
+the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally a satrapy of the
+Persian empire, extending from the River Halys on the west to the
+frontiers of Colchis on the east. Even under the later Persian kings the
+rulers of Pontus were really independent, and in the wars of the
+successors of Alexander the Great it became a separate kingdom. Most of
+its kings bore the name of Mithridates; and the fifth monarch of this
+name formed an alliance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the
+province of Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war
+against Aristonicus. He was assassinated about B.C. 120, and was
+succeeded by his son Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, who was
+then only about twelve years of age. His youth was remarkable, but much
+that has been transmitted to us respecting this period of his life wears
+a very suspicious aspect; it is certain, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>ever, that when he attained
+to manhood he was not only endowed with consummate skill in all martial
+exercises, and possessed of a bodily frame inured to all hardships, but
+his naturally vigorous intellect had been improved by careful culture.
+As a boy he had been brought up at Sinope, where he had probably
+received the elements of a Greek education, and so powerful was his
+memory that he is said to have learned not less than twenty-five
+languages, and to have been able in the days of his greatest power to
+transact business with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule
+in their own peculiar dialect. As soon as he was firmly established on
+the throne he began to turn his arms against the neighboring nations. On
+the west his progress was hemmed in by the power of Rome, and the minor
+sovereigns of Bithynia and Cappadocia enjoyed the all-powerful
+protection of the Republic. But on the east his ambition found free
+scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between the Euxine and the
+confines of Armenia, including the whole of Colchis and the province
+called Lesser Armenia; and he even added to his dominions the Tauric
+Chersonesus, now called the <i>Crimea</i>. The Greek kingdom of Bosphorus,
+which formed a portion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his
+sway. Moreover, he formed alliances with Tigranes, king of Armenia, to
+whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, as well as with the
+warlike nations of the Parthians and Iberians. He thus found himself in
+possession of such great power and extensive resources, that he began to
+deem himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. Many causes of
+dissension had already arisen between them. Shortly after his accession,
+the Romans had taken advantage of his minority to wrest from him the
+province of Phrygia. In B.C. 93 they resisted his attempt to place upon
+the throne of Cappadocia one of his own nephews, and appointed a
+Cappadocian named Ariobarzanes to be king of that country. For a time
+Mithridates submitted; but the death of Nicomedes II., king of Bithynia,
+shortly afterward, at length brought matters to a crisis. That monarch
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicomedes III.; but Mithridates took
+the opportunity to set up a rival claimant, whose pretensions he
+supported with an army, and quickly drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia
+(B.C. 90). About the same time he openly invaded Cappadocia, and
+expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing his own son
+Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes had recourse to Rome,
+where they found ready support; a decree was passed that Nicomedes and
+Ariobarzanes should be restored to their respective kingdoms, and the
+execution of it was confided to M. Aquillius and L. Cassius.</p>
+
+<p>Mithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>stored to
+their dominions; but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced on the throne of
+Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman legates to invade the
+territories of Mithridates, into which he made a predatory incursion.
+Mithridates offered no resistance, but sent to the Romans to demand
+satisfaction, and it was not until his embassador was dismissed with an
+evasive answer that he prepared for immediate hostilities (B.C. 88). His
+first step was to invade Cappadocia, from which he easily expelled
+Ariobarzanes once more. His generals drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia,
+and defeated Aquillius. Mithridates, following up his advantage, not
+only made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman
+province of Asia. Here the universal discontent of the inhabitants,
+caused by the oppression of the Roman governors, enabled him to overrun
+the whole province almost without opposition. The Roman officers, who
+had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, were unable to
+collect any forces to oppose his progress; and Aquillius himself, the
+chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the King of Pontus.
+Mithridates took up his winter quarters at Pergamus, where he issued the
+sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to put to death on the same
+day all the Roman and Italian citizens who were to be found within their
+walls. So hateful had the Romans rendered themselves during the short
+period of their dominion, that these commands were obeyed with alacrity
+by almost all the cities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to
+have perished in this fearful massacre.</p>
+
+<p>The success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to declare against
+Rome, and the king accordingly sent his general Archelaus with a large
+army and fleet into Greece. Most of the Grecian states now declared in
+favor of Mithridates. Such was the position of affairs when Sulla landed
+in Epirus in B.C. 87. He immediately marched southward, and laid siege
+to Athens and the Pir&aelig;us. But for many months these towns resisted all
+his attacks. Athens was first taken in the spring of the following year;
+and Archelaus, despairing of defending the Pir&aelig;us any longer, withdrew
+into B&#339;otia, where he received some powerful re-enforcements from
+Mithridates. Pir&aelig;us now fell into the hands of Sulla, and both this
+place and Athens were treated with the utmost barbarity. The soldiers
+were indulged in indiscriminate slaughter and plunder. Having thus
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unfortunate Athenians, Sulla directed his
+arms against Archelaus in B&#339;otia, and defeated him with enormous loss
+at Ch&aelig;ronea. Out of the 110,000 men of which the Pontic army consisted,
+Archelaus assembled only 10,000 at Chalcis, in Eub&#339;a, where he had
+taken refuge. Mithridates, on receiving news of this great disaster,
+immediately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> set about raising fresh troops, and was soon able to send
+another army of 80,000 men to Eub&#339;a. But he now found himself
+threatened with danger from a new and unexpected quarter. While Sulla
+was still occupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Rome had sent a
+fresh army to Asia under the Consul L. Valerius Flaccus to carry on the
+war at once against their foreign and domestic enemies. Flaccus was
+murdered by his troops at the instigation of Fimbria, who now assumed
+the command, and gained several victories over Mithridates and his
+generals in Asia (B.C. 85). About the same time the new army, which the
+king had sent to Archelaus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the
+neighborhood of Orchomenus. These repeated disasters made Mithridates
+anxious for peace, but it was not granted by Sulla till the following
+year (B.C. 84), when he had crossed the Hellespont in order to carry on
+the war in Asia. The terms of peace were definitely settled at an
+interview which the Roman general and the Pontic king had at Dardanus,
+in the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon all his conquests in
+Asia, to restrict himself to the dominions which he held before the
+commencement of the war, or pay a sum of 5000 talents, and surrender to
+the Romans a fleet of seventy ships fully equipped. Thus terminated the
+First Mithridatic War.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla was now at liberty to turn his aims against Fimbria, who was with
+his army at Thyatira. The name of Sulla carried victory with it. The
+troops of Fimbria deserted their general, who put an end to his own
+life. Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. After exacting enormous
+sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he left his legate, L. Licinius
+Murena, in command of that province, with two legions, and set sail with
+his own army to Athens. While preparing for his deadly struggle in
+Italy, he did not lose his interest in literature. He carried with him
+from Athens to Rome the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which
+contained most of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image057" name="image057">
+   <img src="images/057.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia."
+      title="Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image058" name="image058">
+   <img src="images/058.jpg"
+      alt="Brundisium."
+      title="Brundisium." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Brundisium.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>SECOND CIVIL WAR.&mdash;SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH, B.C.
+83-78.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Sulla landed at Brundisium in the spring of B.C. 83, in the Consulship
+of L. Scipio and C. Norbanus. During the preceding year he had written
+to the Senate, recounting the services he had rendered to the
+commonwealth, complaining of the ingratitude with which he had been
+treated, announcing his speedy return to Italy, and threatening to take
+vengeance upon his enemies and those of the Republic. The Senate, in
+alarm, sent an embassy to Sulla to endeavor to bring about a
+reconciliation between him and his enemies, and meantime ordered the
+Consuls Cinna and Carbo to desist from levying troops and making farther
+preparations for war. Cinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command; they
+knew that a reconciliation was impossible, and resolved to carry over an
+army to Dalmatia, in order to oppose Sulla in Greece; but, after one
+detachment of their troops had embarked, the rest of the soldiers rose
+in mutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had thus lost their
+chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> every preparation to
+resist Sulla, for they were well aware that he would never forgive them,
+and that their only choice lay between victory and destruction. Besides
+this the Italians were ready to support them, as these new citizens
+feared that Sulla would deprive them of the rights which they had lately
+obtained after so much bloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect of
+victory, for their troops far exceeded those of their opponent. They had
+200,000 men in arms, while Sulla landed at Brundusium with only 30,000,
+or at the most 40,000 men. But, on the other hand, the popular party had
+no one of sufficient influence and military reputation to take the
+supreme command in the war; their vast forces were scattered about
+Italy, in different armies, under different generals; the soldiers had
+no confidence in their commanders, and no enthusiasm in their cause; and
+the consequence was, that whole hosts of them deserted to Sulla on the
+first opportunity. Sulla's soldiers, on the contrary, were veterans, who
+had frequently fought by each other's sides, and had acquired that
+confidence in themselves and in their general which frequent victories
+always give. Still, if the Italians had remained faithful to the cause
+of the Marian party, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore
+one of his first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them
+from his enemies. For this purpose he would not allow his troops to do
+any injury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march from
+Brundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and he formed separate treaties
+with many of the Italian towns, by which he secured to them all the
+rights and privileges of Roman citizens which they then enjoyed. Among
+the Italians the Samnites continued to be the most formidable enemies of
+Sulla. They had joined the Marian party, not simply with the design of
+securing the supremacy for the latter, but with the hope of conquering
+Rome by their means, and then destroying forever their hated oppressor.
+Thus this Civil war became merely another phase of the Social war, and
+the struggle between Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of the peninsula
+was renewed after the subjection of the latter for more than two hundred
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting with any
+resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory over the Consul
+Norbanus, who was defeated with great loss, and obliged to take refuge
+in Capua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no great distance, willingly
+accepted a truce which Sulla offered him, although Sertorius, the ablest
+of the Marian generals, warned him against entering into any
+negotiations. His caution was justified by the event. By means of his
+emissaries Sulla seduced the troops of Scipio, who at length found
+himself deserted by all his soldiers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> and was taken prisoner in his
+tent. Sulla, however, dismissed him uninjured. On hearing of this, Carbo
+is said to have observed "that he had to contend in Sulla both with a
+lion and a fox, but that the fox gave him more trouble." Many
+distinguished Romans meantime had taken up arms on behalf of Sulla. Cn.
+Pompey, the son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of
+age, levied three legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts; and
+Q. Metellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others, offered
+their services as legates. It was not, however, till the following year
+(B.C. 82) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. The Consuls
+of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger Marius, the former
+of whom was intrusted with the protection of Etruria and Umbria, while
+the latter had to guard Rome and Latium. Sulla appears to have passed
+the winter at Campania. At the commencement of spring he advanced
+against the younger Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at
+Sacriportus, and defeated him with great loss. Marius took refuge in
+Pr&aelig;neste; and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a large
+force to blockade the town, marched with the main body of his army to
+Rome. Marius was resolved not to perish unavenged, and accordingly,
+before Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L. Damasippus, the
+Pr&aelig;tor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His orders were
+faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucius Sc&aelig;vola, the Pontifex Maximus and jurist,
+P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other distinguished men, were
+butchered, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber. Sulla entered the
+city without opposition, and marched against Carbo, who had been
+previously opposed by Pompey and Metellus. The history of this part of
+the war is involved in great obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to
+relieve Pr&aelig;neste, but failed in each; and, after fighting with various
+fortune against Pompey, Metellus, and Sulla, he at length embarked for
+Africa, despairing of farther success in Italy. Meantime Rome had nearly
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. The Samnites and Lucanians, under
+Pontius Telesinus and L. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve
+Pr&aelig;neste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, which had been left
+without an army for its protection. Sulla arrived barely in time to save
+the city. The battle was fought before the Colline Gate; it was long and
+obstinately contested; the combat was not simply for the supremacy of a
+party; the very existence of Rome was at stake, for Pontius had declared
+that he would raze the city to the ground. The left wing, where Sulla
+commanded in person, was driven off the field by the vehemence of the
+enemy's charge; but the success of the right wing, which was commanded
+by Crassus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain a
+com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>plete victory. Fifty thousand men were said to have fallen on each
+side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian party either
+perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners and put to death.
+Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius, whose head was cut off and
+carried under the walls of Pr&aelig;neste, thereby announcing to the young
+Marius that his last hope of succour was gone. To the Samnite prisoners
+Sulla showed no mercy. He was resolved to root out of the peninsula
+those heroic enemies of Rome. On the third day after the battle he
+collected all the Samnite and Lucanian prisoners in the Campus Martius,
+and ordered his soldiers to cut them down. The dying shrieks of so many
+victims frightened the Senators, who had been assembled at the same time
+by Sulla in the temple of Bellona; but he bade them attend to what he
+was saying, and not mind what was taking place outside, as he was only
+chastising some rebels. Pr&aelig;neste surrendered soon afterward. The Romans
+in the town were pardoned; but all the Samnites and Pr&aelig;nestines were
+massacred without mercy. The younger Marius put an end to his own life.
+The war in Italy was now virtually at an end, for the few towns which
+still held out had no prospect of offering any effectual opposition, and
+were reduced soon afterward. In other parts of the Roman world the war
+continued still longer, and Sulla did not live to see its completion.
+The armies of the Marian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued by
+Pompey in the course of the same year; but Sertorius in Spain continued
+to defy all the attempts of the Senate till B.C. 72.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the Civil war, but
+had been driven to it by the mad ambition of Marius. His enemies had
+attempted to deprive him of the command in the Mithridatic war, which
+had been legally conferred upon him by the Senate; and while he was
+righting the battles of the Republic they had declared him a public
+enemy, confiscated his property, and murdered the most distinguished of
+his friends and adherents. For all these wrongs Sulla had threatened to
+take the most ample vengeance; and he more than redeemed his word. He
+resolved to extirpate the popular party root and branch. One of his
+first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who were to be put to
+death, which list was exhibited in the forum to public inspection, and
+called a <i>Proscriptio</i>. It was the first instance of the kind in Roman
+history. All persons in this list were outlaws who might be killed by
+any one with impunity; their property was confiscated to the state;
+their children and grandchildren lost their votes in the comitia, and
+were excluded from all public offices. Farther, all who killed a
+proscribed person, or indicated the place of his concealment, received
+two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> such a person was
+punished with death. Terror now reigned not only at Rome, but throughout
+Italy. Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly appeared. No one was
+safe; for Sulla gratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists
+their personal enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by his
+adherents. An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to many a
+man, who belonged to no political party, his death-warrant; for,
+although the confiscated property belonged to the state, and had to be
+sold by public auction, the friends and dependents of Sulla purchased it
+at a nominal price, as no one dared to bid against them. Oftentimes
+Sulla did not require the purchase-money to be paid at all, and in many
+cases he gave such property to his favorites without even the formality
+of a sale. The number of persons who perished by the proscriptions
+amounted to many thousands. At the commencement of these horrors Sulla
+had been appointed Dictator. As both the Consuls had perished, he caused
+the Senate to elect Valerius Flaccus interrex, and the latter brought
+before the people a rogatio, conferring the Dictatorship upon Sulla, for
+the purpose of restoring order to the Republic, and for as long a time
+as he judged to be necessary. Thus the Dictatorship was revived after
+being in abeyance for more than 120 years, and Sulla obtained absolute
+power over the lives and fortunes of all the citizens. This was toward
+the close of B.C. 81. Sulla's great object in being invested with the
+Dictatorship was to carry into execution in a legal manner the great
+reforms which he meditated in the constitution and the administration of
+justice, by which he hoped to place the government of the Republic on a
+firm and secure basis. He had no intention of abolishing the Republic,
+and consequently he caused Consuls to be elected for the following year,
+B.C. 81, and was elected to the office himself in B.C. 80, while he
+continued to hold the Dictatorship.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of B.C. 81 Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph on
+account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which he delivered
+to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony, he claimed for
+himself the surname of <i>Felix</i>, as he attributed his success in life to
+the favor of the gods. All ranks in Rome bowed in awe before their
+master; and among other marks of distinction which were voted to him by
+the obsequious Senate, a gilt equestrian statue was erected to his honor
+before the Rostra, bearing the inscription "Cornelio Sull&aelig; Imperatori
+Felici."</p>
+
+<p>During the years B.C. 80 and 79 Sulla carried into execution his various
+reforms in the constitution, of which an account is given at the end of
+this chapter. At the same time he established many military colonies
+throughout Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> towns which had fought
+against Sulla were deprived of the full Roman franchise which had been
+lately conferred upon them; their lands were confiscated and given to
+the soldiers who had fought under him. A great number of these colonies
+were settled in Etruria. They had the strongest interest in upholding
+the institutions of Sulla, since any attempt to invalidate the latter
+would have endangered their newly-acquired possessions. But, though they
+were a support to the power of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the
+commonwealth; an idle and licentious soldiery supplanted an industrious
+agricultural population; and Catiline found nowhere more adherents than
+among the military colonies of Sulla. While Sulla thus established
+throughout Italy a population devoted to his interests, he created at
+Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by giving the citizenship
+to a great number of slaves belonging to those who had been proscribed
+by him. The slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as many as
+10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as their patron.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of B.C. 79; and as he
+longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures, he resigned his
+Dictatorship, and declared himself ready to render an account of his
+conduct while in office. This voluntary abdication by Sulla of the
+sovereignty of the Roman world has excited the astonishment and
+admiration of both ancient and modern writers. But it is evident that
+Sulla never contemplated, like Julius C&aelig;sar, the establishment of a
+monarchical form of government; and it must be recollected that he could
+retire into a private station without any fear that attempts would be
+made against his life or his institutions. The ten thousand Cornelii at
+Rome and his veterans stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole
+strength of the aristocratical party, secured him against all danger.
+Even in his retirement his will was law, and shortly before his death he
+ordered his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the towns in Italy
+because he was a public defaulter.</p>
+
+<p>After resigning his Dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at
+Puteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, he
+passed the remainder of his life in those literary and sensual
+enjoyments in which he had always taken so much pleasure. He died in
+B.C. 78, in the sixtieth year of his age. The immediate cause of his
+death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but some time before he had
+been suffering from the disgusting disease which is known in modern
+times by the name of Morbus Pediculosus. The Senate, faithful to the
+last, resolved to give him the honor of a public funeral. This was,
+however, opposed by the Consul Lepidus, who had resolved to attempt the
+repeal of Sulla's laws; but the Dicta<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>tor's power continued unshaken
+even after his death. The veterans were summoned from their colonies,
+and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, and Cn. Pompey placed themselves at their
+head. Lepidus was obliged to give way, and allowed the funeral to take
+place without interruption. It was a gorgeous pageant. The Magistrates,
+the Senate, the Equites, the Priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as
+the veterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus Martius,
+where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of Sulla himself, who
+feared that his enemies might insult his remains, as he had done those
+of Marius, which had been taken out of the grave and thrown into the
+Anio at his command. It had been previously the custom of the Cornelia
+gens to bury and not burn their dead. A monument was erected to Sulla in
+the Campus Martius, the inscription on which he is said to have composed
+himself. It stated that none of his friends ever did him a kindness, and
+none of his enemies a wrong, without being fully repaid.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>All the reforms of Sulla were effected by means of <i>Leges</i>, which were
+proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and bore the general name of
+<i>Leges Corneli&aelig;</i>. They may be divided into four classes: laws relating
+to the constitution, to the ecclesiastical corporations, to the
+administration of justice, and to the improvement of public morals.
+Their general object and design was to restore, as far as possible, the
+ancient Roman Constitution, and to give again to the Senate and the
+Nobility that power of which they had been gradually deprived by the
+leaders of the popular party. His Constitution did not last, because the
+aristocracy were thoroughly selfish and corrupt, and exercised the power
+which Sulla had intrusted to them only for their own aggrandizement.
+Their shameless conduct soon disgusted the provinces as well as the
+capital; the people again regained their power, but the consequence was
+an anarchy and not a government; and as neither class was fit to rule,
+they were obliged to submit to the dominion of a single man. Thus the
+empire became a necessity to the exhausted Roman world.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>I. <i>Laws relating to the Constitution.</i>&mdash;Sulla deprived the Comitia
+Tributa of their legislative and judicial powers; but he allowed them to
+elect the Tribunes, &AElig;diles, Qu&aelig;stors, and other inferior magistrates.
+This seems to have been the only purpose for which they were called
+together. The Comitia Centuriata, on the other hand, were allowed to
+retain their right of legislation unimpaired. He restored, however, the
+ancient regulation, which had fallen into desuetude, that no matter
+should be brought before them without the previous sanction of a senatus
+consultum.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Senate had been so much reduced in numbers by the proscriptions of
+Sulla, that he was obliged to fill up the vacancies by the election of
+three hundred new members. But he made no alteration in their duties and
+functions, as the whole administration of the state was in their hands;
+and he gave them the initiative in legislation by requiring a previous
+senatus consultum respecting all measures that were to be submitted to
+the Comitia, as already stated.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the magistrates, Sulla increased the number of Qu&aelig;stors
+from eight to twenty, and of Pr&aelig;tors from six to eight. He renewed the
+old law that no one should hold the Pr&aelig;torship before he had been
+Qu&aelig;stor, nor the Consulship before he had been Pr&aelig;tor. He also renewed
+the law that no one should be elected to the same magistracy till after
+the expiration of ten years.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important of Sulla's reforms related to the Tribunate,
+which he deprived of all real power. He took away from the Tribunes the
+right of proposing a rogation of any kind to the Tribes, or of
+impeaching any person before them; and he appears to have limited the
+right of intercession to their giving protection to private persons
+against the unjust decisions of magistrates, as, for instance, in the
+enlisting of soldiers. To degrade the Tribunate still lower, Sulla
+enacted that whoever had held this office forfeited thereby all right to
+become a candidate for any of the higher curule offices, in order that
+all persons of rank, talent, and wealth might be deterred from holding
+an office which would be a fatal impediment to rising any higher in the
+state. He also required persons to be Senators before they could become
+Tribunes.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>II. <i>Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations.</i>&mdash;Sulla repealed
+the Lex Domitia, which gave to the Comitia Tributa the right of electing
+the members of the great ecclesiastical corporations, and restored to
+the latter the right of co-optatio, or self-election. At the same time,
+he increased the number of Pontiffs and Augurs to fifteen respectively.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>III. <i>Laws relating to the Administration of Justice.</i>&mdash;Sulla
+established permanent courts for the trial of particular offenses, in
+each of which a Pr&aelig;tor presided. A precedent for this had been given by
+the Lex Calpurnia of the Tribune L. Calpurnius Piso, in B.C. 149, by
+which it was enacted that a Pr&aelig;tor should preside at all trials for
+Repetund&aelig; during his year of office. This was called a <i>Qu&aelig;stio
+Perpetua</i>, and nine such <i>Qu&aelig;stiones Perpetu&aelig;</i> were established by
+Sulla, namely, De Repetundis, Majestatis, De Sicariis et Veneficis, De
+Parricidio, Peculatus, Ambitus, De Nummis Adulter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>inis, De Falsis or
+Testamentaria, and De Vi Publica. Jurisdiction in civil cases was left
+to the Pr&aelig;tor Peregrinus and the Pr&aelig;tor Urbanus as before, and the other
+six Pr&aelig;tors presided in the Qu&aelig;stiones; but as the latter were more in
+number than the Pr&aelig;tors, some of the Pr&aelig;tors took more than one Qu&aelig;stio,
+or a Judex Qu&aelig;stionis was appointed. The Pr&aelig;tors, after their election,
+had to draw lots for their several jurisdictions. Sulla enacted that the
+Judices should be taken exclusively from the Senators, and not from the
+Equites, the latter of whom had possessed this privilege, with a few
+interruptions, from the law of C. Gracchus, in B.C. 123. This was a
+great gain for the aristocracy, since the offenses for which they were
+usually brought to trial, such as bribery, malversation, and the like,
+were so commonly practiced by the whole order, that they were, in most
+cases, nearly certain of acquittal from men who required similar
+indulgence themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla's reform in the criminal law, the greatest and most enduring part
+of his legislation, belongs to a history of Roman law, and can not be
+given here.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>IV. <i>Laws relating to the Improvement of Public Morals.</i>&mdash;Of these we
+have very little information. One of them was a Lex Sumtuaria, which
+enacted that not more than a certain sum of money should be spent upon
+entertainments, and also restrained extravagance in funerals. There was
+likewise a law of Sulla respecting marriage, the provisions of which are
+quite unknown, as it was probably abrogated by the Julian law of
+Augustus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image059" name="image059">
+   <img src="images/059.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Sulla."
+      title="Coin of Sulla." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Sulla.<br /><br />On the obverse is the head of Sulla; on the reverse that of Q. Pompeius
+Rufus, his colleague in his first Consulship.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image060" name="image060">
+   <img src="images/060.jpg"
+      alt="Cn. Pompeius Magnus."
+      title="Cn. Pompeius Magnus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Cn. Pompeius Magnus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIX.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. B.C.
+78-70.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Sulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to overthrow the
+aristocratic constitution which he had established. The Consul M.
+Lepidus had already, as we have seen, endeavored to prevent the burial
+of Sulla in the Campus Martius. He now proposed to repeal the Dictator's
+laws; but the other Consul, Q. Catulus, remained firm to the
+aristocracy, and offered the most strenuous opposition to the measures
+of his colleague. Shortly afterward the Senate ordered Lepidus to repair
+to Farther Gaul, which had been assigned to him as his Province; but he
+availed himself of the opportunity to collect an army in Etruria, and at
+the beginning of the following year marched straight upon Rome. The
+Senate assembled an army, which they placed under the command of Q.
+Catulus, with Pompey as his lieutenant. A battle was fought near the
+Mulvian bridge, in which Lepidus was defeated, and, find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>ing it
+impossible to maintain his footing in Italy, he sailed with the
+remainder of his forces to Sardinia, where he died soon afterward.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the remainder of the Marian party found refuge in Spain. Q.
+Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had received the
+government of this country in the year B.C. 82. He soon acquired an
+extraordinary ascendency over the minds of the natives, and flattered
+them with the hope of establishing an independent state which might bid
+defiance to Rome. His influence was enhanced by the superstition of the
+people. He was accompanied on all occasions by a tame fawn, which they
+believed to be a familiar spirit. So attached did they become to his
+person, that he found no difficulty in collecting a formidable army,
+which for some years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. After
+defeating several generals whom Sulla had sent against him, he had to
+encounter, in B.C. 79, Q. Metellus, who had been Consul the previous
+year with Sulla. But Metellus did not fare much better than his
+predecessors; and in B.C. 78 Sertorius was re-enforced by a considerable
+body of troops which Perperna carried with him into Spain after the
+defeat of Lepidus. The growing power of Sertorius led the Senate to send
+Pompey to the assistance of Metellus. Pompey, though only 30 years of
+age, was already regarded as the ablest general of the Republic; and as
+he played such a prominent part in the later history, we may here pause
+to give a brief account of his early career.</p>
+
+<p>POMPEY was born B.C. 106, and was, as we have already seen, the son of
+Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians in his Consulship,
+B.C. 89. The young Pompey served under his father in this war, when he
+was only 17 years of age, and continued with him till his death two
+years afterward. He was present at the battle of the Colline Gate in
+B.C. 87, and shortly afterward he saved the life of his father, and
+quelled an insurrection of the soldiers by his courage and activity. As
+soon as Sulla had finished the Mithridatic war, and was on his way to
+Italy, Pompey, instead of waiting, like the other leaders of the
+aristocracy, for the arrival of their chief, resolved to share with him
+the glory of crushing the Marian party. Accordingly, he proceeded to
+levy troops in Picenum without holding any public office; and such was
+his personal influence that he was able to raise an army of three
+legions. Before joining Sulla he gained a brilliant victory over the
+Marian generals, and was received by Sulla with the greatest
+distinction. Upon the conclusion of the war in Italy Pompey was sent
+first into Sicily, and afterward into Africa, where the Marian party
+still held out. His success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+reduced the whole of Numidia, and, unlike other Roman governors,
+abstained from plundering the province. His military achievements and
+his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown, and he returned
+to Rome covered with glory (B.C. 80). Numbers flocked out of the city to
+meet him; and the Dictator himself, who formed one of the crowd, greeted
+him with the surname of MAGNUS or the GREAT, which he bore ever
+afterward. Sulla at first refused to let him triumph. Hitherto no one
+but a Dictator, Consul, or Pr&aelig;tor had enjoyed this distinction; but as
+Pompey insisted upon the honor, Sulla gave way, and the young general
+entered Rome in triumph as a simple Eques, and before he had completed
+his 25th year.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey again exhibited his power in promoting, in B.C. 79, the election
+of M. &AElig;milius Lepidus to the Consulship, in opposition to the wishes of
+Sulla. The latter had now retired from public affairs, and contented
+himself with warning Pompey, as he met him returning from the comitia in
+triumph, "Young man, it is time for you not to slumber, for you have
+strengthened your rival against yourself." Lepidus seems to have
+reckoned upon the support of Pompey; but in this he was disappointed,
+for Pompey remained faithful to the aristocracy, and thus saved his
+party. He fought at the Mulvian bridge against Lepidus, as we have
+already related, and afterward marched into Cisalpine Gaul against the
+remains of his party. The Senate, who now began to dread Pompey, ordered
+him to disband his army; but he found various excuses for evading this
+command, as he was anxious to obtain the command of the war against
+Sertorius in Spain. They hesitated, however, to give him this
+opportunity for gaining fresh distinction and additional power; and it
+was only in consequence of the increasing power of Sertorius that they
+at length unwillingly determined to send Pompey to Spain, with the title
+of Proconsul, and with powers equal to Metellus.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey arrived in Spain in B.C. 76. He soon found that he had a more
+formidable enemy to deal with than any he had yet encountered. He
+suffered several defeats, and, though he gained some advantages, yet
+such were his losses that at the end of two years he was obliged to send
+to Rome for re-enforcements. The war continued three years longer; but
+Sertorius, who had lost some of his influence over the Spanish tribes,
+and who had become an object of jealousy to M. Perperna and his
+principal Roman officers, was unable to carry on operations with the
+same vigor as during the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly gained
+some advantages over him, but the war was still far from a close; and
+the genius of Sertorius would probably have soon given a very differ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>ent
+aspect to affairs had he not been assassinated by Perperna in B.C. 72.
+Perperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to the power of
+Sertorius; but he soon found that he had murdered the only man who was
+able to save him from ruin. In his first battle with Pompey he was
+completely defeated, his principal officers slain, and himself taken
+prisoner. Anxious to save his life, he offered to deliver up to Pompey
+the papers of Sertorius, containing letters from many of the leading men
+at Rome. But Pompey refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be
+burnt. The war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder of the
+year was employed in subduing the towns which still held out against
+Pompey. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with Perperna,
+and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the war to a conclusion.
+The people longed for his return, that he might deliver Italy from
+Spartacus and his horde of gladiators, who had defeated the Consuls, and
+were in possession of a great part of the peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>A righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their love of the
+cruel sports of the amphitheatre. The gladiators were generally
+prisoners taken in war, and sold to persons who trained them in schools
+for the Roman games. There was such a school at Capua, and among the
+gladiators was a Thracian of the name of Spartacus, originally a chief
+of banditti, who had been taken prisoner by the Romans, and was now
+destined to be butchered for their amusement. Having prevailed upon
+about 70 of his comrades, he burst out of the school with them,
+succeeded in obtaining arms, and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius,
+at that time an extinct volcano (B.C. 73). Here he was soon joined by
+large numbers of slaves, who flocked to him from all quarters. He was
+soon at the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the Social and
+Civil Wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment of slave-labor
+furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of soldiers. In addition to
+this, the war with Sertorius was not yet finished, and that with
+Mithridates, of which we shall speak presently, had already commenced.
+For upward of two years Spartacus was master of Italy, which he laid
+waste from the foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the
+peninsula. In B.C. 72 he found himself at the head of 100,000 men, and
+defeated both Consuls. As the Consuls of the following year had no
+military reputation, the conduct of the war was intrusted to the Pr&aelig;tor,
+M. Licinius Crassus, who had greatly distinguished himself in the wars
+of Sulla. He had been rewarded by the Dictator with donations of
+confiscated property, and had accumulated an immense fortune. Six
+legions were now given him in addition to the remains of the Consular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+armies already in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened and
+disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by decimating
+the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme point of Bruttium.
+Crassus drew strong lines of circumvallation around Rhegium, and by his
+superior numbers prevented the escape of the slaves. Spartacus now
+attempted to pass over to Sicily, where he would have been welcomed by
+thousands of followers. He failed in the attempt to cross the straits,
+but at length succeeded in forcing his way through the lines of Crassus.
+The Roman general hastened in pursuit, and in Lucania fell in with the
+main body of the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which
+Spartacus perished, with the greater part of his followers. About 6000
+were taken prisoners, whom Crassus impaled on each side of the Appian
+road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 made their way northward,
+whom Pompey met as he was returning from Spain, and cut to pieces.
+Crassus had, in reality, brought the war to an end, but Pompey took the
+credit to himself, and wrote to the Senate, saying, "Crassus, indeed,
+has defeated the enemy, but I have extirpated them by the roots."</p>
+
+<p>Pompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of their armies,
+and each laid claim to the Consulship. Neither of them was qualified by
+the laws of Sulla. Pompey was only in his 35th year, and had not even
+held the office of Qu&aelig;stor. Crassus was still Pr&aelig;tor, and two years
+ought to elapse before he could become Consul. Pompey, however, agreed
+to support the claims of Crassus, and the Senate dared not offer open
+opposition to two generals at the head of powerful armies. Pompey,
+moreover, declared himself the advocate of the popular rights, and
+promised to restore the Tribunitian power. Accordingly, they were
+elected Consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the city in
+triumph on the 31st of December, B.C. 71, and Crassus enjoyed the honor
+of an ovation.</p>
+
+<p>The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (B.C. 70) was memorable for the
+repeal of the most important portions of Sulla's constitutional reforms.
+One of Pompey's first acts was to redeem the pledge he had given to the
+people, by bringing forward a law for the restoration of the Tribunitian
+power. The law was passed with little opposition; for the Senate felt
+that it was worse than useless to contend against Pompey, supported as
+he was by the popular enthusiasm and by his troops, which were still in
+the immediate neighborhood of the city. He also struck another blow at
+the aristocracy. By one of Sulla's laws, the Judices, during the last
+ten years, had been chosen from the Senate. The corruption and venality
+of the latter in the administration of justice had excited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> such general
+indignation that some change was clamorously demanded by the people.
+Accordingly, the Pr&aelig;tor L. Aurelius Cotta, with the approbation of
+Pompey, proposed a law by which the Judices were to be taken in future
+from the Senate, Equites, and Tribuni &AElig;rarii, the latter probably
+representing the wealthier members of the third order in the state. This
+law was likewise carried; but it did not improve the purity of the
+administration of justice, since corruption was not confined to the
+Senators, but pervaded all classes of the community alike. Pompey had
+thus broken with the aristocracy, and had become the great popular hero.
+In carrying both these measures he was strongly supported by C&aelig;sar, who,
+though he was rapidly rising in popular favor, could as yet only hope to
+weaken the power of the aristocracy through Pompey's means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image061" name="image061">
+   <img src="images/061.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome."
+      title="Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image062" name="image062">
+   <img src="images/062.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Mithridates."
+      title="Coin of Mithridates." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Mithridates.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXX.</h2>
+
+<h3>THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.</h3>
+
+
+<p>When Sulla returned to Italy after the First Mithridatic War, he left L.
+Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in Asia. Murena, who was
+eager for some opportunity of earning the honor of a triumph, pretending
+that Mithridates had not yet evacuated the whole of Cappadocia, not only
+marched into that country, but even crossed the Halys, and laid waste
+the plains of Pontus itself (B.C. 83). To this flagrant breach of the
+treaty so lately concluded the Roman general was in great measure
+instigated by Archelaus, who, finding himself regarded with suspicion by
+Mithridates, had consulted his safety by flight, and was received with
+the utmost honors by the Romans. Mithridates, who was wholly unprepared
+to renew the contest with Rome, offered no opposition to the progress of
+Murena; but finding that general disregard his remonstrances, he sent to
+Rome to complain of his aggression. When, in the following spring (B.C.
+82), he saw Murena preparing to renew his hostile incursions, he at once
+determined to oppose him by force, and assembled a large army, with
+which he met the Roman general on the banks of the Halys. The action
+that ensued terminated in the complete victory of the king, and Murena,
+with difficultly, effected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia
+at the mercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province.
+Shortly afterward A. Gabinius arrived in Asia, bringing peremptory
+orders from Sulla to Murena to desist from hostilities, whereupon
+Mithridates once more consented to evacuate Cappadocia. Thus ended what
+is commonly called the Second Mithridatic War.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the interposition of Sulla, Mithridates was well aware
+that the peace between him and Rome was in fact only sus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>pension of
+hostilities, and that the haughty Republic would never suffer the
+massacre of her citizens in Asia to remain ultimately unpunished. Hence
+all his efforts were directed toward the formation of an army capable of
+contending, not only in numbers, but in discipline, with those of Rome;
+and with this view he armed his barbarian troops after the Roman
+fashion, and endeavored to train them up in that discipline of which he
+had so strongly felt the effect in the preceding contest. In these
+attempts he was doubtless assisted by the refugees of the Marian party,
+who had accompanied Fimbria into Asia, and on the defeat of that general
+by Sulla had taken refuge with the King of Pontus. At their instigation,
+also, Mithridates sent an embassy to Sertorius, who was still
+maintaining his ground in Spain, and concluded an alliance with him
+against their common enemies. But it was the death of Nicomedes III.,
+king of Bithynia, at the beginning of B.C. 74, that brought matters to a
+crisis, and became the immediate occasion of the war which both parties
+had long felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his dominions by will
+to the Roman people, and Bithynia was accordingly declared a Roman
+province; but Mithridates asserted that the late king had left a
+legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he immediately
+prepared to support by his arms.</p>
+
+<p>The forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take the field
+were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable confidence of
+victory. He had assembled an army of 120,000 foot-soldiers, armed and
+disciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 horse, besides a hundred
+scythed chariots. His fleet, also, was so far superior to any that the
+Romans could oppose to him as to give him the almost undisputed command
+of the sea. These preparations, however, appear to have delayed him so
+long that the season was far advanced before he was able to take the
+field, and both the Roman Consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M. Aurelius
+Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however, was able to oppose
+his first irruption. He traversed almost the whole of Bithynia without
+encountering any resistance; and when at length Cotta ventured to give
+him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, his army and fleet were totally
+defeated. Mithridates now proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea
+and land. But Lucullus, who had advanced from Phrygia to the relief of
+Cotta, and followed Mithridates to Cyzicus, took possession of an
+advantageous position near the camp of the king, where he almost
+entirely cut him off from receiving supplies by land, while the storms
+of the winter prevented him from depending on those by sea. Hence it was
+not long before famine began to make itself felt in the camp of
+Mithridates, and all his assaults upon the city having been foiled by
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> courage and resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled
+(early in the year B.C. 73) to abandon the enterprise and raise the
+siege. In his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman general,
+and suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the &AElig;sepus and Granicus.
+By the close of the year the great army with which he had commenced the
+war was annihilated, and he was not only compelled to retire within his
+own dominions, but was without the means of opposing the advance of
+Lucullus into the heart of Pontus itself. But he now again set to work
+with indefatigable activity to raise a fresh army; and while he left the
+whole of the sea-coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established
+himself in the interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by
+Lucullus; and despairing of opposing the farther progress of the Romans,
+he fled into Armenia to claim the protection and assistance of his
+son-in-law Tigranes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image063" name="image063">
+   <img src="images/063.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Tigranes."
+      title="Coin of Tigranes." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Tigranes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of Asia, but he
+appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in war with Rome; and on
+this account, while he received the fugitive monarch in a friendly
+manner, he refused to admit him to his presence, and showed no
+disposition to attempt his restoration. But the arrogance of the Romans
+brought about a change in his policy; and Tigranes, offended at the
+haughty conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had sent to demand the
+surrender of Mithridates, not only refused this request, but determined
+at once to prepare for war.</p>
+
+<p>While Lucullus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he devoted his
+attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia, which was suffering
+severely from the oppressions of the farmers of the public taxes. By
+various judicious regulations he put a stop to their exactions, and
+earned the gratitude of the cities of Asia; but at the same time he
+brought upon himself the enmity of the Equites, who were the farmers of
+the revenue. They were loud<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> against him in their complaints at Rome,
+and by their continued clamors undoubtedly prepared the way for his
+ultimate recall.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and Tigranes had
+led to a complete reconciliation between them, and the Pontic king, who
+had spent a year and eight months in the dominions of his son-in-law
+without being admitted to a personal interview, was now made to
+participate in all the councils of Tigranes, and appointed to levy an
+army to unite in the war. But it was in vain that in the ensuing
+campaign (B.C. 69) he urged upon his son-in-law the lessons of his own
+experience, and advised him to shun a regular action with Lucullus:
+Tigranes, confident in the multitude of his forces, gave battle at
+Tigranocerta, and was defeated, before Mithridates had been able to join
+him. But this disaster, so precisely in accordance with the warnings of
+Mithridates, served to raise the latter so high in the estimation of
+Tigranes, that from this time forward the whole conduct of the war was
+intrusted to the direction of the King of Pontus.</p>
+
+<p>In the following summer (B.C. 68) Lucullus crossed the Taurus,
+penetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the allied
+monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But the early severity of the
+season, and the discontent of his own troops, checked the farther
+advance of the Roman general, who turned aside into Mesopotamia. Here
+Mithridates left him to lay siege to the fortress of Nisibis, which was
+supposed to be impregnable, while he himself took advantage of his
+absence to invade Pontus at the head of a large army, and endeavor to
+regain possession of his former dominions. The defense of Pontus was
+confided to Fabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus; but the
+oppression of the Romans had excited a general spirit of disaffection,
+and the people crowded around the standard of Mithridates. Fabius was
+totally defeated, and compelled to shut himself up in the fortress of
+Cabira. In the following spring (B.C. 67), Triarius, another of the
+Roman generals, was also defeated with immense loss. The blow was one of
+the severest which the Roman arms had sustained for a long period: 7000
+of their troops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number of
+officers, and their camp itself was taken.</p>
+
+<p>The advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented Mithridates
+from following up his advantage, and he withdrew into Lesser Armenia,
+where he took up a strong position to await the approach of Tigranes.
+But the farther proceedings of Lucullus were paralyzed by the mutinous
+and disaffected spirit of his own soldiers. Their discontents were
+fostered by P. Clodius, whose turbulent and restless spirit already
+showed itself in its full force, and were encouraged by reports from
+Rome, where the demagogues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> who were favorable to Pompey, or had been
+gained over by the Equestrian party, were loud in their clamors against
+Lucullus. They accused him of protracting the war for his own personal
+objects, either of ambition or avarice; and the soldiery, whose appetite
+for plunder had been often checked by Lucullus, readily joined in the
+outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of Tigranes, the two monarchs found
+themselves able to overrun almost the whole of Pontus and Cappadocia
+without opposition.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia to reduce
+Pontus to the form of a Roman province, and they had, in consequence, to
+report to the Senate that the country supposed to be conquered was again
+in the hands of the enemy. The adversaries of Lucullus naturally availed
+themselves of so favorable an occasion, and a decree was passed
+transferring to M. Acilius Glabrio, one of the Consuls for the year, the
+province of Bithynia, and the command against Mithridates. But Glabrio
+was wholly incompetent for the task assigned to him. On arriving in
+Bithynia he made no attempt to assume the command, but remained within
+the confines of his province, while he still farther embarrassed the
+position of Lucullus by issuing proclamations to his soldiers,
+announcing to them that their general was superseded, and releasing them
+from their obedience. Before the close of the year (B.C. 67) Lucullus
+had the mortification of seeing Mithridates established once more in the
+possession of his hereditary dominions. But it was still more galling to
+his feelings when, in the spring of the following year (B.C. 66), he was
+called upon to resign the command to Pompey, who had just brought to a
+successful termination the war against the pirates.</p>
+
+<p>The Mediterranean Sea had long been swarming with pirates. From the
+earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this sea, which,
+lying between three continents, and abounding with numerous creeks and
+islands, presents at the same time both the greatest temptations and the
+greatest facilities for piratical pursuits. Moreover, in consequence of
+the Social and Civil wars, and the absence of any fleet to preserve
+order upon the sea, piracy had reached an alarming height. The pirates
+possessed fleets in all parts of the Mediterranean, were in the habit of
+plundering the most wealthy cities on the coasts, and had at length
+carried their audacity so far as to make descents upon the Appian Road,
+and carry off Roman magistrates, with their lictors. All communication
+between Rome and the provinces was cut off, or at least rendered
+extremely dangerous; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which Rome to a
+great extent depended for its subsistence, could not reach the city, and
+the price of provisions in consequence rose enor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>mously. Such a state of
+things had become intolerable, and all eyes were now directed to Pompey.
+At the beginning of B.C. 67 the Tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a
+bill which was intended to give Pompey almost absolute authority over
+the greater part of the Roman world. It proposed that the people should
+elect a man with consular rank, who should possess unlimited power for
+three years over the whole of the Mediterranean, a fleet of 200 ships,
+with as many soldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, and 6000
+Attic talents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was clear who was
+meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, and in the Senate C&aelig;sar
+was almost the only person who came forward in its support. Party spirit
+ran to such a height that the most serious riots ensued. Even Pompey
+himself was threatened by the Consul, "If you emulate Romulus, you will
+not escape the end of Romulus." Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius spoke
+against the bill with great eloquence, but with no effect. On the day
+that the bill was passed the price of provisions at Rome immediately
+fell, a fact which showed the immense confidence which all parties
+placed in the military abilities of Pompey.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey's plans were formed with great skill, and were crowned with
+complete success. He stationed his lieutenants with different squadrons
+in various parts of the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates from
+uniting, and to hunt them out of the various bays and creeks in which
+they concealed themselves; while, at the same time, he swept the middle
+of the sea with the main body of his fleet, and chased them eastward. In
+forty days he drove the pirates out of the western seas, and restored
+communication between Spain, Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a
+short time in Italy, he sailed from Brundusium, cleared the seas as he
+went along, and forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here the
+decisive action was fought; the pirates were defeated, and more than
+20,000 prisoners fell into his hands. Those on whom most reliance could
+be placed were distributed among the small and depopulated cities of
+Cilicia, and a large number were settled at Soli, which was henceforward
+called Pompeiopolis. The second part of this campaign occupied only
+forty-nine days, and the whole war was brought to a conclusion in the
+course of three months. Pompey remained in Cilicia during the remainder
+of this year and the beginning of the one following. Meantime the
+Tribune C. Manilius brought forward a bill (B.C. 66) giving to Pompey
+the command of the war against Mithridates, with unlimited power over
+the army and the fleet in the East, and with the rights of a Proconsul
+in the whole of Asia as far as Armenia. As his Proconsular power already
+extended over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean in vir<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>tue
+of the Gabinian law, this new measure virtually placed almost the whole
+of the Roman dominions in his hands. But there was no power, however
+excessive, which the people were not ready to intrust to their favorite
+hero; and the bill was accordingly passed, notwithstanding the
+opposition of Hortensius, Catulus, and the aristocratical party. Cicero
+advocated the measure in an oration which has come down to us (<i>Pro Lege
+Manilia</i>), and C&aelig;sar likewise supported it with his growing popularity
+and influence.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey immediately
+crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the army from Lucullus.</p>
+
+<p>The power of Mithridates had been broken by the previous victories of
+Lucullus, and the successes which the king had gained lately were only
+of a temporary nature, mainly owing to the disorganization of the Roman
+army. In the plan of the campaign Pompey displayed great military skill.
+One of his first measures was to secure the alliance of the Parthian
+king, which not only deprived Mithridates of all hopes of succor from
+that quarter, but likewise cut him off from all assistance from the
+Armenian king Tigranes, who was now obliged to look to the safety of his
+own dominions. Pompey next stationed his fleet in different squadrons
+along the coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive Mithridates of all
+communication from the sea, and he then proceeded in person at the head
+of his land-forces against the king. Thus thrown back upon his own
+resources, Mithridates sued for peace, but, as Pompey would hear of
+nothing but unqualified submission, the negotiation was broken off. The
+king was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 2000 horse; but he knew
+too well the strength of a Roman army to venture an engagement with
+these forces, and accordingly withdrew gradually to the frontiers of
+Armenia. For a long time he succeeded in avoiding a battle, but he was
+at length surprised by Pompey in Lesser Armenia, as he was marching
+through a narrow pass. The battle was soon decided; the king lost the
+greater number of his troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen to
+the fortress of Synorium, on the borders of the Greater Armenia. Here he
+again collected a considerable force; but as Tigranes refused to admit
+him into his dominions, because he suspected him of fomenting the
+intrigues of his son against him, Mithridates had no alternative but to
+take refuge in his own distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. To
+reach them he had to march through Colchis, and to fight his way through
+the wild and barbarous tribes that occupied the country between the
+Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeeded, however, in this arduous
+enterprise, and reached the Bosporus in safety in the course of next
+year. Pompey abandoned at pres<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>ent all thoughts of following the
+fugitive king, and resolved at once to attack Tigranes, who was now the
+more formidable of the two monarchs.</p>
+
+<p>On entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He was joined by the
+young Tigranes, who had revolted against his father, and all the cities
+submitted to them on their approach. When the Romans drew near to
+Artaxata, the king, deserted by his army and his court, went out to meet
+Pompey, and threw himself before him as a suppliant. Pompey received him
+with kindness, acknowledged him as King of Armenia, and demanded only
+the payment of 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria,
+Ph&#339;nicia, Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered
+by Lucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes, Sophene
+and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom; but as the young
+prince was discontented with this arrangement, and even ventured to
+utter threats, Pompey had him arrested, and kept him in chains to grace
+his triumph.</p>
+
+<p>After thus settling the affairs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded northward
+in pursuit of Mithridates. But the season was so far advanced that he
+took up his winter quarters on the banks of the River Cyrus. Early in
+the spring (B.C. 65) he resumed his march northward, and advanced as far
+as the River Phasis, but, obtaining here more certain information of the
+movements of Mithridates, and of the wild and inaccessible nature of the
+country through which he would have to march in order to reach the king,
+he retraced his steps, and led his troops into winter quarters at
+Amisus, on the Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman
+province.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 64 Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed Antiochus
+Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province. He likewise compelled
+the neighboring princes, who had established independent kingdoms on the
+ruins of the Syrian empire, to submit to the Roman dominion. The whole
+of this year was occupied with the settlement of Syria and the adjacent
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Next year (B.C. 63) Pompey advanced farther south, in order to establish
+the Roman supremacy in Ph&#339;nicia, C&#339;le-Syria, and Palestine. The
+latter country was at this time distracted by a civil war between
+Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the side of Hyrcanus, and
+Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey when the latter had advanced
+near to Jerusalem. But the Jews refused to follow the example of their
+king, and it was not till after a siege of three months that the city
+was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first time that any
+human being, except the high-priest, had penetrated into this sacred
+spot. He re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>instated Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, but compelled him
+to pay an annual tribute to Rome; Aristobulus accompanied him as a
+prisoner. It was during this war in Palestine that Pompey received
+intelligence of the death of Mithridates.</p>
+
+<p>During the last two years Mithridates had been making the most extensive
+preparations for a renewal of the contest. He had conceived the daring
+project of marching round the north and west coasts of the Euxine, and
+penetrating even into Italy. With these views, he was busily engaged in
+assembling such a fleet and array as would be sufficient for an
+enterprise of this magnitude; but his proceedings were delayed by a long
+and painful illness, which incapacitated him for any personal exertion.
+At length, however, his preparations were completed, and he found
+himself at the head of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable fleet.
+But during his illness disaffection had made rapid progress among his
+followers. The full extent of his schemes was probably communicated to
+few; but enough had transpired to alarm the multitude, and a formidable
+conspiracy was organized by Pharnaces, the favorite son of Mithridates.
+He was quickly joined both by the whole army and the citizens of
+Panticap&aelig;um, who unanimously proclaimed him king, and Mithridates saw
+that no choice remained to him but death or captivity. Hereupon he took
+poison, which he constantly carried with him; but his constitution had
+been so long inured to antidotes that it did not produce the desired
+effect, and he was compelled to call in the assistance of one of his
+Gaulish mercenaries to dispatch him with his sword.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs in Asia.
+He confirmed Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, in the possession of the
+kingdom of Bosporus; Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, was rewarded with
+an extension of territory; and Ariobarzanes, king of Cappadocia, was
+restored to his kingdom. After an absence of seven years, Pompey arrived
+in Italy toward the end of B.C. 62. His arrival had been long looked for
+by all parties with various feelings of hope and fear. It was felt that
+at the head of his victorious troops he could easily play the part of
+Sulla, and become the ruler of the state. Important events had taken
+place at Rome during the absence of Pompey, of which it is necessary to
+give an account before following him to the city.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image064" name="image064">
+   <img src="images/064.jpg"
+      alt="Cicero."
+      title="Cicero." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Cicero.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXI.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
+RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST.&mdash;THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. 69-61.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the restoration of the Tribunate and the alteration in
+the judicial power in Pompey's Consulship, the popular party had
+received such a severe blow during Sulla's supremacy, that the
+aristocracy still retained the chief political influence during Pompey's
+absence in the East. But meantime a new leader of the popular party had
+been rapidly rising into notice, who was destined not only to crush the
+aristocracy, but to overthrow the Republic and become the undisputed
+master of the Roman world.</p>
+
+<p>C. JULIUS C&AElig;SAR, who was descended from an old Patrician family, was six
+years younger than Pompey, having been born in B.C. 100. He was closely
+connected with the popular party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with
+the great Marius, and he himself married, at an early age, Cornelia, the
+daughter of Cinna, the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> distinguished of the Marian leaders. Sulla
+commanded him to divorce his wife, and on his refusal he was included in
+the list of the proscription. The Vestal virgins and his friends with
+difficulty obtained his pardon from the Dictator, who observed, when
+they pleaded his youth and insignificance, "that that boy would some day
+or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that there were many
+Mariuses in him."</p>
+
+<p>This was the first proof which C&aelig;sar gave of the resolution and decision
+of character which distinguished him throughout life. He went to Asia in
+B.C. 81, where he served his first campaign under M. Minucius Thermus,
+and was rewarded, at the siege of Mitylene, with a civic crown for
+saving the life of a fellow-soldier. On his return to Rome he accused
+(B.C. 77) Cn. Dolabella of extortion in his province of Macedonia.
+Dolabella was acquitted by the senatorial judges; but C&aelig;sar gained great
+reputation by this prosecution, and showed that he possessed powers of
+oratory which bade fair to place him among the foremost speakers at
+Rome. To render himself still more perfect in oratory, he went to
+Rhodes, which was then celebrated for its school of rhetoric, but in his
+voyage thither he was captured by pirates, with whom the seas of the
+Mediterranean then swarmed. In this island he was detained by them till
+he could obtain fifty talents from the neighboring cities for his
+ransom. Immediately on obtaining his liberty, he manned some Milesian
+vessels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted them as prisoners to
+Pergamus, where he shortly afterward crucified them&mdash;a punishment he had
+frequently threatened them with in sport when he was their prisoner. He
+then repaired to Rhodes, where he studied under Apollonius for a short
+time, but soon afterward crossed over into Asia, on the outbreak of the
+Mithridatic war in B.C. 74. Here, although he held no public office, he
+collected troops on his own authority, and repulsed the commander of the
+king, and then returned to Rome in the same year, in consequence of
+having been elected Pontiff during his absence. His affable manners,
+and, still more, his unbounded liberality, won the hearts of the people.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar obtained the Qu&aelig;storship in B.C. 68. In this year he lost his aunt
+Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife Cornelia. He pronounced
+orations over both of them in the forum, in which he took the
+opportunity of passing a panegyric upon the former leaders of the
+popular party. At the funeral of his aunt he caused the images of Marius
+to be carried in the procession: they were welcomed with loud
+acclamations by the people, who were delighted to see their former
+favorite brought, as it were, into public again.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian Laws,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> which bestowed
+upon Pompey the command against the pirates and Mithridates. These
+measures, as we have already seen, were opposed by the aristocracy, and
+widened still farther the breach between them and Pompey. In B.C. 65
+C&aelig;sar was Curule &AElig;dile along with M. Bibulus, and still farther
+increased his popularity by the splendid games which he exhibited. He
+now took a step which openly proclaimed him the leader of the Marian
+party. He caused the statues of Marius and the Cimbrian trophies, which
+had been all destroyed by Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at
+night in the Capitol. In the morning the city was in the highest state
+of excitement; the veterans of Marius cried with joy at beholding his
+countenance once more, and greeted C&aelig;sar with shouts of applause. Q.
+Catulus brought the conduct of C&aelig;sar before the notice of the Senate,
+but the popular excitement was so great that they thought it better to
+let the matter drop.</p>
+
+<p>In C&aelig;sar's &AElig;dileship the first Catilinarian conspiracy occurred, and
+from this time his history forms a portion of that of the times. But
+before passing on, the early life of another distinguished man, the
+greatest of Roman orators, also claims our notice.</p>
+
+<p>M. TULLIUS CICERO was born at Arpinum in B.C. 106, and consequently in
+the same year as Pompey. His father was of the Equestrian order, and
+lived upon his hereditary estate near Arpinum, but none of his ancestors
+had ever held any of the offices of state. Cicero was therefore,
+according to the Roman phraseology, a New Man (see p. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>). He served
+his first and only campaign in the Social War (B.C. 89), and in the
+troubled times which followed he gave himself up with indefatigable
+perseverance to those studies which were essential to his success as a
+lawyer and orator. When tranquillity was restored by the final
+discomfiture of the Marian party, he came forward as a pleader at the
+age of twenty-five. The first of his extant speeches in a civil suit is
+that for P. Quintius (B.C. 81); the first delivered upon a criminal
+trial was that in defense of Sex. Roscius of Ameria, who was charged
+with parricide by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, supported, as it was
+understood, by the influence of his patron. In consequence of the
+failure of his health, Cicero quitted Rome in B.C. 79, and spent two
+years in study in the philosophical and rhetorical schools of Athens and
+Asia Minor. On his return to the city he forthwith took his station in
+the foremost rank of judicial orators, and ere long stood alone in
+acknowledged pre-eminence; his most formidable rivals&mdash;Hortensius, eight
+years his senior, and C. Aurelius Cotta, who had long been kings of the
+bar&mdash;having been forced, after a short but sharp contest for supremacy,
+to yield.</p>
+
+<p>Cicero's reputation and popularity already stood so high that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> was
+elected Qu&aelig;stor (B.C. 76), although, comparatively speaking, a stranger,
+and certainly unsupported by any powerful family interest. He served in
+Sicily under Sex. Peduc&aelig;us, Pr&aelig;tor of Lilyb&aelig;um. In B.C. 70 he gained
+great renown by his impeachment of Verres for his oppression of the
+Sicilians, whom he had ruled as Pr&aelig;tor of Syracuse for the space of
+three years (B.C. 73-71). The most strenuous exertions were made by
+Verres, backed by some of the most powerful families, to wrest the case
+out of the hands of Cicero, who, however, defeated the attempt, and
+having demanded and been allowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting
+evidence, he instantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less
+than two months, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses.
+Another desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now Consul elect, who
+was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles which might have
+the effect of delaying the trial until the commencement of the following
+year; but here again he was defeated by the promptitude and decision of
+his opponent, who opened the case very briefly, proceeded at once to the
+examination of the witnesses and the production of the depositions and
+other papers, which, taken together, constituted a mass of testimony so
+decisive that Verres gave up the contest as hopeless, and retired at
+once into exile without attempting any defense. The full pleadings,
+however, which were to have been delivered had the trial been permitted
+to run its ordinary course, were subsequently published by Cicero.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 69 Cicero was &AElig;dile, and in 66 Pr&aelig;tor. In the latter year he
+delivered his celebrated address to the people in favor of the Manilian
+Law. Having now the Consulship in view, and knowing that, as a new man,
+he must expect the most determined opposition from the Nobles, he
+resolved to throw himself into the arms of the popular party, and to
+secure the friendship of Pompey, now certainly the most important person
+in the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year (B.C. 65) the first conspiracy of Catiline
+occurred. The circumstances of the times were favorable to a bold and
+unprincipled adventurer. A widespread feeling of disaffection extended
+over the whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla had already squandered
+their ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a renewal of those scenes of
+blood which they had found so profitable. The multitudes whose estates
+had been confiscated and whose relations had been proscribed were
+eagerly watching for any movement which might give them a chance of
+becoming robbers and murderers in their turn. The younger nobility, as a
+class, were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bankrupts in
+fortune as well as in fame, and eager for any change which might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+relieve them from their embarrassments. The rabble were restless and
+discontented, filled with envy and hatred against the rich and powerful.
+Never was the executive weaker. The Senate and Magistrates were wasting
+their energies in petty disputes, indifferent to the interests of the
+Republic. Pompey, at the head of all the best troops of the Republic,
+was prosecuting a long-protracted war in the East; there was no army in
+Italy, where all was hushed in a treacherous calm.</p>
+
+<p>Of the profligate nobles at this time none was more profligate than L.
+SERGIUS CATILINA. He was the descendant of an ancient patrician family
+which had sunk into poverty, and he first appears in history as a
+zealous partisan of Sulla. During the horrors of the proscription he
+killed his brother-in-law, Q. C&aelig;cilius, and is said to have murdered
+even his own brother. His youth was spent in the open indulgence of
+every vice, and it was believed that he had made away with his first
+wife, and afterward with his son, in order that he might marry the
+profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who objected to the presence of a grown-up
+step-child. Notwithstanding these crimes, he acquired great popularity
+among the younger nobles by his agreeable address and his zeal in
+ministering to their pleasures. He possessed extraordinary powers of
+mind and body, and all who came in contact with him submitted more or
+less to the ascendency of his genius. He was Pr&aelig;tor in B.C. 68; was
+Governor of Africa during the following year; and returned to Rome in
+B.C. 66, in order to press his suit for the Consulship. The election for
+B.C. 65 was carried by P. Autronius P&aelig;tus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both
+of whom were soon after convicted of bribery, and their places supplied
+by their competitors and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius
+Torquatus. Catiline, who was desirous of becoming a candidate, had been
+disqualified in consequence of an impeachment for oppression in his
+province preferred by P. Clodius Pulcher. Exasperated by their
+disappointment, Autronius and Catiline formed a project, along with Cn.
+Calpurnius Piso, another profligate young nobleman, to murder the new
+Consuls upon the first of January, when offering up their vows in the
+Capitol, after which Autronius and Catiline were to seize the fasces,
+and Piso was to be dispatched with an army to occupy the Spains. This
+extraordinary design is said to have been frustrated solely by the
+impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal prematurely before the whole
+of the armed agents had assembled.</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure which had so nearly
+proved a triumph, Catiline was soon after left completely unfettered by
+his acquittal upon trial for extortion, a result secured by the liberal
+bribes administered to the accuser as well as to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> jury. From this
+time he proceeded more systematically, and enlisted a more numerous body
+of supporters. In the course of B.C. 64 he had enrolled several Senators
+in his ranks, among others P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been
+Consul in B.C. 71, and C. Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout
+by his impetuosity and sanguinary violence. He proposed that all debts
+should be canceled, that the most wealthy citizens should be proscribed,
+and that all offices of honor and emolument should be divided among his
+associates. He confidently anticipated that he should be elected Consul
+for the next year along with C. Antonius, having formed a coalition with
+him for the purpose of excluding Cicero. The orator, however, was
+supported, not only by the Equites and Pompey's friends, but even by the
+Senate, who, though disliking a New Man, were compelled to give him
+their support in order to exclude Catiline. The consequence was that
+Cicero and Antonius were returned, the former nearly unanimously, the
+latter by a small majority over Catiline. As soon as Cicero entered upon
+his Consulship he renounced his connection with the popular party, and
+became a stanch supporter of the aristocracy. He successfully opposed an
+agrarian law proposed by the Tribune Rullus, and defended C. Rabirius,
+who was now accused by the Tribune Labienus of having been concerned in
+the death of Saturninus nearly forty years before. C&aelig;sar took an active
+part in both these proceedings. But the attention of Cicero was mainly
+directed to Catiline's conspiracy. He gained over his colleague Antonius
+by resigning to him the province of Macedonia. Meantime he became
+acquainted with every detail of the plot through Fulvia, the mistress of
+Q. Curius, one of Catiline's intimate associates. Thus informed, Cicero
+called a meeting of the Senate on the 21st of October, when he openly
+denounced Catiline, charged him broadly with treason, and asserted that
+the 28th was the period fixed for the murder of the leading men in the
+Republic. The Senate thereupon invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power. The Comitia for the election of the Consuls was now held.
+Catiline, again a candidate, was again rejected. Driven to despair by
+this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once to bring matters to a
+crisis. On the night of the 6th of November he summoned a meeting of the
+ringleaders at the house of M. Porcius L&aelig;ca, and made arrangements for
+an immediate outbreak. Cicero, being immediately informed of what took
+place, summoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the Senate in the
+Temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the first of his
+celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon his entrance
+had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon a bench from which
+every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> scarcely commenced when
+his words were drowned by the shouts of "enemy" and "parricide" which
+burst from the whole assembly, and he rushed forth with threats and
+curses on his lips. He now resolved to strike some decisive blow before
+troops could be levied to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving the chief
+control of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus, he set
+forth in the dead of night, and proceeded to join Manlius at F&aelig;sul&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th, when the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered his
+second speech, which was addressed to the people in the forum. The
+Senate proceeded to declare Catiline and Manlius public enemies, and
+decreed that Antonius should go forth to the war, while Cicero should
+remain to guard the city. Cicero was now anxious to obtain other
+evidence, besides that of Fulvia, which would warrant him in
+apprehending the conspirators within the walls. This was fortunately
+supplied by the embassadors of the Allobroges, who were now at Rome,
+having been sent to seek relief from certain real or alleged grievances.
+Their suit, however, had not prospered, and Lentulus, conceiving that
+their discontent might be made available for his own purposes, opened a
+negotiation with them and disclosed to them the nature of the plot. But
+they thought it more prudent to reveal all to Q. Fabius Sanga, the
+patron of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the
+instructions of the latter the embassadors affected great zeal in the
+undertaking, and obtained a written agreement signed by Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and others. They quitted Rome soon after midnight on the 3d of
+December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was charged with
+dispatches for Catiline. The embassadors were seized, as they were
+crossing the Mulvian bridge, by two of the Pr&aelig;tors, who had been
+stationed in ambush to intercept them.</p>
+
+<p>Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other conspirators
+to his presence. Lentulus being Pr&aelig;tor, the Consul led him by the hand
+to the Temple of Concord, where the Senate was already met; the rest of
+the accused followed closely guarded. Volturcius, finding escape
+impossible, agreed, upon his own personal safety being insured, to make
+a full confession. His statements were confirmed by the Allobroges, and
+the testimony was rendered conclusive by the signatures of the
+ringleaders, which they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and seven others being thus established, Lentulus was forced
+to abdicate his office, and then, with the rest, was consigned to the
+charge of certain Senators, who became responsible for their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>These circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated by Cicero
+in his Third Oration, delivered in the forum. On the nones (5th) of
+December the Senate was again summoned to de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>termine upon the fate of
+the conspirators. C&aelig;sar, in an elaborate speech, proposed that they
+should be kept in confinement in the different towns of Italy, but Cato
+and Cicero strongly advocated that they should be instantly put to
+death. Their views were adopted by a majority of the Senate, and a
+decree passed to that effect. On the same night Lentulus and his
+associates were strangled by the common executioner in the Tullianum, a
+loathsome dungeon on the slope of the Capitol.</p>
+
+<p>While these things were going on at Rome, Catiline had collected a force
+amounting to two legions, although not above one fourth part were fully
+equipped. When the news of the failure of the plot at Rome reached his
+camp many deserted. He thereupon attempted to cross the Apennines and
+take refuge in Cisalpine Gaul, but the passes were strictly guarded by
+Metellus Celer with three legions. Finding, therefore, that escape was
+cut off in front, while Antonius was pressing on his rear, Catiline
+determined, as a last resource, to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in
+consequence of real or pretended illness, resigned the command to M.
+Petreius, a skillful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The
+rebels fought with the fury of despair; and when Catiline saw that all
+was lost, he charged headlong into the thickest of the fight and fell
+sword in hand (B.C. 62).</p>
+
+<p>Cicero had rendered important services to the state, and enjoyed for a
+time unbounded popularity. Catulus in the Senate and Cato in the forum
+hailed him as the "Father of his Country;" thanksgivings in his name
+were voted to the gods; and all Italy joined in testifying enthusiastic
+admiration and gratitude. Cicero's elation knew no bounds; he fancied
+that his political influence was now supreme, and looked upon himself as
+a match even for Pompey. But his splendid achievement contained the germ
+of his humiliation and downfall. There could be no doubt that the
+punishment inflicted by the Senate upon Lentulus and his associates was
+a violation of the fundamental principles of the Roman Constitution,
+which declared that no citizen could be put to death until sentenced by
+the whole body of the people assembled in their Comitia, and for this
+act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was held responsible. It was in
+vain to urge that the Consuls had been armed with dictatorial power; the
+Senate, in the present instance, assuming to themselves judicial
+functions which they had no right to exercise, gave orders for the
+execution of a sentence which they had no right to pronounce. Nor were
+his enemies long in discovering this vulnerable point. On the last day
+of the year, when, according to established custom, he ascended the
+Rostra to give an account to the people of the events of his Consulship,
+Metellus Ce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>ler, one of the new Tribunes, forbade him to speak,
+exclaiming that the man who had put Roman citizens to death without
+granting them a hearing was himself unworthy to be heard. But this
+attack was premature. The audience had not yet forgotten their recent
+escape; so that, when Cicero swore with a loud voice that "he had saved
+the Republic and the city from ruin," the crowd with one voice responded
+that he had sworn truly.</p>
+
+<p>It was rumored that many other eminent men had been privy to Catiline's
+conspiracy. Among others, the names of Crassus and C&aelig;sar were most
+frequently mentioned; but the participation of either of these men in
+such an enterprise seems most improbable. The interests of Crassus were
+opposed to such an adventure; his vast wealth was employed in a variety
+of speculations which would have been ruined in a general overthrow,
+while he had not the energy or ability to seize and retain the helm in
+the confusion that would have ensued. Of C&aelig;sar's guilt there is no
+satisfactory evidence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a man
+would have leagued with such a desperate adventurer as Catiline. Cato,
+in his speech respecting the fate of the conspirators, hinted that C&aelig;sar
+wished to spare them because he was a partner of their guilt; and in the
+following year (B.C. 62), when C&aelig;sar was Pr&aelig;tor, L. Vettius, who had
+been one of Cicero's informers, openly charged him with being a party to
+the plot. Thereupon C&aelig;sar called upon Cicero to testify that he had of
+his own accord given the Consul evidence respecting the conspiracy; and
+so complete was his vindication that Vettius was thrown into prison.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image065" name="image065">
+   <img src="images/065.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Pompey."
+      title="Coin of Pompey." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Pompey.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image066" name="image066">
+   <img src="images/066.jpg"
+      alt="Julius Caesar."
+      title="Julius Caesar." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Julius C&aelig;sar.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
+B.C. 62-57.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Pompey, as we have already seen, reached Italy in B.C. 62. It was
+generally feared that he would seize the supreme power, but he soon
+calmed these apprehensions by disbanding his army immediately after
+landing at Brundusium. He did not, however, enter Rome in triumph till
+the 30th of September, B.C. 61. The triumph lasted two days, and
+surpassed in splendor every spectacle that Rome had yet seen. The
+tablets carried in the procession, on which his victories were
+emblazoned, declared that he had taken 1000 strong fortresses, 900
+towns, and 800 ships; that he had founded 39 cities; that he had raised
+the revenue of the Roman people from 59 millions to 85 millions; and
+that he had brought into the public treasury 20,000 talents. Before his
+triumphal car walked 324 captive princes.</p>
+
+<p>With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Pompey's life may
+be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed almost exclusively
+in war; but now he was called upon to play a prominent part in the civil
+commotions of the Republic&mdash;a part for which neither his natural talents
+nor his previous habits had in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> least fitted him. From the death of
+Sulla to the present time, a period of nearly twenty years, he had been
+unquestionably the first man in the Roman world, but he did not retain
+much longer this proud position, and soon discovered that the genius of
+C&aelig;sar had reduced him to a second place in the state. It would seem as
+if Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew to which party to attach
+himself. He had been appointed to the command against the pirates and
+Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded
+him with jealousy and distrust. He could not, therefore, ally himself to
+them, especially too as some of their most influential leaders, such as
+M. Crassus and L. Lucullus, were his personal enemies. At the same time
+he seems to have been indisposed to unite himself to the popular party,
+which had risen into importance during his absence in the East, and over
+which C&aelig;sar possessed unbounded influence. But the object which engaged
+the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain from the Senate a
+ratification of his acts in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he
+had promised to his veterans. In order to secure this object, he had
+purchased the Consulship for one of his officers, L. Afranius, who was
+elected with Q. Metellus for B.C. 60. But L. Afranius was a man of
+slender ability; and the Senate, glad of an opportunity to put an
+affront upon a person whom they both feared and hated, resolutely
+refused to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia. This was the unwisest
+thing they could have done. If they had known their real interests, they
+would have yielded to all Pompey's wishes, and have sought by every
+means to win him over to their side, as a counterpoise to the growing
+and more dangerous influence of C&aelig;sar. But their short-sighted policy
+threw Pompey into C&aelig;sar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall of their
+party. Pompey was resolved to fulfill the promises he had made to his
+Asiatic clients and his veteran troops.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year. He had been in
+that province for one year as Propr&aelig;tor, during which time he displayed
+that military ability which was soon to be exhibited on a still more
+conspicuous field. He subdued the mountainous tribes of Lusitania, took
+the town of Brigantium in the country of the Gall&aelig;ci, and gained many
+other advantages over the enemy. His troops saluted him as Imperator,
+and the Senate honored him by a public thanksgiving. He now laid claim
+to a triumph, and at the same time wished to become a candidate for the
+Consulship. For the latter purpose his presence in the city was
+necessary; but, as he could not enter the city without relinquishing his
+triumph, he applied to the Senate to be exempted from the usual law, and
+to become a candidate in his absence. As this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> was refused, he at once
+relinquished his triumph, entered the city, and became a candidate for
+the Consulship. He was elected without difficulty, but the aristocracy
+succeeded in associating with him in the Consulship M. Bibulus, who
+belonged to the opposite party, and who had likewise been his colleague
+in the &AElig;dileship and Pr&aelig;torship.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar now represented to Pompey the importance of detaching from the
+aristocracy M. Crassus, who, by his connections and immense wealth,
+possessed great political influence. Pompey and Crassus had for a long
+time past been deadly enemies, but they were now reconciled, and the
+three entered into an agreement to divide the power between themselves.
+This first Triumvirate, as it is called, was therefore merely a private
+arrangement between the three most powerful men at Rome, which remained
+a secret till the proceedings of C&aelig;sar in his Consulship showed that he
+was supported by a power against which it was in vain for his enemies to
+struggle.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as C&aelig;sar had entered upon his Consulship he proposed an agrarian
+law for the division of the rich Campanian land. The execution of the
+law was to be intrusted to a board of twenty commissioners. The
+opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain. Porapey and Crassus
+spoke in favor of the law; and the former declared that he would bring
+both sword and buckler against those who used the sword. On the day on
+which it was put to the vote, Bibulus and the other members of the
+aristocracy were driven out of the forum by force of arms: the law was
+carried, the commissioners appointed, and about 20,000 citizens,
+comprising, of course, a great number of Pompey's veterans, received
+allotments subsequently. Bibulus, despairing of being able to offer any
+farther resistance to C&aelig;sar, shut himself up in his own house, and did
+not appear again in public till the expiration of his Consulship.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey's acts in
+Asia, and, to cement their union more closely, gave his only daughter
+Julia in marriage to Pompey. His next step was to gain over the Equites,
+who had rendered efficient service to Cicero in his Consulship, and had
+hitherto supported the aristocratical party. An excellent opportunity
+now occurred for accomplishing this object. In their eagerness to obtain
+the farming of the public taxes in Asia, the Equites had agreed to pay
+too large a sum, and accordingly petitioned the Senate for more
+favorable terms. This, however, had been opposed by Metellus Celer,
+Cato, and others of the aristocracy; and C&aelig;sar, therefore, now carried a
+law to relieve the Equites from one third of the sum which they had
+agreed to pay. Having thus gratified the people, the Equites, and
+Pom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>pey, he was easily able to obtain for himself the provinces which he
+wished.</p>
+
+<p>It is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to C&aelig;sar to suppose
+that he already saw that the struggle between the different parties at
+Rome must eventually be terminated by the sword. The same causes were
+still in operation which had led to the civil wars between Marius and
+Sulla; and he was well aware that the aristocracy would not hesitate to
+call in the assistance of force if they should ever succeed in detaching
+Pompey from his interests. It was therefore of the first importance for
+him to obtain an army which he might attach to himself by victories and
+rewards. Accordingly, he induced the Tribune Vatinius to propose a bill
+to the people granting him the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum
+for five years (B.C. 58-54). Transalpine Gaul was shortly afterward
+added. C&aelig;sar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would thus be able to
+pass the winter in Italy and keep up his communication with the city,
+while the disturbed state of Farther Gaul promised him sufficient
+materials for engaging in a series of wars in which he might employ an
+army that would afterward be devoted to his purposes. In addition to
+these considerations, C&aelig;sar was also actuated by the ambition of
+subduing forever that nation which had once sacked Rome, and which had
+been, from the earliest times, more or less an object of dread to the
+Roman state.</p>
+
+<p>The Consuls of the following year (B.C. 58) were L. Calpurnius Piso and
+A. Gabinius. Piso was C&aelig;sar's father-in-law, and Gabinius in his
+Tribunate had proposed the law conferring upon Pompey the command
+against the pirates. C&aelig;sar saw that it was evident they would support
+whatever the Triumvirs might wish. Cicero was now threatened with
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 62, while the wife of C&aelig;sar was celebrating in the house of her
+husband, then Pr&aelig;tor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of the Bona Dea,
+from which all male creatures were excluded, it was discovered that P.
+Clodius Pulcher, a profligate noble, whom we have seen inciting the army
+of Lucullus to insurrection, had found his way into the mansion
+disguised in woman's apparel, and, having been detected, had made his
+escape by the help of a female slave. The matter was laid before the
+Senate, and by them referred to the members of the Pontifical College,
+who passed a resolution that sacrilege had been committed. C&aelig;sar
+forthwith divorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to trial.
+In defense he pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that he was at
+Interamna at the very time when the crime was said to have been
+committed; but Cicero came forward as a witness, and swore that he had
+met and spoken to Clodius in Rome on the day in question.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> In spite of
+this decisive testimony, and the evident guilt of the accused, the
+Judices pronounced him innocent by a majority of voices (B.C. 61).
+Clodius now vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To accomplish his
+purpose more readily, he determined to become a candidate for the
+Tribunate, but for this it was necessary, in the first place, that he
+should be adopted into a plebeian family by means of a special law.
+This, after protracted opposition, was at length accomplished through
+the interference of the Triumvirs, and he was elected Tribune for B.C.
+58.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was to
+propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who should be
+found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. Cicero changed his
+attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused, went round the Forum
+soliciting the compassion of all whom he met. For a brief period public
+sympathy was awakened. A large number of the Senate and the Equites
+appeared also in mourning, and the better portion of the citizens seemed
+resolved to espouse his cause. But all demonstrations of such feelings
+were promptly repressed by Piso and Gabinius. C&aelig;sar had previously made
+overtures to Cicero, which the orator, overrating his influence and
+relying upon the support of Pompey, had rejected. The Triumvirs now left
+him to his fate, and Cicero, giving way to despair, quitted Rome at the
+beginning of April (B.C. 68), and reached Brundusium about the middle of
+the month. From thence he crossed over to Greece. The instant that the
+departure of Cicero became known, a law was passed pronouncing his
+banishment, forbidding any one to entertain or harbor him, and
+denouncing as a public enemy whosoever should take any steps toward
+procuring his recall. His mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at
+Tusculum and Formi&aelig;, were at the same time given over to plunder and
+destruction. Clodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to
+consult any longer the views of the Triumvirs. He restored Tigranes to
+liberty, whom Pompey had kept in confinement, ridiculed the great
+Imperator before the people, and was accused of making an attempt upon
+his life. Pompey, in revenge, resolved to procure the recall of Cicero
+from banishment, and was thus brought again into some friendly
+connections with the aristocratical party. The new Consuls (B.C. 57)
+were favorable to Cicero; but, though Clodius was no longer in office,
+he had several partisans among the Tribunes who offered the most
+vehement opposition to the restoration of his great enemy. One of the
+chief supporters of Cicero was the Tribune T. Annius Milo, a man as
+unprincipled and violent as Clodius himself. He opposed force to force,
+and at the head of a band of gladiators attacked the hired ruffians of
+Clodius. The streets of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> Rome were the scenes of almost daily conflicts
+between the leaders of these assassins. At length the Senate, with the
+full approbation of Pompey, determined to invite the voters from the
+different parts of Italy to repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law
+for the recall of Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the bill
+was passed by an overwhelming majority. On the same day Cicero quitted
+Dyrrhachium, and crossed over to Brundusium. He received deputations and
+congratulatory addresses from all the towns on the line of the Appian
+Way; and having arrived at Rome on the 4th of September, a vast
+multitude poured forth to meet him, while the crowd rent the air with
+acclamations as he passed through the Forum and ascended the Capitol to
+render thanks to Jupiter (B.C. 57).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image067" name="image067">
+   <img src="images/067.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Hercules at Rome."
+      title="Temple of Hercules at Rome." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Hercules at Rome.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image068" name="image068">
+   <img src="images/068.jpg"
+      alt="Temple of Nemausus (Nimes), now called the Maison Carree."
+      title="Temple of Nemausus (Nimes), now called the Maison Carree." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Temple of Nemausus (<i>Nimes</i>), now called the <i>Maison Carr&eacute;e</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>C&AElig;SAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-50.</h3>
+
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar set out for his province immediately after Cicero had gone into
+exile (B.C. 58). During the next nine years he was occupied with the
+subjugation of Gaul. In this time he conquered the whole of Transalpine
+Gaul, which had hitherto been independent of the Romans, with the
+exception of the part called Provincia. Twice he crossed the Rhine, and
+carried the terror of the Roman arms beyond that river. Twice he landed
+in Britain, which had been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can only
+offer a very brief sketch of the principal events of each year.</p>
+
+<p><i>First Campaign</i>, B.C. 58.&mdash;C&aelig;sar left Rome toward the latter end of
+April, and arrived in Geneva in eight days. His first campaign was
+against the Helvetii, a Gallic people situated to the north of the Lake
+of Geneva, and between the Rhine and Mount Jura. This people, quitting
+their homes, had passed through the country of the Sequani, and were
+plundering the territories of the &AElig;dui. Three out of their four clans
+had already crossed the Arar (<i>Sa&ocirc;ne</i>); but the fourth, which was still
+on the other side of the river, was surprised by C&aelig;sar and cut to
+pieces. He then threw a bridge across the Arar, followed them cautiously
+for some days, and at length fought a pitched battle with them near the
+town of Bibracte (<i>Autun</i>). The Helvetii were defeated with great
+slaughter, and the remnant compelled to return to their former homes.</p>
+
+<p>This great victory raised C&aelig;sar's fame among the various tribes of
+Gauls, and the &AElig;dui solicited his assistance against Ariovistus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> a
+German king who had invaded Gaul, and was constantly bringing over the
+Rhine fresh swarms of Germans. C&aelig;sar commanded Ariovistus to abstain
+from introducing any more Germans into Gaul, to restore the hostages to
+the &AElig;dui, and not to attack the latter or their allies. A haughty answer
+was returned to these commands, and both parties prepared for war. C&aelig;sar
+advanced northward through the country of the Sequani, took possession
+of Vesontio (<i>Besan&ccedil;on</i>), an important town on the Dubis (<i>Doubs</i>), and
+some days afterward fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who
+suffered a total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the
+Rhine, a distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and, among the rest,
+Ariovistus himself, crossed the river; the rest were cut to pieces by
+the Roman cavalry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Campaign</i>, B.C. 57.&mdash;The following year was occupied with the
+Belgic war. Alarmed at C&aelig;sar's success, the various Belgic tribes which
+dwelt between the Sequana (<i>Seine</i>) and the Rhine, and were the most
+warlike of all the Gauls, had entered into a confederacy to oppose him,
+and had raised an army of 300,000 men. C&aelig;sar opened the campaign by
+marching into the country of the Remi, who submitted at his approach. He
+then crossed the Axona (<i>Aisne</i>), and pitched his camp in a strong
+position on the right bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of
+provisions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their vast
+army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto C&aelig;sar had remained
+in his intrenchments, but he now broke up from his quarters and resumed
+the offensive. The Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and Ambiani were subdued
+in succession, or surrendered of their own accord; but a more formidable
+task awaited him when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of all the
+Belgic tribes. In their country, near the River Sabis (<i>Sambre</i>), the
+Roman army was surprised by the enemy while engaged in fortifying the
+camp. The attack of the Nervii was so unexpected, that before the Romans
+could form in rank the enemy was in their midst: the Roman soldiers
+began to give way, and the battle seemed entirely lost. C&aelig;sar freely
+exposed his own person in the first line of the battle, and discharged
+alike the duties of a brave soldier and an able general. His exertions
+and the discipline of the Roman troops at length triumphed, and the
+Nervii were defeated with such immense slaughter, that out of 60,000
+fighting men only 500 remained in the state. When the Senate received
+the dispatches of C&aelig;sar announcing this victory, they decreed a public
+thanksgiving of fifteen days&mdash;a distinction which had never yet been
+granted to any one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Campaign</i>, B.C. 56.&mdash;In the third campaign C&aelig;sar completed the
+subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> war against the
+Veneti, the inhabitants of the modern Brittany, and, by means of his
+lieutenants, conquered the remaining tribes who still held out. In the
+later part of the summer C&aelig;sar marched against the Morini and Menapii
+(in the neighborhood of Calais and Boulogne). Thus all Gaul had been
+apparently reduced to subjection in three years; but the spirit of the
+people was yet unbroken, and they only waited for an opportunity to rise
+against their conquerors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth Campaign</i>, B.C. 55.&mdash;In the following year C&aelig;sar determined to
+attack the Germans. The Gauls had suffered too much in the last three
+campaigns to make any farther attempt against the Romans at present; but
+C&aelig;sar's ambition would not allow him to be idle. Fresh wars must be
+undertaken to employ his troops in active service. Two German tribes,
+the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, had been driven out of their own
+country by the Suevi, and had crossed the Rhine with the intention of
+settling in Gaul. This, however, C&aelig;sar was resolved to prevent, and
+accordingly prepared to attack them. The Germans opened negotiations
+with him, but, while these were going on, a body of their cavalry
+defeated C&aelig;sar's Gallic horse. On the next day all the German chiefs
+came into C&aelig;sar's camp to apologize for what they had done; but C&aelig;sar
+detained them, and straightway led his troops to attack the enemy.
+Deprived of their leaders and taken by surprise, the Germans, after a
+feeble resistance, took to flight, and were almost all destroyed by the
+Roman cavalry. After this victory C&aelig;sar resolved to cross the Rhine, in
+order to strike terror into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge
+of boats across the river, probably in the neighborhood of Cologne; and
+after spending eighteen days on the eastern side of the Rhine, and
+ravaging the country of the Sigambri, he returned to Gaul and broke down
+the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>Although the greater part of the summer was now gone, C&aelig;sar resolved to
+invade Britain. His object in undertaking this expedition at such a late
+period of the year was more to obtain some knowledge of the island from
+personal observation than with any view to permanent conquest at
+present. He accordingly took with him only two legions, with which he
+sailed from the port Itius (probably Witsand, between Calais and
+Boulogne), and effected a landing somewhere near the South Foreland,
+after a severe struggle with the natives. Several of the British tribes
+hereupon sent offers of submission to C&aelig;sar; but, in consequence of the
+loss of a great part of the Roman fleet a few days afterward, they took
+up arms again. Being, however, defeated, they again sent offers of
+submission to C&aelig;sar, who simply demanded double the number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> hostages
+he had originally required, as he was anxious to return to Gaul before
+the autumnal equinox.</p>
+
+<p>The news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant Britons was
+received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm. The Senate voted a public
+thanksgiving of twenty days, notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, who
+declared that C&aelig;sar ought to be delivered up to the Usipetes and
+Tenchtheri, to atone for his treachery in seizing the sacred persons of
+embassadors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth Campaign</i>, B.C. 54.&mdash;The greater part of C&aelig;sar's fifth campaign
+was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He sailed from the
+port Itius with an army of five legions, and landed, without opposition,
+at the same place as in the former year. The British states had
+intrusted the supreme command to Cassivellaunus, a chief whose
+territories were divided from the maritime states by the River Tamesis
+(Thames). The Britons bravely opposed the progress of the invaders, but
+were defeated in a series of engagements. C&aelig;sar crossed the Thames above
+London, probably in the neighborhood of Kingston, took the town of
+Cassivellaunus, and conquered great part of the counties of Essex and
+Middlesex. In consequence of these disasters, Cassivellaunus sued for
+peace; and after demanding hostages, and settling the tribute which
+Britain should pay yearly to the Roman people, C&aelig;sar returned to Gaul
+toward the latter part of the summer. He gained no more by his second
+invasion of Britain than by his first. He had penetrated, it is true,
+farther into the country, but had left no garrisons or military
+establishments behind him, and the people obeyed the Romans as little
+afterward as they had done before.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, C&aelig;sar was obliged
+to divide his forces, and station his legions for the winter in
+different parts. This seemed to the Gauls a favorable opportunity for
+recovering their lost independence and destroying their conquerors. The
+Eburones, a Gallic people between the Meuse and the Rhine, near the
+modern <i>Tongres</i>, destroyed the detachment under the command of T.
+Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta. They next attacked the camp
+of Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was stationed among the
+Nervii. Cicero repulsed the enemy in all their attempts, till he was at
+length relieved by C&aelig;sar in person, who came to his assistance with two
+legions as soon as he heard of the dangerous position of his legate. The
+forces of the enemy, which amounted to 60,000, were defeated by C&aelig;sar,
+who then joined Cicero, and praised him and his men for the bravery they
+had shown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth Campaign</i>, B.C. 63.&mdash;In the next year the Gauls again took up
+arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to recover<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> their
+independence. The destruction of the Roman troops under Sabinus and
+Cotta, and the unsettled state of Gaul during the winter, had led C&aelig;sar
+to apprehend a general rising of the natives; and he had accordingly
+levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and obtained one from Pompey,
+who was remaining in the neighborhood of Rome as Proconsul with the
+imperium. Being thus at the head of a powerful army, he was able to
+subdue the tribes that revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones,
+Carnutes, Menapii, and Treviri to return to obedience. But as the
+Treviri had been supported by the Germans, he crossed the Rhine again a
+little above the spot where he had passed over two years before, and,
+after receiving the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country of the
+Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid waste the country of the Eburones
+with fire and sword. At the conclusion of the campaign he prosecuted a
+strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and Carautes, and caused
+Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in the conspiracy, to be put to
+death.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh Campaign</i>, B.C. 52.&mdash;The unsuccessful issue of last year's
+revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The execution of
+Acco had frightened all the chiefs, as every one feared that his turn
+might come next; the hatred of the Roman yoke was intense; and thus all
+the materials were ready for a general conflagration. It was first
+kindled by the Carnutes, and in a short time it spread from district to
+district till almost the whole of Gaul was in flames. Even the &AElig;dui, who
+had been hitherto the faithful allies of the Romans, and had assisted
+them in all their wars, subsequently joined the general revolt. At the
+head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, a young man of noble family
+belonging to the Arverni, and by far the ablest general that C&aelig;sar had
+yet encountered. Never before had the Gauls been so united: C&aelig;sar's
+conquests of the last six years seemed to be now entirely lost. The
+campaign of this year, therefore, was by far the most arduous that C&aelig;sar
+had yet carried on; but his genius triumphed over every obstacle, and
+rendered it the most brilliant of all. He concentrated his forces with
+incredible rapidity, and lost no time in attacking the chief towns in
+the hands of the enemy. Vellaunodunum (in the country of
+<i>Ch&acirc;teau-Landon</i>), Genabum (<i>Orl&eacute;ans</i>), and Noviodunum (<i>Nouan</i>, between
+Orleans and Bourges), fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed at
+his rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded his countrymen to lay waste
+their country and destroy their towns. This plan was accordingly carried
+into effect; but, contrary to the wishes of Vercingetorix, Avaricum
+(<i>Bourges</i>), the chief town of the Bituriges, and a strongly-fortified
+place, was spared from the general destruction. This town C&aelig;sar
+accordingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> besieged, and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the
+Gauls, it was at length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, were indiscriminately butchered.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar now divided his army into two parts: one division, consisting of
+four legions, he sent, under the command of T. Labienus, against the
+Senones and Parisii; the other, comprising six legions, he led in person
+into the country of the Arverni, and with them laid siege to Gergovia
+(near <i>Clermont</i>). The revolt of the &AElig;dui shortly afterward compelled
+him to raise the siege, and inspired the Gauls with fresh courage.
+Vercingetorix retired to Alesia (<i>Alise</i>, in Burgundy), which was
+considered impregnable, and resolved to wait for succors from his
+countrymen. C&aelig;sar immediately laid siege to the place, and drew lines of
+circumvallation around it. The Romans, however, were in their turn soon
+surrounded by a vast Gallic army which had assembled to raise the siege.
+C&aelig;sar's army was thus placed in imminent peril, and on no occasion in
+his whole life was his military genius so conspicuous. He was between
+two great armies. Vercingetorix had 70,000 men in Alesia, and the Gallic
+army without consisted of between 250,000 and 300,000 men. Still he
+would not raise the siege. He prevented Vercingetorix from breaking
+through the lines, entirely routed the Gallic army without, and finally
+compelled Alesia to surrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his
+hands. The fall of Alesia was followed by the submission of the &AElig;dui and
+Arvemi. C&aelig;sar then led his troops into winter quarters. After receiving
+his dispatches, the Senate voted him a public thanksgiving of twenty
+days, as in the year B.C. 55.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth Campaign</i>, B.C. 51.&mdash;The victories of the preceding year had
+determined the fate of Gaul; but many states still remained in arms, and
+entered into fresh conspiracies during the winter. This year was
+occupied in the reduction of these states, into the particulars of which
+we need not enter. During the winter C&aelig;sar employed himself in the
+pacification of Gaul, and, as he already saw that his presence would
+soon be necessary in Italy, he was anxious to remove all causes for
+future wars. He accordingly imposed no new taxes, treated the states
+with honor and respect, and bestowed great presents upon the chiefs. The
+experience of the last two years had taught the Gauls that they had no
+hope of contending successfully against C&aelig;sar, and, as he now treated
+them with mildness, they were the more readily induced to submit
+patiently to the Roman yoke.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image069" name="image069">
+   <img src="images/069.jpg"
+      alt="Ruins on the Esquiline."
+      title="Ruins on the Esquiline." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Ruins on the Esquiline.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
+COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR.&mdash;EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. B.C.
+57-50.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Cicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though his return had
+been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely changed, and he was
+forced to yield to a power which he no longer dared to resist. He even
+lent his support to the Triumvirs, and praised in public those
+proceedings which he had once openly and loudly condemned. Meantime the
+power of Pompey had been shaken at Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung
+up between him and Crassus, and Cato and the other leaders of the
+aristocracy attacked him with the utmost vehemence. The Senate began to
+entertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined to support L.
+Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in B.C. 56, had become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the following year, and who threatened to deprive C&aelig;sar
+of his provinces and armies. Under these circumstances C&aelig;sar invited
+Pompey and Crassus to meet him at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> Luca (<i>Lucca</i>) in the spring of B.C.
+56. He reconciled them to each other, and arranged that they were to be
+Consuls for the next year, and obtain provinces and armies, while he
+himself was to have his government prolonged for another five years, and
+to receive pay for his troops. On their return to Rome, Pompey and
+Crassus became candidates for the Consulship; but Domitius Ahenobarbus,
+supported by Cato and the aristocracy, offered a most determined
+opposition. The Consul Lentulus Marcellinus likewise was resolved to use
+every means to prevent their election; and, finding it impossible to
+carry their election while Marcellinus was in office, they availed
+themselves of the veto of two of the Tribunes to prevent the Consular
+Comitia from being held this year. The elections, therefore, did not
+take place till the beginning of B.C. 55, under the presidency of an
+interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus and Cato did not relax in their
+opposition; and it was not till the armed bands of Pompey and Crassus
+had cleared the Campus Martius of their adversaries that they were
+declared Consuls for the second time (B.C. 55).</p>
+
+<p>They forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact that had been
+made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C. Trebonius to bring forward two
+bills, one of which gave the province of the two Spains to Pompey, and
+that of Syria to Crassus; the other prolonged C&aelig;sar's government for
+five years more, namely, from the 1st of January, B.C. 53, to the end of
+the year 49. Pompey was now at the head of the state; and at the
+expiration of his year of office would no longer be a private man, but
+with the command of an army and in possession of the imperium. With an
+army he felt sure of regaining his former influence. He had now
+completed the theatre which he had been some time building, and, as a
+means of regaining the popular favor, he resolved to open it with an
+exhibition of games of unparalleled splendor and magnificence. The
+building itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was the
+first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was sufficiently
+large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games exhibited lasted many
+days. Five hundred African lions and eighteen elephants were killed. A
+rhinoceros was likewise exhibited on this occasion for the first time.
+Pompey sent an army into Spain under the command of his lieutenants, L.
+Afranius and M. Petreius, while he himself remained in the neighborhood
+of Rome as Proconsul.</p>
+
+<p>Before the end of the year Crassus set out for Syria, with the intention
+of attacking the Parthians. He was anxious to distinguish himself in
+war, like Pompey and C&aelig;sar, and, though upward of sixty years of age, he
+chose rather to enter upon an undertaking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> for which he had no genius
+than to continue the pursuit of wealth and influence at home. He crossed
+the Euphrates in B.C. 54, but, hesitating to proceed at once against
+Parthia, he gave the enemy time to assemble his forces, and returned to
+Syria without accomplishing any thing of importance. He spent the winter
+in Syria, where, instead of exercising his troops and preparing for the
+ensuing campaign, he plundered the temples, and employed his time in
+collecting money from every quarter. In the following spring (B.C. 53)
+he again crossed the Euphrates, and plunged into the sandy deserts of
+Mesopotamia. He trusted to the guidance of an Arabian chieftain, who
+promised to lead him by the shortest way to the enemy. But this man was
+in the pay of Surenas, the Parthian general; and when he had brought the
+Romans into the open plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous
+pretext, and rode off to inform Surenas that the Roman army was
+delivered into his hands. The Parthians soon appeared. They worried the
+densely-marshaled Romans with showers of arrows; and by feigned
+retreats, during which they continued to discharge their arrows, they
+led the Romans into disadvantageous positions. The son of Crassus, who
+had distinguished himself as one of C&aelig;sar's lieutenants in Gaul, was
+slain, and the Romans, after suffering great loss, retreated to Carrh&aelig;,
+the Haran of Scripture. On the following day they continued their
+retreat; and Surenas, fearing that Crassus might after all make his
+escape, invited him to an interview. He was treacherously seized, and,
+in the scuffle which ensued, was slain by some unknown hand. His head
+was carried to the Parthian king Orodes, who caused melted gold to be
+poured into the mouth, saying, "Sate thyself now with that metal of
+which in life thou wert so greedy." Twenty thousand Roman troops were
+slain, and ten thousand taken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the
+most disastrous in which the Romans were ever engaged. Only a small
+portion of the Roman army escaped to Syria under the command of L.
+Cassius Longinus, afterward one of C&aelig;sar's assassins, who had displayed
+considerable ability during the war, but whose advice Crassus had
+constantly refused to follow.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Crassus left Pompey and C&aelig;sar alone at the head of the
+state, and it became evident that sooner or later a struggle would take
+place between them for the supremacy. The death of Julia, in B.C. 54, to
+whom both her father and husband were strongly attached, broke a link
+which might have united them much longer. Pompey considered that he had
+been the chief means of raising C&aelig;sar to power, and he appeared long to
+have deemed it impossible that the conqueror of Mithridates could be
+thrown into the shade by any popular leader. Such a result, however, was
+now im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>minent. C&aelig;sar's brilliant victories in Gaul were in every body's
+mouth, and Pompey saw with ill-disguised mortification that he was
+becoming the second person in the state. Though this did not lead him to
+break with C&aelig;sar at once, it made him anxious to increase his power and
+influence, and he therefore now resolved, if possible, to obtain the
+Dictatorship. He accordingly used no effort to put an end to the
+disturbances at Rome between Milo and Clodius in this year, in hopes
+that all parties would be willing to accede to his wishes in order to
+restore peace to the city. Milo was a candidate for the Consulship and
+Clodius for the Pr&aelig;torship. Each was attended by a band of hired
+ruffians; battles took place between them daily in the Forum and the
+streets; all order and government were at an end. In such a state of
+things no elections could be held, and the confusion at length became
+downright anarchy, when Milo murdered Clodius on the 20th of January in
+the following year (B.C. 52). The two rivals had met near Bovill&aelig;,
+accompanied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued. The
+party of Milo proved the stronger, and Clodius took refuge in a house.
+But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius, and having dispatched
+him, left him dead upon the road. His body was found by a Senator,
+carried to Rome, and exposed naked to the people. They were violently
+excited at the sight, and their feelings were still farther inflamed by
+the harangues of the Tribunes. The benches and tables of the
+Senate-house were seized to make a funeral pile for their favorite; and
+not only the Senate-house, but several other public buildings, were
+reduced to ashes. As the riots still continued, the Senate had no longer
+any choice but to call in the assistance of Pompey. They therefore
+commissioned him to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances.
+Pompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires, obeyed with
+alacrity; he was invested with the supreme power of the state by being
+elected sole Consul on the 25th of February; and, in order to deliver
+the city from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought forward laws against
+violence and bribery at elections. Milo was put upon his trial; the
+court was surrounded with soldiers; Cicero, who defended him, was
+intimidated, and Milo was condemned, and went into exile at
+Massilia.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Others shared the same fate, and peace was once more
+restored to the state.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey's jealousy of C&aelig;sar brought him into connection with the
+aristocratical party. After Julia's death he had married Cor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>nelia, the
+daughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his colleague on the first of
+August. His next step was to strike a blow at C&aelig;sar. He brought forward
+an old law that no one should become a candidate for a public office
+while absent, in order that C&aelig;sar might be obliged to resign his
+command, and to place himself in the power of his enemies at Rome, if he
+wished to obtain the Consulship a second time.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> But the renewal of
+this enactment was so manifestly aimed at C&aelig;sar that his friends
+insisted he should be specially exempted from it; and as Pompey was not
+yet prepared to break openly with him, he thought it more expedient to
+yield. At the same time, Pompey provided that he himself should remain
+in command of an army after his rival had ceased to have one, by
+obtaining a senatus consultum, by which his government of the Spains was
+prolonged for another five years. And, in case C&aelig;sar should obtain the
+Consulship, he caused a law to be enacted, in virtue of which no one
+could have a province till five years had elapsed from the time of his
+holding a public office. Such were the precautions adopted against
+C&aelig;sar, the uselessness of which time soon showed.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year (B.C. 51) Pompey declared himself still more
+openly on the side of the Senate; but still he shrank from supporting
+all the violent measures of the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, who
+proposed to send a successor to C&aelig;sar, on the plea that the war in Gaul
+was finished, and to deprive him of the privilege of becoming a
+candidate for the Consulship in his absence. The Consuls for the next
+year (B.C. 50), L. &AElig;milius Paullus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the
+powerful Tribune C. Curio, were all reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey
+and the Senate. C&aelig;sar, however, gained over Paullus and Curio by large
+bribes, and with a lavish hand distributed immense sums of money among
+the leading men of Rome. It was proposed in the Senate by the Consul C.
+Marcellus that C&aelig;sar should lay down his command by the 13th of
+November. But this was an unreasonable demand; C&aelig;sar's government had
+upward of another year to run; and if he had come to Rome as a private
+man to sue for the Consulship, there can be no doubt that his life would
+have been sacrificed. Cato had declared that he would bring C&aelig;sar to
+trial as soon as he laid down his command; but the trial would have been
+only a mockery, for Pompey was in the neighborhood of the city at the
+head of an army, and would have overawed the judges by his soldiery as
+at Milo's trial. The Tribune Curio consequently interposed his veto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+upon the proposition of Marcellus. The Senate, anxious to diminish the
+number of his troops, had, under pretext of a war with the Parthians,
+ordered that Pompey and C&aelig;sar should each furnish a legion to be sent
+into the East. The legion which Pompey intended to devote to this
+service was one he had lent to C&aelig;sar in B.C. 53, and which he now
+accordingly demanded back; and, although C&aelig;sar saw that he should thus
+be deprived of two legions, which would probably be employed against
+himself, he complied with the request. Upon their arrival in Italy, they
+were not sent to the East, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua.
+C&aelig;sar took up his quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province
+bordering upon Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Though war seemed inevitable, C&aelig;sar still showed himself willing to
+enter into negotiations with the aristocracy, and accordingly sent Curio
+with a letter addressed to the Senate, in which he expressed his
+readiness to resign his command if Pompey would do the same. Curio
+arrived at Rome on the 1st of January, B.C. 49, the day on which the new
+Consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus and C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon
+their office. It was with great difficulty that the Tribunes, M.
+Antonius, afterward the well-known Triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus,
+forced the Senate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent
+debate, the motion of Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, "that
+C&aelig;sar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not
+do so he should be regarded as an enemy of the state." On the 6th of
+January the Senate passed the decree investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power. Antonius and Cassius, considering their lives no
+longer safe, fled from the city in disguise to C&aelig;sar's army, and called
+upon him to protect the inviolable persons of the Tribunes. This was the
+crisis. The Senate intrusted the management of the war to Pompey,
+determined that fresh levies of troops should be held, and voted a sum
+of money from the public treasury to Pompey. Pompey all along had no
+apprehensions as to the war; he thought it impossible that C&aelig;sar should
+ever march against him; he was convinced that his great fame would cause
+a multitude of troops to flock around him whenever he wished. In
+addition to this, he had been deceived as to the disposition of C&aelig;sar's
+troops: he had been led to believe that they were ready to desert their
+general at the first opportunity. Consequently, when the war broke out,
+Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two legions which he had
+obtained from C&aelig;sar, and on the fidelity of which he could by no means
+rely.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image070" name="image070">
+   <img src="images/070.jpg"
+      alt="Marcus Brutus."
+      title="Marcus Brutus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Marcus Brutus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXV.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO C&AElig;SAR'S DEATH. B.C. 49-44.</h3>
+
+
+<p>As soon as C&aelig;sar learned at Ravenna the last resolution of the Senate,
+he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs he had sustained,
+and called upon them to support him. Finding them quite willing to
+support him, he crossed the Rubicon,<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> which separated his province
+from Italy, and occupied Ariminum, where he met with the Tribunes. He
+commenced his enterprise with only one legion, consisting of 5000
+foot-soldiers and 300 horse; but others had orders to follow him from
+Transalpine Gaul, and he was well aware of the importance of expedition,
+that the enemy might have no time to complete their preparations. Though
+it was the middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost rapidity, and
+such was the popularity of his cause in Italy, that city after city
+opened its gates to him, and his march was like a triumphal progress.
+Arretium, Pisaurum, Fanum, Ancona, Iguvium, and Auximum fell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> into his
+hands. These successes caused the utmost consternation at Rome; it was
+reported that C&aelig;sar's cavalry were already at the gates; a general panic
+seized the Senate, and they fled from the city without even taking with
+them the money from the public treasury. C&aelig;sar continued his victorious
+march through Picenum till he came to Corfinium, which M. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus held with a strong force; but, as Pompey did not march to
+his assistance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place, and fell
+himself into C&aelig;sar's hands, together with several other Senators and
+distinguished men. C&aelig;sar, with the same clemency which he displayed
+throughout the whole of the Civil War, dismissed them all uninjured. He
+then hastened southward in pursuit of Pompey, who had now resolved to
+abandon Italy. He reached Brundusium before C&aelig;sar, but had not sailed
+when the latter arrived before the town. C&aelig;sar straightway laid siege to
+the place, but Pompey abandoned it on the 17th of March, and embarked
+for Greece. C&aelig;sar was unable to follow him for want of ships. He
+accordingly marched back from Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having
+thus in three months become the master of the whole of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The only opposition which C&aelig;sar met with in Rome was from L. Metellus
+the Tribune, who attempted to prevent him from entering the public
+treasury, though the people had given him permission to take from it as
+much money as he pleased. "Stand aside, young man," said C&aelig;sar; "it is
+easier for me to do than to say." After remaining in the neighborhood of
+Rome for a short time, he set out for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in
+charge of the city, and M. Antonius in command of the troops in Italy.
+He sent Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to take
+possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to occupy Illyricum. Curio and
+Valerius obtained possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposition;
+and the former then passed over into Africa, which was in possession of
+the Pompeian party. Here, however, he encountered strong opposition, and
+at length was defeated, and lost his life in a battle with Juba, king of
+Mauretania, who supported P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
+Antonius also met with ill success in Illyricum, for his army was
+defeated, and he himself taken prisoner. These disasters were more than
+counterbalanced by C&aelig;sar's victories in the mean time in Spain. Leaving
+Rome about the middle of April, he found, on his arrival in Gaul, that
+Massilia refused to submit to him. He besieged the place forthwith, but,
+unable to take it immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D. Brutus, with
+part of his troops, to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to
+Spain. On the approach of C&aelig;sar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, the
+lieutenants of Pompey in Spain, united their forces, and took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> up a
+strong position near the town of Ilerda (<i>Lerida</i>, in Catalonia), on the
+right bank of the Sicoris (<i>Segre</i>). After experiencing great
+difficulties at first and some reverses, C&aelig;sar at length reduced
+Afranius and Petreius to such straits that they were obliged to
+surrender. They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their
+troops disbanded, and the remainder incorporated among C&aelig;sar's troops.
+The conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, who commanded two
+legions in the Farther Province; but, after the victory over Afranius
+and Petreius, there was no army in Spain capable of offering resistance,
+and Varro accordingly surrendered to C&aelig;sar on his arrival at Corduba
+(<i>Cordova</i>). Having thus subdued all Spain in forty days, he returned to
+Gaul. Massilia had not yet yielded; but the siege had been prosecuted
+with so much vigor, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender the
+town soon after he appeared before the walls.</p>
+
+<p>During his absence in Spain C&aelig;sar was appointed Dictator by the Pr&aelig;tor
+M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so by a law passed for the
+purpose. On his return to Rome C&aelig;sar assumed the new dignity, but laid
+it down again at the end of eleven days, after holding the Consular
+Comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia were elected Consuls
+for the next year. But during these eleven days he caused some very
+important laws to be passed. The first was intended to relieve debtors,
+but at the same time to protect, to a great extent, the rights of
+creditors. He next restored all exiles; and, finally, he conferred the
+full citizenship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held only the
+Latin franchise.</p>
+
+<p>After laying down the Dictatorship, C&aelig;sar went in December to
+Brundusium, where he had previously ordered his troops to assemble. He
+had lost many men in the long march from Spain, and also from sickness
+arising from their passing the autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey
+during the summer had raised a large force in Greece, Egypt, and the
+East, the scene of his former glory. He had collected an army consisting
+of nine legions of Roman citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
+infantry; and his forces far surpassed in number those which C&aelig;sar had
+assembled at Brundusium. Moreover, Pompey's fleet, under the command of
+Bibulus, C&aelig;sar's colleague in his first Consulship, completely commanded
+the sea. Still C&aelig;sar ventured to set sail from Brundusium on the 4th of
+January, and he arrived the next day in safety on the coast of Epirus.
+In consequence, however, of the small number of his ships, he was able
+to carry over only seven legions, which, from the causes previously
+mentioned, had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot and 500
+horse. After landing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> this force he sent back his ships to bring over
+the remainder; but part of the fleet was intercepted in its return by M.
+Bibulus, who kept up such a strict watch along the coast that the rest
+of C&aelig;sar's army was obliged for the present to remain at Brundusium.
+C&aelig;sar was thus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy's
+country, and cut off from the rest of his army; but he knew that he
+could thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
+acting on the offensive. After gaining possession of Oricum and
+Apollonia, he hastened northward, in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium,
+where all Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by rapid marches,
+reached this town before him, and both armies then encamped opposite to
+each other, Pompey on the right, and C&aelig;sar on the left bank of the River
+Apsus. C&aelig;sar was now greatly in want of re-enforcements, and such was
+his impatience that he attempted to sail across the Adriatic in a small
+boat. The waves ran so high that the sailors wanted to turn back, till
+C&aelig;sar discovered himself, telling them that they earned C&aelig;sar and his
+fortunes. They then toiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to
+return, and with difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece.
+Shortly afterward M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the remainder
+of the army. Pompey meantime had retired to some high ground near
+Dyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a battle with C&aelig;sar's
+veterans, C&aelig;sar began to blockade him in his position, and to draw lines
+of circumvallation of an extraordinary extent. They were nearly
+completed when Pompey forced a passage through them, and drove back
+C&aelig;sar's legions with considerable loss. C&aelig;sar thus found himself
+compelled to retreat from his present position, and accordingly
+commenced his march for Thessaly. Pompey's policy of avoiding a general
+engagement with C&aelig;sar's veterans till he could place more reliance upon
+his own troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto crowned
+with success; but he was prevented from carrying out the prudent plan
+which he had formed for conducting the campaign. His camp was filled
+with a multitude of Roman nobles, unacquainted with war, and anxious to
+return to their estates in Italy and to the luxuries of the capital. His
+unwillingness to fight was set down to love of power and anxiety to keep
+the Senate in subjection. Stung with the reproaches with which he was
+assailed, and elated in some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he
+resolved to bring the contest to an issue. Accordingly, he offered
+battle to C&aelig;sar in the plain of Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly.
+The numbers on either side were very unequal: Pompey had 45,000
+foot-soldiers and 7000 horse, C&aelig;sar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse.
+The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August, B.C. 48, ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>cording
+to the old calendar,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> ended in the total defeat of Pompey's army.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of Pompey and the Republic.
+Pompey was at once driven to despair. He made no attempt to rally his
+forces, though he might still have collected a considerable army; but,
+regarding every thing as lost, he hurried to the sea-coast with a few
+friends. He embarked on board a merchant-ship at the mouth of the River
+Peneus, and first sailed to Lesbos, where he took on board his wife
+Cornelia, and from thence made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek
+refuge in Egypt, as he had been the means of restoring to his kingdom
+Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian monarch. On his death
+in B.C. 51 Ptolemy Auletes had left directions that his son should reign
+jointly with his elder sister Cleopatra. But their joint reign did not
+last long, for Ptolemy, or, rather, Pothinus and Achillas, his chief
+advisers, expelled his sister from the throne. Cleopatra collected a
+force in Syria, with which she invaded Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy
+were encamped opposite her, near Alexandria, when Pompey arrived off the
+coast and craved the protection of the young king. This request threw
+Pothinus and Achillas into great difficulty, for there were many of
+Pompey's old soldiers in the Egyptian army, and they feared he would
+become master of Egypt. They therefore determined to put him to death.
+Accordingly, they sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three
+or four attendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends
+watched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he would be
+received by the king, who was standing on the edge of the sea with his
+troops. Just as the boat reached the shore, and Pompey was in the act of
+rising from his seat in order to step on land, he was stabbed in the
+back by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his centurions. Achillas
+and the rest then drew their swords; whereupon Pompey, without uttering
+a word, covered his face with his toga, and calmly submitted to his
+fate. He had just completed his 58th year. His head was cut off, and his
+body, which was cast naked upon the shore, was buried by his freedman
+Philippus, who had accompanied him from the ship. The head was brought
+to C&aelig;sar when he arrived in Egypt soon afterward, but he turned away
+from the sight, shed tears at the untimely end of his rival, and put his
+murderers to death.</p>
+
+<p>When news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various laws were
+passed which conferred supreme power upon C&aelig;sar. Though absent, he was
+nominated Dictator a second time, and for a whole year. He appointed M.
+Antonius his master of the Horse;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> and entered upon the office in
+September of this year (B.C. 48). He was also nominated to the
+Consulship for the next five years, though he did not avail himself of
+this privilege; and he was invested with the tribunicial power for life.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar went to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival there he
+became involved in a war, which detained him several months, and gave
+the remains of the Pompeian party time to rally and to make fresh
+preparations for continuing the struggle. The war in Egypt, usually
+called the Alexandrine War, arose from C&aelig;sar's resolving to settle the
+disputes respecting the succession to the kingdom. He determined that
+Cleopatra, whose fascinations completely won his heart, and her brother
+Ptolemy, should reign in common, according to the provisions of their
+father's will; but as this decision was opposed by the guardians of the
+young king, a war broke out between them and C&aelig;sar, in which he was for
+some time exposed to great danger on account of the small number of his
+troops. But, having received re-enforcements, he finally prevailed, and
+placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne, the elder having
+perished in the course of the contest. Cleopatra afterward joined C&aelig;sar
+at Rome, and bore him a son named C&aelig;sarion.</p>
+
+<p>After bringing the Alexandrine War to a close, toward the end of March,
+B.C. 47, C&aelig;sar marched through Syria into Pontus in order to attack
+Pharnaces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who had defeated Cn.
+Domitius Calvinus, one of C&aelig;sar's lieutenants. This war, however, did
+not detain him long; for Pharnaces, venturing to come to an open battle
+with the Dictator, was utterly defeated on the 2d of August near Zela.
+It was in reference to this victory that C&aelig;sar sent the celebrated
+laconic dispatch to the Senate, <i>Veni, vidi, vici</i>, "I came, I saw, I
+conquered." He then proceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed
+Dictator for another year, and nominated M. &AElig;milius Lepidus his Master
+of the Horse. At the same time he quelled a formidable mutiny of his
+troops which had broken out in Campania.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar did not remain in Rome more than two or three months. With his
+usual activity and energy he set out to Africa before the end of the
+year (B.C. 47), in order to carry on the war against Scipio and Cato,
+who had collected a large army in that country. Their forces were far
+greater than those which C&aelig;sar could bring against them; but he had too
+much reliance on his own genius to be alarmed by mere disparity of
+numbers. At first he was in considerable difficulties; but, having been
+joined by some of his other legions, he was able to prosecute the
+campaign with more vigor, and finally brought it to a close by the
+battle of Thapsus, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> 6th of April, B.C. 46, in which the Pompeian
+army was completely defeated. All Africa now submitted to C&aelig;sar with the
+exception of Utica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that
+resistance was hopeless; and Cato, who was a sincere Republican,
+resolved to die rather than submit to C&aelig;sar's despotism. After spending
+the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's <i>Ph&aelig;do</i>, a dialogue on
+the immortality of the soul, he stabbed himself. His friends, hearing
+him fall, ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, while he was fainting,
+dressed his wounds. When, however, he recovered feeling, he tore off the
+bandages, and so died.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar returned to Rome by the end of July. He was now undisputed master
+of the Roman world. Great apprehensions were entertained by his enemies
+lest, notwithstanding his former clemency, he should imitate Marius and
+Sulla, and proscribe all his opponents. But these fears were perfectly
+groundless. A love of cruelty was no part of C&aelig;sar's nature; and, with a
+magnanimity which victors rarely show, and least of all those in civil
+wars, he freely forgave all who had borne arms against him, and declared
+that he should make no difference between Pompeians and C&aelig;sarians. His
+object was now to allay animosities, and to secure the lives and
+property of all the citizens of his empire. As soon as the news of his
+African victory reached Rome a public thanksgiving of forty days was
+decreed in his honor; the Dictatorship was bestowed upon him for ten
+years; and the Censorship, under the new title of "Pr&aelig;fectus Morum," for
+three years. C&aelig;sar had never yet enjoyed a triumph; and, as he had now
+no farther enemies to meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of
+celebrating his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four
+magnificent triumphs. None of these, however, were in honor of his
+successes in the civil war; and consequently his African triumph was to
+commemorate his victory over Juba, and not over Scipio and Cato. These
+triumphs were followed by largesses of corn and money to the people and
+the soldiers, by public banquets, and all sorts of entertainments.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had crept into
+the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws suitable to the
+altered condition of the commonwealth. He attempted, by severe sumptuary
+laws, to restrain the extravagance which pervaded all classes of
+society. But the most important of his changes this year (B.C. 40) was
+the reformation of the Calendar, which was a real benefit to his country
+and the civilized world, and which he accomplished in his character as
+Pontifex Maximus. The regulation of the Roman calendar had always been
+intrusted to the College of Pontiffs, who had been accustomed to
+lengthen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> or shorten the year at their pleasure for political purposes;
+and the confusion had at length become so great that the Roman year was
+three months behind the real time. To remedy this serious evil, C&aelig;sar
+added 90 days to the current year, and thus made it consist of 445 days;
+and he guarded against a repetition of similar errors for the future by
+adapting the year to the sun's course.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of these labors C&aelig;sar was interrupted by intelligence of a
+formidable insurrection which had broken out in Spain, where the remains
+of the Pompeian party had again collected a large army under the command
+of Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus. C&aelig;sar set out for Spain at the end
+of B.C. 46. With his usual activity he arrived at Obulco, near Corduba,
+in 27 days from the time of his leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to
+offer stronger opposition than he had anticipated; but he brought the
+war to a close by the battle of Munda, on the 17th of March, B.C. 46, in
+which he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, a hard-fought
+battle: C&aelig;sar's troops were at first driven back, and were only rallied
+by their general's exposing his own person, like a common soldier, in
+the front line of the battle. Cn. Pompeius was killed shortly afterward,
+but Sextus made good his escape. The settlement of the affairs in Spain
+detained C&aelig;sar in the province some months longer, and he consequently
+did not reach Rome till September. At the beginning of October he
+entered the city in triumph on account of his victories in Spain,
+although the victory had been gained over Roman citizens. The Senate
+received him with the most servile flattery. They had in his absence
+voted a public thanksgiving of fifty days, and they now vied with each
+other in paying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was to wear,
+on all public occasions, the triumphal robe; he was to receive the title
+of "Father of his Country;" statues of him were to be placed in all the
+temples; his portrait was to be struck on coins; the month of Quintilis
+was to receive the name of Julius in his honor, and he was to be raised
+to a rank among the gods. But there were still more important decrees
+than these, which were intended to legalize his power, and confer upon
+him the whole government of the Roman world. He received the title of
+Imperator for life; he was nominated Consul for the next ten years, and
+both Dictator and Pr&aelig;fectus Morum for life; his person was declared
+sacred; a guard of Senators and Knights was appointed to protect him,
+and the whole Senate took an oath to watch over his safety.</p>
+
+<p>If we now look at the way in which C&aelig;sar exerted his sovereign power, it
+can not be denied that he used it in the main for the good of his
+country. He still pursued his former merciful course: no proscriptions
+or executions took place; and he began to revolve vast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> schemes for the
+benefit of the Roman world. At the same time he was obliged to reward
+his followers, and for that reason he greatly increased the number of
+senators and magistrates, so that there were 16 Pr&aelig;tors, 40 Qu&aelig;stors,
+and 6 &AElig;diles, and new members were added to the priestly colleges. Among
+other plans of internal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest of
+all the Roman laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine
+marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia and to dig a canal through the
+isthmus of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman Empire, he
+meditated expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous tribes on
+the Danube, and had already begun to make preparations for his departure
+to the East. In the midst of these vast projects he entered upon the
+last year of his life, B.C. 44, and his fifth Consulship and
+Dictatorship. He had made M. Antonius his colleague in the Consulship,
+and M. Lepidus the Master of the Horse. He had for some time past
+resolved to preserve the supreme power in his family; and, as he had no
+legitimate children, he had fixed upon his great-nephew Octavius
+(afterward the Emperor Augustus) as his successor. Possessing royal
+power, he now wished to obtain the title of king, and accordingly
+prevailed upon his colleague Antonius to offer him the diadem in public
+on the festival of the Lupercalia (the 15th of February). But the very
+name of king had long been hateful at Rome; and the people displayed
+such an evident dislike to the proposal that it was dropped for the
+present.</p>
+
+<p>The conspiracy against C&aelig;sar's life had been formed as early as the
+beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by C. Cassius Longinus, a
+personal enemy of C&aelig;sar's, and more than sixty persons were privy to it.
+Private hatred alone seems to have been the motive of Cassius, and
+probably of several others. Many of them had taken an active part in the
+war against C&aelig;sar, and had not only been forgiven by him, but raised to
+offices of rank and honor. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, who had
+been pardoned by C&aelig;sar after the battle of Pharsalia, and had since been
+treated almost as his son. In this very year C&aelig;sar had made him Pr&aelig;tor,
+and held out to him the prospect of the Consulship. Brutus, like Cato,
+seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cassius persuaded him to
+join the conspiracy, and imitate his great ancestor who freed them from
+the Tarquins. It was now arranged to assassinate the Dictator in the
+Senate-house on the Ides or 15th of March. Rumors of the plot got
+abroad, and C&aelig;sar was strongly urged not to attend the Senate. But he
+disregarded the warnings which were given him. As he entered, the Senate
+rose to do him honor; and when he had taken his seat, the conspirators
+pressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> around him as if to support the prayer of Tillius Cimber, who
+entreated the Dictator to recall his brother from banishment. When C&aelig;sar
+began to show displeasure at their importunity, Tillius seized him by
+his toga, which was the signal for attack. Casca struck the first blow,
+and the other conspirators bared their weapons. C&aelig;sar defended himself
+till he saw Brutus had drawn his sword, and then exclaiming, "And thou,
+too, Brutus!" he drew his toga over his head, and fell pierced with
+three-and-twenty wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image071" name="image071">
+   <img src="images/071.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Julius Caesar."
+      title="Coin of Julius Caesar." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Julius C&aelig;sar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only to the Roman people, but
+the whole civilized world. The Republic was utterly lost. The Roman
+world was now called to go through many years of disorder and bloodshed,
+till it rested again under the supremacy of Augustus. The last days of
+the Republic had come, and its only hope of peace and security was under
+the strong hand of military power.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. His personal
+appearance was noble and commanding; he was tall in stature, of a fair
+complexion, and with black eyes full of expression. He never wore a
+beard, and in the latter part of his life his head was bald. His
+constitution was originally delicate, and he was twice attacked by
+epilepsy while transacting public business; but, by constant exercise
+and abstemious living, he had acquired strong and vigorous health, and
+could endure almost any amount of exertion. He took pains with his
+person, and was considered to be effeminate in his dress.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at one and the
+same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, a
+poet, a historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an architect. He
+was equally fitted to excel in every thing, and has given proofs that he
+would have surpassed almost all other men in any subject to which he
+devoted the energies of his extraordinary mind. One fact places his
+genius for war in a most striking light. Till his 40th year, when he
+went as Propr&aelig;tor into Spain, he had been almost entirely engaged in
+civil life and his military expe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>rience must have been of the most
+limited kind. Most of the greatest generals in the history of the world
+have been distinguished at an early age: Alexander the Great, Hannibal,
+Frederick of Prussia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some of their most
+brilliant victories under the age of 30; but C&aelig;sar, from the age of 23
+to 40, had seen nothing of war, and, notwithstanding, appears all at
+once as one of the greatest generals that the world has ever seen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image072" name="image072">
+   <img src="images/072.jpg"
+      alt="Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga."
+      title="Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image073" name="image073">
+   <img src="images/073.jpg"
+      alt="M. Antonius."
+      title="M. Antonius." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">M. Antonius.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE DEATH OF C&AElig;SAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.</h3>
+
+
+<p>When the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and the other
+conspirators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had killed the
+Tyrant, and calling the people to join them; but they met with no
+response, and, finding alone averted looks, they retired to the Capitol.
+Here they were joined by Cicero, who had not been privy to the
+conspiracy, but was now one of the first to justify the murder. Meantime
+the friends of C&aelig;sar were not idle. M. Lepidus, the Master of the Horse,
+who was in the neighborhood of the city, marched into the Campus Martius
+in the night; and M. Antony hastened to the house of the Dictator, and
+took possession of his papers and treasures. But both parties feared to
+come to blows. A compromise was agreed to; and at a meeting of the
+Senate it was determined that C&aelig;sar's murderers should not be punished,
+but, on the other hand, that all his regulations should remain in force,
+that the provisions of his will should be carried into effect, and that
+he should be honored with a public funeral. The con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>spirators descended
+from the Capitol; and, as a proof of reconciliation, Cassius supped with
+Antony and Brutus with Lepidus.</p>
+
+<p>This reconciliation was only a pretense. Antony aspired to succeed to
+the power of the Dictator; and, to rouse the popular fury against the
+conspirators, C&aelig;sar's will was immediately made public. He left as his
+heir his great-nephew Octavius, a youth of 18, the son of Atia, the
+daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed considerable legacies to his
+murderers. He gave his magnificent gardens beyond the Tiber to the
+public, and to every Roman citizen he bequeathed the sum of 300
+sesterces (between &pound;2 and &pound;8 sterling). When this became known a deep
+feeling of sorrow for the untimely fate of their benefactor seized the
+minds of the people. Their feelings were raised to the highest point two
+or three days afterward, when the funeral took place. The body was to be
+burned in the Campus Martius, but it was previously carried to the
+forum, where Antony, according to custom, pronounced the funeral oration
+over it. After relating the exploits of the great Dictator, reciting his
+will, and describing his terrible death, he lifted up the blood-stained
+robe which C&aelig;sar had worn in the Senate-house, and which had hitherto
+covered the corpse, and pointed out the numerous wounds which disfigured
+the body. At this sight a yell of indignation was raised, and the mob
+rushed in every direction to tear the murderers to pieces. The
+conspirators fled for their lives from the city. The poet Helvius Cinna,
+being mistaken for the Pr&aelig;tor Cinna, one of the assassins, was
+sacrificed on the spot before the mistake could be explained.</p>
+
+<p>Antony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of C&aelig;sar's papers, he
+was able to plead the authority of the Dictator for every thing which he
+pleased. The conspirators hastened to take possession of the provinces
+which C&aelig;sar had assigned to them. Dec. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine
+Gaul, M. Brutus to Macedonia, and Cassius to Syria. Antony now made a
+disposition of the provinces, taking Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and
+giving Macedonia to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to Dolabella.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius was at Apollonia,
+a town on the coast of Illyricum, at the time of his uncle's death.
+C&aelig;sar had determined to take his nephew with him in his expedition
+against the Parthians, and had accordingly sent him to Apollonia, where
+a camp had been formed, that he might pursue his military studies. The
+soldiers now offered to follow him to Italy and avenge their leader's
+death, but he did not yet venture to take this decisive step. He
+determined, however, to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few
+friends. Upon arriving at Brundusium he heard of the will of the
+Dictator, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> was saluted by the soldiers as C&aelig;sar. As the adopted heir
+of his uncle his proper name was now C. Julius C&aelig;sar Octavianus, and by
+the last of these names we shall henceforth call him. He now made up his
+mind to proceed to Rome and claim his uncle's inheritance, in opposition
+to the advice of his mother, who dreaded this dangerous honor for her
+son. Upon arriving at Rome he declared before the Pr&aelig;tor, in the usual
+manner, that he accepted the inheritance, and he then promised the
+people to pay the money bequeathed to them. He even ventured to claim of
+Antony the treasures of his uncle; but, as the latter refused to give
+them up, he sold the other property, and even his own estates, to
+discharge all the legacies. Antony threw every obstacle in his way; but
+the very name of C&aelig;sar worked wonders, and the liberality of the young
+man gained the hearts of the people. He had, indeed, a difficult part to
+play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle; and yet Antony,
+their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous foe. In these
+difficult circumstances the youth displayed a prudence and a wisdom
+which baffled the most experienced politicians. Without committing
+himself to any party, he professed a warm attachment to the Senate.
+Cicero had once more taken an active part in public affairs; and
+Octavian, with that dissimulation which he practiced throughout his
+life, completely deceived the veteran orator. On the 2d of September
+Cicero delivered in the Senate the first of his orations against Antony,
+which, in imitation of those of Demosthenes against Philip, are known by
+the name of the <i>Philippics</i>. Antony was absent at the time, but shortly
+afterward attacked the orator in unmeasured terms. Cicero replied in the
+Second Philippic, one of the most violent invectives ever written. It
+was not spoken, but was published soon after Antony had quitted Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the disposition of
+the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a considerable number of
+troops in various parts of Italy. Antony saw that the power was slipping
+from under his feet. Two of the legions which he had sent from Epirus
+passed over to Octavian; and, in order to keep the remainder under his
+standard, and to secure the north of Italy to his interests, Antony now
+proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, which had been previously granted to him by
+the Senate. Upon entering the province toward the end of November, Dec.
+Brutus threw himself into Mutina (<i>Modena</i>), to which Antony laid siege.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Antony's departure Cicero prevailed upon the Senate to
+declare Antony a public enemy, and to intrust to the young Octavian the
+conduct of the war against him. Cicero was now at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> height of his
+glory. His activity was unceasing, and in the twelve remaining
+"Philippics" he encouraged the Senate and the people to prosecute the
+war with vigor. The two new Consuls (B.C. 48) were A. Hirtius and C.
+Vibius Pansa, both of whom had been designated by the late Dictator. As
+soon as they had entered upon their office, Hirtius, accompanied by
+Octavian, marched into Cisalpine Gaul, while Pansa remained in the city
+to levy troops. For some weeks no movement of importance took place in
+either army; but when Pansa set out to join his colleague and Octavian,
+Antony marched southward, attacked him at Forum Gallorum, near Bononia
+(<i>Bologna</i>), and gained a victory over him (April 14). Pansa was
+mortally wounded; but Hirtius retrieved this disaster by suddenly
+attacking Antony the same evening on his return to the camp at Mutina. A
+few days afterward (April 27th) a more decisive battle took place before
+Mutina. Antony was defeated with great loss, but Hirtius fell in leading
+an assault on the besiegers' camp. The death of the two Consuls left
+Octavian the sole command; and so timely was their removal that he was
+accused by many of murdering them.</p>
+
+<p>Antony now found it impossible to continue the siege of Mutina, but he
+retreated in good order northward, crossed the Alps, and was well
+received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, who had promised him support.
+Meantime the good understanding between Octavian and the Senate had come
+to an end. The latter, being resolved to prevent him from obtaining any
+farther power, gave the command of the Consular armies to D. Brutus; and
+Cicero talked of removing the boy. But the "boy" soon showed the Senate
+that he was their master. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who
+gladly followed the heir of C&aelig;sar to Rome. Though only 20 years of age,
+he demanded of the Senate the Consulship. At first they attempted to
+evade his demand; but his soldiers were encamped in the Campus Martius,
+and in the month of August he was elected Consul with his cousin Q.
+Pedius. The first act of his Consulship showed that he had completely
+broken with the Senate. His colleague proposed a law declaring all the
+murderers of C&aelig;sar to be outlaws. Octavian then quitted Rome to march
+professedly against Antony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city; but it
+soon appeared that he had come to an understanding with Antony, for he
+had hardly entered Etruria before the unwilling Senate were compelled,
+upon the proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of outlawry against
+Antony and Lepidus. These two were now descending the Alps at the head
+of 17 legions. Octavian was advancing northward with a formidable army.
+Between two such forces the situation of D. Brutus was hopeless. He was
+deserted by his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending to cross
+over to Macedonia, but was put to death in the former place by order of
+Antony.</p>
+
+<p>Lepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian, now arranged
+a meeting between them on a small island near Bononia, formed by the
+waters of the River Rhenus, a tributary of the Po. The interview took
+place near the end of November. It was arranged that the government of
+the Roman world should be divided between the three for a period of five
+years, under the title of "Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the
+Republic."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Octavian received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa; Antony
+the two Gauls, with the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with
+Spain, was assigned to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to prosecute
+the war against Brutus and Cassius, who were in possession of the
+eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive the Consulship for the
+following year, with the charge of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla by drawing
+up a Proscription&mdash;a list of persons whose lives were to be sacrificed
+and property confiscated. But they had not Sulla's excuse. He returned
+to Italy exasperated to the highest degree by the murder of his friends
+and the personal insults he had received. The Triumvirs, out of a
+cold-blooded policy, resolved to remove every one whose opposition they
+feared or whose property they coveted. In drawing up the fatal list,
+they sacrificed without scruple their nearest relatives and friends. To
+please Antony, Octavian gave up Cicero; Antony, in return, surrendered
+his own uncle, L. C&aelig;sar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus.
+As many as 300 Senators and 2000 Equites were entered on the lists.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the Triumvirs had made their secret arrangements they marched
+toward Rome. Hitherto they had published the names of only 17 of the
+Proscribed; but the city was in a state of the utmost alarm, and it was
+with difficulty that Pedius could preserve the peace. So great were his
+anxiety and fatigue that he died the night before the entry of the
+Triumvirs into the city. They marched into Rome at the head of their
+legions, and filled all the public places with their soldiery. No
+attempt at resistance was made. A law was proposed and carried
+conferring upon the Triumvirs the title and powers they had assumed. The
+work of butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of the Proscribed
+were then published, each more numerous than the former. The soldiers
+hunted after the victims, cut off their heads, and brought them to the
+authorities to prove their claims to the blood-money. Slaves were
+rewarded for betraying their masters, and whoever har<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>bored any of the
+Proscribed was punished with death. Terror reigned throughout Italy. No
+one knew whose turn would come next.</p>
+
+<p>Cicero was included in the first 17 victims of the Proscription. He was
+residing in his Tusculan villa with his brother Quintus, who urged him
+to escape to Brutus in Macedonia. They reached Astura, a small island
+off Antium, when Quintus ventured to Rome to obtain a supply of money,
+of which they were in need. Here he was apprehended, together with his
+son, and both were put to death. The orator again embarked, and coasted
+along to Formi&aelig;, where he landed at his villa, resolving no longer to
+fly from his fate. After spending a night in his own house, his
+attendants, hearing that the soldiers were close at hand, forced him to
+enter a litter, and hurried him through the woods toward the shore,
+distant a mile from his house. As they were passing onward they were
+overtaken by their pursuers, and were preparing to defend their master
+with their lives; but Cicero commanded them to desist, and, stretching
+his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to strike. They
+instantly cut off his head and hands, which were carried to Rome.
+Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the wife of Antony, gloated her
+eyes with the sight, and even thrust a hair-pin through his tongue.
+Antony ordered the head to be nailed to the Rostra, which had so often
+witnessed the triumphs of the orator. Thus died Cicero, in the 64th year
+of his age. He had not sufficient firmness of character to cope with the
+turbulent times in which his lot was cast, but as a man he deserves our
+admiration and love. In the midst of almost universal corruption he
+remained uncontaminated. He was an affectionate father, a faithful
+friend, and a kind master.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge with Sextus
+Pompey in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in the East. After the
+death of C&aelig;sar, the Senate appointed Sextus Pompey to the command of the
+Republican fleet. He had become master of Sicily; his fleet commanded
+the Mediterranean; and Rome began to suffer from want of its usual
+supplies of corn. It was arranged that Octavian should attempt the
+conquest of Sicily, while Antony was preparing for the campaign in the
+East. A fleet under Salvidienus Rufus was sent against Pompey, but was
+defeated by the latter in the Straits of Sicily, in sight of Octavian.
+But the war against Brutus and Cassius was more urgent, and accordingly
+Octavian and Antony sailed shortly afterward to the East, leaving Pompey
+undisputed master of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>On quitting Italy, Brutus had first gone to Athens. The remains of the
+Pompeian legions, which continued in Greece after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> the battle of
+Pharsalia, gathered round him; Hortensius, the governor of Macedonia,
+acknowledged him as his successor; and C. Antonius, whom his brother had
+sent over to take the command of the province, was obliged to surrender
+to Brutus.</p>
+
+<p>His colleague had been equally fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, to whom
+Antony had given this province, was besieged in Laodicea by Cassius, and
+put an end to his own life.</p>
+
+<p>These events took place in B.C. 43. Brutus and Cassius were now masters
+of the Roman world east of the Adriatic. It was evident that their
+enemies before long would cross over into Greece; but, instead of
+concentrating their forces in that country, they began to plunder the
+cities of Asia Minor, in order to obtain money for their troops. Brutus
+pillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The inhabitants of the Lycian town
+of Xanthus refused to submit to the exactions of Brutus, made an heroic
+defense when they were attacked, and preferred to perish in the flames
+of their city rather than to yield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged
+when the news of the Triumvirate and the Proscription reached them; but
+they continued some time longer plundering in the East, and it was not
+till the spring of B.C. 42 that the Republican chiefs at length
+assembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march into Europe. So
+much time, however, had now been lost, that Antony and Octavian landed
+upon the coast of Greece, and had already commenced their march toward
+Macedonia before Brutus and Cassius had quitted Asia.</p>
+
+<p>Brutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching struggle.
+He continued his studious habits during the campaign, and limited his
+sleep to a very short time. On the night before his army crossed over
+into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the lamp burning dim, and the
+whole camp in deep silence, when he saw a gigantic and terrible figure
+standing by him. He had the courage to ask, "Who art thou, and for what
+purpose dost thou come?" The phantom replied, "I am thy evil genius,
+Brutus; we shall meet again at Philippi!" and vanished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image074" name="image074">
+   <img src="images/074.jpg"
+      alt="Philippi."
+      title="Philippi." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Philippi.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Brutus and Cassius marched through Thrace and Macedonia to Philippi,
+where they met the army of the Triumvirs. The Republican leaders took up
+their positions on two heights distant a mile from each other, Brutus
+pitching his camp on the northern, and Cassius on the southern, near the
+sea. The camps, though separate, were inclosed with a common
+intrenchment, and midway between them was the pass which led like a gate
+from Europe to Asia. The Triumvirs were on the lower ground, in a less
+favorable position&mdash;Octavian opposite Brutus, and Antony opposite
+Cassius. Their troops began to suffer from want of provisions, and they
+en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>deavored to force the Republican leaders to an engagement. Cassius
+was unwilling to quit his strong position, and recommended that they
+should wait for their fleet; but Brutus was anxious to put an end to
+this state of suspense, and persuaded the council to risk an immediate
+battle. Brutus himself defeated the army opposite to him, and penetrated
+into the camp of Octavian, who was lying ill, unable to take part in the
+battle. His litter was seized, and brought forth covered with blood, and
+a report spread that he had been killed. Meantime, on the other side of
+the field, Antony had driven back Cassius, and taken his camp. Cassius
+had retired to a neighboring hill with some of his men, when he saw a
+large body of cavalry approaching. Thinking that they belonged to the
+enemy and that every thing was lost, he ordered one of his freedmen to
+put an end to his life. But the cavalry had been sent by Brutus to
+obtain news of Cassius; and when he heard of the death of his colleague,
+he wept over him as "the last of the Romans," a eulogy which Cassius had
+done nothing to deserve.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his forces; but
+this time he was completely defeated, and with difficulty escaped from
+the field. He withdrew into a wood, and in the night-time fell upon his
+sword, which Strato, who had been his teacher in rhetoric, held for him.
+His wife Porcia, the daughter of Cato, resolved not to survive her
+husband; and, being closely watched by her relations, she put an end to
+her life by thrusting burning charcoal into her mouth. Brutus was
+doubtless a sincere Republican, but he was a man of weak judgment,
+deficient in knowledge of mankind, and more fitted for a life of study
+than the command of armies and the government of men.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image075" name="image075">
+   <img src="images/075.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Antony and Cleopatra."
+      title="Coin of Antony and Cleopatra." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Antony and Cleopatra.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image076" name="image076">
+   <img src="images/076.jpg"
+      alt="M. Agrippa."
+      title="M. Agrippa." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">M. Agrippa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The battle of Philippi scaled the fate of the Republic. Antony remained
+in the East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, who was in ill
+health, returned to Italy to give the veterans the lands which had been
+promised them. Antony traversed Asia Minor, plundering the unfortunate
+inhabitants, who had already suffered so severely from the exactions of
+Brutus and Cassias. In the voluptuous cities of Asia he surrendered
+himself to every kind of sensual enjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the
+character of Bacchus, accompanied by a wild procession of women dressed
+like Bacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Pans. At
+Tarsus, in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the war against
+the Parthians, he was visited by Cleopatra. He had summoned her to his
+presence to answer for her conduct in supplying Cassius with money and
+provisions. She was now in her 28th year, and in the full maturity of
+her charms. In her 15th year her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> beauty had made an impression on the
+heart of Antony, when he was at Alexandria with Gabinius, and she now
+trusted to make him her willing slave. She sailed up the Cydnus to
+Tarsus in a magnificent vessel with purple sails, propelled by silver
+oars to the sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined under an
+awning spangled with gold, attired as Venus and fanned by Cupids. The
+most beautiful of her female slaves held the rudder and the ropes. The
+perfumes burnt upon the vessel filled the banks of the river with their
+fragrance. The inhabitants cried that Venus had come to revel with
+Bacchus. Antony accepted her invitation to sup on board her galley, and
+was completely subjugated. Her wit and vivacity surpassed even her
+beauty. He followed her to Alexandria, where he forgot every thing in
+luxurious dalliance and the charms of her society.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime important events had been taking place in Italy. Octavian found
+immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of the veterans. All
+Italy was thrown into confusion. Though he expelled thousands from their
+homes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to give their farms to his soldiers,
+they still clamored for more. Those who had obtained assignments of land
+seized upon the property of their neighbors, and those who had not were
+ready to rise in mutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to
+yield their property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their
+complaints, and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of
+Octavian. Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to control his
+soldiers. Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in Italy,
+resolved to avail herself of those elements of confusion, and crush
+Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious woman; she saw that, sooner or
+later, the struggle must come between her husband and Octavian; and, by
+precipitating the war, she hoped to bring her husband to Italy, and thus
+withdraw him from the influence of Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother
+of the Triumvir, who was Consul this year (B.C. 41), entered into her
+views. They proclaimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate
+Italians, and also promised to the discontented soldiery that the
+Triumvir would recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these means
+they soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable force. They even
+obtained possession of Rome. But Agrippa, the ablest general of
+Octavian, forced them to quit the city, and pressed them so hard that
+they were obliged to take refuge in Perusia (<i>Perugia</i>), one of the most
+powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were besieged during the winter,
+and suffered so dreadfully from famine that they found themselves
+compelled to capitulate in the following spring. The lives of L.
+Antonius and Fulvia were spared, but the chief cit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>izens of Perusia
+itself were put to death, and the town burnt to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>While Antony's friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his own forces
+experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q. Labienus, the son
+of C&aelig;sar's old lieutenant in Gaul, had been sent by Brutus and Cassius
+to seek aid from Orodes, the king of Parthia. He was in that country
+when the news arrived of the battle of Philippi, and had remained there
+up to the present time. The war in Italy, and Antony's indolence at
+Alexandria, held out a favorable opportunity for the invasion of the
+Roman provinces. Orodes placed a large army under the command of
+Labienus and his own son Pacorus. They crossed the Euphrates in B.C. 40,
+and carried every thing before them. Antony's troops were defeated; the
+two powerful cities of Antioch and Apamea were taken, and the whole of
+Syria overrun by the Parthians. Pacorus penetrated as far south as
+Palestine, and Labienus invaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, both from
+Italy and the East, at length aroused Antony from his voluptuous dreams.
+Leaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria to conduct the war against the
+Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where he met his brother and wife.
+He now formed an alliance with Sextus Pompey, sailed to Italy, and laid
+siege to Brundusium. Another civil war seemed inevitable; but the
+soldiers on both sides were eager for peace, and mutual friends
+persuaded the chiefs to be reconciled, which was the more easily
+effected in consequence of the death of Fulvia at Sicyon. A new division
+of the Roman world was now made. Antony was to have all the eastern
+provinces and Octavian the western, the town of Scodra, in Illyricum,
+forming the boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them in
+common. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa, which he had
+received after the battle of Philippi, but he had ceased to be of any
+political importance. It was agreed that Antony should carry on the war
+against the Parthians, and that Octavian should subdue Pompey, whom
+Antony readily sacrificed. The Consuls were to be selected alternately
+from the friends of each. To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry
+Octavia, the sister of Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one of the
+noblest women of her age. The two Triumvirs then repaired to Rome to
+celebrate the marriage. These events took place toward the end of B.C.
+40.</p>
+
+<p>Discontent, however, prevailed at Rome. Sextus Pompey, who had been
+excluded from the peace, still continued master of the sea, and
+intercepted the ships which supplied the city with corn. The people were
+in want of bread, and became so exasperated that Octavian and Antony
+found it necessary to enter into negotiations with Pompey. An interview
+took place between the chiefs at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> Cape Misenum. It was agreed that
+Pompey should receive Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he
+should send to Rome an immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted
+one another, and Pompey entertained Octavian and Antony on board his own
+galley. When the banquet was at its height, a Greek named Menas, or
+Menodorus, one of Pompey's captains, whispered to him, "Shall I cut off
+the anchors of the ship, and make you master of the Roman world?" To
+which Pompey made the well-known reply, "You ought to have done it
+without asking me." The two Triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were
+received with shouts of applause. The civil wars seemed to have come to
+an end (B.C. 39).</p>
+
+<p>Antony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found that his
+legate Ventidius had gained the most brilliant success over the
+Parthians. This man was a native of Picenum, and originally a
+mule-driver. He was taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked in
+chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius Strato. He was made
+Tribune of the Plebs by Julius C&aelig;sar, and was raised to the Consulship
+in B.C. 43. In the Parthian War he displayed military abilities of no
+ordinary kind. He first defeated Labienus, took him prisoner in Cilicia,
+and put him to death. He then entered Syria, and drove Pacorus beyond
+the Euphrates. In the following year (B.C. 38) the Parthians again
+entered Syria, but Ventidius gained a signal victory over them, and
+Pacorus himself fell in the battle.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty between Sextus Pompey and the Triumvirs did not last long.
+Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompey therefore recommenced his
+piratical excursions. The price of provisions at Rome immediately rose,
+and Octavian found it necessary to commence war immediately; but his
+fleet was twice defeated by Pompey, and was at last completely destroyed
+by a storm (B.C. 38). This failure only proved the necessity of making
+still more extensive preparations to carry on the war with success. The
+power of Octavian was insecure as long as Pompey was master of the sea,
+and could deprive Rome of her supplies of corn. Nearly two years were
+spent in building a new fleet, and exercising the newly-raised crews and
+rowers. The command of the fleet and the superintendence of all the
+necessary preparations for the war were intrusted to Agrippa. In order
+to obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin for his fleet, and
+thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he constructed the
+celebrated Julius Portus on the coast of Campania, near Bai&aelig;, by
+connecting the inland Lake Avernus, by means of a canal, with the Lake
+Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter lake against the sea, by an
+artificial dike or dam. While he was engaged in these great works,
+Antony sailed to Taventum, in B.C. 37, with 300 ships. M&aelig;cenas hastened
+thither from Rome, and suc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>ceeded once more in concluding an amicable
+arrangement. He was accompanied on this occasion by Horace, who has
+immortalized, in a well-known satire, his journey from Rome to
+Brundusium. Octavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Metapontum; the
+Triumvirate was renewed for another period of five years; Antony agreed
+to leave 120 ships to assist in the war against Pompey, and Octavian
+promised to send a land force to the East for the campaign against the
+Parthians.</p>
+
+<p>Octavian, now relieved of all anxiety on the part of Antony, urged on
+his preparations with redoubled vigor. By the summer of B.C. 36 he was
+ready to commence operations. He had three large fleets at his disposal:
+his own, stationed in the Julian harbor; that of Antony, under the
+command of Statilius Taurus, in the harbor of Tarentum; and that of
+Lepidus, off the coast of Africa. His plan was for all three fleets to
+set sail on the same day, and make a descent upon three different parts
+of Sicily; but a fearful storm marred this project. Lepidus alone
+reached the coast of Sicily, and landed at Lilyb&aelig;um; Statilius Taurus
+was able to put back to Tarentum; but Octavian, who was surprised by the
+storm off the Lucanian promontory of Palinurus, lost a great number of
+his ships, and was obliged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered
+fleet. As soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail
+for Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompey's fleet off Myl&aelig;, destroying 30 of
+his ships; but the decisive battle was fought on the 3d of September
+(B.C. 36), off Naulochus, a sea-port between Myl&aelig; and the promontory of
+Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory; most of the Pompeian
+vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompey himself fled to Lesbos with a
+squadron of 17 ships. Octavian did not pursue him, as Lepidus, who was
+at the head of a considerable force, now claimed Sicily for himself, and
+an equal share as Triumvir in the government of the Roman world; but
+Octavian found means to seduce his soldiers from their allegiance; and
+Lepidus was at last obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to throw
+himself upon his mercy. His life was granted, but he was deprived of his
+Triumvirate, his army, and his provinces, and was compelled to retire to
+Italy as a private person. He was allowed, however, to retain his
+property and the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. He lived till B.C. 13.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 35 Pompey crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the view of
+seizing that province; but he was easily crushed by the lieutenants of
+Antony, was taken prisoner as he attempted to escape to Armenia, and was
+put to death at Miletus. By the death of Pompey and the deposition of
+Lepidus, Antony and Octavian were now left without a rival, and Antony's
+mad love for Cleopatra soon made Octavian the undisputed master of the
+Roman world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After Antony's marriage with Octavia in B.C. 40, he seems for a time to
+have forgotten, or, at least, conquered the fascinations of the Egyptian
+queen. For the next three years he resided in Athens with his wife; but
+after his visit to Italy, and the renewal of the Triumvirate in B.C. 37,
+he left Octavia behind at Tarentum, and determined to carry out his
+long-projected campaign against the Parthians. As he approached Syria,
+"that great evil," as Plutarch calls it, his passion for Cleopatra,
+burst forth with more vehemence than ever. From this time she appears as
+his evil genius. He summoned her to him at Laodicea, and loaded her with
+honors and favors. He added to her dominions Ph&#339;nicia, C&#339;le-Syria,
+Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Palestine, and Arabia, and publicly
+recognized the children she had borne him. Although he had collected a
+large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was unable to tear himself
+away from the enchantress, and did not commence his march till late in
+the year. The expedition proved most disastrous; the army suffered from
+want of provisions, and Antony found himself compelled to retreat. He
+narrowly escaped the fate of Crassus, and it was with the utmost
+difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the Armenian mountains, after
+losing the best part of his troops.</p>
+
+<p>Antony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself entirely to
+Cleopatra. In B.C. 34 he made a short campaign into Armenia, and
+succeeded in obtaining possession of Artavasdas, the Armenian king. He
+carried him to Alexandria, and, to the great scandal of all the Romans,
+entered the city in triumph, with all the pomp and ceremonial of the
+Roman pageant. He now laid aside entirely the character of a Roman
+citizen, and assumed the state and dress of an Eastern monarch. Instead
+of the toga he wore a robe of purple, and his head was crowned with a
+diadem. Sometimes he assumed the character of Osiris, while Cleopatra
+appeared at his side as Isis. He gave the title of kings to Alexander
+and Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The Egyptian queen already dreamed
+of reigning over the Roman world.</p>
+
+<p>While Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his friends and
+supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had been restoring order
+to Italy, and, by his wise and energetic administration, was slowly
+repairing the evils of the civil wars. In order to give security to the
+frontiers and employment to the troops, he attacked the barbarians on
+the north of Italy and Greece, and subdued the Iapydes, Pannonians, and
+Dalmatians. He carried on these wars in person, and won the affection of
+the soldiers by sharing their dangers and hardships.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between the two Triumvirs was sufficiently strik<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>ing, but
+Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony. Letters passed
+between them full of mutual recriminations, and both parties began to
+prepare for the inevitable struggle. Toward the end of B.C. 32 the
+Senate declared war against Cleopatra, for Antony was regarded as her
+slave.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> The five years of the Triumvirate had expired on the last day
+of this year; and on the 1st of January, B.C. 31, Octavian, as Consul of
+the Republic, proceeded to carry on the war against the Egyptian queen.
+The hostile fleets and armies assembled on the western coasts of Greece.
+Antony's fleet was superior both in number and size of the ships, but
+they were clumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the Ambraciot
+Gulf, in the modern <i>Bay of Prevesa</i>. (See Plan, P.) The army was
+encamped on the promontory of Actium (Plan, 3), which has given its name
+to the battle. The fleet of Octavian consisted of light Liburnian
+vessels, manned by crews which had gained experience in the wars against
+Sextus Pompey. It was under the command of the able Agrippa, who took up
+his station at Corcyra, and swept the Adriatic Sea. Octavian in person
+took the command of the land forces, which were encamped on the coast of
+Epirus opposite Actium, on the spot where Nicopolis afterward stood.
+(Plan, 1.) The generals of Antony strongly urged him to fight on land;
+but the desertions among his troops were numerous; Cleopatra became
+alarmed for her safety; and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the
+army, and retire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the watch,
+and Antony had no sooner sailed outside the strait than he was compelled
+to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally favorable to both
+parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were at anchor in the rear,
+taking advantage of a favorable breeze which sprang up, sailed through
+the midst of the combatants with her squadron of 60 ships, and made for
+the coast of Peloponnesus. When Antony saw her flight, he hastily
+followed her, forgetting every thing else, and shamefully deserting
+those who were fighting and dying in his cause. The remainder of the
+fleet was destroyed before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> night-time. The army, after a few days'
+hesitation, surrendered, and Octavian pardoned all the officers who sued
+for his favor. The battle of Actium was fought on the 2d of September,
+B.C. 31, from which day the reign of Octavian is to be dated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image077" name="image077">
+   <img src="images/077.jpg"
+      alt="Plan of Actium."
+      title="Plan of Actium." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Plan of Actium.<br /><br />1. Nicopolis<br />
+2. <i>C. La Scara</i>.<br />3. Prom. Actium.<br />5. Temple of Apollo.<br />P. <i>Bay of Prevesa</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Octavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly twelve months
+after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to Italy with his veteran
+troops, and himself passed the winter at Samos; but he could not satisfy
+the demands of the soldiers, who broke out into open mutiny. Octavian
+hastened to Brundusium, and with difficulty raised a sufficient sum of
+money to calm their discontent.</p>
+
+<p>This respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra. They knew that
+resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent embassadors to Octavian to
+solicit his favor. To Antony no answer was given, but to Cleopatra hopes
+were held out if she would betray her lover. She began to flatter
+herself that her charms, which had fascinated both C&aelig;sar and Antony,
+might conquer Octavian, who was younger than either. Octavian at length
+appeared before Pelusium, which surrendered to him without resistance.
+He then marched upon Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight
+success in an action with the cavalry, prepared to resist Octavian both
+by sea and land; but as soon as the Egyptian ships approached those of
+Octavian, the crews saluted them with their oars and passed over to
+their side. Antony's cavalry also deserted him, his infantry was easily
+repulsed, and he fled to Alexandria, crying out that he was betrayed by
+Cleopatra.</p>
+
+<p>The queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she had built to
+receive her body after death, and where she had collected her most
+valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony's defeat, she sent persons to
+inform him that she was dead. He fell into the snare; they had promised
+not to survive one another, and Antony stabbed himself. He was drawn up
+into the mausoleum, and died in her arms. She was apprehended by the
+officers of Octavian, and a few days afterward had an interview with the
+conqueror. Her charms, however, failed in softening the colder heart of
+Octavian. He only "bade her be of good cheer and fear no violence." Soon
+afterward she learned that she was to be sent to Rome in three days'
+time. This news decided her. On the following day she was found lying
+dead on a golden couch in royal attire, with her two women lifeless at
+her feet. The manner of her death was unknown. It was generally believed
+that she had died by the bite of an asp, which a peasant had brought to
+her in a basket full of figs. She was 39 years of age at the time of her
+death. Egypt was made a Roman province. Octavian did not return to Rome
+till B.C. 29, when he celebrated a threefold triumph over the
+Pan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>nonians, Dalmatians, and Egypt. The Temple of Janus was closed for
+the third time in Roman history. The exhausted Roman world, longing for
+repose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian. The Senate
+conferred upon him numerous honors and distinctions, with the title of
+Imperator for life.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been tending for
+the last hundred years. The corruption and demoralization of all classes
+had rendered a Republic almost an impossibility; and the civil
+dissensions of the state had again and again invested one or more
+persons with despotic authority. The means which Augustus employed to
+strengthen and maintain his power belong to a history of the Empire. He
+proceeded with the caution which was his greatest characteristic. He
+refused the names of King and Dictator, and was contented with the
+simple appellation of <i>Princeps</i>, which had always been given to one of
+the most distinguished members of the Senate. He received, however, in
+B.C. 27, the novel title of <i>Augustus</i>, that is, "the sacred," or "the
+venerable," which was afterward assumed by all the Roman emperors as a
+surname. As Imperator he had the command of the Roman armies; and the
+tribunitian and proconsular powers which the Senate conferred upon him
+made him absolute master of the state. He made a new division of the
+provinces, allowing the Senate to appoint the governors of those which
+were quiet and long-settled, like Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but
+retaining for himself such as required the presence of an army, which
+were governed by means of his Legati. On the death of Lepidus in B.C.
+13, he succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus, and thus became the head of
+the Roman religion. While he thus united in his own person all the great
+offices of state, he still allowed the Consuls, Pr&aelig;tors, and other
+magistrates of the Republic to be annually elected. "In a few words, the
+system of Imperial government, as it was instituted by Octavian, and
+maintained by those princes who understood their own interest and that
+of the people, may be defined as an absolute government, disguised by
+the form of a commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded
+their throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength; and
+humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of the Senate,
+whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image078" name="image078"></a><a href="images/078large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/078.jpg"
+      alt="Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire."
+      title="Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image079" name="image079">
+   <img src="images/079.jpg"
+      alt="Horace."
+      title="Horace." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Horace.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO
+THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>For many centuries after the foundation of the city the Romans can
+hardly be said to have had any literature at all. There may have
+existed, at an early period, some songs or ballads, recounting, in rude
+strains,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> the exploits of the heroes of Roman story, but all trace of
+these has disappeared. It was not till the conquest of the Greek cities
+in Southern Italy, shortly before the First Punic War, that we can date
+the commencement of the Roman literature. It began with the Drama.
+Dramatic exhibitions were first introduced at Rome from Etruria in B.C.
+363, on the occasion of a severe pestilence, in order to avert the anger
+of the gods. But these exhibitions were only pantomimic scenes to the
+music of the flute, without any song or dialogue. It was not till B.C.
+240 that a drama with a regular plot was performed at Rome. Its author
+was M. LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, a native of Magna Gr&aelig;cia, who was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum, and carried to Rome, where he
+became the slave of M. Livius Salinator. He was afterward set free, and,
+according to Roman practice, took the gentilic name of his master. He
+acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge of the Latin language, and wrote
+both tragedies and comedies, which were borrowed, or, rather, translated
+from the Greek. He also wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and
+some hymns. He may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were
+read in schools in the time of Horace.</p>
+
+<p>CN. N&AElig;VIUS, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by birth. He served
+in the First Punic War, and, like Livius, wrote dramas borrowed from the
+Greek. His first play was performed in B.C. 235. He was attached to the
+Plebeian party; and, with the license of the old Attic comedy, he made
+the stage a vehicle for assailing the aristocracy. In consequence of his
+attacks upon the Metelli he was thrown into prison. He obtained his
+release through the Tribunes, but was soon compelled to expiate a new
+offense by exile. He retired to Utica, where he died about B.C. 202. In
+his exile he wrote, in the Saturnian metre, an epic poem on the First
+Punic War, in which he introduced the celebrated legends connected with
+the foundation of Rome. This poem was extensively copied both by Ennius
+and Virgil.</p>
+
+<p>Q. ENNIUS, however, may be regarded as the real founder of Roman
+literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna Gr&aelig;cia. He was born at
+Rudi&aelig;, in Calabria, B.C. 239. Cato found him in Sardinia in B.C. 204,
+and brought him in his train to Rome. He dwelt in a humble house on the
+Aventine, and maintained himself by acting as preceptor to the youths of
+the Roman nobles. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the
+elder Scipio Africanus. He died B.C. 169, at the age of 70. He was
+buried in the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place
+among the effigies of that noble house. His most important work was an
+epic poem, entitled the "Annals of Rome," in 18 books, written in
+dactylic hexameters, which, through his example, supplanted the old
+Saturnian metre. This poem commenced with the loves of Mars and Rhea,
+and came down to the age of Ennius. Virgil borrowed largely from it;
+and, down to his time, it was regarded as the great epic poem of the
+Latin language. He also wrote numerous tragedies, a few comedies, and
+several other works, such as <i>Satir&aelig;</i>, composed in a great variety of
+metres, from which circumstance they probably received their name.</p>
+
+<p>The comic drama of Rome, though it continued to be more or less a
+translation or an imitation of the Greek, was cultivated with
+distinguished success by two writers of genius, several of whose plays
+are still extant.</p>
+
+<p>T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS was a native of Sarsina, a small village in Umbria,
+and was born about B.C. 254. He probably came to Rome at an early age,
+and was first employed in the service of the actors. With the money he
+had saved in this inferior station he left Rome, and set up in business;
+but his speculations failed: he returned to Rome, and his necessities
+obliged him to enter the service of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> baker, who employed him in
+turning a hand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three
+plays, the sale of which to the managers of the public games enabled him
+to quit his drudgery, and begin his literary career. He was then about
+30 years of age (B.C. 224), and continued to write for the stage for
+about 40 years. He died in B.C. 184, when he was 70 years of age. The
+comedies of Plautus enjoyed unrivaled popularity among the Romans, and
+continued to be represented down to the time of Diocletian. Though they
+were founded upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak, and
+joke like genuine Romans, and the poet thereby secured the sympathy of
+his audience more completely than Terence. It was not only with the
+common people that Plautus was a favorite; educated Romans read and
+admired his works down to the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a
+level with that of the old Attic comedy; and St. Jerome used to console
+himself with the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in
+tears on account of his past sins. The favorable impression which the
+ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by the
+judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several of his plays
+have been imitated by many of the best modern poets. Twenty of his
+comedies are extant.</p>
+
+<p>P. TERENTIUS AFER, usually called TERENCE, was born at Carthage, B.C.
+195. By birth or purchase he became the slave of P. Terentius, a Roman
+senator, who afforded him the best education of the age, and finally
+gave him his freedom. The <i>Andria</i>, which was the first play of Terence
+acted (B.C. 166), was the means of introducing him to the most refined
+and intellectual circles of Rome. His chief patrons were L&aelig;lius and the
+younger Scipio, both of whom treated him as an equal, and are said even
+to have assisted him in the composition of his plays. He died in the
+36th year of his age, in B.C. 159. Six comedies are all that remain to
+us. The ancient critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence immaculate
+purity and elegance of language. Although a foreigner and a freedman, he
+divides with Cicero and C&aelig;sar the palm of pure Latinity.</p>
+
+<p>There were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but who enjoyed
+a great reputation among the Romans. Q. C&AElig;CILIUS was a native of Milan,
+and, like Terence, came to Rome as a slave. He was the immediate
+predecessor of Terence, and died B.C. 108, two years before the
+representation of the <i>Andria</i>. L. AFRANIUS flourished B.C. 100, and
+wrote comedies describing Roman scenes and manners, called <i>Com&#339;di&aelig;
+Togat&aelig;</i>, to distinguish them from those depicting Grecian life, which
+were termed <i>Palliat&aelig;</i>, from <i>pallium</i>, the national dress of the
+Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>There were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> enjoyed
+great celebrity, though their works have likewise perished. M. PACUVIUS,
+son of the sister of Ennius, was born about B.C. 220, and died in the
+90th year of his age. He is praised by the Latin writers for the
+loftiness of his thoughts, the vigor of his language, and the extent of
+his knowledge. Hence we find the epithet <i>doctus</i> frequently applied to
+him. Most of his tragedies were taken from the Greek writers; but some
+belonged to the class called <i>Pr&aelig;textat&aelig;</i>, in which the subjects were
+taken from Roman story. One of these, entitled <i>Paullus</i>, had as its
+hero L. &AElig;milius Paullus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia. L.
+ACCIUS, a younger contemporary of Pacuvius, was born B.C. 170, and lived
+to a great age. Cicero, when a young man, frequently conversed with him.
+His tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of the
+Greek; but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of which was
+entitled <i>Brutus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Roman Drama, properly so called, was derived from the Greeks,
+there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions which were of Italian
+origin. The first of these were the <i>Atellan&aelig; Fabul&aelig;</i>, or Atellane
+Plays, which took their name from Atella, a town in Campania. They were
+composed in the Oscan dialect, and were at first rude extemporaneous
+farces, but were afterward divided into acts like a regular drama. They
+seem to have been the origin of the Policinello of modern Italy. The
+Oscan dialect was preserved even when they were introduced at Rome. The
+<i>Mimes</i> were another species of comedy, of which only the name seems to
+have been derived from the Greek. They were a species of low comedy of
+an indecent description, in which the dialogue was subordinate to
+mimicry and gesture. The Dictator Sulla was very fond of these
+performances. The two most distinguished writers of Mimes were DEC.
+LABERIUS, a knight, and P. SYRUS, a freedman, and originally a Syrian
+slave, both of whom were contemporaries of Julius C&aelig;sar. At C&aelig;sar's
+triumphal games in October, B.C. 45, P. Syrus challenged all his craft
+to a trial of wit in extemporaneous farce, and C&aelig;sar offered Laberius
+500,000 sesterces to appear on the stage. Laberius was 60 years old, and
+the profession of a mimus was infamous, but the wish of the Dictator was
+equivalent to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had, however,
+revenge in his power, and took it. His prologue awakened compassion, and
+perhaps indignation; and during the performance he adroitly availed
+himself of his various characters to point his wit at C&aelig;sar. In the
+person of a beaten Syrian slave he cried out, "Marry! Quirites, but we
+lose our freedom," and all eyes were turned upon the Dictator; and in
+another mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, "Needs must he fear who
+makes all else<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> adread." C&aelig;sar, impartially or vindictively, awarded the
+prize to Syrus.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Fescennine Songs</i> were the origin of the <i>Satire</i>, the only
+important species of literature not derived from the Greeks, and
+altogether peculiar to Italy. These Fescennine Songs were rude
+dialogues, in which the country people assailed and ridiculed one
+another in extempore verses, and which were introduced as an amusement
+in various festivals. They were formed into the <i>Satire</i><a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> by C.
+LUCILIUS, who wrote in hexameter verse, and attacked the follies and
+vices both of distinguished persons and of mankind in general. He was
+born B.C. 148, at Suessa Aurunca, and died at Naples in B.C. 103. He
+lived upon terms of intimacy with the younger Scipio and L&aelig;lius, and was
+the maternal ancestor of Pompey the Great. Lucilius continued to be
+admired in the Augustan age; and Horace, while he censures the harsh
+versification and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his
+compositions, acknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness
+of his attacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>Between Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived Lucretius and
+Catullus, two of the greatest&mdash;perhaps the greatest&mdash;of all the Roman
+poets.</p>
+
+<p>T. LUCRETIUS CARUS was born B.C. 95, and died about B.C. 51. He is said
+to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to have perished by his
+own hand. The work which has immortalized his name is a philosophical
+didactic poem, in heroic hexameters, entitled <i>De Rerum Natura</i>, divided
+into six books, and addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who was pr&aelig;tor in
+B.C. 58. Its object is to state clearly the leading principles of the
+Epicurean philosophy in such a form as might render the study attractive
+to his countrymen. He attempts to show that there is nothing in the
+history or actual condition of the world which does not admit of
+explanation without having recourse to the active interposition of
+divine beings. The work has been admitted by all modern critics to be
+the greatest of didactic poems. The most abstruse speculations are
+clearly explained in majestic verse, while the subject, which in itself
+is dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p>VALERIUS CATULLUS was born at Verona or in its immediate vicinity, B.C.
+87. He inherited considerable property from his father, who was the
+friend of Julius C&aelig;sar; but he squandered a great part of it by
+indulging freely in the pleasures of the metropolis. In order to better
+his fortunes, he went to Bithynia in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> train of the Pr&aelig;tor Memmius,
+but it appears that the speculation was attended with little success. It
+was probably during this expedition that his brother died in the Troad,
+a loss which he deplores in the affecting elegy to Hortalus. On his
+return he continued to reside at Rome, or at his country seats on the
+promontory of Sirmio and at Tibur. He died about B.C. 47. His poems are
+on a variety of topics, and composed in different styles and metres.
+Some are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams; while the Nuptials of
+Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus adorned all he touched,
+and his shorter poems are characterized by original invention and
+felicity of expression. His <i>Atys</i> is one of the most remarkable poems
+in the whole range of Latin literature, distinguished by wild passion
+and the noblest diction.</p>
+
+<p>Among the poets of the Augustan age Virgil and Horace stand forth
+pre-eminent.</p>
+
+<p>P. VIRGILIUS (more properly VERGILIUS) MARO was born B.C. 70, at Andes,
+a small village near Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul. His father left him a
+small estate, which he cultivated. After the battle of Philippi (B.C.
+42) his property was among the lands assigned by Octavian to the
+soldiers. Through the advice of Asinius Pollio, who was then governor of
+Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a poet, Virgil applied to Octavian at
+Rome for the restitution of his land, and obtained his request. The
+first Eclogue commemorates his gratitude. Virgil lived on intimate terms
+with M&aelig;cenas, whom he accompanied in the journey from Rome to
+Brundusium, which forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His
+most finished work, the <i>Georgics</i>, was undertaken at the suggestion of
+M&aelig;cenas.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> The poem was completed after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31,
+while Octavian was in the East.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> The <i>&AElig;neid</i> was the occupation of
+his latter years. His health was always feeble, and he died at
+Brundusium in B.C. 19, in his 51st year. His remains were transferred to
+Naples, which had been his favorite residence, and placed on the road
+from Naples to Puteoli (<i>Pozzuoli</i>), where a monument is still shown,
+supposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said that in his last illness
+he wished to burn the &AElig;neid, to which he had not given the finishing
+touches, but his friends would not allow him. He was an amiable,
+good-tempered man, free from the mean passions of envy and jealousy. His
+fame, which was established in his lifetime, was cherished after his
+death as an inheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works
+became school-books even before the death of Augustus, and continued
+such for centuries after. He was also the great poet of the Middle Ages.
+To him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and owned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> him for
+his master and model. The ten short poems called Bucolics, or Eclogues,
+were the earliest works of Virgil, and probably all written between B.C.
+41 and B.C. 37. They have all a Bucolic form and coloring, but some of
+them have nothing more. Their merit consists in their versification, and
+in many natural and simple touches. The Georgics is an "Agricultural
+Poem" in four books. Virgil treats of the cultivation of the soil in the
+first book, of fruit-trees in the second, of horses and other cattle in
+the third, and of bees in the fourth. This poem shows a great
+improvement both in his taste and in his versification. Neither in the
+Georgics nor elsewhere has he the merit of striking originality; his
+chief excellence consists in the skillful handling of borrowed
+materials. The &AElig;neid, or adventures of &AElig;neas after the fall of Troy, is
+an epic formed on the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded upon an
+old Roman tradition that &AElig;neas and his Trojans settled in Italy, and
+were the founders of the Roman name. In the first six books the
+adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these books
+contain more variety of incident and situation than those which follow.
+The last six books, the history of the struggles of &AElig;neas in Italy, are
+based on the plan of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the
+Latini, offers in marriage to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who
+had been betrothed to Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. The
+contest is ended by the death of Turnus, who falls by the hand of &AElig;neas.
+The fortunes of &AElig;neas and his final settlement in Italy are the subjects
+of the &AElig;neid, but the glories of Rome and the Julian house, to which
+Augustus belonged, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the first book
+the foundation of Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus, and the
+transfer of empire from Alba to Rome; from the line of &AElig;neas will
+descend the "Trojan C&aelig;sar," whose empire will only be limited by the
+ocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate triumphs of Rome are
+predicted.</p>
+
+<p>Q. HORATIUS FLACCUS, usually called HORACE, was born at Venusia, in
+Apulia, B.C. 65. His father was a freedman. He had received his
+manumission before the birth of the poet, who was of ingenuous birth,
+but who did not altogether escape the taunt which adhered to persons
+even of remote servile origin. His father's occupation was that of a
+collector (<i>coactor</i>) of taxes. With the profits of his office he had
+purchased a small farm in the neighborhood of Venusia. Though by no
+means rich, he declined to send the young Horace to the common school,
+kept in Venusia by one Flavius, to which the children of the rural
+aristocracy resorted. Probably about his twelfth year his father carried
+him to Rome to receive the usual education of a knight's or senator's
+son. He fre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>quented the best schools in the capital. One of these was
+kept by Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging propensities
+have been immortalized by his pupil. The names of his other teachers are
+not recorded by the poet. He was instructed in the Greek and Latin
+languages: the poets were the usual school-books&mdash;Homer in the Greek,
+and the old tragic writer, Livius Andronicus, in the Latin. In his
+eighteenth year Horace proceeded to Athens, in order to continue his
+studies at that seat of learning. When Brutus came to Athens after the
+death of C&aelig;sar, Horace joined his army, and received at once the rank of
+a military tribune and the command of a legion. He was present at the
+battle of Philippi, and shared in the flight of the republican army. In
+one of his poems he playfully alludes to his flight, and throwing away
+his shield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits;
+and, having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to return to Rome.
+He had lost all his hopes in life; his paternal estate had been swept
+away in the general forfeiture; but he was enabled to obtain sufficient
+money to purchase a clerkship in the Qu&aelig;stor's office, and on the
+profits of that place he managed, with the utmost frugality, to live.
+Meantime some of his poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil,
+who introduced him to M&aelig;cenas (B.C. 39). Horace soon became the friend
+of M&aelig;cenas, and this friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a year
+or two after the commencement of their friendship (B.C. 37) Horace
+accompanied his patron on the journey to Brundusium already alluded to.
+About the year B.C. 34 M&aelig;cenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm,
+sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in content, during
+the rest of his life. The situation of this farm was in the valley of
+Ustica, within view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the Digentia,
+about 15 miles from Tibur (<i>Tivoli</i>). A site exactly answering to the
+villa of Horace, and on which were found ruins of buildings, has been
+discovered in modern times. Besides this estate, his admiration of the
+beautiful scenery in the neighborhood of Tibur inclined him either to
+hire or to purchase a small cottage in that romantic town; and all the
+later years of his life were passed between the metropolis and these two
+country residences. He died, B.C. 8, in his 57th year. He was buried on
+the slope of the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron M&aelig;cenas,
+who had died before him in the same year. Horace has described his own
+person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark hair, but early
+tinged with gray. In his youth he was tolerably robust, but suffered
+from a complaint in his eyes. In more advanced life he grew fat, and
+Augustus jested about his protuberant belly. His health was not always
+good, and he seems to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> have inclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he
+was rather careless. His habits, even after he became richer, were
+generally frugal and abstemious; though on occasions, both in youth and
+maturer age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked choice
+wine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the luxuries
+of his time. He was never married. The <i>Odes</i> of Horace want the higher
+inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory verses are exquisitely
+graceful, but they have no strong ardor, no deep tenderness, nor even
+much light and joyous gayety; but as works of refined art, of the most
+skillful felicities of language and of measure, of translucent
+expression, and of agreeable images embodied in words which imprint
+themselves indelibly on the memory, they are unrivaled. In the <i>Satires</i>
+of Horace there is none of the lofty moral indignation, the fierce
+vehemence of invective, which characterized the later satirists. It is
+the folly rather than the wickedness of vice which he touches with such
+playful skill. In the <i>Epodes</i> there is bitterness provoked, it should
+seem, by some personal hatred or sense of injury; but the <i>Epistles</i> are
+the most perfect of the Horatian poetry, the poetry of manners and
+society, the beauty of which consists in its common sense and practical
+wisdom. The Epistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the
+Georgics of Virgil, and, perhaps, the Satires of Juvenal, the most
+perfect and the most original form of Roman verse. The <i>Art of Poetry</i>
+was probably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from devoting
+himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or, at least, to
+suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>Three celebrated Elegiac poets&mdash;Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid&mdash;also
+belong to the Augustan age.</p>
+
+<p>ALBIUS TIBULLUS was of equestrian family, and possessed an hereditary
+estate between Tibur and Pr&aelig;neste. His great patron was Messala, whom he
+accompanied in B.C. 31 into Aquitania, whither Messala had been sent by
+Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which had broken out in
+this province. In the following year (B.C. 30) Messala, having pacified
+Gaul, was sent into the East. Tibullus set out in his company, but was
+taken ill, and obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he returned to
+Rome. So ceased the active life of Tibullus. He died at an early age
+soon after Virgil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a
+gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he was an object
+of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are exquisite small poems,
+celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses.</p>
+
+<p>SEXTUS AURELIUS PROPERTIUS was a native of Umbria, and was born about
+B.C. 51. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an agrarian division,
+probably that in B.C. 33, after the Sicilian War.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> He began to write
+poetry at a very early age, and the merit of his productions soon
+attracted the attention and patronage of M&aelig;cenas. The year of his death
+is altogether unknown. As an elegiac poet a high rank must be awarded to
+Propertius, and among the ancients it was a disputed point whether the
+preference should be given to him or to Tibullus. To the modern reader,
+however, the elegies of Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those
+of Tibullus. This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great
+measure, also, from a certain want of nature in them. The fault of
+Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His whole
+ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom he made his model. He
+abounds with obscure Greek myths, as well as Greek forms of expression,
+and the same pedantry infects even his versification.</p>
+
+<p>P. OVIDIUS NASO, usually culled OVID, was born at Sulmo, in the country
+of the Peligni, on the 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an
+ancient equestrian family, and was destined to be a pleader; but the
+bent of his genius showed itself very early. The hours which should have
+been spent in the study of jurisprudence were employed in cultivating
+his poetical talent. It is a disputed point whether he ever actually
+practiced as an advocate after his return to Rome. The picture Ovid
+himself draws of his weak constitution and indolent temper prevents us
+from thinking that he ever followed his profession with perseverance,
+if, indeed, at all. He became, however, one of the <i>Triumviri
+Capitules</i>; and he was subsequently made one of the <i>Centumviri</i>, or
+judges who tried testamentary, and even criminal causes. Till his 50th
+year he continued to reside at Rome, where he had a house near the
+Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignian farm. He not only
+enjoyed the friendship of a large circle of distinguished men, but the
+regard and favor of Augustus and the imperial family; notwithstanding,
+in A.D. 9, he was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict to transport
+himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the Danube, on
+the very border of the empire. He underwent no trial, and the sole
+reason for his banishment stated in the edict was his having published
+his poem on the Art of Love (<i>Ars Amatoria</i>). The real cause of his
+banishment is unknown, for the publication of the Art of Love was
+certainly a mere pretext. Ovid draws an affecting picture of the
+miseries to which he was exposed in his place of exile. He complains of
+the inhospitable soil, of the severity of the climate, and of the perils
+to which he was exposed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding
+country, and insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all his
+misfortunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical
+talents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> He died at Tomi in the 60th year of his age, A.D. 18. Besides
+his amatory poems, Ovid wrote the <i>Metamorphoses</i> in 15 books, which
+consist of such legends or fables as involved a transformation, from the
+Creation to the time of Julius C&aelig;sar, the last being that emperor's
+change into a star; the <i>Fasti</i> in 12 books, of which only the first six
+are extant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appropriate
+festivals and mythology; and the <i>Elegies</i>, written during his
+banishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical genius, which
+makes it the more to be regretted that it was not always under the
+control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great vigor of fancy and warmth
+of coloring, but he was the first to depart from that pure and correct
+taste which characterizes the Greek poets and their earlier Latin
+imitators.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>We now turn to the history of prose literature among the Romans. The
+earliest prose works were Annals, containing a meagre account of the
+principal events in Roman history, arranged under their respective
+years. The earliest Annalists who obtained reputation were Q. FABIUS
+PICTOR and L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, both of whom served in the Second Punic
+War, and drew up an account of it, but they wrote in the Greek language.
+The first prose writer in the Latin language, of whom any considerable
+fragments have been preserved, is the celebrated Censor, M. Porcius
+Cato, who died B.C. 149, and of whose life an account has been already
+given. He wrote an important historical work entitled <i>Origines</i>. The
+first book contained the history of the Roman kings; the second and
+third treated of the origin of the Italian towns, and from these two
+books the whole work derived its title; the fourth book treated of the
+First Punic War, the fifth book of the Second Punic War, and the sixth
+and seventh continued the narrative to the year of Cato's death. There
+is still extant a work on agriculture (<i>De Re Rustica</i>) bearing the name
+of Cato, which is probably substantially his, though it is certainly not
+exactly in the form in which it proceeded from his pen. There were many
+other annalists, of whom we know little more than the names, and whose
+works were used by Livy in compiling his Roman history.</p>
+
+<p>Oratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the chief avenues
+to political distinction. Cicero, in his work entitled <i>Brutus</i>, has
+given a long list of distinguished Orators whose speeches he had read,
+but he himself surpassed all his predecessors and contemporaries. In his
+works the Latin language appears in the highest perfection. Besides his
+numerous orations he also wrote several treatises on <i>Rhetoric</i>, of
+which the most perfect is a systematic treatise on the art of Oratory
+(<i>De Oratore</i>), in three books.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> His works on <i>Philosophy</i> were almost
+the first specimens of this kind of literature ever presented to the
+Romans in their own language. He does not aim at any original
+investigation or research. His object was to present, in a familiar and
+attractive form, the results at which the Greek philosophers had
+arrived, not to expound any new theories. His Epistles, of which more
+than eight hundred have come down to us, are among the most valuable
+remains of antiquity. Cicero, during the most important period of his
+life, maintained a close correspondence with Atticus, and with a wide
+circle of political friends and connections. These letters supply the
+most ample materials for a history of the Roman Republic during its last
+struggles, and afford a clear insight into the personal dispositions and
+motives of its chief leaders.</p>
+
+<p>The most learned Roman under the Republic was M. TERENTIUS VARRO, a
+contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served as Pompey's lieutenant in
+Spain in the Civil Wars, but was pardoned by C&aelig;sar after the battle of
+Pharsalia, and was employed by him in superintending the collection and
+arrangement of the great library designed for public use. Upon the
+formation of the second Triumvirate, Varro's name appeared upon the list
+of the proscribed; but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after
+having remained for some time in concealment, he obtained the protection
+of Octavian. His death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his 80th year.
+Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he was
+likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We have his own authority
+for the assertion that he had composed no less than 490 books, but of
+these only two have come down to us, and one of them in a mutilated
+form: 1. <i>De Re Rustica</i>, a work on Agriculture, in three books, written
+when the author was 80 years old; 2. <i>De Lingua Latina</i>, a grammatical
+treatise which extended to 24 books, but six only have been preserved,
+and these are in a mutilated condition. The remains of this treatise are
+particularly valuable. They have preserved many terms and forms which
+would otherwise have been altogether lost, and much curious information
+connected with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, of the
+Romans.</p>
+
+<p>C. JULIUS C&AElig;SAR, the great Dictator, was also distinguished as an
+author, and wrote several works, of which the <i>Commentaries</i> alone have
+come down to us. They relate the history of the first seven years of the
+Gallic War in seven books, and the history of the Civil War down to the
+commencement of the Alexandrine in three books. Neither of these works
+completes the history of the Gallic and Civil Wars. The history of the
+former was completed in an 8th book, which is usually ascribed to
+Hirtius. The history<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish Wars was
+written in three separate books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but
+their authorship is uncertain. The purity of C&aelig;sar's Latin and the
+clearness of his style have deservedly obtained the highest praise.</p>
+
+<p>C. SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, a contemporary of C&aelig;sar, and one of his
+supporters, was also distinguished as a historian. He was born B.C. 86
+at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines, and died in B.C. 34. After
+the African War (B.C. 46) he was left by C&aelig;sar as governor of Numidia,
+where he acquired great riches by his oppression of the people. Two of
+his works have come down to us, the <i>Catilina</i>, the history of the
+suppression of Catiline's conspiracy, and the <i>Jugurtha</i>, the history of
+the war against Jugurtha. Sallust made Thucydides his model, and took
+great pains with his style.</p>
+
+<p>CORNELIUS NEPOS, the contemporary and friend of Cicero and Atticus, was
+the author of numerous works, all of which are lost, with the exception
+of the well-known Lives of Distinguished Commanders (<i>Vit&aelig; Excellentium
+Imperatorum</i>). But even these Lives, with the exception of that of
+Atticus, are probably an abridgment of the original work of Nepos, made
+in the fourth century of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>Of the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished was the
+historian TITUS LIVIUS, usually called LIVY. He was born at Patavium
+(<i>Padua</i>), B.C. 59. The greater part of his life appears to have been
+spent in Rome, but he returned to his native town before his death,
+which happened at the age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius, A.D.
+17. His literary talents secured the patronage and friendship of
+Augustus; and his reputation became so widely diffused, that a Spaniard
+traveled from Cadiz to Rome solely for the purpose of beholding him;
+and, having gratified his curiosity in this one particular, he
+immediately returned home. Livy's "History of Rome" extended from the
+foundation of the city to the death of Drusus, B.C. 9, and was comprised
+in 142 books. Of these 35 have descended to us. The whole work has been
+divided into <i>decades</i>, containing 10 books each. The First decade (bks.
+i.-x.) is entire. It embraces the period from the foundation of the city
+to the year B.C. 294, when the subjugation of the Samnites may be said
+to have been completed. The Second decade (bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether
+lost. It included the period from B.C. 294 to B.C. 219, comprising an
+account, among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the
+First Punic War. The Third decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It
+embraces the period from B.C. 219 to B.C. 201, comprehending the whole
+of the Second Punic War. The Fourth decade (bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire,
+and also one half of the Fifth (bks. xli.-xlv.). These 15 books continue
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> history from B.C. 201 to B.C. 167, and develop the progress of the
+Roman arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending
+with the triumph of &AElig;milius Paullus. Of the remaining books nothing is
+extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style of Livy may be
+pronounced almost faultless. In judging of his merits as a historian, we
+are bound to ascertain, if possible, the end which he proposed to
+himself. No one who reads his work with attention can suppose that he
+ever conceived the project of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His
+aim was to offer to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative,
+which, while it gratified their vanity, should contain no startling
+improbabilities or gross amplifications. To effect this purpose, he
+studied with care the writings of some of his more celebrated
+predecessors in the same field; but in no case did he ever dream of
+ascending to the fountain-head, and never attempted to test the accuracy
+of his authorities by examining monuments of remote antiquity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image080" name="image080">
+   <img src="images/080.jpg"
+      alt="Maecenas."
+      title="Maecenas." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">M&aelig;cenas.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image081" name="image081">
+   <img src="images/081.jpg"
+      alt="Aureus of Augustus Caesar."
+      title="Aureus of Augustus Caesar." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Aureus of Augustus C&aelig;sar.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIX.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C&AElig;SAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Augustus, being now the emperor of Rome, sought to win the affections of
+his people. He lived with republican simplicity in a plain house on the
+Palatine Hill, and educated his family with great strictness and
+frugality. His public conduct was designed to conceal his unbounded
+power. He rejected all unworthy members from the Senate, and limited the
+number of the Senators to six hundred. The Comitia of the Centuries was
+still allowed to pass laws and elect magistrates, but gradually these
+powers were taken away, until, in the reign of Tiberius, they are
+mentioned no more. The emperor's chief counselors in public affairs were
+his four friends, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, C. Cilnius M&aelig;cenas, M. Valerius
+Messala, and Asinius Pollio, all persons of excellent talents, and
+devoted to their master. Agrippa aided him greatly in embellishing the
+city of Rome with new buildings, and the Pantheon, which was built in
+the Campus Martins, still bears the inscription, <i>M. Vipsanius Agrippa,
+consul tertium</i>. Augustus was accustomed to say that he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble.</p>
+
+<p>To secure the peace of the capital, and to extirpate the robbers who
+filled its streets, Augustus divided Rome into fourteen regions, and
+each region into several smaller divisions called <i>Vici</i>: a magistrate
+was placed over each <i>Vicus</i>, and all these officers were under the
+command of the city prefect. A police force, <i>Vigiles</i>, seven hundred in
+number, was also provided, who succeeded in restoring the public peace.
+Italy, in a similar manner, was divided into regions, and local
+magistrates were appointed, who made life and property every where
+secure.</p>
+
+<p>We must notice briefly the extent and condition of that vast empire,
+over which Augustus ruled&mdash;too vast, in fact, to be subjected to the
+control of a single intellect. Italy, the peculiar province of the
+emperor, had lost a large part of its free population,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> whose place was
+supplied by slaves; military colonies were numerous, a kind of
+settlement which never tended to advance the prosperity of the country;
+the cities were declining, and many of them almost abandoned. The north
+of Italy, however, still retained a portion of its former prosperity;
+its great droves of swine supplied the people of Rome with a large part
+of their food; vineyards also abounded there, and the wine-vats of upper
+Italy were said to be often larger than houses. Coarse woolen cloths
+were manufactured in Liguria, and a finer wool was produced near Mutina.
+But Italy, once so fertile, could no longer produce its own corn, for
+which it depended chiefly upon Sicily, Africa, and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The island of Sicily, too, had suffered greatly during the civil wars.
+Its cities were fallen into ruin, and the woods and mountains were
+filled with fugitive slaves, who, when captured, were taken to Rome and
+exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatres. A Roman colony was planted
+by Augustus in the almost deserted city of Syracuse.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the extensive province of Gaul was more promising, its
+savage tribes having begun to adopt the arts of civilization. The Gauls
+purchased from southern traders such articles as they were unable to
+produce at home, and supplied Italy, in return, with coarse wool and
+cargoes of bacon. Several Roman colonies established in Gaul enjoyed
+various political privileges, but the people in general were oppressed
+with taxes and burdened with debts. The religion of the Druids was
+discouraged by laws which forbade human sacrifices, and, indeed, all
+rites opposed to the Roman faith. In Southern Gaul the city of Massilia
+(Marseilles) had imparted civilization to the neighboring tribes: they
+learned to use the Greek characters in writing, while many of the Gallic
+cities invited Greek teachers to open schools in their midst.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, rich in gold and silver, in fine wool, and a prolific soil,
+traded largely with Rome. The valley of the B&aelig;tis, or Guadalquiver, was
+renowned for its uncommon fertility. Many of the Spaniards had already
+adopted the language and manners of their conquerors. Spain was divided
+into three provinces, B&aelig;tica, Lusitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis.
+Gades, or Cadiz, was one of the richest cities of the empire, and,
+according to Dion Cassius, had received the privilege of Roman
+citizenship from Julius C&aelig;sar, whom its people had aided against
+Pompey's officers. The tribes in the northwest of Spain, however, were
+savage and unquiet, and their language, the Basque, which still exists,
+shows that they were never perfectly conquered by the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The northern coast of Africa, opposite to Spain, was held by Juba, a
+native prince, while the Roman province of Africa em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>braced ancient
+Carthage, together with a considerable territory around it. This
+province possessed a large trade. Cyrenaica, to the eastward, included
+the island of Crete, and was termed a pr&aelig;torian province.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt was ruled by a governor, who was always taken from the equestrian
+order. Two legions only were stationed in that province. Being the
+centre of the trade between Italy and the Indies, Egypt accumulated
+great wealth, and was renowned for its extensive commerce. It exported
+large quantities of corn to Italy, and also papyrus, the best writing
+material then known. The two finest kinds of papyrus were named the
+Augustan and the Livian. Alexandria, the sea-port of Egypt, was the
+second city of the empire. Its commerce was immense; and its museum,
+colleges, library, and literary men made it also the centre of Greek
+literature. Alexandria, too, was famous for its superstition and its
+licentiousness: the festivals and rites of Serapis had long excited the
+contempt of the wiser Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The trade between Alexandria and the Indies was carried on through two
+routes: one was the famous canal which, begun by Pharaoh Necho, was
+completed under the government of the Ptolemies. Leaving the Nile near
+the southern point of the Delta, the canal, after a somewhat circuitous
+course, joined the Red Sea at the town of Arsinoe, near the modern town
+of Suez. Another route was overland from Coptos, on the Nile, across the
+desert, to Berenice and Myos Hormos. Along this road wells were dug or
+reservoirs of water provided, and thus an easy communication was kept up
+with the East. Heavy duties, however, were laid upon all goods entering
+or leaving Alexandria, and its extensive trade afforded a great revenue
+to the government.</p>
+
+<p>From Egypt to the &AElig;gean Sea, various provinces were created in Syria and
+Asia Minor. The most extensive of these were the two provinces of Syria
+and Asia, which were governed by lieutenants of the emperor. Judea
+retained a nominal independence, under the government of Herod;
+Jerusalem was adorned by Herod with magnificent buildings; and Antioch,
+Tyre, and several other eastern cities were still prosperous and
+luxurious. They were, however, heavily taxed, and suffered from the
+tyranny and exactions of their Roman rulers.</p>
+
+<p>Greece, in the age of Augustus, seems to have been a scene of
+desolation. It was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia,
+both belonging to the jurisdiction of the Senate and the people. Greece
+had suffered greatly during the civil wars, and had never recovered its
+ancient prosperity. The peninsula was partly depopulated. Laconia had
+long lost its importance, and Messenia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> and Arcadia were almost
+deserted. Corinth and Patr&aelig;, however, were flourishing Roman colonies;
+Thebes was a mere village; Athens still retained its literary renown,
+and was always a favorite resort for cultivated Romans; but its harbor
+was deserted, its walls thrown down, and the energy of its people
+forever gone.</p>
+
+<p>Macedonia had suffered equally with Greece, and no trace remained of its
+former power. Thus we find that the civilized world, at the accession of
+Augustus, was every where marked by desolation and decay.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman empire, at this period, was bounded on the north by the
+Euxine, the Danube, the Rhine, and the British Channel; westward it
+reached to the Atlantic; on the south it was confined by the deserts of
+Africa, and on the east by Assyria and Mesopotamia. The Mediterranean
+Sea was wholly within the empire, and afforded an easy mode of
+communication with the different provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The government which Augustus now established was designed to preserve
+the memory of the republic, while the real power remained with the
+emperor alone. The people were deprived of all their former importance;
+the Comitia were only suffered to pass upon laws proposed by the Senate,
+which was now wholly under the control of the emperor. Consuls and other
+magistrates were still chosen annually, and Augustus, in the earlier
+years of his reign, was accustomed to solicit votes for his favorite
+candidates, who, however, were always elected; later he contented
+himself with furnishing them with a written recommendation. The Senate
+met twice in every month, instead of three times, as was the former
+custom, except during September and October, when no meetings were held.
+The provinces were governed by proconsuls, several of whom were
+appointed by the Senate and the people; but all of them were carefully
+observed by the emperor. Rome itself was governed by a prefect, whose
+duty it was to preserve the public peace.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner Augustus, by the aid of his proconsuls, held a despotic
+rule over all his dominions. He controlled the Senate, too, through his
+authority as censor, and appointed or deposed its members; and he raised
+the property qualification of each Senator to about $50,000. A large
+part of the people of the capital were maintained by the free
+distribution of corn; but Augustus reduced the number from 320,000 to
+200,000, providing for the poorer citizens by settling them in new
+colonies, and his measures seem to have produced general contentment.</p>
+
+<p>He was also sincerely desirous to reform the morals of the nation.
+Several laws were passed encouraging marriage, and in B.C. 18 he obliged
+the Senate to decree that marriage should be imperative upon every
+citizen of suitable age. Celibacy was punished by an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> incapacity to
+receive bequests, and even the childless married man was deprived of
+half his legacy; these efforts, however, failed, and a general license
+prevailed. As censor, he sought to restrain extravagance, and limited
+the sum to be expended upon entertainments. He insisted that the <i>toga</i>,
+the national dress, be worn at least at the public spectacles; he
+endeavored to preserve the distinctions of rank by providing each of the
+three orders with its own seats in the circus; and he plainly sought to
+elevate the aristocracy, and to withdraw all political power from the
+people. It is said, however, that he once entertained the design of
+resigning his authority, but was prevented from doing so by the advice
+of his friends, who represented to him that the Romans were no longer
+capable of governing themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The Pr&aelig;torian guard, which Augustus provided for his own protection,
+consisted of ten cohorts, each containing 800 or 1000 men, both cavalry
+and foot: of these only three cohorts were kept in the city, the others
+being distributed through the Italian towns. These soldiers received
+double pay, and were commanded by the <i>pr&aelig;fectus pr&aelig;torii</i>: at a later
+period they became the masters of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>The whole army, amounting to about 350,000 men, was encamped in various
+portions of his dominions. His fleet, which numbered 500 ships, was
+stationed chiefly at Misenum and Ravenna. His revenues arose from the
+contributions of the provinces, from various taxes, and from the rent of
+the public domain. An excise was imposed upon all goods exposed for
+sale, and there was also a tax upon all bachelors.</p>
+
+<p>Augustus encouraged commerce and industry, built new roads, and provided
+the capital with an abundance of food. Games and public spectacles were
+exhibited to amuse the people, a free distribution of corn relieved the
+indigent, literature was encouraged, the arts flourished with new vigor,
+and the people and the Senate, pleased with present tranquillity,
+bestowed upon Augustus the title of the Father of his Country.</p>
+
+<p>Several conspiracies, however, alarmed the emperor. In B.C. 30, Lepidus,
+a son of the former triumvir, had formed a plot for his destruction,
+which was detected by M&aelig;cenas, and its author put to death. Another, in
+B.C. 22, was also unsuccessful. In A.D. 4, Cinna, a grandson of Pompey,
+was discovered in a similar attempt, and was pardoned at the request of
+Livia; he was afterward even raised to the consulship. But so
+intimidated was Augustus by the fear of assassination, that, toward the
+close of his life, he never went to a meeting of the Senate without
+wearing a breastplate under his robe.</p>
+
+<p>The military enterprises of Augustus were in general successful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> He led
+an army into Spain, and subdued the Cantabri and Astures, returning to
+Rome B.C. 24. While in Spain he founded several cities, among others
+Augusta Emerita (Merida), and C&aelig;sar Augusta (Saragossa). Phraates, king
+of the Parthians, fearful of the Roman arms, gave up the Roman standards
+taken from Crassus and Antony, B.C. 20, and this event was celebrated by
+striking medals and by the verses of the Augustan poets. The emperor
+hung up the standards in a temple which he had built at Rome to Mars,
+the Avenger.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius and Drusus, the two sons of Livia by her former husband, were
+distinguished commanders, and gained many victories over the Germans;
+but, in B.C. 9, Drusus died from a fall from his horse. Tiberius then
+took the command of the army, and gained a great victory over the
+Sigambri. He returned to Rome B.C. 6, and triumphed; was saluted
+Imperator, and received the tribunitian power for five years.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after, indignant at the dissolute conduct of his wife Julia, and
+the honors bestowed upon her sons by Agrippa, he withdrew to Rhodes,
+where he remained for seven years, a discontented exile. He returned to
+Rome in A.D. 2, and, two years after, was adopted by Augustus as his
+son. He next conquered a large part of Germany, and defeated several
+large bodies of the Marcomanni in what is now the territory of Bohemia.</p>
+
+<p>But, while he was employed upon this expedition, Arminius, the German
+hero, excited an insurrection of his countrymen against the cruel
+Romans, cut off Varus, their leader, with his army, and filled Rome with
+alarm. Germany seemed lost. Augustus, when he heard of the disaster,
+exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! give me back my legions!"</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius, however, together with Germanicus, the brave son of Drusus,
+returned to the defense of the frontier, but did not venture to
+penetrate into the forests beyond the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>In his domestic life Augustus was singularly unfortunate. Livia, his
+wife, for whom he entertained a sincere affection, was a person of
+strong intellect and various accomplishments; but she was descended from
+the Claudian family, and inherited all the pride, ambition, and love of
+political intrigue which marked the descendants of Appius Claudius. She
+was also married to a Claudius, and thus her two sons by her first
+husband, Tiberius and Drusus, were even more than herself Claudians. On
+them all Livia's affections were fixed; to secure their aggrandizement
+she hesitated at no effort and no crime; and when Drusus died, her son
+Tiberius, who resembled his mother in disposition, became the chief
+object of her regard. Her husband and his family wore looked upon with
+jeal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>ousy and dislike, and the darkest suspicions were aroused at Rome
+by the death, one by one, of every person who stood between Tiberius and
+the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Livia had no child by her second marriage, and the only heir of Augustus
+was Julia, the daughter of his former wife, Scribonia. Julia was
+beautiful, intelligent, and highly educated; and Augustus, who was
+strongly attached to his own family, looked upon his daughter with
+singular affection and pride. He hoped to see her grow up pure, wise,
+and discreet&mdash;a new Lucretia, the representative of the ideal Roman
+matron; and he early accustomed Julia to practice moderation in dress,
+to spend hours at the spinning-wheel, and to look upon herself as
+destined to become the model and example of Roman women.</p>
+
+<p>Julia was first married to her cousin Marcellus, the son of Octavia, a
+young man of excellent character, whom Augustus adopted, and probably
+destined as his successor; but, in B.C. 23, Marcellus died, amid the
+sincere grief of all the Romans. Marcellus has been made immortal by a
+few touching lines of Virgil.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image082" name="image082">
+   <img src="images/082.jpg"
+      alt="Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus."
+      title="Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not long after, Augustus married Julia to his friend Agrippa, and they
+had five children&mdash;three sons, Caius, Lucius, and Agrippa Postumus, the
+latter being born after the death of his father, and two daughters,
+Julia and Agrippina. These children were now the hope of the people and
+the emperor, and objects of jealousy and dislike to Livia and Tiberius.</p>
+
+<p>In B.C. 12 Agrippa died. Augustus then prevailed upon Tiberius to
+divorce his own wife, to whom he was sincerely attached, in order to
+marry Julia. Their union was an unhappy one, and, after living together
+for about a year, they separated forever.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of Julia, in fact, had long been marked by gross
+immoralities, and Augustus alone was unconscious of her unworthiness. He
+refused to believe that his daughter, whom he had destined to become an
+example of purity, had so deceived and dishonored him. At length,
+however, he became convinced of her guilt, and banished her (B.C. 2) to
+the island Pandataria (Santa Maria), off the coast of Campania, where
+she was treated with just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> severity. Her daughter Julia, who had shared
+in her excesses, was also sent into exile.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Caius and Lucius C&aelig;sar both died suddenly. Caius was sent to
+the East in B.C. 1, to improve himself in military affairs, and there
+died, A.D. 3, from the effects of a wound given him by an assassin.
+Lucius, the younger, having gone on a mission to Spain in A.D. 2, fell
+sick and died at Massilia. About this time Tiberius had been recalled
+from Rhodes and intrusted with the chief care of public affairs. It was
+believed at Rome that Livia and her son had removed the two C&aelig;sars by
+poison and assassination.</p>
+
+<p>All happiness must now have fled from the breast of the emperor. He
+still, however, attended carefully to the duties of his station. In A.D.
+4 he adopted Tiberius, together with Agrippa Postumus; Tiberius was
+obliged at the same time to adopt Germanicus, the eldest son of his
+brother Drusus. In A.D. 7 Augustus was induced to banish Agrippa
+Postumus, who proved unworthy of his favor, to the island of Planasia,
+and this act was ratified by a decree of the Senate; it was thought,
+however, that Livia was again the cause of this unnatural act. In A.D. 8
+the poet Ovid was banished for some unknown crime.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image083" name="image083">
+   <img src="images/083.jpg"
+      alt="Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentum, or chariot, in which the Roman ladies were accustomed to ride."
+      title="Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentum, or chariot, in which the Roman ladies were accustomed to ride." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentum, or chariot, in which the Roman ladies were accustomed to ride.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was in the year 5 or 7 B.C., for the true date is unknown, that Jesus
+Christ, the Savior of the world, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 14, Augustus, aided by Tiberius, took a census&mdash;the third during
+his reign. His health, which had always been delicate, now rapidly
+declined. He had long borne with patience the infirmities of old age,
+and he now retired to Nola, where he died, August 19, A.D. 14, in the
+same room where his father had died before him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> It is said that as he
+was dying he exclaimed to those around him, "Have I not acted my part
+well? It is time for the applause."</p>
+
+<p>He was seventy-six years old. His subjects lamented his death with
+sincere grief, since they had felt the happy effects of his care. His
+funeral rites were performed in great solemnity; his body was burned on
+the Campus Martius, and his ashes were placed in the splendid mausoleum
+which he had built for himself and his family. The Senate ordered him to
+be numbered among the gods of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In appearance Augustus was of middle stature, his features regular, and
+his eyes of uncommon brilliancy. He was a tolerable writer, and capable
+of distinguishing literary merit; his chosen friends were all men of
+letters; and his fame with posterity rests, in a great degree, upon that
+circle of poets, historians, and eminent scholars by whom he was
+surrounded. The Augustan Age, indeed, forms one of the most remarkable
+periods in the history of the human intellect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image084" name="image084">
+   <img src="images/084.jpg"
+      alt="Medal of Augustus, showing the myrtle crown, or Corona ovalis."
+      title="Medal of Augustus, showing the myrtle crown, or Corona ovalis." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Medal of Augustus, showing the myrtle crown, or Corona ovalis.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image085" name="image085">
+   <img src="images/085.jpg"
+      alt="Medal of Nero, showing an Organ and a sprig of Laurel, probably designed as a prize medal for a musician."
+      title="Medal of Nero, showing an Organ and a sprig of Laurel, probably designed as a prize medal for a musician." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Medal of Nero, showing an Organ and a sprig of Laurel, probably designed as a prize medal for a musician.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XL.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.</h3>
+
+
+<p>A feeling resembling loyalty had grown up at Rome toward the family of
+Augustus, and no one ventured to dispute the claim of Tiberius to the
+throne. Livia, however, who had attended the death-bed of the emperor,
+concealed his death until her son arrived, and then proclaimed, at the
+same moment, the death of Augustus and the accession of his successor.
+The first event of the new reign was the assassination of Agrippa
+Postumus, grandson of Augustus, and, according to the modern rule of
+descent, the proper heir to the throne. The guilt of this act was shared
+between Tiberius and his mother, who were also accused of having
+hastened the death of Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius summoned the Senate to assemble, announced the death of the
+emperor, and pretended a wish to be relieved from the cares of empire;
+the Senate, however, refused to accept his feigned resignation, and he
+yielded to their wishes. This body now became the chief source of
+legislation. Tiberius took away from the people the power of making laws
+and of electing magistrates. The <i>senatus consulta</i>, or decrees of the
+Senate, were made the source of law, without any authority from the
+Comitia. The Senate selected the Consuls from four candidates presented
+to them by the emperor, and thus the last trace of the popular power
+passed away.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile two mutinies occurred among the soldiers, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> seemed at
+first to threaten a change in the government. The legions of Pannonia,
+complaining of long service and indifferent pay, rose against their
+commander Bl&aelig;sus, but were induced to return to their duty by Drusus,
+the son of Tiberius. A more important insurrection broke out among the
+legions of the Rhine, who sought to prevail upon Germanicus, the son of
+Drusus, to accept the imperial crown. Germanicus, however, who was
+adorned with many noble qualities, refused to yield either to their
+entreaties or their threats. Agrippina, his wife, with the infant Caius,
+joined Germanicus in imploring the soldiers not to forget their duty;
+and they at length relented, and even gave up their leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Germanicus had now deserved the hatred of the jealous and treacherous
+Tiberius. He was beloved by the people and the army, was frank,
+generous, and brave; he had married Agrippina, the daughter of Julia and
+Agrippa, and was the adopted son of the emperor himself. His mind had
+been highly cultivated, and he excelled in all elegant exercises. He
+seems, in fact, to have been one of the noblest of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 14 he led an army across the Rhine, but the next year planned a
+more important expedition, in which he defeated the Germans under
+Arminius, and buried the remains of the army of the unfortunate Varus
+under an earthen mound. His third campaign was still more successful. In
+A.D. 16 he gained an important battle in the valley of the Weser, and
+recovered the last of the eagles lost by Varus.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius, jealous of his fame, now recalled him, and resolved that the
+limits of the empire should not be enlarged. In A.D. 17 Germanicus
+triumphed, surrounded in his chariot by his five sons. The same year he
+was sent to the East to settle the affairs of the Eastern provinces.
+Meanwhile a war broke out in Germany between Arminius and Marboduus.
+Drusus was sent thither to contrive the destruction of both leaders,
+which he seems to have effected, since Marboduus was driven to seek
+protection from the Romans, while the brave Arminius was soon after
+slain by the hands of his fellow-Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Germanicus, in A.D. 18, visited Athens, sailed up the Nile the same
+year, and then, having returned to Syria, died of poison administered to
+him by Cn. Piso, a friend of the Empress Livia. His death excited great
+grief at Rome, where he was buried with solemnity in A.D. 20. Piso,
+meanwhile, being tried before the Senate, and finding himself about to
+be condemned, sought a voluntary death.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius was cold and unpopular in his manners, awkward and even timid
+in his carriage, but a master of dissimulation. The only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> person of whom
+he stood in awe was his mother Livia; but he lived in constant fear of
+insurrection. The Lex Majestas, which he enlarged and enforced with
+unusual severity, was now the source of great evil to his country. This
+law defined treason against the emperor. Tiberius made it include words
+as well as acts, and thus he who spoke lightly of the emperor's person
+or authority might be punished with death.</p>
+
+<p>From this law grew up the Delatores, or informers, persons who made it
+their chief occupation to denounce those who were obnoxious to the
+emperor. The informers soon grew numerous: some of them were persons of
+high rank, who sought to display their eloquence, and to win the favor
+of the emperor, by denouncing his opponents in envenomed rhetoric, while
+others were common spies. No man's life was safe at Rome from this
+moment, and the purest and wisest citizens were exposed to the attacks
+of an infinite number of delators. Tiberius encouraged the informers.
+&AElig;lius Saturninus was flung from the Tarpeian Rock for a libel upon the
+emperor. Silanus was banished for "disparaging the majesty of Tiberius."</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius, who professed to imitate the policy of Augustus in every
+particular, seems to have governed with firmness and ability. He
+improved the condition of the provinces, restrained the avarice of the
+provincial governors, maintained good order in the capital, and strove
+to check the growth of luxury; but the morals of the capital were now
+hopelessly depraved, and the vice and corruption of the whole world
+flowed into the streets of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>&AElig;lius Sejanus, the Pr&aelig;fect of the Pr&aelig;torians, had long been the friend
+and chief adviser of the emperor. He was cruel, unscrupulous, and
+ambitious&mdash;the proper instrument of a tyrant. In A.D. 21 an insurrection
+broke out in Gaul, which was scarcely subdued when the Germans rose
+against the Romans. The Gauls, too, led by Sacrovir, a Druid, who
+exercised a superstitious influence over his countrymen, once more
+rebelled. Drusus, who had been made Consul with his father, was sent
+against them, and reduced them to subjection. The Druid Sacrovir burned
+himself in a house to which he had fled. In A.D. 22 Drusus received the
+tribunitian power. He was the only son of Tiberius, and was married to
+Livia, or Livilla, as she was sometimes called.</p>
+
+<p>Sejanus had now conceived a design which led him to resolve upon the
+destruction of all the imperial family, since he himself began to aspire
+to the throne; and the elevation of Drusus filled him with disgust. In
+A.D. 23 he prevailed upon Tiberius to remove all the Pr&aelig;torian Guards,
+about nine or ten thousand in number, to a camp near the city. He
+appointed their officers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> won the soldiers with bribes and flatteries,
+and thus believed he had gained a sure support.</p>
+
+<p>Drusus stood in his path, and he resolved to destroy him. He won the
+affections of Livilla, and prevailed upon her to poison her husband. The
+unhappy prince died in 23. Tiberius received the news of his son's death
+with a composure almost incredible. He told the Senate, who put on
+mourning robes, that he had given himself to his country. A splendid
+funeral procession was prepared for Drusus, in which the statues of
+Attus Clausus, the Sabine chief, the founder of the Claudian Gens, and
+of &AElig;neas, and the Alban kings, were carried side by side, thus recalling
+the memories of the early regal dynasty, as well as of the severe
+founders of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, together with her numerous family,
+next aroused the hostility of Sejanus, and he resolved upon their
+destruction. In A.D. 25 he proposed for the hand of Livilla, but
+Tiberius refused to sanction the connection. In A.D. 26 eleven cities
+contended for the privilege of making Tiberius their tutelar deity, but
+he declined this honor. Soon after, the emperor, as if anxious to escape
+from the sarcasms and the scandal of Rome, retired from the city,
+accompanied by a single Senator, Cocceius Nerva, and at length, in A.D.
+27, hid himself in the island of Capre&aelig;, on the coast of Campania. Here
+he built twelve villas in different parts of the island, and lived with
+a few companions, shut out from mankind. No one was allowed to land upon
+the shores of Capre&aelig;, and even fishermen who broke this rule through
+ignorance were severely punished. Every day, however, dispatches were
+brought from the continent, and he still continued to direct the affairs
+of his vast empire.</p>
+
+<p>Sejanus was left to govern Rome, but frequently visited the Emperor at
+his island. In A.D. 29, Livia, the widow of Augustus, died, at the age
+of eighty-six years, having retained her powerful intellect and her love
+of political intrigue to the close of her life. It is said that her
+private charities were great, and that she remained faithful to the
+memory of her imperial husband. The family of Germanicus, meanwhile,
+were crushed by the arts of Sejanus. In A.D. 29 Tiberius directed the
+Senate to banish Agrippina and her son Nero, and they were confined
+separately upon two barren islands. Drusus, the second son, was soon
+after imprisoned; while Caius, the youngest, by his flatteries and
+caresses, preserved the favor of Tiberius, and was admitted into Capre&aelig;.
+The emperor now began to doubt the fidelity of his chosen friend
+Sejanus, although their statues had been placed together in the Temple
+of Friendship on the island; and he sent a letter to the Senate in which
+he de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>nounced him as a traitor. Such was the end of a guilty friendship.
+Sejanus was flung into the Mamertine Prison, and there strangled. The
+people threw his body into the Tiber, A.D. 31. Great numbers of his
+friends or relatives perished with him, and a general massacre filled
+Rome with terror. He was succeeded in his power by Sertorius Macro, who
+had aided in his destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius, meanwhile, seems to have become a raging madman. He put to
+death his niece Agrippina, with her two children, and ruled over the
+Senate with pitiless cruelty. His companion, Cocceius Nerva, filled with
+melancholy at the misfortunes of his country, resolved upon suicide; nor
+could all the entreaties or commands of Tiberius prevail upon him to
+live. In A.D. 35 Tiberius made his will, dividing his estate between
+Caius, the youngest son of Germanicus, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of
+the second Drusus. Macro, probably fearing the fate of Sejanus, had
+formed a close intimacy with Caius, and they now planned the death of
+the emperor, whose feeble health, however, since he was near
+seventy-seven years of age, promised Rome a speedy deliverance. Tiberius
+died March 16, A.D. 37, Macro, it is said, having smothered him with a
+pillow.</p>
+
+<p>If we may trust the account of the Jew Philo, he left the empire in a
+prosperous condition. His cruelty, in fact, seems to have been exercised
+upon the great and the rich, while the people lived in security. His
+administration may be said to have been a fortunate one. His character
+and his crimes disgrace human nature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image086" name="image086">
+   <img src="images/086.jpg"
+      alt="Reverses of Roman brass Coins, showing Galleys."
+      title="Reverses of Roman brass Coins, showing Galleys." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Reverses of Roman brass Coins, showing Galleys.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>REIGN OF CAIUS CALIGULA, A.D. 37-41.&mdash;Caius C&aelig;sar, known as Caligula,
+was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and men fondly hoped that he
+had inherited the virtues of his father, whom he resembled in his
+personal appearance. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor, and the Senate
+and the people acknowledged him with unfeigned joy. He was now
+twenty-five years of age, and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> first acts were generous and humane.
+He recalled many exiles, abolished various taxes, and gratified the
+people with spectacles and gifts. He also buried the remains of his
+mother and brother, who had died in exile, with decent solemnity.</p>
+
+<p>But, having been seized with a severe illness after he had reigned eight
+months, upon his recovery his mind seemed to have been fatally injured.
+He abandoned himself to cruelty and lust; he surpassed the vices of
+Tiberius; and at length, declaring himself to be a god, would often go
+through the streets of Rome dressed as Bacchus, Venus, or Apollo: he
+compelled the people to worship him, and made the wealthiest citizens
+his priests. He even conferred the consulship on his favorite horse.</p>
+
+<p>His boundless wastefulness soon consumed the public treasures, and he
+was forced to resort to every kind of extortion to obtain money. Having
+exhausted Rome and Italy, in A.D. 39 he led a large army across the Alps
+for the purpose of plundering Gaul, where the richest citizens were put
+to death and their property confiscated. He was assassinated in his
+palace January 24, A.D. 41.</p>
+
+<p>REIGN OF TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO, A.D. 41-54.&mdash;The Emperor
+Claudius was the son of Drusus and Antonia, and the brother of
+Germanicus. He was fifty-one years old when, after the murder of
+Caligula, the Pr&aelig;torian Guard raised him to the throne. His health had
+always been delicate, his mind feeble, and he had never taken any part
+in public affairs. His first acts were popular and mild, but, having
+fallen under the control of his wife Messalina, who was a monster of
+wickedness, he put to death many of the best of the Romans. When,
+however, Messalina ventured to marry C. Silius, a young Roman knight,
+Claudius directed her execution. He then married his niece Agrippina,
+who prevailed upon him to set aside his son Britannicus, and to adopt
+her own son Nero, who was now destined for the throne. Nero was educated
+by the philosopher Seneca, together with Burrus Afranius, pr&aelig;fect of the
+Pr&aelig;torians. Claudius, however, becoming suspicious of the designs of his
+wife, she resolved upon his death. Locusta, a noted poisoner, was hired
+to prepare a dish of poisoned mushrooms, of which Claudius ate: but the
+poison not proving fatal, the physician Xenophon forced a larger
+quantity into his throat, and he died October 13, A.D. 54.</p>
+
+<p>Claudius was fond of letters, and wrote memoirs of his own time and
+histories in Greek of Etruria and of Carthage. He also made various
+useful laws, and carried out several public works of importance. He
+completed the Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula, and built a fort and
+light-house at Ostia, and a tunnel from Lake Lucinus to the River Liris.
+<i>Colonia Agrippina</i> (Cologne) was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> raised by his orders to the most
+important military station in Lower Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 43 a Roman army invaded Britain. Claudius himself entered that
+country soon after, and returned to Rome to triumph. But Vespasian,
+afterward emperor, together with his son Titus, overran Britain,
+defeated Caractacus, the brave British chieftain, and sent him and his
+family prisoners to Rome. Claudius, pleased with his manly conduct, gave
+him his liberty.</p>
+
+<p>NERO, A.D. 54-68.&mdash;The first five years of the reign of Nero were marked
+by the mildness and equity of his government. He discouraged luxury,
+reduced the taxes, and increased the authority of the Senate. His two
+preceptors, Seneca and Burrus, controlled his mind, and restrained for a
+time the constitutional insanity of the Claudian race. At length,
+however, he sank into licentiousness, and from licentiousness to its
+necessary attendants, cruelty and crime. From a modest and philosophic
+youth, Nero became the most cruel and dissolute of tyrants. He quarreled
+with his mother Agrippina, who for his sake had murdered the feeble
+Claudius; and when she threatened to restore Britannicus to the throne,
+he ordered that young prince to be poisoned at an entertainment. In
+order to marry Popp&aelig;a Sabina, a beautiful and dissolute woman, wife of
+Salvius Otho, he resolved to divorce his wife Octavia, and also to
+murder his mother Agrippina. Under the pretense of a reconciliation, he
+invited Agrippina to meet him at Bai&aelig;, where she was placed in a boat,
+which fell to pieces as she entered it. Agrippina swam to the shore, but
+was there assassinated by the orders of her son. The Roman Senate
+congratulated Nero upon this fearful deed, while the philosopher Seneca
+wrote a defense of the matricide. The philosopher, the Senate, and the
+emperor seem worthy of each other.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to enumerate all the crimes of Nero. In A.D. 64 a
+fire broke out in Rome, which lasted for six days, consuming the greater
+part of the city. Nero was supposed to have ordered the city to be
+fired, to obtain a clear representation of the burning of Troy, and,
+while Rome was in flames, amused himself by playing upon musical
+instruments. He sought to throw the odium of this event upon the
+Christians, and inflicted upon them fearful cruelties. The city was
+rebuilt upon an improved plan, and Nero's palace, called the Golden
+House, occupied a large part of the ruined capital with groves, gardens,
+and buildings of unequaled magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 65 a plot was discovered in which many eminent Romans were
+engaged. The poet Lucan, Seneca, the philosopher and defender of
+matricide, together with many others, were put to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> death. In A.D. 67
+Nero traveled to Greece, and performed on the cithara at the Olympian
+and Isthmian games. He also contended for the prize in singing, and put
+to death a singer whose voice was louder than his own. Stained with
+every crime of which human nature is capable, haunted by the shade of
+the mother he had murdered, and filled with remorse, Nero was finally
+dethroned by the Pr&aelig;torian Guards, and died by his own hand, June 9,
+A.D. 68. He was the last of the Claudian family. No one remained who had
+an hereditary claim to the empire of Augustus, and the future emperors
+were selected by the Pr&aelig;torian Guards or the provincial legions.</p>
+
+<p>During this reign, Boadicea, the British queen, A.D. 61, revolted
+against the Romans and defeated several armies; but the governor,
+Suetonius Paulinus, conquered the insurgents in a battle in which eighty
+thousand Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, unwilling to survive
+her liberty, put an end to her life.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Nero, Servius Sulpicius Galba, already chosen emperor by
+the Pr&aelig;torians and the Senate, was murdered in the Forum, January, A.D.
+69. He was succeeded by Salvius Otho, the infamous friend of Nero, and
+the husband of Popp&aelig;a Sabina. The legions on the Rhine, however,
+proclaimed their own commander, A. Vitellius, emperor, and Otho's forces
+being defeated in a battle near Bedriacum, between Verona and Cremona,
+he destroyed himself.</p>
+
+<p>Vitellius, the new emperor, was remarkable for his gluttony and his
+coarse vices. He neglected every duty of his office, and soon became
+universally contemptible. Vespasian, the distinguished general, who had
+been fighting successfully against the Jews in Palestine, was proclaimed
+emperor by the governor of Egypt. Leaving his son Titus to continue the
+war, Vespasian prepared to advance upon Rome. His brave adherent,
+Antonius Primus, at the head of the legions of the Danube, without any
+orders from Vespasian, marched into Italy and defeated the army of
+Vitellius. The Pr&aelig;torians and the Roman populace still supported
+Vitellius; a fearful massacre took place in the city, and the Capitoline
+Temple was burned; but Antonius Primus took the Pr&aelig;torian camp, and
+Vitellius was dragged from his palace and put to death, December 20,
+A.D. 69.</p>
+
+<p>REIGN OF T. FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, A.D. 69-79.&mdash;Vespasian, the founder of
+the first Flavian family of emperors, was a soldier of fortune, who had
+risen from a low station to high command in the army. He was brave,
+active, free from vice, and, although fond of money, was never charged
+with extortion or rapacity. Toward the close of the summer, A.D. 70, he
+arrived in Rome, and received<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> the imperium from the Senate. He began
+at once to restore discipline in the army, and raised to the rank of
+Senators and Equites illustrious men from the provinces, as well as from
+Italy and Rome, thus giving to the provincials a certain share in the
+government. The courts of justice were purified, the <i>Delatores</i>, or
+spies, were discountenanced, and trials for treason ceased. To increase
+his revenues, Vespasian renewed the taxes in several provinces which had
+been exempted by Nero, and he introduced economy and good order into the
+administration of the finances. Yet he expended large sums in rebuilding
+the Capitoline Temple, and also in completing the Colosseum, whose
+immense ruins form one of the most remarkable features in the modern
+scenery of Rome. He built, too, the Temple of Peace and a public
+library. He appointed lecturers upon rhetoric, with a salary of 100
+sesterces, but was possessed himself of little mental cultivation. He is
+even said to have disliked literary men, and, in the year A.D. 74,
+expelled the Stoic and Cynic philosophers from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 70, September 2, his son Titus took the city of Jerusalem, after
+a brave defense by the Jews, who were finally betrayed by their own
+factions. The city was totally destroyed, and nearly half a million of
+the Jews perished in the siege. Those who survived, being forbidden to
+rebuild their city, were scattered over the empire, and each Jew was
+compelled to pay a yearly tax of two drachm&aelig;, which was appropriated to
+rebuilding the Capitoline Temple. The Arch of Titus, which still exists
+at Rome, was erected in commemoration of the fall of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Vespasian's generals repressed an insurrection of the Germans, and in
+A.D. 71 C. Julius Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus,
+entered Britain as legate to Petilius Cerialis. He was made governor of
+the province in A.D. 77, and led his victorious armies as far north as
+the Highlands of Scotland. This excellent character, by his justice and
+moderation, reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke.</p>
+
+<p>By his first wife, Flavia Domatilla, Vespasian had three
+children&mdash;Titus, Domitian, and Domatilla. When she died he formed an
+inferior kind of marriage with C&#339;nis, a woman of low station, who,
+however, seems to have deserved his esteem. He died 23d of June, A.D.
+79, at the age of seventy. Although never a refined or cultivated man,
+Vespasian, by his hardy virtues, restored the vigor of the Roman
+government, and gave peace and prosperity to his subjects; while he who
+founded a library and established schools of rhetoric can not have been
+so wholly illiterate as some writers have imagined.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>REIGN OF TITUS, A.D. 79-81.</h4>
+
+<p>Titus was one of the most accomplished and benevolent of men. Eloquent,
+warlike, moderate in his desires, he was called <i>Amor et delici&aelig; humani
+generis</i>, "The love and the delight of the human race." In early life he
+had been thought inclined to severity, and his treatment of the Jews, at
+the fall of their city, does not seem in accordance with his character
+for humanity. But no sooner had he ascended the throne than he won a
+general affection. Such was the mildness of his government that no one
+was punished at Rome for political offenses. Those who conspired against
+him he not only pardoned, but took into his familiarity. He was so
+generous that he could refuse no request for aid. He was resolved, he
+said, that no one should leave his presence sorrowful; and he thought
+that day lost in which he had done no good deed. Titus wrote poems and
+tragedies in Greek, and was familiar with his native literature. During
+his reign, A.D. 79, occurred a violent eruption of Vesuvius, together
+with an earthquake, by which Herculaneum, Stabi&aelig;, and Pompeii, three
+towns on the Bay of Naples, were destroyed. The emperor was so touched
+by the sufferings of the inhabitants that he expended nearly his whole
+private fortune in relieving their wants. Pompeii and Herculaneum, which
+were covered by lava or ashes, were thus preserved from farther decay,
+and, having been partially excavated and restored, enable us to form a
+truthful conception of the domestic life of the Roman cities in the age
+of Titus. We here enter the villas of the rich or the humble homes of
+the poor, and find every where traces of comfort, elegance, and taste.</p>
+
+<p>The next year after the destruction of these cities, a fire broke out in
+Rome, which raged for three days, desolating the finest regions of the
+city. The Capitoline Temple was again destroyed, together with many
+buildings in the Campus Martius. A pestilence followed soon after, which
+ravaged Rome and all Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 81 Titus dedicated the Colosseum, which was now completed, and
+also his famous baths, the ruins of which may still be visited at Rome.
+Splendid games and spectacles were exhibited in honor of these events.
+Few military events occurred during this reign, the empire being
+perfectly quiet, except where the active Agricola was subduing the
+wandering tribes of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>At length Titus, having gone to the Sabine villa where his father
+Vespasian died, was himself suddenly arrested by death. It was believed
+that his brother Domitian was the cause of this unhappy event, and all
+the people lamented their emperor as if they had lost a father or a
+friend. Titus died September 13, A.D. 81.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>REIGN OF DOMITIAN, A.D. 81-96</h4>
+
+<p>Domitian, who was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers upon his brother's
+death, possessed the mental ability of the Flavian family, joined to the
+vices and cruelty of the Claudian. In him Nero or Caligula seemed
+revived. His first political acts, however, were often useful, and for
+several years he concealed his true disposition. But he soon surrounded
+himself with spies and informers, and put to death the noblest men of
+his time. To preserve the fidelity of the soldiers he doubled their pay,
+while he won the populace by games and donations. But, to maintain his
+expenditure, he confiscated the property of the richer citizens, and no
+man of wealth was safe from an accusation of treason.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola, who had gained a great victory over the Caledonians at the
+foot of the Grampion Hills, and who was about to subdue all Scotland,
+Domitian recalled, being jealous of his military fame; and that brave
+leader passed the last eight years of his life in retirement at Rome, in
+order to avoid the suspicions of the tyrant. Meanwhile, the Dacians, led
+by their king Decebalus, having crossed the Danube, Domitian took the
+field against them, and, in A.D. 90, was defeated, and forced to
+conclude a humiliating peace. Yet, on his return to Rome, he celebrated
+a triumph, assuming the name of Dacicus. The next year an insurrection
+broke out among the German legions, which was, however, suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>Domitian now ordered himself to be styled the "Lord and God," and was
+worshiped with divine honors. A ferocious jealousy of all excellence in
+others seemed to possess him with rage against the wise and good. The
+most eminent of the nobility were put to death. All philosophers, and
+among them the virtuous Epictetus, were banished from Rome. The
+Christians, which name now included many persons of high station, were
+murdered in great numbers. At last the tyrant resolved to put to death
+his wife Domitia, but she discovered his design, and had him
+assassinated, 18th September, A.D. 96. The Senate passed a decree that
+his name should be erased from all public monuments, and refused to
+yield to the wishes of the soldiers, who would have proclaimed him a
+god.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image087" name="image087">
+   <img src="images/087.jpg"
+      alt="Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing figure of Britannia."
+      title="Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing figure of Britannia." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing figure of Britannia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XLI.</h2>
+
+<h3>PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.&mdash;COMMODUS, A.D. 180.&mdash;REIGN OF M.
+COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.</h3>
+
+
+<p>This venerable man was sixty-four years old when he was proclaimed
+emperor upon the death of Domitian. He was a native of the town of
+Narnia, in Umbria, and his virtues had won him a general esteem. The
+Pr&aelig;torians, who had not been consulted in his election, never looked
+upon him with favor, and Nerva was obliged to act with great caution. He
+stopped trials for high treason, pardoned political offenders,
+diminished taxes, recalled exiles, and strove by every honest art to
+attain popularity. But the Pr&aelig;torians, becoming mutinous, not only put
+the murderers of Domitian to death, but forced the emperor to approve of
+their act publicly. This insult was deeply felt by Nerva, who now
+resolved to adopt a colleague, in order to increase his own authority.
+He therefore selected M. Ulpius Trajan, a distinguished general, who was
+in command of the army of Lower Germany.</p>
+
+<p>We now enter upon the most pleasing period in the history of the Roman
+Empire. During the next eighty years a general prosperity prevailed. The
+emperors were all men worthy to command, and capable of giving
+tranquillity to their vast dominions. Several of them were of the purest
+morals, of high mental cultivation, and are still looked upon as
+ornaments of the human race; and while they could not check the decline
+of their people, these virtuous emperors prevented, for a time, the fall
+of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Nerva, in order to elevate the condition of his people, purchased lands,
+which he distributed among them, and he sought to make them feel the
+necessity of labor and of self-dependence. But it was too late to reform
+the manners of the indolent, licentious plebs, corrupted by the
+indulgence of their tyrants. Nerva died of a fever, January 27, A.D.
+98.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>M. ULPIUS TRAJANUS, A.D. 98-117</h4>
+
+<p>Trajan, the first emperor who was not a native of Italy, was born at
+Italica, in Spain, and was about forty years of age at the death of
+Nerva. His memory was so much revered among the Romans, that, two
+hundred and fifty years later, the Senate hailed the accession of the
+new emperor with the prayer that he might be happier than Augustus,
+better than Trajan. He was free from every vice except an occasional
+indulgence in wine. His mind was naturally strong, his manners pleasing,
+his appearance noble and imposing. He desired only to restore the simple
+manners and virtuous habits of an earlier age.</p>
+
+<p>Trajan, after his adoption by Nerva, entered upon his high office at
+Cologne, and then traveled toward Rome. In A.D. 99 he entered that city
+on foot, followed by a small retinue, and was received with general good
+will. He abolished the trials for high treason, <i>judicia majestatis</i>,
+which had made Rome so often a scene of terror, restored freedom of
+speech to the Senate, revived the <i>Comitia</i> for the election of
+magistrates, and bound himself by oath to observe the laws. He punished
+the principal informers, banishing many of them to the barren islands
+around Italy, while he at once, by severe measures, reduced the
+turbulent Pr&aelig;torians to obedience. His wife Plotina, who was a woman of
+excellent character, with her sister Marcina, revived by their virtues
+the dignity of the Roman matron. The society of the city was purified,
+and the family of the emperor offered an example of propriety that
+produced an excellent effect upon the manners of the higher ranks.</p>
+
+<p>Among the first acts of Trajan was the foundation of public schools for
+the education and maintenance of poor children in various parts of
+Italy. He founded, too, the Ulpian Library at Rome, and adorned every
+part of his empire with magnificent buildings, roads, bridges, and
+various useful improvements. He seemed to live, in fact, wholly for his
+people, and passed his life in devising and executing plans for their
+advantage.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+   <a id="image088" name="image088">
+   <img src="images/088.jpg"
+      alt="Trajan's Pillar"
+      title="Trajan's Pillar" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Decebalus, king of the Dacians, sent to demand the tribute which
+had been promised him by Domitian, Trajan refused to be bound by the
+disgraceful treaty, and, having levied an army of 60,000 men, marched
+against the Dacians, who had boldly advanced across the Danube. A
+terrible battle took place, in which the Romans were victorious; but so
+great was the slaughter that sufficient linen could not be obtained to
+dress the wounds of the soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes
+to supply their wants. He took the capital of the Dacian king, defeated
+him in various encounters, and compelled him (A.D. 102) to make peace,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+giving up a part of his territory. Having returned to Rome, Trajan
+received from the Senate the surname of Dacicus. But in A.D. 104 the
+Dacians again rose in arms, and the Senate declared Decebalus a public
+enemy. Trajan led an army in person against the barbarians, and, to
+provide for an easy access to their territory, built a stone bridge
+across the Danube of immense size and strength, fortified at each end
+with towers. He next advanced into the midst of the hostile country,
+took the capital of the Dacians, and reduced them to subjection.
+Decebalus, in despair, fell by his own hand. All Dacia, comprising the
+modern countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, was made a
+Roman province; and several Roman colonies were planted among the
+barbarians, thus for the first time preparing for the spread of
+civilization in that savage country. Trajan now returned to Rome, to
+triumph a second time for his Dacian successes. He also began that
+famous Column in commemoration of his victories which still stands at
+Rome, and which shows in its rich sculpture the various captives and
+spoils of the Dacian war.</p>
+
+<p>Arabia Petr&aelig;a was also at this time added to the Roman Empire, after
+which a peace of several years succeeded. In A.D. 114, a Parthian war
+breaking out, Trajan hastened to the East, and, having passed the winter
+at Antioch, witnessed a severe earthquake, which shook that city as well
+as all Syria. He himself escaped with difficulty from a falling house.
+In the spring, at the head of his legions, he overran Armenia and formed
+it into a province. He next built a bridge across the Tigris, resembling
+that upon the Danube, and led his army into Assyria, a country never yet
+visited by a Roman general. He took Babylon and Ctesiphon, the capital
+of the Parthian kingdom, and, sailing down the Tigris, passed through
+the Persian Gulf, and annexed a large portion of Arabia Felix to his
+empire. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> Jews, too, about this time revolted, but were subdued,
+after a brave resistance, and treated with great severity. His Eastern
+conquests, however, proved by no means secure, and his new subjects
+revolted as soon as his armies were gone. In A.D. 117 Trajan entered
+Southern Arabia to complete the subjection of that country, when he was
+seized with a dropsy and forced to return to Rome. He did not reach that
+city, but died, August 9th, A.D. 117, at Selinus, in Cilicia. His ashes
+were carried to Rome, and placed under the magnificent column which
+recorded his Dacian victories.</p>
+
+<p>During Trajan's reign, the empire, already too extensive, was made more
+unwieldy by his various conquests. He was evidently ambitious of the
+fame of a conqueror, and possessed many of the qualities of an able
+general. He was also a skillful ruler of his immense dominions, leaving
+no portion unprotected by his vigilance. The only stain upon his fame is
+his persecution of the Christians, whom he continued to treat with
+severity even when convinced of their perfect innocence.</p>
+
+<p>After the conclusion of the Dacian war he celebrated games and
+spectacles, which are said to have lasted through four months, and in
+which ten thousand gladiators fought and suffered for the entertainment
+of the people&mdash;a proof that the Romans were yet, in some respects,
+barbarians. Trajan, however, forbade the performance of indecent
+pantomimes. Trajan's bridge across the Danube is described by Dion
+Cassius as of greater importance than any of his other works. He
+designed it to form an easy access to his Dacian province. It was formed
+of twenty stone piers, distant about 170 feet from each other, and sixty
+feet wide: they were probably connected by arches of wood. Trajan also
+began to make roads across the Pontine Marshes, and founded several
+public libraries. Pliny the younger, who lived during this reign, was
+the most eminent literary man of the time, and wrote a fine panegyric
+upon his friend the emperor. Pliny saw the first eruption of Vesuvius,
+in which his uncle and adopted father, the elder Pliny, perished. He was
+a person of great wealth and uncommon generosity, having given 300,000
+sesterces yearly to maintain the children of the poor in his native town
+of Comum. His letters to Trajan show that he was an excellent master,
+husband, and friend, and we may well believe that in this happy period
+many Romans resembled Trajan and his learned correspondent.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REIGN OF HADRIAN, A.D. 117-138.</h4>
+
+<p>Hadrian, descended from a family of Hadria, in Picenum, was a military
+commander, distinguished for his courage and activity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> His father had
+married an aunt of the late emperor, who, upon the father's death, was
+appointed one of Hadrian's guardians. Yet it is supposed Trajan made no
+nomination of a successor to the throne, and that his wife Plotina
+forged the will by which the world was made to believe that he had
+adopted Hadrian. This will was, however, published, and Hadrian entered
+upon his government at Antioch, August 11th, A.D. 117, and was there
+proclaimed emperor. The Senate, to whom he wrote a letter announcing his
+appointment, at once confirmed him in his power. He now made peace with
+the Parthians, and restored to Chosroes, their king, Assyria and
+Mesopotamia. He adopted the policy of Augustus, refusing to extend the
+limits of the empire. In A.D. 118 he returned to Rome, but was soon
+forced to march to the defense of the province of M&#339;sia, which had
+been invaded by the Sarmat&aelig; and Roxolani. His object being merely to
+preserve the boundaries of the empire, he concluded a peace with the
+Roxolani, and probably purchased their submission. He was about to march
+against the Sarmat&aelig;, when the news of a conspiracy at Rome was brought
+to him. He seems to have ordered the leaders to be put to death,
+although he afterward denied that he had done so. Having returned to
+Rome, he endeavored to win the affections of the people by donations,
+games, and gladiatorial shows. He also canceled a large amount of unpaid
+taxes, now due for fifteen years, and promised the Senators never to
+punish one of their body without their approval. He divided Italy into
+four regions, a Consular Magistrate being placed over each; and he
+introduced a new system of administration into the palace, the army, and
+the state, which lasted until the reign of Constantine the Great.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 119 he began a journey through all the provinces of his empire,
+in order to examine into their condition, and to discover and amend any
+faults in the system of government. Hadrian, too, was fond of travel,
+and was never content to remain long in repose. A large part of his
+reign was occupied with this important journey. He first visited Gaul
+and Germany, and thence, in A.D. 121, passed over into Britain. Here he
+found the Britons already partially civilized, but unable to defend
+themselves from the incursions of their neighbors the Caledonians. To
+protect them from these forays, he built a wall across the island from
+the mouth of the Tyne to Solway, remains of which are still shown to the
+traveler. On his return he adorned the town of Nemausus (Nismes) with
+fine buildings, and then went into Spain, where he passed the winter. He
+returned to Rome A.D. 122, but soon after went to Athens, where he spent
+three years. During his residence in that city he began many magnificent
+buildings, and he seems to have looked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> upon Athens with singular
+affection and reverence. He visited Sicily, returned to Rome, set out
+for Africa, whence, after a brief visit, he once more visited Athens, to
+view the completion of his architectural designs. He finished the Temple
+of the Olympian Jupiter, the largest and most magnificent in the world,
+which had been commenced by Pisistratus, and left many other fine works
+behind him. Then he passed through Asia, inspecting the conduct of the
+provincial officers, and next traveled through Syria into Egypt, where
+his favorite Antinous, a beautiful youth, was drowned. This event seems
+to have filled him with a lasting grief. At length, in A.D. 131, he
+returned to Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image089" name="image089">
+   <img src="images/089.jpg"
+      alt="Mole of Hadrian restored."
+      title="Mole of Hadrian restored." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Mole of Hadrian restored.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here he published the <i>Edictum Perpetuum</i>, a codification of the edicts
+of the Roman Pr&aelig;tors, which was composed by Salvius Julianus, an eminent
+lawyer. The design of this work was to condense the vast body of the law
+into a convenient form.</p>
+
+<p>A revolt broke out among the Jews, Hadrian having established a colony
+called &AElig;lia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, and, not content with
+introducing pagan worship into the holy city, had even issued an edict
+forbidding the practice of circumcision.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> These imprudent measures
+produced a revolt among the Jews, who, under their leader Barcochab,
+fought with their usual courage and desperation. The war continued for
+several years, during which more than half a million of Jews are said to
+have perished. At length Julius Severus came from Britain to lead the
+Roman armies, and the rebellion was suppressed. The Jews were now
+forbidden to live in Jerusalem or its neighborhood, and the nation was
+scattered over the habitable world.</p>
+
+<p>A war which seemed about to break out with the Albanians and Iberians in
+the East was prevented by Hadrian, who, with his usual policy, sent
+large presents to his enemies, and thus converted them into friends. He
+now returned from his travels to Rome, where he built his magnificent
+villa at Tibur, the extensive ruins of which may still be seen; and he
+passed the remainder of his life either at Tibur or in Rome. His health
+had been affected by his incessant labors, and in A.D. 135 he was seized
+with dropsy. Having no children, he adopted L. Ceionius, under the name
+of L. &AElig;lius Verus, a young noble, who, however, died on the first day of
+the year A.D. 138. Hadrian then adopted Arrius Antoninus (afterward the
+Emperor Antoninus Pius), and presented him as his successor to the
+Senators assembled around his bed. At the same time he obliged him to
+adopt L. Commodus Verus, the son of the former Verus, and also M. Annius
+Verus, the future Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Ill health seems now to have
+fatally affected the mind and disposition of Hadrian. He became morose
+and cruel. He put many eminent nobles to death, and is said to have sunk
+into debauchery at his Tiburtine villa. His disease proving incurable,
+he several times attempted suicide; but having removed to Bai&aelig;, hoping
+for some relief in that fine climate, he died there July 10th, A.D. 138,
+aged sixty-three. He was buried in the villa of Cicero, near Puteoli.
+When the Senate, enraged at his cruelties in the latter part of his
+life, wished to annul his acts, and would have refused him divine
+honors, Antoninus interposed, and excused his adopted father on the plea
+that ill health had disordered his mind. For this filial conduct he
+received the name of Pius. The Senate not only numbered Hadrian among
+the deities, but ordered temples to be erected in his honor. He left the
+empire prosperous and at peace. During his reign the Senate lost its
+importance in the administration of affairs, since Hadrian supplied its
+place by a <i>Consistorium Principis</i>, or council, composed of eminent
+men, presided over by a distinguished lawyer. Hadrian was fond of
+letters and the arts, and adorned every part of his empire with fine
+buildings or useful works. Wherever he traveled he did something for the
+benefit of his subjects.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image090" name="image090">
+   <img src="images/090.jpg"
+      alt="Reverse of a brass Coin of Antoninus Pius."
+      title="Reverse of a brass Coin of Antoninus Pius." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Reverse of a brass Coin of Antoninus Pius.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS, A.D. 138-161.</h4>
+
+<p>This excellent man was born at Lanuvium, September 19th, A.D. 86, but
+his family came from the town of Nemausis (Nismes), in Gaul. Soon after
+his accession to the empire he married his daughter Faustina to Marcus
+Aurelius, procured for him the tribunitian and proconsular power from
+the Senate, and made him his associate in the labors of the government.
+His tranquil and prosperous reign is the most pleasing period in the
+history of the Roman Empire. The world enjoyed a general peace, and the
+emperor endeavored, by every wise measure, to secure the prosperity of
+his subjects. Like Numa, to whom he has often been compared, Antoninus
+was the peacemaker between distant nations, who were accustomed to
+submit their differences to him, and to abide implicitly by his award.
+He checked the persecutions to which the Christians had been exposed in
+former reigns, and to him Justin Martyr addressed his apology for
+Christianity. He watched carefully the conduct of the provincial
+governors, and applied the public revenues to founding schools,
+repairing roads and harbors, and encouraging every where industry and
+trade. When Asia and Rhodes were devastated by an earthquake, Antoninus
+expended large sums in relieving the sufferers by that calamity, as well
+as those who were reduced to indigence by the great fires which nearly
+destroyed Carthage, Narbonne, and Antioch, in A.D. 153. He appointed
+teachers of rhetoric in various cities of the empire, conferred honors
+and emoluments upon men of letters, and in A.D. 141 founded a
+charity-school for orphan girls, whom he styled <i>Puell&aelig; Alimenta<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>ri&aelig;
+Faustinian&aelig;</i>, in memory of his wife Faustina, who had died the year
+before. Faustina, however, does not seem to have merited his esteem, and
+the emperor was well acquainted with her faults; yet he generously
+overlooked them while she lived, and upon her death paid unusual honors
+to her memory. His piety, his devotion to the national religion, and his
+various virtues, seem to have won for him universal love and veneration,
+and his successors during the next century assumed the name of Antoninus
+as their worthiest title.</p>
+
+<p>Antoninus made no attempt to extend the boundaries of the empire. The
+barbarous races who were now beginning to swarm upon the frontiers, the
+Germans and the Dacians, were held in check; and although the Brigantes
+made several inroads into Britain, they were defeated by A. Lollius, the
+Legate, in A.D. 141; and a wall of turf was raised beyond the former
+wall built by Agricola to check the incursions of the Caledonians. This
+peaceful reign, however, seems to have increased the general indolence
+of the people, and the martial spirit of the Roman soldiers declined in
+the idleness of their stationary camps. After a reign of twenty-three
+years, Antoninus died, March 7th, A.D. 161, in his villa at Lorium, aged
+seventy-five years.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 161-180.</h4>
+
+<p>He was succeeded by Aurelius, who was born at Rome A.D. 121. This prince
+is known as the Philosopher; and the wish of Plato that philosophers
+might be kings, or kings philosophers, seems to have been fulfilled at
+his accession. Aurelius had been from his youth a lover of truth. His
+morals and his intellect were trained by the purest and wisest men of
+his age. He had studied under Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto, two
+famous rhetoricians, and also under the Stoic philosophers Junius
+Rusticus and Apollonius; and he had been constantly employed by his
+adopted father Antoninus as an associate in all his useful and
+benevolent designs. His health was, however, delicate, and he now
+admitted to a share in the empire his adopted brother, L. Verus, who
+possessed a vigorous constitution, but was addicted to licentious
+pleasures.</p>
+
+<p>The general peace which had prevailed during the reign of Marcus
+Antoninus was forever passed away, and the world was in future to be
+desolated by almost perpetual hostilities. The Parthian king Vologeses
+III. having invaded the eastern provinces, and cut to pieces a Roman
+legion, L. Verus was sent to oppose his advance; but upon arriving at
+Antioch, Verus remained there, plunged in dissipation, while his brave
+lieutenant Avidius Cassius drove back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> the Parthians, invaded
+Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and penetrated to Babylon. Another
+Roman general conquered Armenia, and restored the legitimate king So&aelig;mus
+to his throne. At the close of the war, Verus, A.D. 166, returned to
+Rome, and triumphed. His army brought the plague with it from the East,
+which now desolated Italy and Rome. Many illustrious men died; but the
+famous physician Galen (Claudius Galenus), who had come from Pergamus to
+Rome, was now enabled to exhibit his uncommon professional skill. This
+pestilence lasted for several years.</p>
+
+<p>Verus died of intemperance A.D. 171, and Aurelius prevailed upon the
+Senate to rank him among the gods. He now marched against the
+Marcomanni, but was defeated in a great battle, and, in order to provide
+a new army, sold the imperial plate and jewels. He now took up a
+position at Sirmium (Sirmich), and endeavored to wear out the barbarians
+by skirmishes and sudden attacks, without venturing far from his
+strong-hold. At length, however, upon one occasion, having been drawn
+into a defile, the Roman army was relieved by a fierce storm of thunder
+and rain, which terrified the barbarians. Tradition attributes this
+sudden storm to the prayers of a Christian legion. The barbarians now
+submitted, and withdrew beyond the Danube.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after, an insurrection broke out in Syria, where Avidius Cassius,
+at the instigation, it is said, of the emperor's wife Faustina, had
+proclaimed himself emperor. But Cassius, by his severity, disgusted his
+own soldiers, and was assassinated by a centurion. Aurelius lamented
+this event, since it deprived him of an opportunity of showing clemency
+to an erring friend. He at once set out for the East, and there freely
+forgave all those who had conspired against him. He took the young
+family of Cassius under his protection, and ordered the papers of that
+officer to be destroyed, lest they might disclose the names of the
+conspirators. Faustina, who had accompanied her husband to Cilicia, died
+soon after, it is said, by her own hand.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that this philosophic emperor should have permitted a
+cruel persecution of the Christians in A.D. 177, perhaps at the
+instigation of the Stoic philosophers&mdash;the only blot upon his general
+humanity and benevolence. Among the victims of this persecution was
+Justin Martyr, the author of the Apologies for Christianity, addressed
+to Antoninus, as well as to Aurelius himself. Toward the close of his
+reign, having become convinced of the falseness of the charges made
+against the Christians, Aurelius became once more tolerant and
+philosophic.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 176 the emperor triumphed at Rome for his various successes. He
+gave a donation of eight pieces of gold to every citi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>zen, and made his
+son Commodus his colleague. In the mean time the barbarians in the
+interior of Europe, moved by a general impulse, began to press upon the
+frontiers of the empire, and from this time seem never to have ceased
+their inroads until the final destruction of the Roman power. Aurelius
+marched, A.D. 177, to the frontier, defeated the barbarians in various
+engagements, and had perhaps proved the savior and second founder of
+Rome, when he was seized with a fever at Vindobona (Vienna), A.D. 180,
+and died after a few days' illness. He was the last of the Roman
+emperors who labored for the welfare of his people. He was, no doubt,
+the greatest and wisest of them all, and he united the different talents
+of a man of learning, a fine writer, a skillful soldier, and a
+benevolent, judicious ruler. His "Meditations," which have made him
+known to posterity, are among the most delightful productions of the
+human intellect, while his private character seems to have been no less
+attractive than his writings.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REIGN OF M. COMMODUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 180-192.</h4>
+
+<p>The depraved Commodus succeeded his virtuous father at the age of
+twenty. He had been educated with singular care, but was wholly given up
+to coarse sensuality. The people, however, still hoped that he might be
+worthy of his father, and received him, upon his accession, with loud
+expressions of joy. For a short time he concealed his true disposition;
+but his sister Lucilla, jealous of her brother's wife Crispina, formed a
+conspiracy against him in A.D. 182, and he escaped with difficulty from
+the hand of the assassin. From this moment he threw off all disguise,
+and indulged his natural vices without restraint. He put to death the
+most illustrious men of the time, encouraged informers and false
+accusations, and filled Rome with terror. In the midst of these
+cruelties he often sang, danced, or played the buffoon in public, fought
+as a gladiator in the circus, and ordered the people to worship him as a
+second Hercules. His lieutenant Marcellus, in A.D. 184, defeated the
+Caledonians, after they had passed the long wall of Hadrian, and had
+ravaged the northern part of Britain; and in A.D. 191 an invasion of the
+Frisians was repelled. Commodus, however, paid no attention to the
+affairs of the empire. In A.D. 189 Italy suffered from a pestilence and
+famine, when the people of Rome rose against the emperor's pr&aelig;fect,
+Cleander, and tore him to pieces. Commodus still continued his murders,
+and was at last assassinated by the directions of his mistress, Marcia,
+whose death he had resolved upon. He died December 31st, A.D. 192. The
+Senate ordered his memory to be held infamous, and his body to be
+dragged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> by iron hooks through the streets, and then to be thrown into
+the Tiber; but his successor Pertinax prevailed that it should be placed
+in the mausoleum of Hadrian. Such was the son of Marcus Aurelius.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image091" name="image091">
+   <img src="images/091.jpg"
+      alt="Commodus."
+      title="Commodus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Commodus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image092" name="image092">
+   <img src="images/092.jpg"
+      alt="Pertinax."
+      title="Pertinax." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Pertinax.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XLII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Pertinax, an aged senator of consular rank, and now Pr&aelig;fect of the city,
+was summoned by the conspirators, who came to his house late at night,
+after the murder of Commodus, to ascend the vacant throne. He was one of
+the few friends and ministers of Marcus Aurelius who yet survived, and,
+having filled many important offices, had always been distinguished for
+firmness, prudence, and integrity. The rumor was spread that Commodus
+had died of apoplexy, and that Pertinax had succeeded him; but the
+Pr&aelig;torian Guards were dissatisfied at his election. The Senate, however,
+confirmed the choice of the conspirators, and Pertinax lived among his
+own order rather as an equal than a master. His manners were simple, his
+mode of life frugal, and he sought to revive the pleasing simplicity of
+the early Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Pertinax administered justice with strictness, released those who had
+been left in prison by Commodus, reformed the finances and introduced
+economy, redivided the uncultivated lands among those who would till
+them, removed oppressive restrictions upon trade, and deserved the
+respect of the wiser portion of his subjects.</p>
+
+<p>But the Pr&aelig;torians were never reconciled to his rule, and on the 28th of
+March, A.D. 193, eighty-six days after his election, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> broke into
+the imperial palace, and struck down the emperor with innumerable blows.
+His head was separated from his body, and, being placed upon a lance,
+was carried in triumph to the Pr&aelig;torian camp, while the people silently
+lamented the death of this virtuous ruler.</p>
+
+<p>The soldiers, meanwhile, proclaimed from the ramparts of their camp that
+the throne of the world would be sold at auction to the highest bidder.
+Didius Julianus, a wealthy Senator, whose age had not quenched his
+vanity and ambition, offered about a thousand dollars to each man for
+the possession of the prize. He was declared emperor, and, surrounded by
+the armed Pr&aelig;torians, was carried to the Senate, who were forced to
+accept the selection of the soldiers. But the Senators and the people
+felt deeply the disgrace of their country, and even the Pr&aelig;torians were
+ashamed of their unworthy choice. Julianus found himself on the throne
+of the world without a friend.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image093" name="image093">
+   <img src="images/093.jpg"
+      alt="Septimius Severus."
+      title="Septimius Severus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Septimius Severus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The armies in the provinces, when they heard of these transactions at
+the capital, rose in revolt, and refused to acknowledge the authority of
+Julian. Clodius Albinus commanded the legions in Britain, Septimius
+Severus those in Pannonia, and Pescennius Niger the army of the East.
+Severus, more active than his competitors, was saluted by his soldiers
+as emperor, and marched rapidly toward Rome. Julian, deserted by the
+Pr&aelig;torians, was condemned to death by the Senate, and was executed as a
+common criminal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> after a reign of only sixty-six days. Severus was
+acknowledged as their lawful emperor by the Senate, June 2, A.D. 193,
+and his first act was to disarm the Pr&aelig;torian Guards and banish them
+from the capital.</p>
+
+<p>He next marched against Niger, and defeated him in two battles, while he
+was also successful in a severe contest with Clodius Albinus at Lyons.
+Both of his competitors were put to death, and Severus, now set free
+from fear of rivalry, began to show the native cruelty of his
+disposition. Forty-one Senators, whom he accused of having favored
+Albinus, were executed, with their wives and children; and many of the
+provincial nobles of Spain and Gaul shared their fate. Yet Severus was
+in many respects a useful ruler; strict in the administration of the
+laws, careful to correct abuses, and restraining his subjects with stern
+impartiality. Peace returned to the provinces, cities were repeopled,
+roads repaired, Rome abounded in provisions, and the people were
+satisfied. Severus changed the constitution of the Pr&aelig;torian Guards, and
+filled up their ranks with the bravest soldiers of the legions of the
+frontier. These barbarians, he thought, would be able to suppress any
+rebellion that might arise; and he increased the number to fifty
+thousand men. The Pr&aelig;fect of the Pr&aelig;torians, who had at first been a
+simple soldier, now became the chief minister of the emperor, and was at
+the head of the finances and even of the law. The celebrated lawyer
+Papinian was appointed Pr&aelig;fect after the fall of Plautianus; and several
+great jurisconsults, particularly Paulus and Ulpian, flourished under
+the reign of Severus or his family.</p>
+
+<p>Severus, however, was a military despot, and, despising the feeble
+Senate, assumed both the legislative and the executive power. The
+jurisconsults, in fact, from this reign, begin to treat the emperor as
+the source of all law, the Senate and the people being no longer
+considered in the state. But this arbitrary rule, introduced by Severus,
+is thought to have tended more than any thing else to destroy the vigor
+of the Roman Empire, by leading the people to an abject dependence upon
+their rulers.</p>
+
+<p>The wife of Severus, Julia Domna, a Syrian lady of great beauty and
+various accomplishments, became the mother of two sons, Caracalla and
+Geta, and the emperor hoped that they would prove worthy of the high
+office to which they were born. They soon, however, showed themselves
+incapable of any serious study or employment, and were chiefly
+remarkable for the hatred they bore toward each other. The court was
+already divided into two factions, composed of the adherents of either
+son; and the emperor, who in vain strove to remove their rivalry,
+foresaw that one must fall a victim to the hatred of the other.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 208 a war broke out in Britain, and Severus, although now more
+than sixty years of age, and afflicted with the gout, so that he was
+carried on a litter, set out at the head of his army, attended by his
+two sons, and penetrated into the interior of Scotland. This was his
+last enterprise, for he died at York, February 4, A.D. 211. He left his
+empire to his two sons, who returned to Rome, and were acknowledged by
+the Senate and the army.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image094" name="image094">
+   <img src="images/094.jpg"
+      alt="Caracalla."
+      title="Caracalla." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Caracalla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their discord, however, still continued, and they planned a division of
+the empire, a measure which was then distasteful to all the Romans, and
+which was only prevented from taking place by the tears and entreaties
+of their mother, Julia Domna. Geta, the younger son, who was of a gentle
+disposition, soon after, in A.D. 212, February 27th, was murdered by the
+cruel and relentless Caracalla. Twenty thousand of his friends are said
+to have been put to death at the same time, and his unhappy mother,
+Julia Domna, was forced to receive her guilty son with feigned smiles
+and words of approbation. Remorse, however, fastened upon Caracalla, and
+the shade of Geta haunted him wherever he went. His cruelties now
+redoubled. He put to death Papinian, the Pr&aelig;torian Pr&aelig;fect, the splendid
+ornament of the Roman bar; and his massacres filled every part of the
+empire with mourning and terror. In A.D. 213 he left the city of Rome,
+and never returned thither again; the rest of his reign was passed in
+the provinces, and wherever he came he indulged himself in endless
+murders, confiscations, and acts of violence. "He was," says Gibbon,
+"the common enemy of mankind." He directed a general massacre of the
+people of Alexan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>dria, who had lampooned him, and viewed the scene from
+a secure post in the Temple of Serapis. To retain the affections of his
+army, he lavished upon them immense sums, the plunder of his empire; and
+he was at length assassinated, March 8, A.D. 217, at the instigation of
+Macrinus, one of the Pr&aelig;torian Pr&aelig;fects, who had discovered that the
+tyrant had planned his own death.</p>
+
+<p>Macrinus, Pr&aelig;fect of the Pr&aelig;torian Guard, was elected emperor March 11,
+A.D. 217, and the Senate and the provinces submitted without a murmur.
+But the new emperor was disliked by the nobles on account of his humble
+origin, and soon offended his army by endeavoring to reform their
+discipline. The Empress Julia now withdrew by a voluntary death from the
+sorrow which surrounded her, and the family of Severus became extinct. A
+rebellion broke out in the Syrian army, who proclaimed Bassianus, the
+grandson of Julia M&aelig;sa, sister of the late empress, and who assumed the
+name of Antoninus. He pretended that he was the natural son of
+Caracalla. A battle took place, in which Macrinus was defeated, and soon
+after put to death; and Elagabalus, for that is the name under which
+this monster is commonly known, ascended the throne.</p>
+
+<p>He at once plunged into every vice. The sun was worshiped at Emessa
+under the name of Elagabalus, from whence the new emperor derived his
+surname, having been a priest in the temple; and he now introduced the
+lascivious rites of the Syrian deity into the capital of the world. A
+magnificent temple of the god Elagabalus was raised on the Palatine
+Mount, and the grave and dignified nobles of Rome were forced to take
+part in the ceremonies, clothed in long Ph&#339;nician tunics.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to describe the vices of this wretched being, who
+seems to have sunk to the very extreme of depravity. His cousin,
+however, Alexander Severus, as if to show that human nature had not
+wholly declined, was amiable, virtuous, and learned. Elagabalus was
+murdered by the Pr&aelig;torians March 10, A.D. 222, and Alexander placed upon
+the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Severus seems to have inclined toward the Christian faith,
+which was now very widely extended throughout the empire. He revoked all
+former edicts against the Christians, and ordered the words "Do unto
+others as you would have them do to you" to be inscribed upon his
+palaces and other buildings. The Persian Empire was now arising in new
+strength under the house of the Sassanides, and a war having broken out
+with them, Alexander marched against the Persians, and gained a
+considerable victory. He returned to Rome in triumph, and entered the
+city in a chariot drawn by four elephants. Soon after, the Germans
+having invaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> Gaul, he led his army to the defense of the frontier;
+but, while attempting to reform the discipline of the Gallic legions, he
+was assassinated by a band of discontented soldiers, and Maximin, a
+Thracian peasant of great personal strength, who had risen to a high
+command in the army, was raised to the throne.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image095" name="image095">
+   <img src="images/095.jpg"
+      alt="Alexander Severus."
+      title="Alexander Severus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Alexander Severus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Maximin, A.D. 235, began his reign by massacring many of the friends of
+the late emperor, and even all those who showed any regret for his
+death. He was a fierce, ignorant barbarian, but was very successful in
+his wars against the Germans, having ravaged their country, and sent
+great numbers of them to be sold as slaves in Italy. He also defeated
+the Dacians and Sarmatians. But his severities produced a revolt in
+Africa, where the legions proclaimed their proconsul Gordian emperor,
+then in the eightieth year of his age. The Senate now revolted against
+Maximin, and ordered all his friends in Rome to be put to death. Maximin
+now made peace with the barbarians, and marched toward Italy, while, in
+the mean time, Gordian and his son were defeated and slain in Africa.
+The Senate immediately elected Papianus and Balbinus emperors, to whom,
+in order to gratify the people, they joined the younger Gordian, then
+only twelve years of age. Maximin entered Italy and besieged Aquileia,
+but his soldiers, weary of the length of the siege, put him to death,
+A.D. 238. The Goths on the Danube and the Persians in the East now
+assailed the empire, and at the same time the Pr&aelig;torian Guards murdered
+his two associates, leaving Gordian sole emperor of Rome. Gordian was
+married to the daughter of Misitheus, Pr&aelig;fect of the Pr&aelig;torians, an
+excellent minister and commander. Together they marched to the East,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> defeated the Persians under their king Sapor, in various
+engagements. Misitheus now died, and Gordian appointed the Arab Philip
+his prime minister. Sapor was again defeated; but the Arab conspired
+against Gordian, his benefactor, who was assassinated in A.D. 244.</p>
+
+<p>Philip, having made peace with the Persians, returned to Rome, where he
+won the favor of the people by his mild conduct. In his reign the
+secular games were celebrated, it being reckoned one thousand years
+since the foundation of the city. Philip ruled with mildness, and was an
+enemy to persecution. In A.D. 249, however, the Illyrian army revolted,
+and proclaimed their commander, Trajanus Decius, emperor, who defeated
+Philip near Verona, and put him to death. His son, who had remained at
+Rome, was slain by the Pr&aelig;torian Guards.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 250 the Goths invaded the empire. These fierce barbarians came
+from the north of Europe, and were among the chief instruments of the
+fall of Rome. Decius, who does not seem to have wanted skill and
+courage, was finally defeated and slain by them, together with his son.
+Decius is remembered as one of the most cruel persecutors of the
+Christians. The innocent victims of his rage were subjected to torture,
+driven to hide in the wilderness among rocks and forests, and were glad
+to live among the wild beasts, more humane than man. The Bishop of Rome,
+Fabian, the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, and many more eminent in
+the Church, suffered from the unrelenting severity of this persecutor.</p>
+
+<p>A son of Decius, Hostilianus, together with Gallus, an experienced
+soldier, were now made emperors. They concluded a disgraceful, but
+probably necessary peace with the Goths. But Hostilianus soon after
+died, and Gallus was defeated and slain by &AElig;milianus, who was himself
+assassinated, and Valerian, the Censor, in A.D. 253, was made emperor. A
+very high character is given of this ruler, whose reign, however, was
+filled with disasters. Having joined his son Gallienus with him,
+Valerian vainly sought to repel the attacks of innumerable enemies on
+every side of the empire&mdash;the Goths, the Franks, the Scythians, and the
+Persians. In a campaign against the latter Valerian was taken prisoner,
+and for nine years languished in captivity, his unnatural son making no
+effort for his liberation.</p>
+
+<p>The Allemanni, meanwhile, had entered Italy, ravaged its northern
+territory, and even threatened Rome. They withdrew, loaded with plunder.
+To gain allies among the barbarians, Gallienus now married the daughter
+of the king of the Marcomanni. Every part of the empire seems now to
+have been laid open to the invad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>ers. Greece was ravaged by the Goths;
+the famous Temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned by them, together with
+that fine city; and Sapor, king of the Persians, overran Syria and Asia.
+He was, however, finally repelled by the brave Odenatus, who, with his
+queen Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra.</p>
+
+<p>Valerian died in captivity, while a crowd of usurpers rose in arms
+against the weak Gallienus. There were nineteen pretenders to the throne
+according to Gibbon, but this period is usually known as that of the
+Thirty Tyrants. This melancholy period was also marked by a pestilence,
+which raged for fifteen years in every province. Five thousand persons
+are said to have died daily at Rome for some time; cities were
+depopulated, and the number of the human species must have sensibly
+declined. A famine preceded and attended the pestilence, earthquakes
+were common, and the third century is, no doubt, the most melancholy
+period in the history of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Gallienus was murdered in A.D. 268, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius
+Claudius, who died of a pestilence which had broken out in his army in
+Egypt. Aurelian, a native of Pannonia, was the next emperor. His reign
+lasted four years and nine months, but was filled with remarkable
+events. He abandoned Dacia to the Goths, defeated the Alemanni, and
+drove them out of Italy. But he foresaw the danger of future invasions,
+and surrounded Rome with new walls about twenty-one miles in extent. In
+A.D. 272 he marched against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who ventured to
+defy the power of Rome. This illustrious woman was not only learned,
+beautiful, and an agreeable writer, but governed the East for five years
+with discretion and success. Aurelian was amazed at her warlike
+preparations upon the fall of Palmyra, and treated her beautiful city
+with lenity; but the Palmyrenians having rebelled, the city was taken by
+storm, and its people put to death. The ruins of Palmyra are still among
+the most remarkable of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<p>Aurelian now returned to Rome to celebrate his triumph. The spoils of
+every climate were borne before him; his captives were from Germany,
+Syria, and Egypt, and among them were the Emperor Tetricus and the
+beautiful Zenobia, bound with fetters of gold. A whole day was consumed
+in the passage of the triumphal procession through the streets of Rome.
+But Aurelian, who was illiterate, unpolished, and severe, failed to win
+the regard of his people, and was plainly more at his ease at the head
+of his army than in the cultivated society of Rome. He returned,
+therefore, to the East, where he died, as was usual with so many of the
+em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>perors, by the hand of an assassin, in A.D. 275. He restored vigor to
+the empire, and preserved it from instant destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The army, filled with sorrow for the loss of the emperor, revenged his
+death by tearing his assassin in pieces; and they then wrote a
+respectful letter to the Senate, asking the Senators to select his
+successor. The Senate, however, passed a decree that the army should
+name the new emperor. The soldiers, in their turn, refused, and thus for
+eight months an interregnum prevailed while this friendly contest
+continued. At last the Senate appointed the virtuous Tacitus, who
+claimed a descent from his namesake, the famous historian. Tacitus,
+however, who was seventy years old, sank under the hardships of his
+first campaign, and died A.D. 276, at Tyania, in Cappadocia.</p>
+
+<p>His brother Florian then ascended the throne, but was defeated and put
+to death by Probus, the best soldier of the age, who, in six years, once
+more repelled the barbarians from every part of the empire. He delivered
+Gaul from the ravages of the Germans, pursued them across the Rhine, and
+every where defeated them. He suppressed, also, several insurrections,
+and employed his soldiers in various useful works. But at length, weary
+of these labors, they put Probus to death, A.D. 282.</p>
+
+<p>Carus, the next emperor, was singularly frugal in his mode of life. When
+the Persian embassadors visited him in his tent they found him sitting
+upon the grass, clothed in a coarse robe, and eating his supper of bacon
+and hard pease. Carus gained many victories over the Persians, but died
+suddenly in A.D. 283. His two sons, Carinus and Namerian, succeeded him,
+but were soon assassinated, giving place to the more famous Diocletian.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image096" name="image096">
+   <img src="images/096.jpg"
+      alt="The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro."
+      title="The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XLIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Diocletian began to reign A.D. 284, and once more revived the vigor of
+the declining empire, which now seemed more than ever to depend for its
+existence upon the qualities of a single ruler. It seems, indeed, to
+have required an intellect of no common order to preserve the unity of
+the empire, composed of so many different nations, of territories
+separated by such vast distances, and threatened on every side by
+innumerable foes; but, of all his contemporaries, Diocletian was best
+suited to this task. His parents had been the slaves of a Roman Senator,
+and he had himself risen from this low station to the highest positions
+in the army. He acted with generosity toward the servants of the former
+emperor, not only suffering them to remain in safety under his rule, but
+even to retain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> their offices. Finding the empire too large to be
+governed by a single ruler, he selected as his colleague Maximian, a
+brave, but fierce and ignorant soldier, who, like himself, had risen to
+a high rank in the army. Maximian, however, always admitted the
+intellectual superiority of Diocletian. The emperor assumed the title of
+Jovius, and Maximian that of Herculius. Diocletian also appointed two
+C&aelig;sars, Constantius and Galerius, to aid him in the defense of the
+empire, which was divided between the four princes. Gaul, Spain, and
+Britain were intrusted to the care of Constantius, Italy and Africa to
+Maximian, Galerius commanded the legions on the Danube, while Diocletian
+reserved for himself Thrace, Egypt, and Asia. The four rulers seemed to
+have labored together in harmony, but the establishment of four courts
+in different parts of the empire obliged them to increase the taxes, and
+every province suffered under new impositions. Even Italy, which had
+always been favored in this particular, was now heavily burdened, and
+every where lands were abandoned and left uncultivated because their
+owners could not pay the taxes and impositions. In A.D. 287 a rebellion
+occurred in Gaul, which was suppressed by Maximian; soon after,
+Carausius, having become master of Britain, and possessing a
+considerable fleet, defied the power of the emperor; but when
+Constantius was appointed C&aelig;sar he prepared to reduce the island to
+subjection. In A.D. 294 Carausius was put to death by Allectus, a new
+usurper. Constantius now crossed the Channel and recovered the island,
+which, after a separation of ten years, was once more reunited to the
+empire. During this reign the Goths, Vandals, and other northern
+barbarians wasted their strength in destructive contests with each
+other; but whenever, in intervals of peace, they invaded the Roman
+territory, they were driven back by the valor of the two C&aelig;sars.
+Maximian, in the mean time, subdued a revolt in Africa; and Diocletian
+himself suppressed one of those seditions to which Egypt was constantly
+exposed. The emperor besieged Alexandria for eight months, cut off the
+aqueducts which conveyed water to the city, and, having taken it, put
+many thousands of its citizens to death. One remarkable edict which he
+now published forbade the study of alchemy in Egypt, and ordered all
+books upon that subject to be burned. He also made a treaty with the
+Nubians, in order to protect the frontiers of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>It gives us, indeed, a clear view of the immense extent of the Roman
+power when we reflect that its commanders were, almost at the same
+moment, struggling successfully against its enemies in Africa, Britain,
+Germany, and the East. A war with Persia now arose, in which Galerius
+was at first defeated, A.D. 296. But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> next year he passed through
+the mountains of Armenia at the head of twenty-five thousand chosen men,
+and, having surprised the Persian army in the night, slaughtered great
+numbers of them; the booty, too, was immense. A barbarian soldier,
+finding a bag of shining leather filled with pearls, threw away the
+contents and preserved the bag; and the uncultivated savages gathered a
+vast spoil from the tents of the Persians. Galerius, having taken
+prisoners several of the wives and children of the Persian monarch
+Narses, treated them with such tenderness and respect that Narses made
+peace. Mesopotamia was now added to the empire, being taken from the
+King of Armenia, who received in its place a considerable Persian
+province.</p>
+
+<p>The two emperors returned to Rome and celebrated their triumph November
+20, A.D. 303, the last spectacle of that kind which the world has
+witnessed. Romulus, more than a thousand years before, had ascended the
+Capitoline Mount on foot, bearing in his arms the spoil of Acron, and
+his example had been followed by a long line of Roman heroes. In the
+last triumph, the two emperors were attended by the spoils of Africa and
+Britain, of the East and the West.</p>
+
+<p>During this reign also occurred the last persecution of the Christians,
+who were soon to become the masters of the empire. It began A.D. 303,
+and continued for ten years; and such multitudes of the Christians
+perished that the emperors boasted that they had wholly extirpated the
+sect!</p>
+
+<p>Diocletian introduced an Eastern pomp into his court, assumed the titles
+of "Lord and Emperor," and wore a diadem set with pearls. His robes were
+of silk and gold. He required his subjects to prostrate themselves
+before him, and to adore him as a divinity.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 305, like Charles V., he resolved to abdicate his power, having
+persuaded his colleague Maximian to do the same: he lived in retirement
+for nine years, and amused himself cultivating his garden. "I wish you
+would come to Salona" (Spalatro), he wrote to Maximian, who sought to
+draw him from his retirement, "and see the cabbages I have planted: you
+would never again mention to me the name of empire." But the close of
+his life was embittered by the ingratitude of Constantine and Licinius,
+and the dangers of the empire. It is not known whether he died by
+disease or by his own hand.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the abdication of Diocletian and his colleague, the two C&aelig;sars,
+Constantius and Galerius, assumed the title of Augustus. Constantius
+retained his former provinces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He was
+moderate, amiable, and lived with Roman simplicity. Galerius, on the
+other hand, was haughty, severe, and ambitious. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> had married a
+daughter of Diocletian, and hoped that the death of Constantius would
+soon leave him the sole emperor of Rome. The two emperors now appointed
+two C&aelig;sars, Maximin and Severus, the first nephew to Galerius, and the
+latter devoted to his interests. Constantius died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 306, and his son Constantine was proclaimed Augustus by the
+soldiers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image097" name="image097">
+   <img src="images/097.jpg"
+      alt="Constantine and Fausta."
+      title="Constantine and Fausta." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Constantine and Fausta.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This prince, afterward Constantine the Great, was the son of Constantius
+and Helena, who was said to have been the daughter of an inn-keeper.
+When Constantius became C&aelig;sar he divorced Helena, and her son was, in a
+measure, neglected. Constantine, however, soon distinguished himself as
+a soldier, and won the affection of the army. In appearance he was tall,
+dignified, and pleasing; he excelled in all military exercises, was
+modest, prudent, and well informed. He soon attracted the jealousy of
+Galerius, who would have put him to death had he not escaped to his
+father in Britain; and now Galerius refused to allow him any higher
+title than that of C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>Maxentius, the son of the abdicated emperor Maximian, was also
+proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and prevailed upon his father once
+more to ascend the throne. Severus, who marched against them, was
+defeated and put to death; and Constantine now married Fausta, the
+daughter of Maximian. Galerius led a large army from the East, but was
+repulsed from Rome and retreated, leaving Maximian and his son masters
+of the capital. Galerius next asso<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>ciated Licinius with him in his
+power, and there were now six sovereigns upon the throne.</p>
+
+<p>In A.D. 310, however, Maximian, having conspired against the life of
+Constantine, was put to death; Galerius died the next year; in A.D. 312
+Maxentius fell before the arms of Constantine, and was drowned in the
+Tiber while attempting to make his escape. It was during this campaign
+that Constantine is said to have seen the miraculous cross in the
+heavens.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Senate paid unusual honors to Constantine; games and festivals
+were instituted in memory of his victory over Maxentius, and a triumphal
+arch was erected, whose imperfect architecture shows the decline of
+ancient taste. The Arch of Trajan was stripped of its ornaments to adorn
+that of Constantine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image098" name="image098">
+   <img src="images/098.jpg"
+      alt="Arch of Constantine."
+      title="Arch of Constantine." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Arch of Constantine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The new emperor introduced good order into the administration of the
+West, revived the authority of the Senate, and disbanded the Pr&aelig;torian
+Guards; he revoked the edicts against the Christians, and paid unusual
+deference to the bishops and saints of the Church. The Emperor Licinius,
+who had married his sister, in A.D. 313 defeated and put to death
+Maximin, so that the empire was now shared between Constantine and
+Licinius.</p>
+
+<p>The former now summoned a council of bishops at Arles to suppress the
+heresy of the Donatists, but, before it met, was forced to march against
+Licinius, who had conspired against him. Licinius was defeated in two
+battles, and forced to give up a large part of his dominions to his
+conqueror. Constantine next defeated the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> Goths and Sarmat&aelig;. Licinius
+had assumed the defense of Paganism, while Constantine raised the
+standard of the Cross. The last struggle between them took place near
+Adrianople; the Pagan army was defeated and put to flight, and in A.D.
+324 Licinius was put to death. Thus Constantine reigned alone over the
+empire of Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>At the famous Council of Nice, which met in A.D. 325, the doctrine of
+the Trinity was established, Arianism condemned, and at the same time
+the emperor was, in effect, acknowledged to be the spiritual head of the
+Church. But an event now occurred which must have destroyed forever the
+happiness of Constantine. He was induced to put to death his virtuous
+son Crispus, through the false accusations of his wife Fausta, and when
+afterward he discovered the falseness of the charges made against
+Crispus, he directed Fausta and her accomplices to be slain.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, which had so long been the capital of the world, was now to
+descend from that proud position and become a provincial city. When
+Constantine returned to Rome after the Council of Nice, he found himself
+assailed with insults and execrations. The Senate and the people of the
+capital saw with horror the destroyer of their national faith, and they
+looked upon Constantine as accursed by the gods. The execution of his
+wife and son soon after increased the ill feeling against the emperor,
+and Constantine probably resolved to abandon a city upon which he had
+bestowed so many favors, and which had repaid him with such ingratitude.
+He was conscious, too, that Rome, seated in the heart of Italy, was no
+longer a convenient capital for his empire, and he therefore resolved to
+build a new city on the site of ancient Byzantium. The Bosphorus, a
+narrow strait, connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora; and here,
+on a triangular piece of ground, inclosing on one side an excellent
+harbor, Constantine laid the foundations of his capital. It was situated
+in the forty-first degree of latitude, possessed a temperate climate,
+and a fertile territory around it; while, being placed on the confines
+of both Europe and Asia, it commanded the two divisions of the empire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image099" name="image099">
+   <img src="images/099.jpg"
+      alt="Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus."
+      title="Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Constantinople was adorned with all the architectural elegance of the
+age, but the arts of sculpture and of decoration had so declined that
+Constantine was forced to rob the cities of Greece of their finest works
+in order to supply the deficiencies of his own artists: Athens and Asia
+were despoiled to adorn his semi-barbarous capital. The city was
+provided with a forum, in which was placed a column of porphyry upon a
+white marble base, in all one hundred and twenty feet high, upon which
+stood a bronze figure of Apollo. A hippodrome, or circus of great size,
+and the baths and pleasure-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>grounds, recalled the memory of those of
+Rome. Schools and theatres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen
+palaces, and a great number of magnificent private houses, added to the
+splendor of the new city. Constantine designed, it is said, to have
+called his capital the SECOND OR NEW ROME, but his own name has always
+been preferred.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image100" name="image100">
+   <img src="images/100.jpg"
+      alt="Map of Constantinople."
+      title="Map of Constantinople." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Map of Constantinople.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having thus provided a capital, Constantine next began to form a new
+constitution for his empire; he established, therefore, a com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>plete
+despotism, all the power being lodged in the emperor, and all honors and
+titles being conferred by him alone. The name of Consul was still
+preserved, these officers being yearly appointed by the emperor; but we
+now notice the titles of <i>Count</i> and <i>Duke</i> joined with those of
+Qu&aelig;stors and Proconsuls. All the civil magistrates were taken from the
+legal profession. The law was now the most honorable of the professions,
+and the law school at Berytus, in Ph&#339;nicia, had flourished since the
+reign of Alexander Severus.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Empire was divided into four great pr&aelig;fectures, which were
+themselves subdivided into dioceses and provinces. The pr&aelig;fectures were
+named that of the East, of Illyricum, of Italy, and of Gaul. A Pr&aelig;torian
+Pr&aelig;fect had charge of each pr&aelig;fecture, and regulated its civil
+government; took care of the roads, ports, granaries, manufactures,
+coinage; was the supreme legal magistrate, from whose decision there was
+no appeal. Rome and Constantinople had their own Pr&aelig;fects, whose courts
+took the place of those of the ancient Pr&aelig;tors, while a considerable
+police force preserved the quiet of each city. The magistrates of the
+empire were divided into three classes, the Illustrissimi, or
+illustrious; the Spectabiles, or respectable; and the Clarissimi, or the
+honorable.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine also made Christianity the established religion of the
+state, and appropriated a large portion of the revenues of the cities to
+the support of the churches and the clergy. His standing army was very
+large, but the ranks were now filled chiefly by barbarians, the Roman
+youth having lost all taste for arms. It is said the young men of Italy
+were in the habit of cutting off the fingers of the right hand in order
+to unfit themselves for military service.</p>
+
+<p>In order to support this extensive system, Constantine was forced to
+impose heavy taxes upon his people. Every year the emperor subscribed
+with his own hand, in purple ink, the <i>indiction</i>, or tax levy of each
+diocese, which was set up in its principal city, and when this proved
+insufficient, an additional tax, or <i>superindiction</i>, was imposed.
+Lands, cattle, and slaves were all heavily taxed, and the declining
+agriculture of the empire was finally ruined by the exorbitant demands
+of the state. In Campania alone, once the most fertile part of Italy,
+one eighth of the whole province lay uncultivated, and the condition of
+Gaul seems to have been no better. Besides this, merchants,
+manufacturers, mechanics, and citizens were taxed beyond their power of
+endurance, while those who failed to pay were shut up in prison. Every
+fourth year these taxes on industry were levied, a period to which the
+people looked forward with terror and lamentation. Gifts were also
+demanded from the cities or provinces on various occasions, such as the
+accession of an emperor, the birth of an emperor's heir, the free gift
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> city of Rome, for example, being fixed at about three hundred
+thousand dollars; and, in fine, the imperial despotism reduced the
+people to want, and hastened, even more than the inroads of the
+barbarians, the destruction of civil society.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine in his old age adopted the luxury and pomp which Diocletian
+introduced from the East; he wore false hair of various colors carefully
+arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of silk embroidered with
+flowers of gold. His family, at an earlier period, consisted of Crispus,
+a son by his first wife Minervina, and the three sons of Fausta,
+Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. Besides these there were three
+daughters. Crispus, however, who was beloved by the people and the army,
+excited the jealousy of Fausta. Constantine was led to believe that his
+son was engaged in a conspiracy against his life, and Crispus was
+executed by his father's orders, together with C&aelig;sar Licinius, the son
+of Constantine's favorite sister. Helena, the aged mother of
+Constantine, undertook to avenge her grandson. Fausta was finally proved
+to be unfaithful to her husband, and put to death, with many of her
+friends and followers. These fearful scenes within the palace recalled
+to the Roman people the memory of Nero and Caligula.</p>
+
+<p>The three sons of Fausta were now the heirs of the throne, and, with
+their two cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were carefully
+instructed by Christian professors, Greek philosophers, and Roman
+jurisconsults, the emperor himself teaching them the science of
+government and of man. They also studied the art of war in defending the
+frontiers of the empire; but no important war disturbed the last
+fourteen years of this reign. Constantine reigned thirty years, the
+longest period of any since Augustus; and he died May 22, A.D. 337, at
+his palace at Nicomedia, aged sixty-four years.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine, although professing the Christian faith, was not baptized
+until a short time before his death, when he received that solemn rite
+with many professions of penitence, and of a desire to live in future
+according to the precepts of religion. He seems to have possessed many
+excellent qualities, was brave, active, and untiring, ruled with
+firmness, and gave a large portion of his time to the cares of state.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image101" name="image101">
+   <img src="images/101.jpg"
+      alt="Julian the Apostate."
+      title="Julian the Apostate." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Julian the Apostate.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XLIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, A.D.
+476.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The three sons of the late emperor, Constantine, Constantius, and
+Constans, as soon as their father was dead, put to death their two
+cousins, Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, with many more of their relatives;
+only Gallus and Julian, the children of Julius Constantius, being left
+alive. They then divided the empire, A.D. 337, Constantine, the elder,
+retaining the new capital, Constans receiving the western provinces,
+while to Constantius was left Syria and the East. Sapor, king of Persia,
+invaded the Eastern provinces, and defeated the Romans in various
+battles. Meanwhile a quarrel broke out between Constantine and Constans,
+and the former, having invaded his brother's provinces, was defeated and
+slain, A.D. 350. Ten years afterward Constans was himself put to death
+by Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who at once assumed the name of
+emperor. Constantius marched against him, but found that Vetranio,
+pr&aelig;fect of Illyricum, had joined him, instigated by the Princess
+Constantina. He finally, however, defeated Magnen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>tius, and deposed the
+aged Vetranio, and thus became the master of Rome. Having recalled
+Gallus and Julian from banishment, the emperor gave them the title of
+C&aelig;sars. Gallus proved unfit for public affairs, while Julian won the
+esteem of all men by his conduct and valor. He drove the Germans out of
+Gaul, which they had invaded, and even crossed the Rhine, in imitation
+of Julius C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>Constantius now became jealous of the rising fame of Julian, who was
+beloved by the Western legions, and commanded him to send the finest
+part of his army to the East. Julian prepared to obey, but the soldiers
+rose in revolt, proclaiming him Julian Augustus. He sent messengers to
+the emperor demanding the recognition of his election; but war could not
+long be averted. Julian abjured Christianity, which he had hitherto
+professed, together with his allegiance to the emperor, and led a small
+army of well-chosen soldiers against his rival. Meantime Constantius, in
+A.D. 361, November 3d, died of a fever in Syria, while Julian entered
+Constantinople December 11th, amid the applause of the people. He was
+acknowledged emperor. He was now in his thirty-second year, in many
+particulars the most remarkable of the second Flavian family.</p>
+
+<p>Julian had been educated by the Platonic philosophers, and resolved to
+restore the ancient form of religion. He sacrificed to the pagan gods,
+rebuilt their temples, revived the practice of augury, or divination,
+and vainly strove to impose upon the human mind a superstition which it
+had just thrown off. In order to mortify the Christians, he resolved to
+rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and restore the Jews to their ancient
+seat. But some natural phenomenon interposed; the workmen were driven
+away by balls of fire, and Julian abandoned his design.</p>
+
+<p>Except this unphilosophical hostility toward the Christians, whose faith
+he had once professed, Julian seems to have made a sincere attempt to
+improve the condition of his people. He lived with frugality, rewarded
+merit, and encouraged learning, except where it was employed in the
+defense of Christianity. He was also successful in his wars against the
+Germans and the Persians, but at length was defeated by the latter, and
+was killed A.D. 363, June 26th.</p>
+
+<p>Julian affected in his dress and manners the rudeness and indifference
+of a philosopher, was free from vice, possessed considerable learning,
+and wrote a work of some value, in which he compared and studied the
+characters of the long line of his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Jovian was now proclaimed emperor by the Eastern army, and concluded a
+dishonorable peace with the Persians. He next pub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>lished an edict
+restoring Christianity, but was found dead in his bed, A.D. 364.</p>
+
+<p>Valentinian was next chosen emperor, who gave the Eastern provinces to
+his brother Valens. He made Milan the seat of his own government, while
+Valens reigned at Constantinople; and the empire was from this time
+divided into the Eastern and the Western. The whole of the Western world
+was distressed by the invasion of barbarous tribes, and Valentinian now
+made his son Gratian his heir, in order to remove all doubt as to the
+succession. The Saxon pirates, meantime, harassed all the coasts of
+Gaul, while Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots. Theodosius,
+however, defeated them, and was soon after sent to quell an insurrection
+in Africa. This he succeeded in doing, when Valentinian died suddenly,
+A.D. 375.</p>
+
+<p>Valens, his brother, meantime had suppressed a rebellion in the East,
+led by Procopius; and then, having become an Arian, commenced a severe
+persecution of the orthodox, of whom no fewer than eighty ecclesiastics
+were put to death for supporting the election of a bishop of their own
+faith at Constantinople. Valens also succeeded in repelling the attacks
+of the Persians.</p>
+
+<p>In the West Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian and
+Valentinian II. The brave Theodosius, meanwhile, whose valor had
+preserved the peace of the nation, was executed by order of Gratian, and
+soon after the Huns appeared upon the Danube. These savages are thought
+to have entered Europe from Tartary. Their faces were artificially
+flattened and their beards plucked out. They left the cultivation of
+their fields to the women or slaves, and devoted their lives to warfare.
+A wandering race, they built no cities nor houses, and never slept
+beneath a roof. They lived upon horseback. The Huns first attacked their
+fellow-barbarians, the Ostrogoths, and made a fearful carnage, putting
+all the women and children to death.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic nation now begged permission from the Romans to cross the
+Danube, and settle within the Roman territory. Their request was
+granted, upon condition that they should surrender all their arms; but
+this condition was imperfectly fulfilled. The celebrated Bishop Ulphilas
+about this time converted the Goths to Arianism, invented a Gothic
+alphabet, and infused among the Goths a hatred for the Catholic faith,
+which served to increase their zeal in all their future conflicts with
+the Romans. Ill-treated by the Roman commissioners who had been sent by
+the Emperor Valens to superintend their settlement, the Goths marched
+against Constantinople. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid, and the latter,
+although his own dominions were harassed by the Germans, marched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> to the
+aid of his uncle, but died at Sirmium. Valens encountered Fritigern, the
+Gothic leader, near Adrianople, in A.D. 378, and was defeated and slain.
+Nearly the whole of the Roman army was destroyed upon this fatal field.</p>
+
+<p>Gratian now chose as his colleague Theodosius, the son of the former
+brave commander of that name, and Theodosius for a time restored the
+Roman empire. He defeated the Goths, won their affections by his
+clemency, and induced them to protect the frontiers of the Danube.
+Gratian was defeated and put to death, A.D. 383, by a usurper, Maximus,
+who also deprived Valentinian II. of his province of Italy. Theodosius,
+however, defeated the usurper in A.D. 388, and generously restored
+Valentinian to his throne. Valentinian was murdered by a Frank,
+Arbogastes, in A.D. 392, but Theodosius marched against him, and
+defeated and destroyed the rebels Arbogastes and Eugenius, A.D. 394.</p>
+
+<p>Theodosius the Great, who had thus reunited the empire under his own
+sway, belonged to the orthodox faith, and sought to suppress Arianism,
+as well as many other heresies which, had crept into the Christian
+Church. He was a prudent ruler, and resisted successfully the inroads of
+the barbarians. He divided his empire between his two sons, Honorius and
+Arcadius, the former becoming Emperor of the West, the latter, who was
+the elder, succeeding his father at Constantinople; and Theodosius soon
+after died, lamented by his subjects. Rufinus, who became the chief
+minister of Arcadius, oppressed and plundered the Eastern empire. He was
+universally hated by the people. Stilicho, on the other hand, who also
+became the chief minister of Honorius, was a very different character.
+He was a brave and active commander, and restored the former glory of
+the Roman arms. His chief opponent was the famous Alaric, who now united
+the Gothic forces under his own command, and, having penetrated into
+Greece, ravaged and desolated that unhappy country. The barbarians
+plundered Athens, Corinth, Sparta, and Argos; and those cities, once so
+renowned for valor, seemed to offer him no resistance, so fallen was the
+ancient spirit of the Greeks. Stilicho, however, pursued Alaric into
+Elis, and would, perhaps, have totally destroyed the barbarians had not
+the feeble Arcadius not only made peace with Alaric, but appointed him
+to the command of Illyricum. Alaric, not long after, invaded Italy, but
+was defeated by his rival. In A.D. 403 he again invaded Italy, and was
+induced to retreat by a considerable bribe.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Honorius removed from Rome to Ravenna, where he believed
+himself more secure; and when a new horde of barbarians invaded Italy in
+A.D. 406, and had besieged Florence, they were totally defeated and
+destroyed by Stilicho. A portion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> invaders escaped into Gaul,
+where they committed great ravages, until Constantine, the governor of
+Britain, was proclaimed emperor, who wrested Gaul and Spain from the
+dominion of Honorius. This weak prince, in A.D. 408, consented to the
+murder of Stilicho. His new minister, Olympius, directed the slaughter
+of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy, a cruelty which was
+fearfully avenged.</p>
+
+<p>Alaric, the scourge of Rome, marched into Italy, and in A.D. 408
+besieged the capital. Pestilence and famine soon raged within the walls
+of Rome, until the Senate purchased a respite from their calamities by
+an enormous ransom. Honorius refused to confirm the treaty, and the next
+year Alaric once more appeared before the city. He took possession of
+Ostia, the port of Rome, reduced the Senate to surrender, and proclaimed
+Attalus emperor. Honorius still refusing to yield to his demands, Alaric
+resolved to punish Rome for the vices of its emperor. The sack of that
+city now followed, one of the most fearful tragedies in history.</p>
+
+<p>No foreign enemy had appeared before the gates of Rome since the
+invasion of Hannibal, until Alaric made his successful inroad into
+Italy. The city still retained all that magnificence with which it had
+been invested by the emperors. The Colosseum, the baths, the aqueducts,
+the palaces of the Senators, the public gardens, and the ancient
+temples, still remained; but its people were lost in luxury and vice.
+Learning was no longer respected among them, the gamester or the cook
+being more esteemed than philosophers or poets; and the luxurious
+Senators passed their lives in frivolous and degrading amusements. The
+indolent people were maintained by a daily distribution of bread, baked
+in the public ovens; and oil, wine, and bacon were also provided for
+them during a part of the year. The public baths were open to the
+people, and for a small copper coin they might enter those scenes of
+luxury where the walls were incrusted with precious marble, and
+perpetual streams of hot water flowed from silver tubes. From the bath
+they passed to the Circus, where, although the combats of gladiators had
+been suppressed by Christian princes, a succession of amusements was
+still provided. In this manner the luxurious nobles and people of Rome
+passed their tranquil, inglorious lives.</p>
+
+<p>The wealth of the capital was such as might well attract the barbarous
+invader. The palaces of the Senators were filled with gold and silver
+ornaments, and the churches had been enriched by the contributions of
+pious worshipers. Many of the nobles possessed estates which produced
+several hundred thousand dollars a year, and the wealth of the world was
+gathered within the walls of its capital.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have no means of estimating accurately the population of Rome. Its
+walls embraced a circuit of twenty-one miles, and it is probable that
+nearly a million of people were contained within the walls and the
+suburbs.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the condition of Rome when it was about to fall before the arms
+of the barbarians. August 24th, A.D. 410, Alaric approached the city,
+and the gates being opened to him by some Gothic slaves, his troops
+began at night a fearful scene of pillage and destruction. Men, women,
+and children were involved in a general massacre; nobles and plebeians
+suffered under a common fate. The Goths, as they entered, set fire to
+the houses in order to light their path, and the flames consumed a large
+part of the city. Great numbers of the citizens were driven away in
+hordes to be sold as slaves; others escaped to Africa, or to the islands
+on the coast of Italy, where the Goths, having no ships, were unable to
+follow them. But Alaric, who was an Arian, spared the churches of Rome,
+and was anxious to save the city from destruction. From this time,
+however, A.D. 410, began that rapid decay which soon converted Rome into
+a heap of ruins.</p>
+
+<p>Alaric, after six days given to plunder, marched out of the city, to the
+southern part of Italy, where he died. His body was buried under the
+waters of a rivulet, which was turned from its course in order to
+prepare his tomb; and, the waters being once more led back to their
+channel, the captives who had performed the labor were put to death,
+that the Romans might never discover the remains of their Gothic
+scourge.</p>
+
+<p>The brother of Alaric, Adolphus, who succeeded him, was married to the
+Princess Placidia, and now became the chief ally of Honorius. He
+restored Gaul to the empire, but was murdered while upon an expedition
+into Spain. Wallia, the next Gothic king, reduced all Spain and the
+eastern part of Gaul under the yoke of the Visigoths. The empire of the
+West was now rapidly dismembered. The Franks and Burgundians took
+possession of Gaul. Britain, too, was from this time abandoned by the
+Romans, and was afterward, in A.D. 448, overrun and conquered by the
+Angles and the Saxons, and thus the two great races, the English and the
+French, began.</p>
+
+<p>Arcadius, the Eastern emperor, governed by his minister, the eunuch
+Eutropius, and by the Empress Eudoxia, was led into many cruelties; and
+St. Chrysostom, the famous bishop and orator, was one of the illustrious
+victims of their persecutions. Arcadius died in A.D. 408, and was
+succeeded by the young Theodosius, who was controlled in all his
+measures by his sister Pulcheria, and for forty years Pulcheria ruled
+the East with uncommon ability. Honorius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> died in A.D. 423, when
+Valentinian III., son of Placidia, his sister, was made Emperor of the
+West. He was wholly governed by his mother, and thus Placidia and
+Pulcheria ruled over the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>The Vandals, who had settled in the province of Andalusia, in Spain,
+were invited into Africa by Count Boniface, who had been led into this
+act of treachery by the intrigues of his rival &AElig;tius. Genseric, the
+Vandal king, conquered Africa, although Boniface, repenting of his
+conduct, endeavored to recover the province; and thus Italy was now
+threatened on the south by the Vandal power in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The Huns, meantime, who had been detained upon the upper side of the
+Danube, now crossed that river, being united under the control of
+Attila, and became the terror of the civilized world. Attila first
+threatened an attack upon the Eastern empire, but at length turned his
+arms against the West. He was defeated by &AElig;tius and the Visigoths in
+A.D. 451, but the next year he invaded Italy, demanded the Princess
+Honoria in marriage, and destroyed many of the Italian cities. He spared
+the city of Rome, however, and finally died in A.D. 453. His death alone
+saved the empire from complete ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Valentinian III., who had put to death the brave commander &AElig;tius, was
+murdered by the patrician Maximus in A.D. 455. The Vandals now besieged
+and plundered Rome, and sold many thousands of the citizens as slaves.
+Avitus, a Gaul, next became emperor by the influence of Theodoric, king
+of the Visigoths, but was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, and was
+followed by Majorian, a man of merit, who endeavored to reform the
+nation. He died in A.D. 461. Count Ricimer then declared Severus
+emperor, but was forced to apply for aid against the Vandals to the
+court of Constantinople, where Leo was now emperor. Leo appointed
+Anthemius to the throne of the West, and sent an army against the
+Vandals in Africa, which was totally defeated. Ricimer then deposed
+Anthemius, and declared Olybrius emperor; but both Ricimer and Olybrius
+died in A.D. 472. Leo next appointed Julius Nepos his colleague.
+Glycerius, an obscure soldier, made an effort to obtain the throne, but
+yielded to Nepos, and became Bishop of Salona. Orestes, who had
+succeeded Count Ricimer as commander of the barbarian mercenaries,
+deprived Nepos of his throne; and Nepos, having fled into Dalmatia, was
+executed by his old rival Glycerius.</p>
+
+<p>Orestes gave the throne to his son Romulus, to whom he also gave the
+title of Augustus, which was afterward changed by common consent to
+Augustulus. But Odoacer, the leader of the German tribes, put Orestes to
+death, sent Augustulus into banishment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>, with a pension for his support,
+and, having abolished the title of emperor, in A.D. 476 declared himself
+King of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Romulus Augustus was the last emperor of the West, and bore the name of
+the founder of the monarchy as well as of the empire, a singular
+circumstance.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner fell the Roman Empire, a noble fabric, which its founder
+hoped would endure forever. Its destruction, however, gave rise to the
+various kingdoms and states of modern Europe, and thus civilization and
+Christianity, which might have remained confined to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, have been spread over a large portion of the world.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XLV.</h2>
+
+<h3>ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Roman literature, which had risen to its highest excellence under
+Augustus, declined rapidly under his successors, and was finally lost
+with the fall of the Western empire. The language was no longer pure,
+and neither prose nor poetry retained the harmony and elegance of the
+Augustan age. A certain sadness and discontent, which marks all the
+later literature, forms also a striking contrast with the cheerful tone
+of the earlier writers. Every part of the empire, however, abounded with
+men of letters, and a high degree of mental cultivation seems every
+where to have prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>Epic poetry continued to nourish, and Virgil found many imitators. The
+best epic writer of this period was M. Ann&aelig;us Lucanus, who was born at
+Corduba, in Spain, in the year A.D. 38. Lucan was educated at Rome under
+the Stoic Cornutus, and was introduced by his uncle Seneca to the
+Emperor Nero. Having for a time enjoyed the patronage of Nero, he at
+length became the object of his jealousy and hatred, was accused of
+having taken part in Piso's conspiracy, and was condemned to death. He
+was allowed, as a favor, to put an end to his own life, and thus died,
+A.D. 65. Although so young, for he was scarcely twenty-seven years of
+age, Lucan, besides several shorter poems, produced the Pharsalia, an
+epic, of which he finished only ten books: it relates the wars between
+C&aelig;sar and Pompey, and contains many fine thoughts and striking images.
+He evidently prefers Pompey to C&aelig;sar, and possessed a strong love for
+liberty, which lends vigor to his verses. His language is pure, his
+rhythm often harmonious, but he never attains the singular delicacy and
+sweetness of his master, Virgil.</p>
+
+<p>C. Silius Italicus, the place of whose birth is unknown, also lived
+during the reign of Nero, and was Consul in the year A.D. 68. He was a
+Stoic, and put an end to his own life in the year A.D. 100, when he was
+about seventy-five years of age. His poem, the Punica, is an account of
+the second Punic War in verse, and is chiefly valuable to the historical
+student. He had little inventive power, and takes but a low rank in
+poetry.</p>
+
+<p>P. Papinius Statius, the son of the teacher of the Emperor Domitian, was
+carefully educated at Rome, and became renowned at an early age for his
+poetical talents. He spent the last years of his life at Naples, which
+was also the place of his birth, and died there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> in the year A.D. 96. He
+wrote the Thebais, in twelve parts; the Achilleis, in two books; the
+Sylv&aelig;, a collection of poems; a tragedy, and other works. He seems to
+have borrowed much from earlier Greek writers, but was possessed of
+considerable poetical fervor.</p>
+
+<p>Claudius Claudianus, who lived under Theodosius the Great and his two
+sons, was probably born and educated at Alexandria, but we know little
+of his history. He came to Rome about A.D. 395, and, under the patronage
+of Stilicho, rose to a high position in the state. The time and place of
+his death are unknown. His chief works were, 1. Raptus Proserpin&aelig;, an
+unfinished poem in three parts; 2. Gigantomachia, another unfinished
+work; 3. De Bello Gildonico, of which we possess only the first book;
+and, 4. De Bello Getico, in which the poet sings the victory of Stilicho
+over Alaric at Pollentia. His poems have a rude vigor which sometimes
+strikes the attention, but are chiefly valued for the light they throw
+upon the Gothic wars. They are marked by many faults of taste.</p>
+
+<p>Lyric poetry was little cultivated at Rome after the death of Horace;
+but satire, which was peculiar to the Romans, reached its highest
+excellence under the empire. Juvenal is still the master of this kind of
+writing, although he has been imitated by Boileau, Pope, and Johnson;
+and his contemporary Persius was also a writer of great power.</p>
+
+<p>Aulus Persius Flaccus was born at Volaterr&aelig;, in Etruria, in the year
+A.D. 34, of a distinguished family of the equestrian rank. He was
+educated at Rome under the best masters, particularly under the Stoic
+Cornutus, with whom he lived in close friendship, as well as with Lucan,
+Seneca, and the most distinguished men of his time. He died at the early
+age of twenty-eight, leaving behind him six satires and a brief preface.
+Persius possessed a generous, manly character, was the foe of every kind
+of vice, and formed one of that graceful band of writers who maintained
+their independence under the terrors of a despotic government.</p>
+
+<p>Decimus Junius Juvenalis, of whose life we have few particulars, was
+born at Aquinum A.D. 38 or 40, and came up to Rome, where he at first
+studied eloquence with great ardor, but at length gave himself wholly to
+satirical writing. He offended Domitian by his satires, it is said, and
+was sent by that emperor to the extreme boundary of Egypt, where he died
+of grief and exile; but scarcely any fact in the history of this great
+man has been perfectly ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>We possess sixteen satires of Juvenal, the last of which, however, is of
+doubtful authenticity. These satires are full of noble appeals to the
+purest emotions of virtue, and of severe rebukes for triumphant vice.
+Juvenal's language is often harsh and his taste impure; but his ideas
+are so elevated, his perception of truth, honor, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> justice so clear,
+that he seldom fails to win the attention of his readers.</p>
+
+<p>Epigrams seem to have been a favorite mode of expressing thought at the
+court of Augustus, and almost every eminent Roman from the time of
+Cicero has left one or more of these brilliant trifles behind him. M.
+Valerius Martialis, the chief of the epigrammatists, was born about A.D.
+40, at Bibilis, in Spain, from whence he came to Rome, when about
+twenty, to perfect his education. Here he lived for thirty-five years,
+engaged in poetical pursuits, and patronized by Titus and Domitian. He
+seems finally to have returned to his native land, where he was living
+in the year A.D. 100. His poems are about fifteen hundred in number,
+divided into fourteen books, and are altogether original in their
+design. They are always witty, often indecent, and contain many personal
+allusions which can not now be understood. Martial is one of the most
+gifted of the Roman writers.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of writing epigrams was preserved until a very late period.
+Seneca, Pliny the younger, Hadrian, and many others, were fond of
+composing them; and in modern times the epigram has been a favorite kind
+of poetry with most good writers.</p>
+
+<p>Ph&aelig;drus, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote pleasing fables.
+Calphurnius and Ausonius imitated Virgil's bucolics, and fragments of
+many other poets are preserved, whom we can not mention here.</p>
+
+<p>Historical writers also abounded under the empire. Velleius Paterculus,
+an excellent historian descended from a patrician family, was born about
+B.C. 19. He was the friend and flatterer of Tiberius, and rose, in
+consequence, to several high offices. He was Qu&aelig;stor in perhaps A.D. 7,
+and Pr&aelig;tor in A.D. 15. His <i>Historic&aelig; Roman&aelig;</i>, two books of which
+remain, is an abridgment of the history of the world, written in a clear
+and pleasing style, and is, in general, trustworthy. He flatters his
+benefactors, Augustus and Tiberius, but his fine tribute to the memory
+of Cicero shows that he felt a strong sympathy with that chief of the
+Republicans.</p>
+
+<p>Valerius Maximus, who also lived under Tiberius, wrote a considerable
+work, composed of remarkable examples of virtue, and other anecdotes,
+collected from Roman or foreign history. He had plainly a just
+conception of moral purity, although he dedicates his book to Tiberius.
+His style is inflated and tasteless, but the work is not without
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Next after Valerius arose Tacitus, the chief of the imperial prose
+writers. Tacitus, a plebeian by birth, was born at Interamna. The year
+of his birth is not known, but must have lain between A.D. 47 and A.D.
+61. Tacitus served in the army under Vespasian and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> Titus. He rose to
+many honors in the state, but in A.D. 89 left Rome, together with his
+wife, the daughter of the excellent Agricola. He returned thither in
+A.D. 97, and was made Consul by the Emperor Nerva. His death took place,
+no doubt, after A.D. 117. So few are the particulars that remain of the
+life of this eminent man; but the disposition and sentiments of Tacitus
+may be plainly discovered in his writings. He was honest, candid, a
+sincere lover of virtue. He lamented incessantly the fall of the old
+republic, and does not spare Augustus or Tiberius, whom he believed to
+be its destroyers. Like Juvenal, whom he resembled in the severity of
+his censure as well as the greatness of his powers, Tacitus wrote in a
+sad, desponding temper of mind, as if he foresaw the swift decline of
+his country.</p>
+
+<p>His style is wholly his own&mdash;concise, obscure, strong, forever arousing
+the attention. He could never have attained the easy elegance of Livy,
+and he never tells a story with the grace of that unequaled narrator,
+but he has more vigor in his descriptions, more reality in his
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>The life of his father-in-law Agricola is one of the most delightful of
+biographies. His account of the Germans was a silent satire upon the
+corrupt condition of the Roman state. The <i>Historiarum Libri</i> is a
+history of his own age, from the fall of Galba to the death of Domitian,
+and was probably designed to embrace the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. A
+small portion only of this work is preserved. The <i>Annales</i> relate the
+history of Rome from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, but are also
+imperfect. A treatise upon the orators is also attributed to the
+historian. Tacitus and Juvenal are the last great names in Roman
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>Quintus Curtius Rufus, an interesting writer, who lived perhaps under
+Claudius or Tiberius, his true period being uncertain, wrote, in ten
+books, an account of the exploits of Alexander the Great. He was
+succeeded by C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who came to Rome during the reign
+of Domitian, and there studied rhetoric and grammar. Under Hadrian he
+fell into disgrace and went into exile: the period of his death is
+unknown. Suetonius wrote the lives of the twelve C&aelig;sars, ending with
+Domitian. His language is good, and he paints with uncommon minuteness
+the vices as well as the virtues of his subjects; he abounds, too, in
+particulars which throw light upon the manners of the Romans. Suetonius
+also wrote several short treatises, while various biographies have been
+attributed to him which probably belong to inferior writers.</p>
+
+<p>L. Ann&aelig;us Florus, who perhaps lived under Trajan, wrote an epitome of
+Roman history. Justin, whose period is unknown, wrote or abridged from
+an earlier author, <i>Trogus</i>, a history of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> world. The <i>Scriptores
+Histori&aelig; August&aelig;</i> is a collection of writers of little merit, who
+flourished in different periods of the empire. Aurelius Victor, who was
+probably Pr&aelig;fect of Rome under Theodosius, wrote <i>Origo Gentis Roman&aelig;</i>,
+only a small portion of which has been preserved, and several other
+historical works. Eutropius, who served under Julian against the
+Persians, composed a brief history of Rome, written in a pure and
+natural style.</p>
+
+<p>Ammianus Marcellinus, who lived under Valens, Valentinian, and
+Theodosius until A.D. 410, and was a Greek by birth, wrote a history of
+the empire from Nerva to the death of Valens, A.D. 378. A large part of
+this work is lost. Ammianus abounds in digressions and descriptions, and
+is, on that account, the more entertaining. His manner can not be
+praised.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniard Orosius concludes the list of the Latin historians. Orosius
+was a Christian presbyter, and, while defending Christianity, paints a
+lamentable picture of the condition of the pagan world. He borrowed from
+Justin and other writers, and lived in the fifth century.</p>
+
+<p>Rhetoric continued to be cultivated, but eloquence no longer possessed
+the power which it held under the Republic. The speeches now delivered
+were chiefly declamations upon unimportant themes. M. Ann&aelig;us Seneca, the
+father of the philosopher, came to Rome from his native city Corduba, in
+Spain, during the reign of Augustus, and became a famous rhetorician. M.
+Fabius Quintilianus, a greater name in literature, was born A.D. 42, at
+Calgurris, in Spain, but, as was customary with men of merit at that
+period, went up to Rome, and became celebrated as a teacher of rhetoric.
+He was a person of excellent character, and, besides practicing at the
+bar, rose to the consulship. Having passed many years in politics or the
+law, Quintilian at last returned to his old profession, and in the close
+of his life gave himself wholly to letters. He now wrote his work upon
+oratory, <i>Libri duodecim Institutionis Oratori&aelig;</i>. In this valuable work
+he seeks to restore the purity of the language, inculcates simplicity,
+and shows an excellent taste. The younger Pliny was also a famous orator
+or declaimer.</p>
+
+<p>The Romance, or modern novel, is also thought to have begun in the first
+century with the satirical tale ascribed to Petronius Arbiter, or
+perhaps with the translation of the Milesian tales of Aristides from the
+Greek by Sisenna. The <i>Petronii Arbitri Satiricon</i> is a romance in prose
+and verse, and was probably written in the first century by an author of
+whom nothing is known. It relates the adventures of a certain
+<i>Encolopius</i>, and satirizes the vices and follies of the age. The
+language of this work is pure, the wit lively, but indecent: only a
+portion, however, of the <i>Satiricon</i> has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> preserved. During the age
+of the Antonines arose <i>Appuleius</i>, the best known of the ancient
+writers of tales. He was born at Madaura, in Africa, but went to
+Carthage, and from thence to Athens, where he was initiated into the
+Grecian mysteries, and studied the Platonic philosophy. Appuleius was an
+agreeable speaker, and had filled his mind with the learning of his age;
+but his fame with posterity rests upon his novel <i>Metamorphoseon</i>, in
+which he strives to correct the vices of his contemporaries. In this
+work a vicious young man is transformed into an ass, under which form he
+goes through many amusing adventures, but is at last changed to a new
+man through the influence of the mysteries. The story is full of
+episodes, the moral good, but the language shows the decline of literary
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>Philosophy, since the time of Cicero, had become a favorite study with
+the Romans, although they produced no remarkable philosopher. Seneca,
+the most eminent of them, was the son of M. Ann&aelig;us Seneca, the
+rhetorician. He was probably born at Corduba, in Spain, soon after the
+Christian era, and was educated by the best masters at Rome. He
+possessed an active intellect, was early renowned, and held various high
+offices in the state. Having been the preceptor of Nero, he was finally
+condemned to death by that monster, and put an end to his life A.D. 65.
+Seneca was a Stoic, and taught self-control, tranquillity of mind, and
+contempt for the changes of fortune. His various essays and other
+writings have always been admired, although he wanted a correct taste,
+and is often affected and rhetorical. He possessed great wealth, which
+he either inherited or accumulated. His town house was adorned with
+marbles and citron-wood, and his country villas, of which he had
+several, were filled with costly luxuries; yet his morals were probably
+pure, and he was much beloved for his generosity and fidelity to his
+many friends.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Pliny, <i>Plinius Secundus Major</i>, another famous philosopher,
+was born in the year A.D. 23, either at Como or Verona. He served with
+the army in Germany, and rose high in office under Vespasian. Being in
+command of the fleet at Misenum during the first eruption of Vesuvius in
+A.D. 79, in order to gratify his curiosity he remained too long near the
+burning mountain, and was suffocated by its exhalations. Pliny passed
+his whole life in study, and was never satisfied unless engaged in
+acquiring knowledge. His <i>Historia Naturalis</i> resembles the Cosmos of
+Humboldt, and passes in review over the whole circle of human knowledge.
+It treats of the heavens, of the earth and its inhabitants, of the
+various races of man, of animals, trees, flowers, minerals, the contents
+of the sea and land, of the arts and sciences; and shows that the
+au<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>thor possessed an intellect of almost unequaled activity. His nephew,
+the younger Pliny, who lived under Trajan, and was the favorite
+correspondent of that emperor, is remembered for his agreeable letters,
+and the purity and dignity of his character.</p>
+
+<p>Grammatical studies and critical writings also afforded employment for
+many intelligent Romans; and every part of the empire seems to have been
+filled with cultivated men, who, possessing wealth and leisure, gave
+themselves to literary studies. Aulus Gellius, one of the best known of
+the grammarians, lived during the period of the Antonines. His <i>Noctes
+Attic&aelig;</i> is a critical work in twenty books, in which he discusses many
+questions in language, philosophy, and science. He seems to have passed
+his life in traveling over Italy and Greece, collecting materials for
+this work, and, wherever he goes he never fails to meet with agreeable,
+intelligent friends, who delight, like himself, in improving
+conversation.</p>
+
+<p>Aurelius Macrobius, another well-known grammarian, lived during the
+fifth century. His Commentary on the Dream of Scipio is full of the
+scientific speculations of his age. His <i>Saturnalia</i> contains many
+extracts from the best Roman writers, with criticisms upon them, in
+which he detects the plagiarisms of Virgil, and observes the faults as
+well as the beauties of the orators and poets of Rome. The works of
+other grammarians have been preserved or are partly known to us, among
+which are those of Servius, Festus, Priscianus, and Isidorus.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the law, too, flourished in uncommon excellence under the
+emperors, and nearly two thousand legal works were condensed in the
+Digests of Justinian, few of which belonged to the Republican period.
+Under Augustus and Tiberius, Q. Antistius Labeo founded the famous
+school of the Proculians. He left four hundred volumes upon legal
+subjects. His rival, C. Ateius Capito, founded the school of the
+Sabinians, and was also a profuse writer. Under Hadrian, Salvius
+Julianus prepared the <i>Edictum Perpetuum</i>, about the year A.D. 132,
+which condensed all the edicts of former magistrates into a convenient
+code. Papinianus, Ulpianus, and Paulus were also celebrated for their
+legal writings. The only complete legal work, however, which we possess
+from this period, is a Commentary by Gaius, who lived probably under
+Hadrian. This valuable treatise was discovered in the year 1816 by the
+historian Niebuhr, in the library of Verona. It contains a clear account
+of the principles of the Roman law, and the Institutes of Justinian are
+little more than a transcript of those of Gaius.</p>
+
+<p>Various medical writers also belong to the Imperial period, the most
+important of whom is A. Cornelius Celsus. Works on agriculture were also
+written by Columella, Palladius, and others, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> serve to show the
+decline of that pursuit among the Romans. Geography, mathematics, and
+architecture were also cultivated; but of most of these scientific
+authors only the name is preserved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image102" name="image102">
+   <img src="images/102.jpg"
+      alt="Juvenal."
+      title="Juvenal." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Juvenal.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<h4>A.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>Accensi</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Accius, L., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ach&aelig;an League, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in alliance with Philip V., <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ach&aelig;an War, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;diles, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Adolphus, brother of Alaric, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;lius Saturninus, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;lius Sejanus, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milianus, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milius Lepidus, M., military road made by, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milius Paullus, L., ends the war in Illyria, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slain in the battle of Cann&aelig;, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milius Paullus, L. (son), defeats Perseus, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;neas, legend of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;quians, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;tolian League, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms alliance with Rome, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">but is obliged to make peace with Philip V., <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">chief town Ambracia taken by the Romans, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">compelled to sue for peace, and the League crushed, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Afranius, L., Consul, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Afranius, L. (poet), <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Africa, invaded by the Romans, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">law introduced by Ti. Gracchus, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">extended by C. Gracchus, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">law introduced by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Agricola, Julius, legate to Britain, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his forced retirement, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Agrigentum besieged and taken, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agrippa, M., Octavian's general, drives L. Antonius and Fulvia out of Rome, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats them at Perusia, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">constructs the Julius Portus, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats fleet of Sextus Pompey, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agrippa, Postumus, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassination of, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Agrippina, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">put to death by Tiberius, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Alaric ravages Greece, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges Rome, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sacks the city, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Alba Longa, foundation of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">destruction of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Alban Lake, legend of the, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alesia surrenders to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander Severus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexandria, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">trade between, and the Indies, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Allemanni threaten Rome, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Aurelian, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Allobroges, embassadors of the, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alps, Hannibal's passage of, note on, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ambitus</i>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ancus Marcius, succeeds Tullus Hostilius, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquers several Latin cities, and removes inhabitants to Rome, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">institutes the Fetiales, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">founds a colony at Ostia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fortifies the Janiculum, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">constructs the Pons Sublicius, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reign and death, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Andriscus, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antiochus, king of Syria, proposes to Philip V. to partition Egypt between them, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">receives Hannibal as a fugitive, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is persuaded to invade Greece, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated at Thermopyl&aelig;, and returns to Syria, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">invades the kingdom of Pergamus, but is defeated near Magnesia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is compelled to cede all his dominions in Asia Minor, to pay fines, and surrender Hannibal, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">peace concluded, and affairs of Asia settled, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Antiochus Asiaticus deposed, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Antepilani</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antoninus, M. Aurelius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Antoninus, M. Commodus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antoninus Pius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antonius, C., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antonius, M. (orator), assassinated, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antony (Marcus Antonius), Consul with C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">offers the diadem to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes possession of C&aelig;sar's papers and treasures, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">pronounces the funeral oration over the body of C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">master of Rome, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attacked by Cicero in his Philippies, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retires to Cisalpine Gaul, and besieges Mutina, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">declared a public enemy, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Pansa, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Hirtius, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Cassius at Philippi, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">licentious conduct in Asia Minor, and meeting with Cleopatra,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">follows her to Alexandria, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fulvia, his wife, and L. Antonius, his brother, rise against him, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his troops defeated in Syria, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">meets his wife and brother at Athens, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his wife dies, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms an alliance with Sextus Pompey, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marries Octavia, sister of Octavian, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to the East with Octavia, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his success in Syria, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">makes another treaty with Octavian, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">renews his union with Cleopatra, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated in Parthia, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Alexandria, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Octavian in the battle of Actium, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is again defeated at Alexandria, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">stabs himself, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Apollonia, besieged by Philip V. of Macedon, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Appellatio</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Appius Claudius, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Appius Claudius C&aelig;cus, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his son, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Appuleius, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apulia, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aqu&aelig; Sext&aelig;, battle at, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aquillius, M'., Consul, suppresses the Second Servile War in Sicily, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated, and made prisoner by Mithridates, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Arabia Felix invaded by Trajan, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabia Petr&aelig;a made a Roman province, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arcadius, son of Theodosius, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his cruelties, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Archelaus defeated at Ch&aelig;ronea, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and again at Orchomenos, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Archimedes, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ariobarzanes expelled from Cappadocia, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">restored, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">again expelled, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">restored to his kingdom, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ariovistus defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aristobulus surrenders to Pompey, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armenia, Pompey in, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arminius, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Army, Roman, constitution of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artaxata, submission of Mithridates at, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>As (weight), <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ascanius, legend of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asculum, revolt at, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Astures conquered by Augustus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Atellan&aelig; Fabul&aelig;</i>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Athenio, leader of slaves in Sicily, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and slain by Catulus, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Athens, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">declares against Rome, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Attalus Philometor, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Attila invades Italy, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Augurs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Augusta Emerita (Merida) founded by Augustus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aurelian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ausonius, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Autronius P&aelig;tus, P., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Avidius Cassius defeats the Parthians, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>B.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Babylon captured by Trajan, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Balearic Slingers, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barcochab, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Belgic War, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bibulus, M., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boadicea, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boii finally conquered and slaughtered, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bononia (Bologna), colony at, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bosporus, Cimmerian, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brennus, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brigantium taken by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bruttii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Britain, first invasion by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">second invasion, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Brutus, D., put to death at Aquileia, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brutus, L. Junius, <a href='#Page_23'>23-25</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Brutus, M. Junius, Pr&aelig;tor, conspires with Cassius and others to assassinate C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retires to Macedonia, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">goes to Athens, and collects an army, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plunders Lycia, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses over into Thrace, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Octavian at Philippi, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slays himself, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>C.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>C&aelig;cilius, Q., <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar Augusta (Saragossa) founded by Augustus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Augustus, his conduct of the empire, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">extent of his empire, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his government, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">decree against celibacy, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his protection, the Pr&aelig;torian Guard, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">army, navy, and revenues, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plots against his life, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his military enterprises, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">domestic misfortunes, <a href='#Page_291'>291-293</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">personal appearance, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Caius Caligula, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">succeeds Tiberius, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Caius Julius, early life, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">&AElig;dile, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">restores statues and trophies of Marius, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Propr&aelig;tor in Spain, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his conquests there, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consul, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms cabal with Pompey and Crasus (1st Triumvirate), <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">carries Agrarian Law, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">supports Pompey, and gives him his only daughter Julia in marriage, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">divorces his wife, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">obtains command in Gaul, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">1st campaign in Gaul, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">2nd, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">3rd, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">4th, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">5th, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">6th, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">7th, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">8th, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rivalry of Pompey, <a href='#Page_237'>237-8-9</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Italy, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">quarters at Ravenna, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ordered to disband his army, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">refuses, and crosses the Rubicon, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enters Rome, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquers his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> opponents in Spain, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">short Dictatorship, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses to Greece to encounter Pompey, <a href='#Page_243'>243-4</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">total defeat of Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dictator, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">pursues Pompey into Egypt, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">supports Cleopatra, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquers Pharnaces in Syria, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Rome, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Pompeian army in Africa, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of Cato at Utica, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">master of the Roman world, and Dictator for ten years, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his Triumph, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his clemency and reforms, <a href='#Page_247'>247-8-9</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imperator and Dictator for life, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">appoints Octavius his heir, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conspiracy against him, <a href='#Page_249'>249-50</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassination, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">character, <a href='#Page_250'>250-1</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his character as a writer, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, L.. Julius, Consul, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Social War, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">proposes Lex Julia, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Lucius, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Tiberius Claudius, succeeds Caligula, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enters Britain, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, Vespasianus, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar, A. Vitellius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calabria, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calphurnius, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calpurnian Law, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Camillus, M. Furius, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campagna, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campania, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cann&aelig;, immense Roman army defeated at, by Hannibal, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cantabri, conquered by Augustus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cantabrians, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144-5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canuleia Lex, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capito, C. Ateius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capitolium, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capua, opens its gates to Hannibal, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retaken by the Romans, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caracalla, Emperor, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassinated, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caractacus, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carbo, Cn. Papirius, Consul, joins Cinn&aelig;, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carinus, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carthage, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">capture and destruction of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rebuilt by the Romans, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">capital of the Vandal kingdom, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">finally destroyed by the Arabs, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Carthaginians, their navy, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by the Roman navy, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Carus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catilina, L. Sergius, early life, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crimes, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conspiracy, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">accused by Cicero, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaves Rome, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">collects troops, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and slain, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cassius Longinus, C., fights under Crassus in Mesopotamia, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conducts the retreat to Syria, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">originates the conspiracy against C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retires into Syria, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Dolabella in Syria, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plunders Rhodes, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marches with Brutus into Thrace, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Antony at Philippi, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cato, M. Porcius, in Spain, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor, Pr&aelig;tor, Consul, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Censor, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reforms, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his prejudices, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his severity and avarice, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cato, M. Porcius, advocates the death of the Catilinarian conspirators, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death at Utica, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his character as a writer, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Catullus, Valerius, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catulus, Q. Lutatius, combined with Marius in the overthrow of the Cimbri, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death by order of Marius, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Catulus, Q. Lutatius (son), hails Cicero as "Father of his Country," <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caudine Forks, battle at, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Celsus, A. Cornelius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Celtiberians, tribes of, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war with, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Censors, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Census, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Centuriones</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cethegus, C. Cornelius, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chosroes, king of the Parthians, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cicero, M, Tullius, early life, studies, and success as an orator, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">prosecutes Verres, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">studies at Athens and in Asia Minor, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor in Sicily, under Sex. Peduc&aelig;us, at Lilyb&aelig;um, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">&AElig;dile, Pr&aelig;tor, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consul, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">opposes agrarian law of Rullus, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">denounces Catiline, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">arrests conspirators, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">third oration, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his popularity, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">hostility of Clodius, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his banishment, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his return to Rome, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">joins the party of C&aelig;sar's assassins, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his Philippics against Antony, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">stimulates the Senate against Antony and Octavian, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is included in the list of proscriptions, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his character as a writer, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cimbri, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">they enter and ravage Spain, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enter Italy, destroyed by Marius and Catulus, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cincinnatus and the &AElig;quians, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cincius Alimentus, L., <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cinna, L., Consul, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conflict with Octavius, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">associated with Marius, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">their massacres in Rome, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">murdered by his army, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cinna, grandson of Pompey, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Circus Maximus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cisalpine Gaul, a Roman province, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cives Romani</i>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Claudianus, Claudius, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>Claudius, M. Aurelius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, meets M. Antony at Tarsus, <a href='#Page_262'>262-3</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attracts him to Alexandria, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is deserted for Octavia, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">again attracts Antony, who returns with her to Alexandria, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war declared against her by the Senate, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated with Antony at Actium, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">deceives Antony, but fails to deceive Octavian, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">kills herself, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Clients, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clodius Albinus, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clodius Pulcher, P., profligate conduct of, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">tribune, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">procures the banishment of Cicero, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">killed by Milo, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Clusium besieged, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cocceius Nerva, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cohorts, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Collatia, Collatinus, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colonies, Roman, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colosseum, the, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Columella, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Comitia Centuriata</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Comitia Curiata</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Comitia Tributa</i>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantine proclaimed Augustus, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">removes the capital to Constantinople, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his character, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Constantius, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Consuls, duties of, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corfinium, new republic at, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corinth captured, and burnt, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coriolanus, C. Marcius, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">banished from Rome, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">invades Rome at the head of a Volscian army, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">spares the city, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, married to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">her death, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Corneli&aelig; Leges, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelii, slaves so called, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelius Fronto, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corsica and Sardinia formed into a Roman province, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corsica, revolt in, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotta, C. Aurelius, lawyer, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotta, L. Aurelius, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotta, M. Aurelius, defeated by Mithridates, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crassus, P. Licinius, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crassus, M. Licinius, Pr&aelig;tor, appointed to command the army against the Gladiators, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats and slays Spartacus, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consul with Pompey, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms 1st Triumvirate with C&aelig;sar and Pompey, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">meets C&aelig;sar and Pompey at Luca, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">second Consulship with Pompey, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his command in Syria, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses the Euphrates, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and killed, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cremona besieged, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cretan Archers (<i>Sagittarii</i>), <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ctesiphon captured by Trajan, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curi&aelig;, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curiatii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curius, M'., defeats Pyrrhus, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curtius, M., legend of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Curules Magistratus</i>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>D.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Dacia made a Roman province, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dacians cross the Danube, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Decebalus, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">demands tribute, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his defeat, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Decemvirate, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemviri appointed, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">their tyranny, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Twelve Tables, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemviri continue in office, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">they assassinate Licinius Dentatus, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Virginia slain by her father to save her from the Decemvir Appius Claudius, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">resignation of the Decemvirs, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and election of 10 Tribunes, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Decius Mus, P., self-sacrifice, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and of his son, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Decuriones, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delatores, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Demetrius of Pharos, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dictator, <a href='#Footnote_13_13'>28 (note)</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dictatorship, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">revived by Sulla, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Didius Julianus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diocletian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">selects Maximian for his colleague, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats the Persians, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Dolabella, Cn., accused of extortion, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">puts an end to his life, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Domitian, reign of, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drama, Roman, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drusus. M. Livius, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drusus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sent to Germany, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">receives the tribunitian power, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">poisoned by his wife, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Drusus, M. Livius, son of the opponent of C. Gracchus, elected a Tribune, endeavours to obtain the Roman franchise for the Allies, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassinated, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>E.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Eburones, revolt of the, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egypt, condition of, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Elagabalus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Enna (Servile War), <a href='#Page_146'>146-7</a></li>
+
+<li>Ennius, Q., <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Equestrian Order, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Etruria, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Etruscans, their name, language, origin, and portions of Italy occupied by them, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">wars with the, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in league with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> Umbrians, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated at Lake Vadimo, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Eumenes, king of Pergamus, obtains Mysia, Lydia, and part of Curia, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eunus (Servile War), <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eutropius, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>F.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Fabia Gens and the Veientines, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabius, lieutenant, defeated by Mithridates, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabius Maximus, Q., appointed Dictator, and to the command-in-chief against Hannibal, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">styled the <i>Cunctator</i>, or "Lingerer," <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">obtains Tarentum, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fabius Pictor, Q., <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabius Sanga, Q., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Falerii surrenders to the Romans, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fescennine songs, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fetiales</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fiden&aelig; taken and destroyed, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fimbria defeated, slays himself, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flaccus, Aldus Persius, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flamens, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flamininus, L., act of cruelty of, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flamininus, T. Quinctius, appointed to the command against Philip V., whose army is defeated in the battle of Cynoscephal&aelig;, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">proclaims the independence of Greece, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">withdraws the Roman garrisons from all the towns of Greece, and returns to Italy, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Flaminius, C., defeats the Insubres, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Hannibal near Lake Trasimenus, and slain, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Florian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Florus, L. Ann&aelig;us, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fossa Mariana</i>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frentani, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulvia (mistress of Q. Curius), <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulvia, wife of M. Antony, conspires against him, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is driven out of Home, and defeated at Perusia, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">dies at Sicyon, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fulvius Nobilior, M., besieges and captures the town of Ambracia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>G.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Gabii, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
+
+<li>Gabinius, A., Tribune, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gaius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galatia, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galatians attacked by Cn. Manlius Vulso, defeated in two battles, and compelled to sue for peace, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, his treachery, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">succeeds Nero, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Galerius, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>:</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gallia Cisalpina, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gall&aelig;cians, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallienus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gaul, C&aelig;sar's wars in, <a href='#Page_229'>229-234</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">insurrection in, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gauls in Italy, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>:</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Insubres) conquered, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gellius, Aulus, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gentes, Roman, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">quells a mutiny on the Rhine, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his German campaigns, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Geta, son of Septimius, killed by Caracalla, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glabrio, M. Acilius, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glaucia, fellow-demagogue of Saturninus, pelted to death with tiles by the mob, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gordian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goths (Senones) besiege Clusium, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">march against Rome, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle of the Allia, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rome destroyed, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Capitol besieged, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capitol saved, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goths repulsed and destroyed, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">invade the Empire, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Gracchi, <a href='#Page_148'>148-160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gracchus, Caius Sempronius (the Tribune), returns from Sardinia, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Tribune, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his legal reforms, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">opposed by M. Livius Drusus, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">murdered, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (father of the Tribunes), subdues Spain, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (the Tribune), Qu&aelig;stor in Spain, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">at the siege of Carthage, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Tribune, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">introduces Agrarian Law, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his murder, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gr&aelig;cia, Magna, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greece under Augustus, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greek colonies in Italy, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>H.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Hadrian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">journey through his provinces, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his <i>Edictum Perpetuum</i>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">builds a villa at Tibur, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, excites Gauls and Ligurians against Romans, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamilcar Barca, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">relieves Lilyb&aelig;um and Drepanum, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquests in Spain, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hannibal elected to succeed Hasdrubal, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">first campaigns in Spain, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges and takes Saguntum, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses the Iberus and the Pyrenees with a large army, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reaches the Rhone, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses the Alps, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">encamps in the plains of the Po, among the Insubres, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reduces the Taurinians, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats the army of Scipio near the Ticinus, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats combined army of Scipio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> and Longus near the Trebia, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marches through Liguria to the Arno, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats C. Flaminius at Lake Trasimenus, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">eludes Q. Fabius and defeats Minucius, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">annihilates an immense Roman army at Cann&aelig;, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marches into Samnium and Campania, and obtains Capua, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his rapid marches, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">campaigns of B.C. 215-213, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">obtains Tarentum, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marches up to the walls of Rome, but is unable to take the city, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">loses Capua, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">loses Salapia, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">destroys the army of Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">loses Tarentum, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is recalled from Italy, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Scipio near Zama, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is protected by Antiochus, after whose defeat at Magnesia he escapes, and is received by Prusias, king of Bithynia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is demanded by Rome, takes poison, and dies, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hanno, in command of Carthaginian fleet, defeated by Lutatius Catulus, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">founds New Carthage, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassinated, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, marches from Spain into Italy, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated on the Metaurus, and slain, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Hastati</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Helvetii defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hernicans, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herodes Atticus, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hiero, king of Syracuse, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges Messana, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by the Romans, and makes peace, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hirtius, A., Consul, defeats Antony at Mutina, but is slain, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Honorius, son of Theodosius, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horatii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horatius Flaccus, Q. (poet), <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hortensia, Lex, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hortensius, Q. (orator), <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hostilianus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hostilius Mancinus, C., defeated by the Celtiberians, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huns appear on the Danube, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">cross the river, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hyrcanus favored by Pompey, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>I.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Iapygians, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ignobiles</i>, <a href='#Footnote_54_54'>128 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Illyria and Illyrians, <a href='#Page_78'>78-9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Illyrian Wars, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Istria subdued, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italians proper, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italicus, C. Silius, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italy, geography of, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fertility, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">early inhabitants, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">struggles in Central Italy, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Iulus, or Ascanius, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>J.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Janiculum fortified, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Janus, temple of, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">closed for the 2d time, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">for the 3d time, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Jerusalem besieged and taken by Pompey, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jesus Christ, birth of, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jugurtha, under Scipio in Spain, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">early life, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bribes the Senators, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Adherbal, and puts him to death, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war declared against him, but comes to Rome under safe-conduct, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">murders Massiva, and is ordered to quit Italy, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Metellus, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and by Marius, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">who takes him prisoner, and conveys him to Rome, where he is starved in prison, <a href='#Page_167'>167-8</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Julia, aunt of C&aelig;sar, married to Marius, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">her death, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Julia, daughter of C&aelig;sar, married to Pompey, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Julia, daughter of Augustus, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Julia, Lex, <a href='#Page_179'>179-80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Julian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Jus Imaginum</i>, <a href='#Footnote_54_54'>128 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Justin Martyr, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Juvenalis, Decimus Junius, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>K.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Kings of Rome, <a href='#Page_9'>9-28</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>L.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Labeo, Q. Antistius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Labienus (Tribune), <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laberius, Dec., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Latin War, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle at the foot of Vesuvius, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeat of the Latins, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Latins, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Latium, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">incorporated with the Republic of Rome, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Legends of early Roman history, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Leges</i> and <i>Plebiscita</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Legiones</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lentulus Sura, P. Cornelius, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lepidus, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lepidus, M., Consul, opposes the public funeral of Sulla, <a href='#Page_195'>195-6</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">proposes the repeal of Sulla's laws, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">collects an army and marches upon Rome, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated near the Mulvian Bridge, retires to Sardinia, and dies, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lepidus, M., Master of the Horse, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Antony, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Africa, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Licinian Rogations and Laws, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Licinius colleague with Constantine, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lictors (note), <a href='#Footnote_11_11'>25</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>Liguria, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ligurians, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lilyb&aelig;um, sieges of, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Livius Andronicus, M., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Livius, Titus, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucan, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his poetry, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lucania and Lucanians, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucanians, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Luceres</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucilius, C., <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucretius Carus, T. (poet), <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucullus, L. Licinius, opposes and defeats Mithridates in Bithynia and Pontus, <a href='#Page_206'>206-7</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sends Appius Claudius to Tigranes, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reforms in Asia, <a href='#Page_207'>207-8</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Tigranes at Tigranocerta and at Artaxata, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">recalled, and superseded by Pompey, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Ludi Magni</i>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lusitania, invaded by Ser. Sulpicius Galba, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">tribes of, subdued by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lusitanians, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144-5</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>M.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Macedonia, kingdom of, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Macedonian War, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macrinus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Elagabalus, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Macrobius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>M&aelig;cenas, C. Cilnius, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>M&aelig;lius, Sp., slain, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Magister Equitum, <a href='#Footnote_13_13'>28 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Magna Gr&aelig;cia, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mamertini, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manilian Law, Cicero's address in favor of, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manilius, C., Tribune, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Manipuli</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manlius, M., saves the Capitol, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">patron of the poor, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his fate, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Manlius Torquatus, L., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manlius Torquatus, T., legend of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and of his son, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Manlius Vulso, Cn., defeats the Galatians, and afterward, in conjunction with commissioners, concludes a peace with Antiochus, and settles the affairs of Asia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marcellinus, Ammianus, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marcellus, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marcellus, M., Consul, arrives in Sicily, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes Leontini, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">invests Syracuse, where he is baffled by Archimedes, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>,</span></li>
+<li>    <span style="margin-left: 4em;">but finally captures it, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes Salapia, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and slain in Lucania, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Marcius, C., Coriolanus, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marcomanni defeat Verus, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marius, C., early life, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Spain with Scipio, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Tribune, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sends the Consul Metellus to prison, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Pr&aelig;tor, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marries Julia, sister of C. Julius C&aelig;sar the elder, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">accompanies Metellus to Africa, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, with command in Numidia, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">repulses a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attaches Bocchus to the Romans, and takes Jugurtha prisoner, both by the agency of his Qu&aelig;stor Sulla, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul during his absence, and returns to Rome, leading Jugurtha in triumph, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reorganizes the army, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul a third and fourth time, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats and destroys the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambrones, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul a fifth time, and has a Triumph, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enters into a compact with Saturninus and Glaucia, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and is elected Consul a sixth time, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">loses reputation, and sets sail for Cappadocia and Galatia, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in the Social War, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is surpassed by Sulla, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">intrigues to obtain the command against Mithridates, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is opposed by Sulla, who enters Rome with his army, and Marius makes his escape, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his sufferings, risks, and return to Rome with Cinna, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his conquests, and the massacres in Rome, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in conjunction with Cinna elects himself Consul for the seventh time, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Marius, the younger, defeated by Sulla, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">orders his opponents to be put to death, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">embarks for Africa, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">puts an end to his own life, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Marrucini, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marsi, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marsic or Social War, <a href='#Page_178'>178-80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martialis, M. Valerius, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Masinissa, enters into treaty with Scipio, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assists Scipio, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">aids Scipio to defeat Hasdrubal and Syphax, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marries, and soon afterward kills Sophonisba, <a href='#Page_103'>103-4</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Massilia, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maximin, Emperor, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maximus, Valerius, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mediterranean Sea infested with pirates, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Memmius, C., murdered, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Menapii defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Menenius Agrippa, fable told by, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mesopotamia added to the Roman empire, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Messala, M. Valerius, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Messana, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metellus Celer, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metellus, L., defeats the Carthaginians at Panormus, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metellus (Macedonicus), Q., <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>Metellus (Numidicus), Q. C&aelig;cilius, Consul, conducts the war in Africa against Jugurtha, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">superseded by Marius, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Metellus, Q., Consul, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Military Tribunes appointed, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mimes, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mithridates V., king of Pontus, assassinated, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, early life, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquests and alliances, <a href='#Page_187'>187-8</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">orders a massacre of Romans and Italians in the cities of Asia, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by L. Valerius Flaccus and by Sulla, <a href='#Page_188'>188-9</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">obtains peace on hard conditions, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Murena on the Halys, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">makes peace with Rome, and evacuates Cappadocia, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">renews the war with Rome, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">overruns Bithynia, and defeats Cotta, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retreats before Lucullus into Pontus, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Lucullus at Cabira, and takes refuge in Armenia, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Fabius and Triarius, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">unites with Tigranes, when they overrun Pontus and Cappadocia, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Pompey, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">escapes into the Cimmerian Bosporos, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conspiracy of his son Pharnaces, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mithridatic Wars: First, <a href='#Page_183'>183-9</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third, <a href='#Page_205'>205-13</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Moorish Dartmen, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morini defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mucius Sc&aelig;vola, C., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mulvian bridge, battle of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murena, L., invades Cappadocia and Pontus, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is opposed by Mithridates, and defeated, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>N.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>N&aelig;vius, Cn., <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Naples, Bay of, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nasica, Scipio, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Navius, Attus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Navy, Carthaginian, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Navy, Roman, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neapolis attacked, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nepos, Cornelius, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nero and Livius, Consuls, defeat Hasdrubal, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nero, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Nervii defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nicomedes III, driven out of Bithynia, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">restored, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">again expelled, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">dies, leaving his dominions to the Roman people, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Nobiles</i>, <a href='#Footnote_54_54'>127 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nobility, <a href='#Page_127'>127-8</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Nomen Latinum</i>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nonius, A., murder of, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norbanus, C., Consul, defeated by Sulla, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Novus Homo</i>, <a href='#Footnote_54_54'>128 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Numa Pompilius elected to succeed Romulus, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reign and institutions, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Numantine War, disastrous till conducted by Scipio, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>,</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;"> who captures and destroys Numantia, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Numerian, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Numidia, political condition of and war in, <a href='#Page_162'>162-8</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Numitor, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>O.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Octavian (C. Julius C&aelig;sar Octavianus), appointed heir to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">comes to Rome, and claims the inheritance, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">collects an army, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">proscriptions, <a href='#Page_256'>256-7</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Brutus at Philippi, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Rome, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reconciliation with Antony, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his fleet destroyed by Sextus Pompey, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">renews the Triumvirate, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">subdues the Dalmatians, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rupture with Antony, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his Triumph, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imperator for life, Princeps, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">end of the Republic, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Octavius. <i>See</i> Octavian.</li>
+
+<li>Octavius, Cn., conflict with Cinna, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slain, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Oppian Law repealed, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orosius, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ostia founded, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ostrogoths obtain permission to cross the Danube, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otho, Salvius, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ovid banished, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ovidius Naso, P. (poet), <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>P.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Pacuvius, M., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pal&aelig;opolis taken, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palladius, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palmyra, fall of, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pannonia, mutiny in, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Panormus, defeat there of Carthaginians, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pansa, C. Vibius, Consul, defeated by Antony, and slain, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Papinianus, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Papius Mutilus, C., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Sulla, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Paterculus, Velleius, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Patres Majorum</i> and <i>Minorum Gentium</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Patricians, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">struggles between them and the Plebeians, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ascendency of the Patricians, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>See</i> Plebeians.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Patronus</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paulus, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peligni, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pergamus, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">made a province, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Perperna, M., re-enforces Sertorius in Spain, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">becomes jealous of Sertorius, and assassinates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> him, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Pompey, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Perseus succeeds Philip as king of Macedon, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by L. &AElig;milius Paullus, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Persius, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pertinax, Emperor, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pescennius Niger, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petreius, M., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petronius Arbiter, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ph&aelig;drus, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pharnaces, conspiracy of, against Mithridates, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">confirmed in position of the kingdom of the Bosporus, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Philip, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip V., king of Macedon, enters into a treaty with Hannibal, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">appears in the Adriatic with a fleet, and lays siege to Oricus and Apollonia, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes Oricus, but is driven from Apollonia, and burns his fleet, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in alliance with the Ach&aelig;ans, and at peace with the &AElig;tolians and Romans, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assists Hannibal at Zama, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attacks the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">treats with Antiochus for the partition of Egypt, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges Athens, which is relieved by a Roman fleet, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sues for peace after his defeat in the battle of Cynoscephal&aelig;, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">refuses to take part with Antiochus against the Romans, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ph&#339;nicians, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phalanx, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phraates, king of the Parthians, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Picenum, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piracy in the Mediterranean suppressed by Pompey, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piso, Cn. Calpurnius, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Placentia taken and destroyed, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plautia Papiria, Lex, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plautus, T. Maccius, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Plebiscita</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">and <i>Leges</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Plebs, Plebeians, origin of the, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sufferings of the, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ager Publicus, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">secession of Plebeians to the Sacred Mount, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">institution of Tribunes of the Plebs, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agrarian Law introduced by Sp. Cassius, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pliny, Secundus Major, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>P&#339;ni, <a href='#Footnote_26_26'>68 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pollio, Asinius, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pom&#339;rium, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pomp&aelig;dius Silo, Q., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pompeiopolis, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pompeius Strabo, Cn., in Social War, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pompey (Cn. Pompeius Magnus), early life and career, <a href='#Page_200'>200-1</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">receives the surname of Magnus, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sent to Spain as Proconsul against Sertorius, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">failures and successes, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Perperna, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">concludes the war, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul, with Crassus, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">restores the Tribunitian power, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">suppresses piracy in the Mediterranean, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">supersedes Lucullus in the East, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Mithridates in Lesser Armenia, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">receives the submission of Tigranes, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his conquests in Syria and Palestine, <a href='#Page_212'>212-13</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Italy, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his Triumph, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Senate refuses to sanction his measures in Asia, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>,</span></li>
+<li>    <span style="margin-left: 4em;">but afterward ratifies them, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms cabal with C&aelig;sar and Crassus (first Triumvirate), <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">marries C&aelig;sar's daughter Julia, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">meets C&aelig;sar and Crassus at Luca, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consul with Crassus, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">obtains government of Spain, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his new theatre at Rome opened, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his wife Julia dies, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected sole Consul, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">becomes hostile to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">measures in opposition to C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_239'>239-40</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">invested by the Senate with command of the army, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retreats before C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">embarks for Greece, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieged by C&aelig;sar at Dyrrhachium, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forces C&aelig;sar to retreat, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by C&aelig;sar at Pharsalia, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">flies to Egypt, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slain there, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pompey, Sextus, in alliance with M. Antony, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">master of the sea, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms alliance with Octavian and Antony, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rupture of the alliance, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Octavian's fleet, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his own fleet defeated by M. Agrippa, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is taken prisoner, and put to death at Miletus, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pontiffs, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pontine Marshes, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pontius, C., defeats the Romans, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated and put to death, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pontius, the Samnite, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pontus, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">kingdom of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">made a Roman province, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Porcius Cato, M. <i>See</i> Cato.</li>
+
+<li>Populus Romanus, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Porsena, Lars, marches against Rome in aid of Tarquin, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bridge defended by Horatius Cocles, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Mucius Sc&aelig;vola, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cl&#339;lia swims across the Tiber, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porsena withdraws his army, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war with the Latins, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle of the Lake Regillus, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of Tarquinius Superbus, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pr&aelig;neste surrenders, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pr&aelig;tor Peregrinus, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pr&aelig;tors, afterward called Consuls, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pr&aelig;tors and Pr&aelig;torship, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Principes</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Privernum, conquest of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Probus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Proconsuls, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>Propertius, Sextus Aurelius (poet), <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Propr&aelig;tors, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Proscriptio</i>, what it was, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Provinces, Roman, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Provocatio</i>, <a href='#Footnote_46_46'>121 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prusias, king of Bithynia, shelters Hannibal, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Publilian Law, <a href='#Footnote_16_16'>31 (note)</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Publilian Laws, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Publicani</i>, <a href='#Footnote_42_42'>119 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pulcheria, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Punic War, First, <a href='#Page_68'>68-76</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, <a href='#Page_82'>82-105</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, assists the Tarentines, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats the Romans near Heraclea, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sends Cineas to negotiate a peace, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">terms rejected, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes Pr&aelig;neste, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">winter quarters, at Tarentum, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">embassy of Fabricius, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">proposal to poison Pyrrhus, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">releases Roman prisoners without ransom, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses over into Sicily, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is repulsed at Lilyb&aelig;um, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Italy, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">seizes the treasures of the temple of Proserpine at Locri, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his remorse, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated at Beneventum, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Greece, and is slain, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>Q.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>Qu&aelig;stio Perpetua</i>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Qu&aelig;stor; and Qu&aelig;storship, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quintilianus, M. Fabius, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quintius, P., speech of Cicero for, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quirites</i>, <a href='#Footnote_4_4'>11 (note)</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>R.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Rabirius, C., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ramnes, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rasena, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Regillus, Lake, battle of, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Regulus, M. Atilius, defeats the Carthaginians, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is defeated by Xanthippus, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Regulus, M. Atilius, sent, as prisoner, with an embassy, to Rome, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">advises the Senate to reject the terms, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns, and is put to death, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Remus and Romulus, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Remus slain, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Repetund&aelig;</i>, <a href='#Footnote_55_55'>128 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Republic established at Rome, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">end of, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rhea Silvia, legend of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhodes, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">school of rhetoric at, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Rogatio</i> and <i>Lex</i>, <a href='#Footnote_20_20'>49 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roma Quadrata, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roman Literature, sketch of, <a href='#Page_272'>272-285</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Poetry</i>: Saturnian Metre and the Drama, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Livius Andronicus, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cn. N&aelig;vius, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. Ennius, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">T. Maccius Plautus, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Terentius Afer, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. C&aelig;cilius, L. Afranius, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Pacuvius, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">L. Accius, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Atellan&aelig; Fabul&aelig;</i>, <i>Mimes</i>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dec. Laberius, P. Syrus, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fescennine Songs, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Satires, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Lucilius, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">T. Lucretius Carus, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Valerius Catullus, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Virgilius Maro, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Q. Horatius Flaccus, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Albius Tibullus, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sextus Aurelius Propertius, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">P. Ovidius Naso, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Prose Writers</i>&mdash;Q. Fabius Pictor, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">L. Cincius Alimentus, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Porcius Cato, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Tullius Cicero, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. Terentius Varro, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Julius C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. Sallustius Crispus, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cornelius Nepos, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Titus Livius, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rome, situation and first inhabitants, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">legends and early history, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">first four kings, <a href='#Page_9'>9-15</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">last three kings, <a href='#Page_16'>16-28</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">foundation of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">destroyed by the Goths (Senones) under Brennus, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rebuilt, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">pestilence at, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sacked by Alaric, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Romulus, birth of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slays Remus, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rape of Sabine virgins, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war with Sabines, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reigns conjointly with Titus Tatius, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">succeeds T. Tatius as ruler of the Sabines, and thus becomes solo ruler, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">institutions, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Romulus Augustus, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rorarii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rufinus, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rufus, Q. Curtius, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rullus (Tribune), <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rupilius, P., captures Tauromenium and Enna, and ends the First Servile War, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rutilius Rufus found guilty and banished, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rutilius Lupus, P., Consul, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and slain, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>S.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Sabellians, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sabine virgins, rape of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sabini, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Footnote_4_4'>11 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sacred Mount, first secession to, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">second secession, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sacrovir, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saguntum captured, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salii, priests of Mars, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sallustius Crispus, C., <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salvius, leader of the slaves in Sicily, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assumes the surname of Tryphon, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Salvus Julianus, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Samnites, history, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">tribes, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquer Campania and Lucania, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attack the Sidicini and Campanians, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enter into war with the Romans, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">are defeated at Mount Gaurus, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">peace <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">second of Great War with the Romans, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">quarrel between Q. Fabius Maximus and L. Papirius Cursor, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Samnite general, C. Pontius, defeats the Romans at the Cau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>dine Forks, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">treaty rejected by the Romans, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">successes of the Romans, and peace, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">third war, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle of Sentinum, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeat, and peace, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Samnium and Samnites, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sapor, king of Persia, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sardinia obtained from Carthage, and formed into a Roman province, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">revolt in, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pr&aelig;tor for, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Satires, Roman, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saturnian Metre, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saturninus elected Tribune, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">brings in an Agrarian Law, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">murders Memmius, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is declared a public enemy, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">pelted to death with tiles by the mob, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio, Cneius, in Spain, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slain there, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio, P. Cornelius, marches to oppose Hannibal, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">killed in Spain, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio Africanus Major, P. Cornelius, his early life, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Proconsul, and goes to Spain, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">captures New Carthage, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Hasdrubal, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">master of nearly all Spain, by a victory (place uncertain), <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crosses over to Africa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">quells insurrection and mutiny in Spain, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">captures Gades, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">passes over to Sicily, and thence to Africa, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges Utica, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is opposed by Hasdrubal and Syphax, whom he defeats, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Hannibal near Zama, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">returns to Rome, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">prosecuted, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retires from Rome, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio Africanus Minor, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">captures and destroys Carthage, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sent to Spain, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">opposes Ti. Gracchus, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">found dead in his room, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio, L. Cornelius (Asiaticus) appointed to the command against Antiochus, who had invaded the kingdom of Pergamus, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Antiochus near Magnesia, and returns to Rome, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">prosecution of, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Scipio Nasica, P. Cornelius, subdues the Boii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sempronian Laws, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Senate, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Senators bribed by Jugurtha found guilty by a commission, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Senatus Consultum</i>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seneca, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his writings, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Seneca, M. Ann&aelig;us, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Senones, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Septimius Severus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">penetrates to the interior of Scotland, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sertorius Macro, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sertorius, Q., in Spain, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats Q. Metellus, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is opposed to Pompey, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassinated by Perperna, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Servile War at Carthage, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Servile War in Sicily, First, <a href='#Page_146'>146-7</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, suppressed by M. Aquillius, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Servilius, Q., murdered, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Servius Tullius, succeeds Tarquinius Priscus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">reforms the constitution, and divides the territory, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">increases the city, and surrounds it with a wall, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">forms an alliance with the Latins, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his death, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his two daughters, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Seven hills of Rome, <a href='#Footnote_9_9'>20 (note)</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sextius, L., first Plebeian Consul, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sicily invaded by the Romans, <a href='#Page_69'>69-71</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">made subject to the Romans, except Syracuse, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pr&aelig;tor for, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sicinius Dentatus slain, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sidicini, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silanus, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slaves under the Romans, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social War, or Marsic War, <a href='#Page_178'>178-180</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Socii</i>, or Allies, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">troops furnished by, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Sociorum Pr&aelig;fecti</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Soli, afterward Pompeiopolis, occupied by pirates, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spain in two provinces, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pr&aelig;tors for, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">under Augustus, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Spanish Wars, <a href='#Page_143'>143-146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sparta, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spartacus, a gladiator, excites an insurrection of slaves, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">devastates Italy with a large army of slaves, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Crassus, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">slain in battle, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Spolia opima</i> won by A. Cornelius Cossus, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Statius, P. Papinius, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stilicho, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Chrysostom, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Suffetes</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sulla, C. Cornelius, early life and character, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Qu&aelig;stor with Marius in Africa, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">gains over Bocchus, and entraps and makes a prisoner of Jugurtha, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Social War, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consul, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">rivalry with Marius, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">enters Rome with his army, and takes possession of the city, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaves Rome for the East, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plunders Athens, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">victory at Orchomenus, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">makes peace with Mithridates, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">overcomes Fimbria, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats the younger Marius, and enters Rome, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle with the Samnites and Lucanians for the possession of Rome, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Allies defeated, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Dictator, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his massacres and proscriptions, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected Consul, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> Triumph, and assumed title of Felix, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his military colonies, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reforms, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">resignation of Dictatorship, retirement, and death, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his legislation, <a href='#Page_190'>190-193</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sulpicius Rufus, P., sells himself to Marius, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">put to death, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Supplicatio</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Synorium, fortress of, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syphax, at war with Carthage, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is visited by Scipio, but, falling in love with Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal, becomes an ally of the Carthaginians, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Scipio and Masinissa, and flies into Numidia, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is pursued and taken prisoner by L&aelig;lius and Masinissa, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Syracuse captured by Marcellus, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syria, condition of, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">made a Roman province, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Syrus, P., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>T.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Tacitus, Emperor, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tacitus, the historian, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tarentum, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">captured, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tarpeia, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, his birth and descent, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">elected 5th king of Rome, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeats the Sabines and captures Collatia, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">takes also many Latin towns, and becomes ruler of all Latium, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">constructs the cloac&aelig;, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">lays out the Circus Maximus, and institutes the games of the Circus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">increases the Senate, the Equites, and the Vestal Virgins, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">appoints Servius Tullius his successor, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reign and death, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tarquinius Superbus, Lucius, succeeds Servius Tullius, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his tyranny, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">alliance with the Latins, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">war with the Volscians, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">founds the temple named the Capitolium, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">purchases the three Sybilline books, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attacks and captures Gabii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sends to consult the oracle at Delphi, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">besieges Ardea, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lucretia ravished by Sextus Tarquinius, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death of Lucretia, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is expelled from Rome with his sons, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">attempts to regain the throne, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his Etruscan allies defeated, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">dies at Cum&aelig;, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Terentius Afer, P., <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Teutones and Ambrones enter France, in march for Italy, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated and destroyed by Marius, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Theodosius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thurii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tiberius, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">divorced from his wife, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">succeeds Augustus, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">retires to Capre&aelig;, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tibullus, Albius (poet), <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tigranes, king of Armenia, receives his father-in-law Mithridates, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">defeated by Lucullus at Tigranocerta, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">acts in concert with Mithridates, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">submits to Pompey, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tigranes the younger revolts against his father, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tities, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Titus takes Jerusalem, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">emperor, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Trajanus Decius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Emperor, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conflict with the Dacians, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leads an army into Assyria, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">death, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Trasimenus, Lake, Roman army destroyed at, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Triarii</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Triarius defeated by Mithridates, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tribes, Assembly of the, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tribunes, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tribuneship degraded by Sulla's laws, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tribuni Militum</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tributum, a property-tax, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Triumph, the general's, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Triumvirate, First, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Triumviri visit Greece to inquire into the laws, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tullianum (dungeon), <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tullus Hostilius elected to succeed Numa, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">battle of the Horatii and Curiatii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquers the Albans, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">conquers the Etruscans, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">punishes Mettius Fuffetius, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">destroys Alba Longa, and removes inhabitants to Rome, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his reign and death, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Turm&aelig;</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Twelve Tables, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>U.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ulphilas, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ulpianus, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umbria, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umbrians in league with the Etruscans, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umbro-Sabellians, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>V.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Vadimo, Lake, defeat of Gauls and Etruscans there, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valentinian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valentinian III., <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valerian and Horatian Laws, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valerian, Emperor, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valerius, Corvus, M., legend of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valerius Publicola, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vandals invited into Africa, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plunder Rome, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Varro, M. Terentius, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Varus, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Vectigalia</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veii besieged, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alban Lake, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</span></li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">city captured, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span><i>Velites</i>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veneti defeated by C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ventidius, Tribune and Consul, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">his successful wars against the Parthians, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Vercingetorix defeated and taken prisoner, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verus, L., <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vestal Virgins, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Vestini</i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veto of the Tribunes, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vettius, L., accuses C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">is thrown into prison, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Vexillarius</i>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Via &AElig;milia, Appia, Flaminina, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Victor, Aurelius, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Viriathus, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li>
+<li>  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">assassinated, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Virgilius Maro, P., <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vologeses III., king of the Parthians, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Volturcius, T., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>W.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Wallia, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>X.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Xanthippus, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4>Z.</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image103" name="image103">
+   <img src="images/103.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Augustus."
+      title="Coin of Augustus." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">Coin of Augustus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The description which follows in the text must be compared
+with the map of Italy given in this work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The name "Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers
+on ancient geography, is not found in any classical author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was
+said to have fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Rome with the most
+sacred care.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The Sabines were called <i>Quirites</i>, and this name was
+afterward applied to the Roman people in their civil capacity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> These shields were called <i>Ancilia</i>. One of these shields
+is said to have fallen from heaven; and Numa ordered eleven others to be
+made exactly like it, that it might not be known and stolen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The <i>As</i> was originally a pound weight of copper of 12
+ounces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The following table will show the census of each class, and
+the number of centuries which each contained:
+</p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Equites.</i>&mdash;Centuri&aelig;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>First Class.</i>&mdash;Census 100,000 asses and upward.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Seniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="3" class="big">}</td>
+  <td align='right' rowspan="3">82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Juniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Fabrum (smiths and carpenters)</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Second Class.</i>&mdash;Census, 75,000 asses and upward.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Seniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="2" class="big">}</td>
+  <td align='right' rowspan="2">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Juniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Third Class.</i>&mdash;Census, 50,000 asses and upward.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Seniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="2" class="big">}</td>
+  <td align='right' rowspan="2">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Juniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fourth Class.</i>&mdash;Census, 25,000 asses and upward.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Seniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="2" class="big">}</td>
+  <td align='right' rowspan="2">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Juniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fifth Class.</i>&mdash;Census, 12,500 asses and upward.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Seniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>15</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="3" class="big">}</td>
+  <td align='right' rowspan="3">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; Juniorum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; cornicinum, tubicinum</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centuri&aelig; capita censorum</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right' class="bb">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sum total of the centuri&aelig;</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>198</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the
+Palatine, Aventine, Capitoline, C&aelig;lian, Quirinal, Viminal, and
+Esquilian. The Mons Pincius was not included within the Servian Wall.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The following genealogical table exhibits the relationship
+of the family:
+</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3">Demaratus of Corinth.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="3">TARQUINIUS PRISCUS.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Aruns.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Tarquinia,</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Tarquinia,</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">L. TARQUINIUS</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Aruns.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Egerius,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">married</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">married</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">SUPERBUS.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">commander of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Servius Tullius.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">M. Brutus.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Collatia.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">M. Brutus,</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">L. Brutus,</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Titus.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Sextus.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Aruns.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Tarquinius</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">put to</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">the</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Collatinus,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">death by</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Consul.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">married</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Tarquinius.</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2">Lucretia.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The <i>Lictors</i> were public officers who attended upon the
+Roman magistrate. Each consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon
+their shoulders <i>fasces</i>, which were rods bound in the form of a bundle,
+and containing an axe in the middle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> There is, however, reason to believe that these brilliant
+stories conceal one of the earliest and greatest disasters of the city.
+It appears that Rome was really conquered by Porsena, and lost all the
+territory which the kings had gained on the right side of the Tiber.
+Hence we find the thirty tribes, established by Servius Tullius, reduced
+to twenty after the war with Porsena.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The <i>Dictator</i> was an extraordinary magistrate appointed
+by one of the Consuls in seasons of great peril. He possessed absolute
+power. Twenty-four lictors attended him, bearing the axes in the fasces,
+even in the city; and from his decision there was no appeal. He could
+not hold the office longer than six months, and he usually laid it down
+much sooner. He appointed a <i>Magister Equitum</i>, or Master of the Horse,
+who acted as his lieutenant. From the time of the appointment of the
+Dictator, all the other magistrates, even the Consuls, ceased to
+exercise any power.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Debtors thus given over to their creditors were called
+<i>Addicti</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> This was called the right of <i>intercession</i>, from
+<i>intercedo</i>, "to come between."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Tribunes were originally elected at the Comitia of the
+Centuries, where the influence of the Patricians was predominant; but by
+the Publilian Law, proposed by the tribune Publilius Volero, and passed
+B.C. 471, the election was transferred to the Comitia of the Tribes, by
+which means the Plebeians obtained the uncontrolled election of their
+own officers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See <a href='#Footnote_16_16'>note on p. 31</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The Censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the
+state, with the exception of the Dictatorship. The duties of the Censors
+were numerous and important. They not only took the <i>census</i>&mdash;or the
+register of the citizens and their property&mdash;hut they also chose the
+members of the Senate, exercised a superintendence over the whole public
+and private life of the citizens, and, in addition, had the
+administration of the finances of the state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> This remarkable work, which, after the lapse of more than
+two thousand years, still continues to serve the purpose for which it
+was originally designed, is cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which
+the Alban Hill is composed. The length of the tunnel is about 6000 feet,
+and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>A Rogatio</i> differed from a <i>Lex</i>, as a <i>Bill</i> from an
+<i>Act</i> of Parliament. A Rogatio was a law submitted to the assembly of
+the people, and only became a Lex when enacted by them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> A <i>Jugerum</i> was rather more than half an acre.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> According to the Roman expression, the <i>Jus Connubii</i> and
+<i>Jus Commercii</i> were forbidden.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The Ph&#339;nicians were called by the Latins <i>P&#339;ni</i>,
+whence the adjective <i>punicus</i>, like <i>munire</i> from <i>m&#339;nia</i>, and
+<i>punire</i> from <i>p&#339;na</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Probably the same as the Hebrew <i>Shofetim</i>, i.e., Judges.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The inscription upon this column, or, at any rate, a very
+ancient copy of it, is still preserved in the Capitoline Museum at
+Rome.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Barca</i> is the same as the Hebrew word <i>Barak</i>,
+"lightning."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Gallicus ager.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The pass of the Alps which Hannibal crossed was probably
+the Graian Alps, or <i>Little St. Bernard</i>. See note "On the Passage of
+Hannibal across the Alps" at the end of this chapter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> At this time the Consuls entered upon their office on the
+Ides of March. It was not till B.C. 153 that the consulship commenced on
+the Kalends of January.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See the map in the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The story that Archimedes set the Roman ships on fire by
+the reflected rays of the sun is probably a fiction, though later
+writers give an account of this burning mirror.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Upon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed
+in a cylinder. When Cicero was Qu&aelig;stor in Sicily (B.C. 75), he found his
+tomb near one of the gates of the city, almost hid among briers, and
+forgotten by the Syracusans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Two Plebeian Consuls were first appointed in B.C. 172, and
+two Plebeian Censors in B.C. 131.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Hence their name, from <i>&AElig;des</i>, a temple.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> This was done by the well-known formula "Videant," or
+"Dent operam Consules, ne quid res publica detriment capiat."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> These farmers of the public revenue were called
+<i>Publicani</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> It is not easy to define with accuracy the respective
+duties of the Censors and &AElig;diles in relation to the public buildings;
+but it may be stated in general that the superintendence of the &AElig;diles
+was more in the way of police, while that of the Censors had reference
+to all financial matters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> A <i>Senatus consultum</i> was so called because the Consul who
+brought a matter before the Senate was said <i>Senatum consulere</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The technical word for this appeal was <i>Provocatio</i>. The
+word <i>Appellatio</i> signified an appeal from one magistrate to another.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> We anticipate the course of events in order to give under
+one view the history of the Roman legion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as
+<i>expediti</i>, <i>expediti milites</i>, <i>expedit&aelig; cohortes</i>, and even <i>expedit&aelig;
+legiones</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Called <i>Supplicatio</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> The <i>Nobiles</i> were distinguished from the <i>Ignobiles</i>. The
+outward distinction of the former was the <i>Jus Imaginum</i>. These Imagines
+were figures with painted masks of wax, representing the ancestors who
+had held any of the curule magistracies. They were placed in cases in
+the atrium or reception-hall of the house, and were carried in the
+funeral procession of a member of the family. Any one who first obtained
+a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobility of his family.
+Such a person was himself neither a <i>Nobilis</i> nor an <i>Ignobilis</i>. He was
+termed a <i>Novus Homo</i>, or a new man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> The Latin word for bribery is <i>ambitus</i>, literally
+canvassing. It must not be confounded with <i>repetund&aelig;</i>, the offense of
+extortion or pecuniary corruption committed by magistrates in the
+provinces or at Rome.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> This story must appear to strange to those who know not
+that it was a custom for Roman Senators, when called upon for their
+vote, to express&mdash;no matter what the question&mdash;any opinion which they
+deemed of great importance to the welfare of the state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See p. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Od.</i>, i. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> It must be recollected that the mob at Rome consisted
+chiefly of the four city tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could
+be enrolled in these four tribes alone.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> On this important change in the Roman army, see p. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> This canal continued to exist long afterward, and bore the
+name of <i>Fossa Mariana</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> A law of the Consul Pompeius bestowed the Latin franchise
+upon all the citizens of the Gallic towns between the Po and the Alps,
+so that they now entered into the same relations with Rome as the Latins
+had formerly held.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Cicero sent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant
+to have delivered, the one which we still have. Milo, after reading it,
+remarked, "I am glad it was not delivered, for I should then have been
+acquitted, and never have known the delicate flavor of these Massilian
+mullets."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> C&aelig;sar's government would expire at the end of B.C. 49, and
+he had therefore determined to obtain the Consulship for B.C. 48, since
+otherwise he would become a private person.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The crossing of this stream was in reality a declaration
+of war against the Republic, and later writers relate that upon arriving
+at the Rubicon C&aelig;sar long hesitated whether he should take this
+irrevocable step, and that, after pondering many hours, he at length
+exclaimed, "The die is cast," and plunged into the river. But there is
+not a word of this in C&aelig;sar's own narrative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> In reality on the 6th of June.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>Triumviri Reipulic&aelig; constituend&aelig;.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Antony retaliated by sending Octavia a bill of divorce.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Gibbon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> These were probably composed in the Saturnian metre, the
+oldest species of versification among the Romans, in which much greater
+license was allowed in the laws of quantity than in the metres which
+were borrowed from the Greeks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a <i>lex per
+saturam lata</i> is a law which contained several distinct regulations at
+once.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>Georg.</i>, iii., 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Comp. <i>Georg.</i>, iv., 560, and ii., 171.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> This mausoleum, begun by Hadrian, is now the Castle of St.
+Angelo.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by 
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19694-h.htm or 19694-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/6/9/19694/
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/19694-h/images/001.jpg b/19694-h/images/001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f38ca36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/001.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/002.jpg b/19694-h/images/002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db3ee42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/002.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/003.jpg b/19694-h/images/003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9456c88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/003.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/003large.jpg b/19694-h/images/003large.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e669c3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/003large.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/004.jpg b/19694-h/images/004.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..278e765
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/004.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/005.jpg b/19694-h/images/005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe56d7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/005.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/006.jpg b/19694-h/images/006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5d5c27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/006.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/007.jpg b/19694-h/images/007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f5d9b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/007.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/008.jpg b/19694-h/images/008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9d3cad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/008.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/009.jpg b/19694-h/images/009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf6556
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/009.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/010.jpg b/19694-h/images/010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b68b04d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/010.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/011.jpg b/19694-h/images/011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe054c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/011.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/012.jpg b/19694-h/images/012.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84e4823
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/012.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/013.jpg b/19694-h/images/013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48e238d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/013.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/014.jpg b/19694-h/images/014.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac263cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/014.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/015.jpg b/19694-h/images/015.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06538b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/015.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/015large.jpg b/19694-h/images/015large.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ab5144
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/015large.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/016.jpg b/19694-h/images/016.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19979ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/016.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/017.jpg b/19694-h/images/017.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..449f444
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/017.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/018.jpg b/19694-h/images/018.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e78778
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/018.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/018large.jpg b/19694-h/images/018large.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..311a74a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/018large.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/019.jpg b/19694-h/images/019.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c28cc93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/019.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/020.jpg b/19694-h/images/020.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68d5621
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/020.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/021.jpg b/19694-h/images/021.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acd32ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/021.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/022.jpg b/19694-h/images/022.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7d1025
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/022.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/023.jpg b/19694-h/images/023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf619b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/023.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/024.jpg b/19694-h/images/024.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8514f00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/024.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/025.jpg b/19694-h/images/025.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ed259c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/025.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/026.jpg b/19694-h/images/026.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a0288c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/026.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/027.jpg b/19694-h/images/027.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5c3d10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/027.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/028.jpg b/19694-h/images/028.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6c4dc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/028.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/029.jpg b/19694-h/images/029.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c67c475
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/029.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/030.jpg b/19694-h/images/030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e14d79b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/030.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/031.jpg b/19694-h/images/031.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e26dfd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/031.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/031large.jpg b/19694-h/images/031large.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edb418c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/031large.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/032.jpg b/19694-h/images/032.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f5f4e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/032.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/033.jpg b/19694-h/images/033.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f511980
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/033.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/034.jpg b/19694-h/images/034.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d33466
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/034.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/035.jpg b/19694-h/images/035.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9af93c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/035.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/036.jpg b/19694-h/images/036.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b616af5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/036.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/037.jpg b/19694-h/images/037.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf8d6d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/037.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/038.jpg b/19694-h/images/038.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10930e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/038.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/039.jpg b/19694-h/images/039.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31b105a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/039.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/040.jpg b/19694-h/images/040.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..031cb3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/040.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/041.jpg b/19694-h/images/041.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..027f2b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/041.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/042.jpg b/19694-h/images/042.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1bc017
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/042.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/043.jpg b/19694-h/images/043.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1b7ad0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/043.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/044.jpg b/19694-h/images/044.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cb1d6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/044.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/045.jpg b/19694-h/images/045.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87a9498
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/045.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/046.jpg b/19694-h/images/046.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cfcc9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/046.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/047.jpg b/19694-h/images/047.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d49a6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/047.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/048.jpg b/19694-h/images/048.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..488cabc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/048.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/049.jpg b/19694-h/images/049.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f43374
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/049.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/050.jpg b/19694-h/images/050.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84cb599
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/050.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/051.jpg b/19694-h/images/051.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c7bffa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/051.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/052.jpg b/19694-h/images/052.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e2153e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/052.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/053.jpg b/19694-h/images/053.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51888bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/053.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/054.jpg b/19694-h/images/054.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..592a55e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/054.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/055.jpg b/19694-h/images/055.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33f8ecd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/055.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/056.jpg b/19694-h/images/056.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d97fa34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/056.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/057.jpg b/19694-h/images/057.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f29103
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/057.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/058.jpg b/19694-h/images/058.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa381de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/058.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/059.jpg b/19694-h/images/059.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6590cd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/059.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/060.jpg b/19694-h/images/060.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac3aa36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/060.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/061.jpg b/19694-h/images/061.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6250a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/061.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/062.jpg b/19694-h/images/062.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fccd3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/062.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/063.jpg b/19694-h/images/063.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e966fcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/063.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/064.jpg b/19694-h/images/064.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8bd6c88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/064.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/065.jpg b/19694-h/images/065.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0aab87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/065.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/066.jpg b/19694-h/images/066.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00968c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/066.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/067.jpg b/19694-h/images/067.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4858744
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/067.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/068.jpg b/19694-h/images/068.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed0b5fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/068.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/069.jpg b/19694-h/images/069.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09d752e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/069.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/070.jpg b/19694-h/images/070.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a56422
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/070.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/071.jpg b/19694-h/images/071.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acc423c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/071.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/072.jpg b/19694-h/images/072.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..363feb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/072.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/073.jpg b/19694-h/images/073.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14953ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/073.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/074.jpg b/19694-h/images/074.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d6f800
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/074.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/075.jpg b/19694-h/images/075.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a48de7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/075.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/076.jpg b/19694-h/images/076.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06a7934
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/076.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/077.jpg b/19694-h/images/077.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13c89fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/077.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/078.jpg b/19694-h/images/078.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..878596f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/078.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/078large.jpg b/19694-h/images/078large.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f08fa9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/078large.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/079.jpg b/19694-h/images/079.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72e054d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/079.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/080.jpg b/19694-h/images/080.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0a97f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/080.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/081.jpg b/19694-h/images/081.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..303e42e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/081.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/082.jpg b/19694-h/images/082.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba63353
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/082.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/083.jpg b/19694-h/images/083.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eff1d6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/083.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/084.jpg b/19694-h/images/084.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24eea68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/084.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/085.jpg b/19694-h/images/085.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02db218
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/085.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/086.jpg b/19694-h/images/086.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a600a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/086.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/087.jpg b/19694-h/images/087.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b50ea84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/087.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/088.jpg b/19694-h/images/088.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0482a14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/088.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/089.jpg b/19694-h/images/089.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..258e76c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/089.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/090.jpg b/19694-h/images/090.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2ee1ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/090.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/091.jpg b/19694-h/images/091.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62e4548
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/091.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/092.jpg b/19694-h/images/092.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47f83de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/092.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/093.jpg b/19694-h/images/093.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b708ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/093.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/094.jpg b/19694-h/images/094.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dccf11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/094.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/095.jpg b/19694-h/images/095.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..004548c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/095.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/096.jpg b/19694-h/images/096.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84cf4c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/096.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/097.jpg b/19694-h/images/097.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe0312f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/097.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/098.jpg b/19694-h/images/098.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a804f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/098.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/099.jpg b/19694-h/images/099.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69a21d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/099.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/100.jpg b/19694-h/images/100.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a40e7a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/100.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/101.jpg b/19694-h/images/101.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f616267
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/101.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/102.jpg b/19694-h/images/102.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a17e587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/102.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/103.jpg b/19694-h/images/103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47b2451
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/103.jpg
diff --git a/19694-h/images/hand.jpg b/19694-h/images/hand.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35d9be3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694-h/images/hand.jpg
diff --git a/19694.txt b/19694.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be9b4c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18755 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Smaller History of Rome
+
+Author: William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2006 [EBook #19694]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED.]
+
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME,
+
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
+
+
+BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.
+
+
+WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 479.
+BY EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Illustrated by Engravings on Wood.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+1881.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Map of Italy.]
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDENT'S SERIES.
+
+12MO, CLOTH, UNIFORM IN STYLE.
+
+
+_MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 50.
+
+_THE STUDENT'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST_. By PHILIP SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HISTORY OF GREECE_. By Dr. WILLIAM SMITH. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_COX'S GENERAL HISTORY OF GREECE_. With Maps. $1 25.
+
+_LIDDELL'S HISTORY OF ROME_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_MERIVALE'S GENERAL HISTORY OF ROME_. With Maps. $1 25.
+
+_GIBBON'S DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_LYELL'S GEOLOGY_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HISTORY OF FRANCE_. By the Rev. W.H. JERVIS, M.A. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HUME'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. Illustrated. Now Edition. $1 50.
+
+_STRICKLAND'S QUEENS OF ENGLAND_. Illustrated. $1 25.
+
+_HALLAM'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. $1 25.
+
+_HALLAM'S MIDDLE AGES_. $1 25.
+
+_OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.
+
+_NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY_. By PHILIP SMITH. With Maps and Illustrations.
+$1 25.
+
+_LEWIS'S HISTORY OF GERMANY_. With Maps and Illustrations. $1 50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE STUDENT'S SMALLER SERIES.
+
+16MO, CLOTH.
+
+
+_SCRIPTURE HISTORY_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF GREECE_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF ROME_. 60 cents.
+
+_COX'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF GREECE_. 60 cents.
+
+_HISTORY OF ENGLAND_. 60 cents.
+
+_ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST_. 60 cents.
+
+_SEEMANN'S MYTHOLOGY_. 60 cents.
+
+_MERIVALE'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF ROME_. 75 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
+
+[Illustration: hand] _Any of the above books sent by mail, postage
+prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-five, by HARPER & BROTHERS, in the Clerk's Office of
+the District Court of the Southern District of New York.
+
+
+
+
+NOTICE.
+
+
+The present History has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in
+schools, at the request of several teachers, and is intended to range
+with the author's Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a
+similar History of England. The author is indebted in this work to
+several of the more important articles upon Roman history in the
+Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.
+
+The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been
+so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the
+examination of his class, the answers to which will be found in the
+corresponding pages of the volume.
+
+The restoration of the Forum has been designed by Mr. P.W. Justyne.
+
+W.S.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julius Caesar.]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  B.C.                                                              Page
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
+
+          Position of Italy                                            1
+
+          Its boundaries                                               1
+
+          Its two Divisions                                            1
+            I. Gallia Cisalpina                                        2
+                Liguria                                                2
+                Venetia                                                2
+           II. Italia, properly so called                              2
+                Etruria                                                2
+                Umbria                                                 2
+                Picenum                                                2
+                Sabini                                                 3
+                Marsi                                                  3
+                Peligni                                                3
+                Vestini                                                3
+                Marrucini                                              3
+                Frentani                                               3
+                Latium: its two senses                                 3
+                  The Campagna                                         3
+                  The Pontine Marshes                                  4
+                Campania                                               4
+                  Bay of Naples                                        4
+                Samnium                                                4
+                Apulia                                                 4
+                Calabria                                               4
+                Lucania                                                4
+                Bruttii                                                4
+
+          Fertility of Italy                                           5
+
+          Its productions                                              5
+
+          Its inhabitants                                              5
+            I. Italians proper                                         5
+                  1. Latins                                            5
+                  2. Umbro-Sabellians                                  5
+           II. Iapygians                                               5
+          III. Etruscans                                               5
+                Their name                                             5
+                Their language                                         5
+                Their origin                                           5
+                Their two confederacies                                6
+                  1. North of the Po                                   6
+                  2. South of the Apennines                            6
+               Foreign races--
+           IV. Greeks                                                  6
+               Gauls                                                   6
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+             THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
+
+          Position of Rome                                             7
+
+          Its inhabitants                                              7
+            1. Latins                                                  7
+            2. Sabines                                                 7
+            3. Etruscans                                               7
+
+          Remarks on early Roman history                               8
+
+          Legend of AEneas                                              8
+
+          Legend of Ascanius                                           8
+            Foundation of Alba Longa                                   8
+
+          Legend of Rhea Silvia                                        8
+
+          Birth of Romulus and Remus                                   8
+
+          Their recognition by Numitor                                 9
+
+    753.  Foundation of Rome                                           9
+            Roma Quadrata                                              9
+            Pomoerium                                                  9
+
+          Death of Remus                                              10
+
+753-716.  Reign of Romulus                                             9
+            Asylum                                                    10
+            Rape of Sabines                                           10
+            War with Sabines                                          10
+            Tarpeia                                                   10
+            Sabine women                                              10
+            Joint reign of Romulus and Titus Tatius                   11
+            Death of Titus Tatius                                     11
+            Sole reign of Romulus                                     11
+            Death of Romulus                                          11
+            Institutions ascribed to Romulus                          12
+              Patricians & Clients                                    12
+              Three tribes--Ramnes, Tities, Luceres                   12
+              Thirty Curiae                                            12
+              Three Hundred Gentes                                    12
+              Comitia Curiata                                         12
+              The Senate                                              12
+              The Army                                                12
+
+716-673.  Reign of Numa Pompilius                                     12
+            Institutions ascribed to Numa Pompilius                   12
+              Pontiffs                                                12
+              Augurs                                                  13
+              Flamens                                                 13
+              Vestal Virgins                                          13
+              Salii                                                   13
+              Temple of Janus                                         13
+
+673-641.  Reign of Tullus Hostilius                                   13
+            War with Alba Longa                                       13
+            Battle of the Horatii and Curiatii                        13
+            War with the Etruscans                                    14
+            Punishment of Mettius Fuffetius, Dictator of Alba Longa   14
+            Destruction of Alba Longa                                 14
+            Removal of its inhabitants to Rome                        14
+            Origin of the Roman Plebs                                 14
+            Death of Tullus Hostilius                                 14
+
+640-616.  Reign of Ancus Marcius                                      14
+            War with the Latins                                       14
+            Increase of the Plebs                                     15
+            Ostia                                                     15
+            Janiculum                                                 15
+            Pons Sublicius                                            15
+            Death of Ancus Marcius                                    15
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+         THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
+       REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.
+
+616-578.  Reign of Tarquinius Priscus                                 16
+            His early history                                         16
+            His removal to Rome                                       16
+            Becomes king                                              16
+            His wars                                                  16
+            The Cloacae                                                16
+            Circus Maximus                                            17
+            Increase of the Senate                                    17
+            Increase of the Equites                                   17
+            Attus Navius                                              17
+            Increase of the Vestal Virgins                            17
+            Early history of Servius Tullius                          17
+            Death of Tarquinius Priscus                               18
+
+578-534. Reign of Servius Tullius                                     18
+            I. Reform of the Roman Constitution                       18
+                1. Division of the Roman territory into Thirty Tribes 18
+                2. Comitia Centuriata                                 18
+                   Census                                             18
+                   Five Classes                                       19
+                   The Equites                                        19
+                   Number of the Centuries                            19
+                   Three sovereign assemblies--Comitia Centuriata,
+                     Comitia Curiata, Comitia Tributa                 20
+           II. Increase of the city: walls of Servius Tullius         20
+          III. Alliance with the Latins                               20
+                Death of Servius Tullius                              22
+
+534-510.  Reign of Tarquinius Superbus                                22
+            His tyranny                                               22
+            His alliance with the Latins                              23
+            His war with the Volscians                                23
+            Foundation of the temple on the Capitoline Hill           23
+            The Sibylline books                                       23
+            Legend of the Sibyl                                       23
+            Capture of Gabii                                          23
+            King's sons and Brutus sent to consult the oracle at
+              Delphi                                                  23
+            Lucretia                                                  24
+            Expulsion of the Tarquins                                 25
+
+    509.  Establishment of the Republic                               25
+
+          The Consuls                                                 25
+
+          First attempt to restore the Tarquins                       25
+            Execution of the sons of Brutus                           25
+            War of the Etruscans with Rome                            26
+            Death of Brutus                                           26
+            Defeat of the Etruscans                                   26
+
+          Valerius Publicola                                          26
+
+          Dedication of the Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius          26
+
+    508.  Second attempt to restore the Tarquins                      26
+            Lars Porsena                                              26
+            Horatius Cocles                                           26
+            Mucius Scaevola                                            27
+            Cloelia                                                   27
+
+    498.  Third attempt to restore the Tarquins                       28
+            War with the Latins                                       28
+            Battle of the Lake Regillus                               28
+
+    496.  Death of Tarquinius Superbus                                28
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+          FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE.
+                              B.C. 498-451.
+
+          Struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians              29
+
+          Ascendency of the Patricians                                29
+
+          Sufferings of the Plebeians                                 30
+
+          Law of debtor and creditor                                  30
+
+          Ager Publicus                                               30
+
+          Object of the Plebeians to obtain a share in the political
+            power and in the public land                              30
+
+    494.  Secession to the Sacred Mount                               30
+            Fable of Menenius Agrippa                                 31
+            Institution of the Tribunes of the Plebs                  31
+
+    486.  Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius                                 31
+
+          Foreign wars                                                32
+    488.      I. Coriolanus and the Volscians                         32
+    477.     II. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines                    33
+    458.    III. Cincinnatus and the AEquians                          34
+
+          League between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans            35
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                     THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.
+
+    471.  Publilian Law transferring the election of the Tribunes
+            from the Comitia of Centuries to those of the Tribes      36
+
+    462.  Proposal of the Tribune Terentilius Arsa for the
+            appointment of Decemviri                                  37
+
+    460.  Seizure of the Capitol by Herdonius the Sabine              37
+
+    454.  Appointment of three Commissioners to visit Greece          37
+
+    452.  Their return to Rome                                        37
+
+    451.  Appointment of the Decemviri                                37
+            The Ten Tables                                            37
+
+    450.  New Decemviri appointed                                     37
+            Their tyranny                                             38
+            Two new Tables added, making twelve in all                38
+
+    449.  The Decemviri continue in office                            38
+            Death of Sicinius Dentatus                                38
+            Death of Virginia                                         39
+
+          Second secession to the Sacred Mount                        39
+            Resignation of the Decemvirs                              39
+            Election of ten Tribunes                                  40
+
+          Valerian and Horatian Laws                                  40
+
+          Death of Appius Claudius                                    40
+
+          The Twelve Tables                                           40
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+          FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS.
+                             B.C. 448-390.
+
+    445.  Third secession to the Sacred Mount                         41
+            Lex Canuleia for intermarriage between the two orders     41
+            Institution of Military Tribunes with consular powers     41
+
+    443.  Institution of the Censorship                               41
+
+    421.  Quaestorship thrown open to the Plebeians                    42
+
+    440.  Famine at Rome                                              42
+
+          Death of Sp. Maelius                                         42
+
+          Foreign wars                                                42
+
+          Roman colonies                                              43
+
+          War with the Etruscans                                      43
+
+    437.  Spolia Opima won by A. Cornelius Cossus                     43
+
+    426.  Capture and destruction of Fidenae                           43
+
+    403.  Commencement of siege of Veii                               43
+
+          Tale of the Alban Lake                                      43
+
+    396.  Appointment of Camillus as Dictator                         43
+            Capture of Veii                                           44
+
+    394.  War with Falerii                                            44
+            Tale of the Schoolmaster                                  44
+
+          Unpopularity of Camillus                                    44
+
+    391.  He goes into exile                                          44
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+      FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE
+                       TWO ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.
+
+          The Gauls, or Celts                                         45
+
+    391.  Attack of Clusium by the Senones                            45
+
+          Roman ambassadors sent to Clusium                           45
+
+          They take part in the fight against the Senones             45
+
+          The Senones march upon Rome                                 46
+
+    390.  Battle of the Allia                                         46
+
+          Destruction of Rome                                         46
+
+          Siege of the Capitol                                        46
+            Legend of M. Manlius                                      47
+
+          Appointment of Camillus as Dictator                         47
+
+          He delivers Rome from the Gauls                             47
+
+          Rebuilding of the city                                      47
+
+          Further Gallic wars                                         48
+
+    361.  Legend of T. Manlius Torquatus                              48
+
+    349.  Legend of M. Valerius Corvus                                48
+
+    385.  Distress at Rome                                            48
+
+    384.  M. Manlius comes forward as a patron of the poor            48
+
+          His fate                                                    49
+
+    376.  Licinian Rogations proposed                                 49
+
+          Violent opposition of the Patricians                        50
+
+    367.  Licinian Rogations passed                                   50
+
+    366.  L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul                            50
+
+          Institution of the Praetorship                               50
+
+    356.  First Plebeian Dictator                                     51
+
+    351.  First Plebeian Censor                                       51
+
+    336.  First Plebeian Praetor                                       51
+
+    300.  Lex Ogulnia, increasing the number of the Pontiffs and
+            Augurs, and enacting that a certain number of them
+            should be taken from the Plebeians                        51
+
+    339.  Publilian Laws                                              51
+
+    286.  Lex Hortensia                                               51
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+         FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS.
+                              B.C. 367-290.
+
+    362.  Pestilence at Rome                                          52
+
+          Death of Camillus                                           52
+
+          Tale of M. Curtius                                          53
+
+          The Samnites                                                53
+
+          Their history                                               53
+
+          Division into four tribes                                   53
+
+          Conquer Campania and Lucania                                53
+
+          Samnites of the Apennines attack the Sidicini               53
+
+          Campanians assist the Sidicini                              53
+
+          They are defeated by the Samnites                           53
+
+          They solicit the assistance of Rome                         53
+
+343-341.  FIRST SAMNITE WAR                                           54
+            Battle of Mount Gaurus                                    54
+            Peace concluded                                           54
+            Reasons for the conclusion of peace                       54
+
+340-338.  THE LATIN WAR                                               54
+            The armies meet near Mount Vesuvius                       55
+            Tale of Torquatus                                         55
+            Decisive battle                                           55
+            Self-sacrifice of Decius                                  55
+            Capture of Latin towns                                    56
+            Conclusion of the war                                     56
+
+    329.  Conquest of the Volscian town of Privernum                  56
+
+          Origin of the Second Samnite War                            56
+
+    327.  The Romans attack Palaeopolis and Neapolis                   56
+
+326-304.  SECOND SAMNITE WAR                                          57
+            _First Period._
+            Roman arms successful                                     57
+    325.    Quarrel between L. Papirius Dictator and Q. Fabius, his
+              master of the horse                                     57
+321-315.    _Second Period._
+            Success of the Samnites                                   57
+    321.    Defeat of the Romans at the Caudine Forks by C. Pontius   68
+            Ignominious treaty rejected by the Romans                 58
+314-304.    _Third Period._
+            Success of the Romans                                     58
+    311.    War with the Etruscans                                    58
+            Defeat of the Etruscans                                   59
+            Defeat of the Samnites                                    59
+    304.    Peace with Rome                                           59
+
+    300.  Conquests of Rome in Central Italy                          59
+
+          Coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites against Rome 59
+
+298-290.  THIRD SAMNITE WAR                                           59
+    295.    Decisive battle of Sentinum                               59
+            Self-sacrifice of the younger Decius                      59
+    292.    C. Pontius taken prisoner and put to death                59
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+    FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY.
+                             B.C. 290-265.
+
+    283.  War with the Etruscans and Gauls                            60
+
+          Battle of the Lake Vadimo                                   60
+
+    282.  State of Magna Graecia                                       60
+
+          The Romans assist Thurii                                    60
+
+          Their fleet is attacked by the Tarentines                   61
+
+          Roman embassy to Tarentum                                   61
+
+    281.  War declared against the Tarentines                         61
+
+          They apply for aid to Pyrrhus                               61
+
+          Pyrrhus arrives in Italy                                    62
+
+    280.  His first campaign against the Romans                       62
+
+          Battle of Heraclea                                          62
+
+          Remarks of Pyrrhus on the victory                           62
+
+          He attempts to make peace with Rome                         62
+
+          Failure of his minister Cineas                              63
+
+          He marches upon Rome and arrives at Praeneste                63
+
+          Retires into winter quarters at Tarentum                    63
+          Embassy of Fabricius                                        63
+
+    279.  Second campaign of Pyrrhus                                  64
+
+          Battle of Asculum                                           64
+
+    278.  Treachery of the physician of Pyrrhus                       64
+
+          Truce with Rome                                             64
+
+          Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily                            64
+
+    276.  He returns to Italy                                         64
+
+    274.  Defeat of Pyrrhus                                           65
+
+          He returns to Greece                                        65
+
+    272.  Subjugation of Tarentum                                     65
+
+          Conquest of Italy                                           65
+
+    273.  Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome                     65
+
+          Three classes of Italian population:
+            I. Cives Romani, or Roman Citizens                        66
+                1. Of the Thirty-three tribes                         66
+                2. Of the Roman Colonies                              66
+                3. Of the Municipal Towns                             66
+           II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin name                       66
+          III. Socii, or Allies                                       66
+
+    312.  Censorship of Appius Claudius                               67
+
+          His dangerous innovation as to the Freedmen                 67
+
+    304.  Repealed in the Censorship of Q. Fabius Maximus and
+            P. Decius Mus                                             67
+
+    312.  The Appian Way                                              67
+
+          The Appian Aqueduct                                         67
+
+          Cn. Flavius                                                 67
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                   THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.
+
+    814.  Foundation of Carthage                                      68
+
+          Its empire                                                  68
+
+          Its government                                              68
+
+          Its army                                                    68
+
+          Its foreign conquests                                       68
+
+          Conquest of Messana by the Mamertini                        69
+
+          Hiero attacks the Mamertini                                 69
+
+          They apply for assistance to Rome                           69
+
+    264.  The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses over to Sicily to aid them  70
+
+          He defeats the forces of Syracuse and Carthage              70
+
+    263.  Hiero makes peace with the Romans                           70
+
+    262.  Capture of Agrigentum by the Romans                         70
+
+    260.  The Romans build a fleet                                    70
+
+          Naval victory of the Consul Duilius                         71
+
+    256.  The Romans invade Africa                                    72
+
+          Their naval victory                                         72
+
+          Brilliant success of Regulus in Africa                      72
+
+          The Carthaginians sue in vain for peace                     72
+
+    255.  Arrival of the Lacedaemonian Xanthippus                      72
+
+          He restores confidence to the Carthaginians                 73
+
+          Defeat and capture of Regulus                               73
+
+          Destruction of the Roman fleet by a storm                   73
+
+          The Romans build another fleet                              73
+
+    253.  Again destroyed by a storm                                  73
+
+          The war confined to Sicily                                  73
+
+    250.  Victory of Metellus at Panormus                             73
+
+          Embassy of the Carthaginians to Rome                        73
+
+          Heroic conduct of Regulus                                   74
+
+    250.  Siege of Lilybaeum                                           74
+
+    249.  Defeat of the Consul Claudius at sea                        75
+
+          Destruction of the Roman fleet a third time                 75
+
+    247.  Appointment of Hamilcar Barca to the Carthaginian command   75
+
+          He intrenches himself on Mount Hercte, near Panormus        75
+
+          He removes to Mount Eryx                                    75
+
+    241.  Victory off the AEgatian Islands                             76
+
+          Peace with Carthage                                         76
+
+          End of the War                                              76
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+         EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-219.
+
+240-238.  War of the Mercenaries with Carthage                        77
+
+          She owes her safety to Hamilcar                             77
+
+    238.  The Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica                       77
+
+          Hamilcar goes to Spain                                      78
+
+    235.  Temple of Janus closed                                      78
+
+          Completion of the Thirty-five Roman Tribes                  78
+
+    229.  ILLYRIAN WAR                                                78
+            Conquest of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians                 78
+
+    223.  Honors paid to the Romans in the Grecian cities             78
+
+    232.  Agrarian law of the Tribune Flaminius                       78
+
+    225.  GALLIC WAR                                                  78
+            Defeat of the Gauls at Telamon in Etruria                 79
+    224.    Conquest of the Boii                                      79
+    223.    The Romans cross the Po                                   79
+    222.    Conquest of the Insubres                                  79
+            Marcellus wins the Spolia Opima                           79
+
+    220.  The Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum                      79
+
+    218.  Foundation of Colonies at Placentia and Cremona             79
+
+    219.  SECOND ILLYRIAN WAR                                         79
+
+    235.  Hamilcar in Spain                                           80
+
+          Oath of Hannibal                                            80
+
+    229.  Death of Hamilcar                                           80
+
+          Hasdrubal succeeds him in the command                       80
+
+    227.  Treaty with Rome                                            80
+
+    221.  Death of Hasdrubal                                          80
+
+          Hannibal succeeds him in the command                        80
+
+    219.  Siege of Saguntum                                           80
+
+          Its capture                                                 81
+
+          War declared against Carthage                               81
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+       THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNAE
+                              B.C. 218-216.
+
+    218.  Preparations of Hannibal                                    82
+
+          His march to the Rhone                                      83
+
+          Arrival of the Consul Scipio at Massilia                    83
+
+          Hannibal crosses the Rhone                                  83
+
+          Scipio sends his brother to Spain, and returns himself to
+            Italy                                                     83
+
+          Hannibal crosses the Alps                                   83
+
+          Skirmish on the Ticinus                                     84
+
+          Battle of the Trebia                                        84
+
+          Defeat of the Romans                                        84
+
+    217.  Hannibal's march through Etruria                            86
+
+          Battle of the Lake Trasimenus                               86
+
+          Great defeat of the Romans                                  86
+
+          Q. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator                        87
+
+          His policy                                                  87
+
+          Rashness of Minucius, the Master of the Horse               87
+
+    216.  Great preparations of the Romans                            88
+
+          Battle of Cannae                                             88
+
+          Great defeat of the Romans                                  88
+
+          Revolt of Southern Italy                                    88
+
+          Hannibal winters at Capua                                   89
+
+          Note on Hannibal's passage across the Alps                  90
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+       SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE
+                  BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.
+
+    215.  Plan of the War                                             91
+
+          Hannibal's repulse before Nola                              92
+
+    214.  He attempts in vain to surprise Tarentum                    92
+
+    213.  He obtains possession of Tarentum                           93
+
+          WAR IN SICILY--
+    216.    Death of Hiero                                            93
+            Succession of Hieronymus                                  93
+            His assassination                                         93
+    214.    Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily                            93
+            He takes Leontini                                         93
+            He lays siege to Syracuse                                 93
+            Defended by Archimedes                                    93
+    212.    Capture of Syracuse                                       94
+
+          WAR IN SPAIN--
+    212.    Capture and death of the two Scipios                      95
+
+          Siege of Capua                                              95
+
+    211.  Hannibal marches upon Rome                                  95
+
+          Is compelled to retreat                                     96
+
+          The Romans recover Capua                                    96
+
+          Punishment of its inhabitants                               93
+
+    209.  The Romans recover Tarentum                                 96
+
+    208.  Defeat and death of Marcellus                               97
+
+    207.  Hasdrubal marches into Italy                                97
+
+          He besieges Placentia                                       97
+
+          March of the Consul Nero to join his colleague Livius
+            in Umbria                                                 97
+
+          Battle of the Metaurus                                      98
+
+          Defeat and death of Hasdrubal                               98
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+     SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO
+                  THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
+
+          Character and early life of Scipio                          99
+
+    210.  He is elected Proconsul for Spain                          100
+
+          He takes New Carthage                                      100
+
+    206.  He subdues Spain                                           101
+
+          He crosses over into Africa and visits Syphax              101
+
+          He returns to Rome                                         102
+
+    205.  His Consulship                                             102
+
+          He prepares to invade Africa                               102
+
+          His project is opposed by Fabius and others                102
+
+    204.  He arrives in Africa                                       103
+
+    203.  He defeats the Carthaginians and Syphax                    103
+
+          Masinissa and Sophonisba                                   103
+
+          The Carthaginians recall Hannibal                          104
+
+    202.  Battle of Zama, and defeat of Hannibal                     104
+
+          Terms of peace                                             105
+
+    201.  Conclusion of the war                                      105
+
+          Triumph of Scipio                                          105
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+         WARS IN THE EAST: THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS.
+                             B.C. 214-188.
+
+          State of the East                                          106
+            Syria                                                    106
+            Pontus                                                   106
+            Galatia                                                  106
+            Pergamus                                                 106
+            Egypt                                                    107
+
+          State of Greece                                            107
+            Macedonia                                                107
+            Achaean League                                            107
+            AEtolian League                                           107
+            Rhodes                                                   107
+            Sparta                                                   107
+
+214-205.  FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR--
+            Its indecisive character                                 108
+    211.    Treaty of the Romans with the AEtolian League             108
+    205.    Conclusion of the war                                    108
+            Philip's hostile acts                                    108
+            He assists the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama       108
+            His conduct in Greece                                    108
+
+200-196.  SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR--
+    200.    First campaign: the Consul Galba                         108
+    199.    Second campaign: the Consul Villius                      109
+    198.    Third campaign: the Consul Flamininus                    109
+    197.    Battle of Cynoscephalae                                   109
+    196.    Declaration of Grecian independence at the Isthmian
+              Games                                                  109
+
+191-190.  SYRIAN WAR--
+            Antiochus the Third                                      110
+            Intrigues of the AEtolians in Greece                      110
+            They Invite Antiochus to Greece                          110
+            Hannibal expelled from Carthage                          110
+            He arrives in Syria                                      110
+            His advice to Antiochus                                  110
+    192.    Antiochus crosses over to Greece                         110
+    191.    The Romans defeat him at Thermopylae                      110
+            He returns to Asia                                       110
+    190.    The Romans invade Asia                                   111
+            Battle of Magnesia                                       111
+            Defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus                  111
+            Terms of peace                                           111
+            Hannibal flies to Prusias, king of Bithynia              111
+
+    189.  AETOLIAN WAR--
+            Fulvius takes Ambracia                                   111
+            Terms of peace                                           111
+
+    189.  GALATIAN WAR--
+            Manlius attacks the Galatians without the authority of
+              the Senate or the People                               112
+    187.    He returns to Rome                                       113
+
+          Effects of the Eastern conquests upon the Roman character  113
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+          WARS IN THE WEST: THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS.
+                              B.C. 200-175.
+
+    200.  THE GALLIC WAR--
+            The Gauls take Placentia and lay siege to Cremona        113
+            Conquest of the Insubres and Cenomani                    114
+
+    191.  Conquest of the Boil                                       114
+
+    190.  Colony founded at Bononia                                  114
+
+    180.  Via AEmilia                                                 114
+
+    200.  THE LIGURIAN WAR--
+            Continued with intermissions for nearly 80 years         114
+            Character of the war                                     114
+
+    198.  TWO PROVINCES FORMED IN SPAIN                              114
+
+    195.  THE SPANISH WAR--
+            The Consul M. Porcius Cato sent into Spain               114
+            His success                                              115
+            The Spaniards again take up arms                         115
+    180.    The war brought to a conclusion by Tib. Sempronius
+              Gracchus                                               115
+
+    178.  THE ISTRIAN WAR                                            115
+
+177-175.  THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN WAR                             115
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                     THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.
+
+          Review of the history of the Roman Constitution            116
+
+          Political equality of the Patricians and Plebeians         116
+
+            I. THE MAGISTRATES--
+                The Lex Annalis                                      117
+                  1. The Quaestors                                    117
+                  2. The AEdiles                                      117
+                  3. The Praetors                                     117
+                  4. The Consuls                                     118
+                  5. The Dictators                                   118
+                  6. The Censors                                     118
+                    (_a_) The Census                                 118
+                    (_b_) Control over the morals of the citizens    119
+                    (_c_) Administration of the finances of the
+                            state                                    119
+
+           II. THE SENATE--
+                Its number                                           119
+                Its mode of Election                                 119
+                Its power and duties                                 119
+
+          III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES--
+                1. The Comitia Curiata                               120
+                2. The Comitia Centuriata: change in its
+                  constitution                                       120
+                3. The Comitia Tributa                               121
+                The Tribunes                                         121
+                The Plebiscita                                       121
+
+           IV. FINANCES--
+                Tributum                                             121
+                Vectigalia                                           121
+
+            V. THE ARMY--
+                Number of the Legion                                 122
+                  1. _First Period_--Servius Tullius                 122
+                  2. _Second Period_--The Great Latin War, B.C. 340  122
+                    Hastati                                          122
+                    Principes                                        122
+                    Triarii                                          122
+                    Rorarii and Accensi                              123
+                  3. _Third Period_--During the wars of the
+                      younger Scipio                                 123
+                    Two legions assigned to each Consul              123
+                    Division of the legion                           123
+                    The Maniples                                     123
+                    The Cohorts                                      123
+                    The Tribuni Militum                              123
+                    The Horse-soldiers                               123
+                    Infantry of the Socii                            123
+                  4. _Fourth Period_--From the times of the
+                      Gracchi to the downfall of the Republic        123
+                    Changes introduced by Marius                     124
+                Triumphs                                             124
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+       INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS.
+                             CATO AND SCIPIO.
+
+          Effect of the Roman conquests in the East                  126
+
+          Debasement of the Roman character                          126
+
+    192.  Infamous conduct of L. Flamininus                          127
+
+    193.  Worship of Bacchus                                         127
+
+          Gladiatorial exhibitions                                   127
+
+          Rise of the new nobility                                   127
+
+    191.  Law against bribery                                        127
+
+          Decay of the peasant proprietors                           128
+
+          M. Porcius Cato                                            128
+
+    234.  His birth                                                  128
+
+          His early life                                             128
+
+    204.  His Quaestorship                                            129
+
+    198.  His Praetorship                                             129
+
+    195.  His Consulship                                             129
+            Repeal of the Oppian Law                                 130
+
+    191.  Cato serves in the battle of Thermopylae                    130
+
+          Prosecution of the two Scipios                             130
+
+          Haughty conduct of Scipio Africanus                        130
+
+          Condemnation of Scipio Asiaticus                           130
+
+          Prosecution of Scipio Africanus                            130
+
+          He leaves Rome                                             131
+
+    188.  His death                                                  131
+
+          Death of Hannibal                                          132
+
+    184.  Censorship of Cato                                         132
+
+          He studies Greek in his old age                            132
+
+          His character                                              133
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+      THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHAEAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.
+
+    179.  Death of Philip and accession of Perseus                   134
+
+    172.  Murder of Eumenes, king of Pergamus                        135
+
+171-168.  THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR--
+    168.    Battle of Pydna                                          135
+            Defeat of Perseus by L. AEmilius Paullus                  135
+
+    167.  AEmilius Paullus punishes the Epirotes                      135
+
+          His triumph                                                135
+
+          His domestic misfortunes                                   136
+
+          Haughty conduct of Rome in the East                        136
+
+          Embassy to Antiochus Epiphanes                             136
+
+          Treatment of Eumenes, king of Pergamus                     136
+
+          Mean conduct of Prusias, king of Bythinia                  136
+
+          Treatment of the Rhodians                                  136
+
+    167.  One thousand Achaeans sent to Italy                         136
+
+    151.  The survivors allowed to return to Greece                  137
+
+    140.  A pretender lays claim to the throne of Macedonia          137
+
+          He is defeated and taken prisoner                          137
+
+147-146.  THE ACHAEAN WAR--
+    146.    Corinth taken by L. Mummius                              138
+            Final conquest of Greece                                 138
+
+          Rome jealous of Carthage                                   139
+
+          Advice of Scipio                                           139
+
+          War between Masinissa and Carthage                         139
+
+          Conduct of the Romans                                      140
+
+149-146.  THIRD PUNIC WAR--
+    147.    Scipio Africanus the younger, Consul                     140
+            His parentage and adoption                               140
+            His character                                            140
+    146.    He takes Carthage                                        142
+
+          Formation of the Roman province of Africa                  142
+
+          Later history of Carthage                                  142
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+         SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.
+
+    153.  War with the Celtiberians                                  143
+
+    152.  Peace with the Celtiberians                                143
+
+    151.  War with the Lusitanians                                   143
+
+    150.  Treacherous murder of the Lusitanians by Galba             144
+
+          Success of Viriathus against the Romans                    144
+
+          The Celtiberians again take up arms--the Numantine War     144
+
+    140.  Murder of Viriathus                                        145
+
+    138.  Brutus conquers the Gallaeci                                145
+
+    137.  The Consul Hostilius Mancinus defeated by the Numantines   145
+
+          He signs a peace with the Numantines                       145
+
+          The Senate refuse to ratify it                             145
+
+    142.  Censorship of Scipio Africanus                             145
+
+    134.  Consul a second time                                       145
+
+          He carries on the war against Numantia                     146
+
+    133.  He takes Numantia                                          146
+
+          Increase of slaves                                         146
+
+          They rise in Sicily                                        146
+
+          They elect Eunus as their leader                           146
+
+          Eunus assumes the title of king                            146
+
+    134.  He defeats the Roman generals                              147
+
+    132.  Is himself defeated and taken prisoner                     147
+
+    133.  Death of Attalus, last king of Pergamus                    147
+
+          He bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans                     147
+
+    131.  Aristonicus lays claim to the kingdom of Pergamus          147
+
+    130.  Is defeated and taken prisoner                             147
+
+    129.  Formation of the province of Asia                          147
+
+          Extent of the Roman dominions                              147
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI.
+
+                        THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.
+
+          Necessity for reform                                       148
+
+          Early life of Tiberius Gracchus                            149
+
+    137.  Quaestor in Spain                                           149
+
+    133.  Elected Tribune                                            150
+
+          Brings forward an Agrarian Law                             150
+
+          Opposition of the landowners                               150
+
+          The Tribune Octavius puts his veto upon it                 150
+
+          Deposition of Octavius                                     151
+
+          The Agrarian Law enseted                                   151
+
+          Three Commissioners elected                                151
+
+          Distribution of the treasures of Pergamus among the Roman
+            people                                                   151
+
+          Renewed opposition to Tiberius                             151
+
+          He becomes a candidate for the Tribunate a second time     151
+
+          Riots                                                      152
+
+          Death of Tiberius                                          152
+
+    132.  Return of Scipio to Rome                                   152
+
+          He opposes the popular party                               153
+
+    129.  Death of Scipio                                            153
+
+    126.  Expulsion of the Allies from Rome                          154
+
+    125.  M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes to give the franchise to the
+            Italians                                                 154
+
+          Revolt and destruction of Fregellae                         154
+
+    126.  C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as Quaestor                    154
+
+    124.  He returns to Rome                                         157
+
+    123.  He is elected Tribune                                      157
+
+          His legislation                                            157
+            I. Laws for improving the condition of the people        157
+                1. Extension of the Agrarian Law                     157
+                2. State provision for the poor                      157
+                3. Soldiers equipped at the expense of the Republic  157
+           II. Laws to diminish the power of the Senate              157
+                1. Transference of the judicial power from the
+                    Senators to the Equites                          157
+                2. Distribution of the Provinces before the
+                    election of the Consuls                          158
+
+    122.  C. Gracchus Tribune a second time                          158
+
+          Proposes to confer the citizenship upon the Latins         158
+
+          Unpopularity of this proposal                              158
+
+          The Tribune M. Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus              158
+
+          Foundation of a colony at Carthage                         159
+
+          Decline of the popularity of Gracchus                      159
+
+    121.  His murder                                                 160
+
+          Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi                        160
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXII.
+
+                    JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.
+
+          C. MARIUS                                                  161
+    134.    Serves at the siege of Numantia                          161
+            Attracts the notice of Scipio Africanus                  161
+    119.    Tribune of the Plebs                                     162
+    115.    Praetor                                                   162
+
+    149.  Death of Masinissa                                         162
+
+          Accession of Micipsa                                       162
+
+    134.  Jugurtha serves at the siege of Numantia                   162
+
+    118.  Death of Micipsa                                           162
+
+          Jugurtha assassinates Hiempsal                             163
+
+          War between Jugurtha and Adherbal                          163
+
+    117.  Roman commissioners divide Numidia between Jugurtha and
+            Adherbal                                                 163
+
+          Fresh war between Jugurtha and Adherbal                    163
+
+          Siege of Cirta                                             163
+
+    112.  Death of Adherbal                                          163
+
+    111.  The Romans declare war against Jugurtha                    163
+
+          Jugurtha bribes the Consul Calpurnius Bestia               163
+
+          Indignation at Rome                                        163
+
+          Jugurtha comes to Rome                                     164
+
+    111.  He murders Massiva                                         164
+
+          Renewal of the war                                         164
+
+    110.  Incapacity of the Consul Sp. Postumius Albinus             164
+
+          Defeat of his brother Aulus                                164
+
+    109.  Bill of the Tribune C. Mamilius                            164
+
+          Many Romans condemned                                      164
+
+          The Consul Q. Caecilius Metellus lands in Africa            164
+
+          Accompanied by Marius as his lieutenant                    165
+
+          Metellus defeats Jugurtha                                  165
+
+          Ambitious views of Marius                                  165
+
+    108.  He quits Africa and arrives in Rome                        166
+
+          Is elected Consul                                          166
+
+          Attacks the nobility                                       166
+
+          Campaign of Metellus as Proconsul                          166
+
+          The people give Marius command of the Numidian War         166
+
+    107.  First Consulship of Marius                                 166
+
+          He arrives in Africa                                       166
+
+          He defeats Jugurtha and Bocchus, king of Mauritania        167
+
+    106.  Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla, the Quaestor of
+            Marius                                                   167
+
+          Early history of Sulla                                     167
+
+          His character                                              167
+
+    104.  Triumph of Marius                                          168
+
+          His second Consulship                                      168
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+    THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
+                              B.C. 103-101.
+
+          Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones                        169
+
+          Their probable origin                                      169
+
+    113.  Defeat of the Consul Cn. Papirius Carbo                    169
+
+    109.  Defeat of the Consul M. Junius Silanus                     169
+
+    107.  Defeat of the Consul L. Cassius Longinus                   169
+
+    105.  Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
+            Proconsul Cn. Servilius Caepio                            170
+
+    104.  Second Consulship of Marius                                170
+
+          The Cimbri invade Spain                                    170
+
+    103.  Third Consulship of Marius                                 170
+
+    102.  Fourth Consulship of Marius                                170
+
+          The Cimbri return from Spain                               170
+
+    102.  Marius takes up his position near Arles                    170
+
+          The Cimbri enter Italy by the Pass of Tridentum            170
+
+          Great defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquae Sextiae      171
+
+    101.  Fifth Consulship of Marius                                 171
+
+          Great defeat of the Teutones at Vercellae by Marius and
+            the Proconsul Catulus                                    171
+
+          Triumph of Marius and Catulus                              171
+
+103-101.  Second Servile War in Sicily                               171
+
+          Tryphon king of the Slaves                                 172
+
+          Succeeded by Athenio as king                               172
+
+    101.  The Consul Aquillius puts an end to the war                172
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+    INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES
+                     TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.
+
+    100.  Sixth Consulship of Marius                                 173
+
+          His league with the demagogues Saturninus and Glaucia      173
+
+          Agrarian Law of Saturninus                                 174
+
+          Banishment of Metellus                                     174
+
+          Saturninus declared a public enemy                         174
+
+          He is put to death                                         175
+
+          Marius visits the East                                     175
+
+     92.  Condemnation of Rutilius Lupus                             175
+
+     91.  Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus                              175
+
+          His measures                                               176
+
+          Proposes to give the franchise to the Italian allies       176
+
+          His assassination                                          176
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXV.
+
+                   THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.
+
+     90.  The Allies take up arms                                    178
+
+          The war breaks out at Asculum in Picenum                   178
+
+          Corfinium the new capital of the Italian confederation     178
+
+          Q. Pompaedius Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papius Mutilus, a
+            Samnite, the Italian Consuls                             178
+
+          Defeat and death of the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus     179
+
+          Exploits of Marius                                         179
+
+          The Lex Julia                                              179
+
+     89.  Success of the Romans                                      180
+
+          The Lex Plautia Papiria                                    180
+
+          The franchise given to the Allies                          180
+
+          All the Allies lay down their arms except the Samnites
+            and Lucanians                                            180
+
+          Ten new Tribes formed                                      180
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+                      FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.
+
+     88.  Consulship of Sulla                                        181
+
+          Receives the command of the Mithridatic War                181
+
+          The Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus                             182
+
+          He proposes to distribute the Italians among the
+            thirty-five Tribes                                       182
+
+          Sulla flies from Rome to Nola                              182
+
+          The people give Marius the command of the Mithridatic War  182
+
+          Sulla marches upon Rome                                    182
+
+          Sulpicius put to death                                     183
+
+          Marius flies from Rome                                     183
+
+          His adventures                                             183
+
+          Is seized at Minturnae                                      183
+
+          Escapes to Africa                                          184
+
+          Sulla sails to the East                                    184
+
+     87.  Riots at Rome                                              185
+
+          The Consul Cinna invites the assistance of Marius          185
+
+          Marius and Cinna march upon Rome                           185
+
+          They enter the city                                        185
+
+          Proscription of their enemies                              185
+
+     86.  Seventh Consulship of Marius                               185
+
+          His death                                                  185
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+                    FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.
+
+          Kingdom of Pontus                                          186
+
+          Its history                                                186
+
+    120.  Accession of Mithridates VI                                186
+
+          His early life                                             186
+
+          His attainments                                            187
+
+          His conquests                                              187
+
+          His disputes with the Romans                               187
+
+     88.  He invades Cappadocia and Bithynia                         187
+
+          He invades the Roman province of Asia                      188
+
+          Massacre of Romans and Italians                            188
+
+     87.  The Grecian states declare in favor of Mithridates         188
+
+          Sulla lands in Epirus                                      188
+
+          He lays siege to Athens and the Piraeus                     188
+
+     86.  Takes these cities                                         188
+
+          Defeats Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, at Chaeronea 188
+
+     85.  Again defeats Archelaus at Orchomenus                      189
+
+     84.  Peace with Mithridates                                     189
+
+          Sulla attacks Fimbria, the Marian general, in Asia         189
+
+     83.  He returns to Italy                                        189
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+        SECOND CIVIL WAR--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH.
+                                B.C. 83-78.
+
+     84.  Consulship of Cinna and Carbo                              190
+
+          Death of Cinna                                             190
+
+     83.  Consulship of Scipio and Norbanus                          190
+
+          Preparations for war                                       191
+
+          The Italians support the Marian party                      191
+
+          Sulla marches from Brundusium to Campania                  191
+
+          Defeats the Consul Norbanus                                191
+
+          Pompey, Metellus Pius, Crasus, and others, join Sulla      192
+
+     83.  Consulship of Papirus Carbo and the younger Marius         192
+
+          Defeat of Marius, who takes refuge in Praeneste             192
+
+          Murder of Senators in Rome by order of Marius              192
+
+          Great battle before the Colline gate at Rome between
+            Sulla and the Samnites                                   192
+
+          Defeat of the Samnites                                     193
+
+          Surrender of Praeneste                                      193
+
+          Death of Marius                                            193
+
+          End of the war                                             193
+
+          Sulla master of Rome                                       193
+
+          Proscription                                               193
+
+          Dreadful scenes                                            194
+
+     81.  Sulla dictator                                             194
+
+          He celebrates his triumph over Mithridates                 194
+
+          His reforms in the constitution                            194
+
+          His military colonies                                      194
+
+     73.  He resigns the Dictatorship                                195
+
+          He retires to Puteoli                                      195
+
+     73.  His death                                                  195
+
+          His funeral                                                196
+
+          LEGES CORNELLAE--
+            I. _Laws relating to the Constitution_                   196
+                Deprive the Comitia Tribute of their legislative
+                  and judicial powers                                196
+                Increase the power of the Senate                     197
+                Increase the number of the Quaestors and Praetors      197
+                Deprive the Tribunes of all real power               197
+           II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations_    197
+                Repeal of the Lex Domitia                            197
+                Increase of the number of Pontiffs and Augurs        197
+          III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice_      197
+                Quaestiones Perpetuae                                  197
+                Transference of the Judicia from the Equites to
+                  the Senators                                       198
+           IV. _Laws relating to the improvement of Public Morals_   198
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+       FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS.
+                               B.C. 78-70.
+
+     78.  Consulship of Lepidus and Catulus                          199
+
+          Lepidus attempts to repeal the laws of Sulla               199
+
+          Is opposed by Catulus                                      199
+
+          Is defeated at the Mulvian Bridge                          199
+
+          Retires to Sardinia                                        200
+
+          His death                                                  200
+
+     82.  Sertorius in Spain                                         200
+
+     79.  Carries on war against Metellus                            200
+
+          CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS                                        200
+            His birth                                                200
+     89.    Fights against the Italians under his father             200
+     83.    Joins Sulla                                              200
+     82.    Is sent into Sicily and Africa                           200
+     80.    Enters Rome in triumph                                   201
+     78.    Supports the aristocracy against Lepidus                 201
+     76.    Is sent into Spain to assist Metellus                    201
+
+     72.  Assassination of Sertorius by Perperna                     202
+
+     71.  Pompey finishes the war in Spain                           202
+
+     73.  War of the Gladiators: Spartacus                           202
+
+     72.  Spartacus defeats both Consuls                             202
+
+     71.  Crassus appointed to the command of the war against
+            the Gladiators                                           202
+
+          Defeats and slays Spartacus                                203
+
+          Pompey cuts to pieces a body of Gladiators                 203
+
+     70.  Consulship of Pompey and Crassus                           203
+
+          Pompey restores the Tribunitian power                      203
+
+          Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, transferring the Judicia to
+            the Senators, Equites, and Tribuni AErarii                204
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXX.
+
+                 THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.
+
+     83.  SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR--
+
+          Murena invades Pontus                                      205
+
+     83.  Mithridates defeats Murena                                 205
+
+          End of the Second Mithridatic War                          205
+
+          Preparations of Mithridates                                206
+
+     71.  THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR--
+
+          Mithridates defeats the Consul Cotta                       206
+
+          He lays siege to Cyzicus                                   206
+
+     73.  The siege is raised by Lucullus                            207
+
+          Lucullus defeats Mithridates                               207
+
+     71.  Mithridates takes refuge in Armenia                        207
+
+     70.  Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia                       207
+
+     69.  He invades Armenia and defeats Tigranes                    208
+
+     68.  Lucullus defeats Tigranes and Mithridates, and lays
+            siege to Nisibis                                         208
+
+     67.  Mithridates returns to Pontus and defeats the generals
+            of Lucullus                                              208
+
+          Mutiny in the army of Lucullus                             208
+
+          The command of the Mithridatic War given to Glabrio        209
+
+          WAR WITH THE PIRATES--
+            Account of the Pirates                                   209
+            Command of the war given by the Gabinian Law to Pompey   210
+            Success of Pompey                                        210
+            He finishes the war                                      210
+
+     66.  THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR CONTINUED                            210
+
+          Command of the Mithridatic War given by the Manilian Law
+            to Pompey                                                210
+
+          It is opposed by the aristocracy                           211
+
+          It is supported by Cicero                                  211
+
+          Pompey defeats Mithridates                                 211
+
+          Mithridates retires into the Cimmerian Bosporus            211
+
+          Pompey invades Armenia                                     212
+
+          Submission of Tigranes                                     212
+
+     65.  Pompey pursues Mithridates                                 212
+
+          He advances as far as the River Phasis                     212
+
+          He returns to Pontus, which he reduces to the form of
+            a Roman province                                         212
+
+     64.  He marches into Syria, which he makes a Roman province     212
+
+     63.  He subdues Phoenicia and Palestine                         212
+
+          He takes Jerusalem                                         212
+
+          Preparations of Mithridates                                213
+
+          Conspiracy against him                                     213
+
+          His death                                                  213
+
+          Pompey settles the affairs of Asia                         213
+
+     62.  He returns to Italy                                        213
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+      INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
+         RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST: THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE.
+                               B.C. 69-61.
+
+          C. JULIUS CAESAR--
+    100.    His birth                                                214
+            His early history                                        214
+            Proscribed by Sulla                                      215
+     81.    He serves in Asia                                        215
+     77.    Accuses Dolabella                                        215
+            Taken by the Pirates                                     215
+     75.    Studies in Rhodes                                        215
+     68.    Quaestor                                                  215
+     65.    Curule AEdile                                             216
+            Restores the statues of Marius                           216
+
+          M. TULLIUS CICERO--
+    106.    His birth                                                216
+     80.    Serves in the Social War                                 216
+     81.    His speech for P. Quintius                               216
+     80.    His speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria                    216
+     79.    He goes to Athens                                        216
+     78.    He studies in Rome                                       216
+     77.    He returns to Rome                                       216
+     76.    Quaestor in Sicily                                        217
+     70.    He accuses Verres                                        217
+     68.    AEdile                                                    217
+     66.    Praetor                                                   217
+            He speaks on behalf of the Manilian law                  217
+
+     65.  First conspiracy of Catiline                               217
+
+          History of Catiline                                        218
+
+     63.  Consulship of Cicero                                       219
+
+          Second conspiracy of Catiline                              219
+
+          Catiline quits Rome                                        220
+
+          Cicero seizes the conspirators                             220
+
+          They are put to death                                      221
+
+     62.  Defeat and death of Catiline                               221
+
+          Popularity of Cicero                                       221
+
+          Remarks upon the punishment of the conspirators            221
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXII.
+
+   FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
+                                B.C. 62-57.
+
+     62.  Pompey arrives in Italy                                    223
+
+     61.  Triumph of Pompey                                          223
+
+          State of parties in Rome                                   224
+
+     60.  The Senate refuses to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia   224
+
+     63.  Praetorship of Caesar                                        224
+
+     61.  Propraetor in Spain                                         224
+
+     60.  His victories in Spain                                     224
+
+          He returns to Rome                                         225
+
+          FIRST TRIUMVIRATE                                          225
+
+     59.  Consulship of Caesar                                        225
+
+          Agrarian Law for the division of the Campanian land        225
+
+          Ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia                      225
+
+          Marriage of Julia, Caesar's daughter, with Pompey           225
+
+          Caesar gains over the Equites                               225
+
+          Vatinian Law, granting to Caesar the provinces of
+            Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years              226
+
+          Transalpine Gaul added                                     226
+
+     62.  Clodius profanes the rites of the Bona Dea                 226
+
+     61.  His trial and acquittal                                    227
+
+          His enmity against Cicero                                  227
+
+     58.  Tribune of the Plebs                                       227
+
+          He accuses Cicero                                          227
+
+          Banishment of Cicero                                       227
+
+     57.  Riots at Rome between Clodius and Milo                     227
+
+          Return of Cicero from banishment                           228
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+                   CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-51.
+
+     58.  _First Campaign_                                           229
+            He defeats the Helvetii                                  229
+            He defeats Ariovistus and the Germans                    230
+
+     57.  _Second Campaign_                                          230
+            The Belgic War                                           230
+            Great victory over the Nervii                            230
+
+     55.  _Third Campaign_                                           230
+            He defeats the Veneti                                    231
+            He defeats the Morini and Menapii                        231
+
+     55.  _Fourth Campaign_                                          231
+            Caesar crosses the Rhine                                  231
+            His first invasion of Britain                            231
+
+     54.  _Fifth Campaign_                                           232
+            His second invasion of Britain                           232
+            Revolt of the Eburones                                   232
+            They destroy the detachment of T. Titurius Sabinus
+              and L. Aurunculeius Cotta                              232
+            They attack the camp of Q. Cicero                        232
+
+     53.  _Sixth Campaign_                                           232
+            Caesar puts down the revolt in Gaul                       233
+            He crosses the Rhine a second time                       233
+
+     52.  _Seventh Campaign_                                         233
+            Revolt of all Gaul                                       233
+            Headed by Vercingetorix                                  233
+            Caesar takes Alesia and Vercingetorix                     234
+
+     51.  _Eighth Campaign_                                          234
+            Pacification of Gaul                                     234
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIV.
+
+       INTERNAL HISTORY FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
+        COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR: EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS.
+                                B.C. 57-50.
+
+
+     57.  Cicero supports the Triumvirs                              235
+
+     56.  Pompey and Crassus meet Caesar at Luca                      236
+
+          Fresh arrangements for the continuance of their power      236
+
+     55.  Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus                    236
+
+          The Trebonian Law, giving the two Spains to Pompey and
+            Syria to Crassus, and prolonging Pompey's government
+            for five years more                                      236
+
+          Dedication of Pompey's theatre                             236
+
+     54.  Crassus crosses the Euphrates                              237
+
+          He winters in Syria                                        237
+
+     53.  He again crosses the Euphrates                             237
+
+          Is defeated and slain near Carrhae                          237
+
+     54.  Death of Julia                                             237
+
+     53.  Riots in Rome                                              238
+
+     52.  Murder of Clodius by Milo                                  238
+
+          Pompey sole Consul                                         238
+
+          Trial and condemnation of Milo                             238
+
+     51.  Rupture between Caesar and Pompey                           239
+
+          Pompey joins the aristocratical party                      239
+
+     49.  Proposition that Caesar should lay down his command         240
+
+          The Senate invest the Consuls with dictatorial power       240
+
+          The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fly to Caesar's camp        240
+
+          Commencement of the Civil War                              240
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXV.
+
+     THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CAESAR'S DEATH, B.C. 49-44.
+
+     49.  Caesar at Ravenna                                           241
+
+          He crosses the Rubicon                                     241
+
+          His triumphal progress through Italy                       241
+
+          Pompey and his party fly from Rome to Brundusium           242
+
+          They are pursued by Caesar                                  242
+
+          They embark for Greece                                     242
+
+          Caesar goes to Rome                                         242
+
+          He sets out for Spain                                      242
+
+          He conquers L. Africanus and M. Petreius, Pompey's
+            lieutenants in Spain                                     243
+
+          Is appointed Dictator, which office he holds only
+            eleven days                                              243
+
+          He takes Massilia                                          243
+
+     48.  He sails from Brundusium to Greece                         243
+
+          He besieges Pompey at Dyrrhachium                          244
+
+          Is compelled to retire                                     241
+
+          Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat of Pompey                  244
+
+          Pompey flies to Egypt                                      245
+
+          His death                                                  245
+
+          Caesar is appointed Dictator a second time                  245
+
+          The Alexandrine War                                        245
+
+     47.  Conclusion of the Alexandrine War                          246
+
+          Caesar marches into Pontus and defeats Pharnaces            246
+
+          He sails to Africa                                         246
+
+     46.  Battle of Thapsus, and defeat of the Pompeians             246
+
+          Siege of Utica                                             247
+
+          Death of Cato                                              247
+
+          Caesar returns to Rome                                      247
+
+          His triumph                                                247
+
+          His reformation of the Calendar                            247
+
+          Insurrection in Spain                                      248
+
+          Caesar sets out for Spain                                   248
+
+     45.  Battle of Munda, and defeat of the Pompeians               248
+
+          Caesar returns to Rome                                      248
+
+          He is undisputed master of the Roman world                 248
+
+          Honors conferred upon him                                  248
+
+          Use he made of his power                                   248
+
+          His vast projects                                          249
+
+     44.  Conspiracy against Caesar's life                            249
+
+          Brutus and Cassius                                         249
+
+          Assassination of Caesar on the Ides of March                250
+
+          Reflections on his death                                   250
+
+          His character and genius                                   250
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVI.
+
+        FROM THE DEATH OF CAESAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.
+
+     44.  Proceedings of the conspirators                            252
+
+          Antony and Lepidus                                         253
+
+          Pretended reconciliation                                   253
+
+          Caesar's will                                               253
+
+          His funeral                                                253
+
+          Popular indignation against the conspirators               253
+
+          They fly from Home                                         253
+
+          OCTAVIUS, Caesar's nephew, at Illyricum                     253
+
+          Is made Caesar's heir                                       253
+
+          He proceeds to Rome                                        254
+
+          His opposition to Antony                                   254
+
+          He courts the Senate                                       254
+
+          Antony proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul, and lays siege to
+            Mutina                                                   254
+
+     43.  Cicero's second Philippic                                  254
+
+          Octavian and the Consuls Hirtius and Pansa march
+            against Antony                                           255
+
+          They attack Antony                                         255
+
+          Death of Hirtius and Pansa                                 255
+
+          Antony is defeated, and crosses the Alps                   255
+
+          Octavian marches to Rome                                   255
+
+          Is declared Consul                                         255
+
+          Breaks with the Senate, and outlaws the murderers
+            of Caesar                                                 255
+
+          Marches against Antony and Lepidus                         255
+
+          Is reconciled with them                                    256
+
+          SECOND TRIUMVIRATE                                         256
+
+          The Triumvirs enter Rome                                   256
+
+          Dreadful Scenes                                            256
+
+          Death of Cicero                                            257
+
+          Sextus Pompey master of Sicily and the Mediterranean       257
+
+          He defeats the fleet of the Triumvirs                      257
+
+          Brutus obtains possession of Macedonia                     258
+
+          Cassius, of Syria                                          258
+
+          Their proceedings in the East                              258
+
+          They plunder Asia Minor                                    258
+
+     42.  They return to Europe to meet the Triumvirs                258
+
+          Battle of Philippi                                         261
+
+          Death of Brutus and Cassius                                261
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVII.
+
+       FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.
+
+
+     41.  Antony remains in the East                                 262
+
+          He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus                               262
+
+          He accompanies her to Alexandria                           263
+
+          Octavian returns to Rome                                   263
+
+          Confusion in Italy                                         263
+
+          Confiscation of lands                                      263
+
+          Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and L. Antonius, his
+            brother, rise against Antony                             263
+
+          They take refuge in Perusia                                263
+
+     40.  Capture of Perusia, and end of the war                     263
+
+          The Parthians invade Syria                                 264
+
+          Antony joins Sextus Pompey and lays siege to Brundusium    264
+
+          Reconciliation between Antony and Octavian                 264
+
+          Fresh division of the Roman world                          264
+
+          Antony marries Octavia                                     264
+
+     39.  Peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum                        264
+
+          Ventidius, the Legate of Antony, defeats the Parthians     265
+
+     38.  He again defeats the Parthians                             265
+
+          Death of Pacorus                                           265
+
+          War with Sextus Pompey                                     265
+
+          He destroys the fleet of Octavian                          265
+
+     37.  Antony comes to Tarentum                                   266
+
+          Triumvirate renewed for another period of five years       266
+
+     36.  Renewal of the war with Sextus Pompey                      266
+
+          His defeat                                                 266
+
+          He flies to Asia                                           266
+
+          Lepidus deprived of his Triumvirate                        266
+
+     35.  Death of Pompey                                            266
+
+     30.  Antony joins Cleopatra                                     267
+
+          His infatuation                                            267
+
+          He invades Parthia                                         267
+
+          His disastrous retreat                                     267
+
+     34.  He invades Armenia                                         267
+
+          Octavian subdues the Dalmatians                            267
+
+          His prudent conduct                                        267
+
+     33.  Rupture between Octavian and Antony                        267
+
+     32.  War against Cleopatra                                      268
+
+     31.  Battle of Actium                                           268
+
+          Defeat of Antony                                           268
+
+          He flies to Alexandria                                     268
+
+     30.  Death of Antony and Cleopatra                              269
+
+          Egypt made a Roman province                                269
+
+          End of the Republic                                        269
+
+     29.  Triumph of Octavian                                        269
+
+     27.  He receives the title of Augustus                          270
+
+          His policy                                                 270
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXVIII.
+
+        SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST
+                      TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.
+
+          Poetry--
+
+          Saturnian Metre                                            272
+
+          Commencement of Roman Literature                           272
+
+          _The Drama_--
+    240.    M. Livius Andronicus                                     272
+    235.    Cn. Naevius                                               273
+239-169.    Q. Ennius                                                273
+254-184.    T. Maccius Plautus                                       273
+195-159.    P. Terentius Afer                                        274
+    160.    Q. Caecilius                                              274
+    100.    L. Afranius                                              274
+220-180.    M. Pacuvius                                              275
+ 170-90.    L. Accius                                                275
+
+          _Comoediae Togatae_                                          274
+
+          _Comoediae Palliatae_                                        274
+
+          _Comoediae Praetextatae_                                      275
+
+          _Atellanae Fabulae_                                          275
+
+          _Mimes_                                                    275
+     50.    Dec. Laberius                                            275
+            P. Syrus                                                 275
+
+          _Fescennine Songs_                                         276
+
+          _Satire_                                                   276
+148-103.    C. Lucilius                                              276
+  95-51.    T. Lucretius Carus                                       276
+  87-47.    Valerius Catullus                                        276
+  70-19.    P. Virgilius Maro                                        277
+   65-8.    Q. Horatius Flaccus                                      278
+     30.    Albius Tibullus                                          280
+            Aurelius Propertius                                      280
+B.C. A.D.
+  43-18.    P. Ovidius Naso                                          281
+
+  B.C.    PROSE WRITERS--
+
+          _The Annalists_                                            282
+    210.    Q. Fabius Pictor                                         282
+            L. Cincius Alimentus                                     282
+234-140.    M. Porcius Cato                                          282
+ 106-43.    M. Tullius Cicero                                        282
+ 117-28.    M. Terentius Varro                                       283
+ 100-41.    C. Julius Caesar                                          283
+  86-34.    C. Sallustius Crispus                                    284
+            Cornelius Nepos                                          284
+B.C. A.D.
+  53-17.    Titus Livius                                             284
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXXIX.
+
+                THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CAESAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.
+
+          Conduct of Augustus                                        286
+
+          His friends                                                286
+
+          Police of Rome                                             286
+
+          Condition of the empire                                    287
+
+          Italy, Gaul, and Spain                                     287
+
+          Africa                                                     288
+
+          Egypt and Greece                                           288
+
+          Boundaries of the empire                                   289
+
+          The Praetorian guard                                        290
+
+          Army and navy                                              290
+
+          Augustus in Spain                                          291
+
+          His family                                                 291
+
+          His wife, Livia                                            292
+
+          Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius                                 292
+
+          Cains and Lucius Caesar                                     293
+
+          Birth of the Savior                                        293
+
+          Death of Augustus                                          294
+
+          His character and personal appearance                      294
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XL.
+
+      FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.
+
+          Accession of Tiberius                                      295
+
+          Germanicus                                                 296
+
+          His death                                                  296
+
+          The Lex Majestas                                           297
+
+          The Delatores                                              297
+
+          Sejanus                                                    297
+
+          Death of Sejanus                                           298
+
+          Death of Tiberius                                          299
+
+          Caligula                                                   299
+
+          Claudius                                                   300
+
+          His conduct                                                300
+
+          The Emperor Nero                                           301
+
+          His crimes                                                 301
+
+          Vitellius                                                  302
+
+          Vespasian                                                  302
+
+          Fall of Jerusalem                                          303
+
+          Reign of Titus                                             304
+
+          The Colosseum                                              304
+
+          Reign of Domitian                                          305
+
+          He persecutes the Christians                               305
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLI.
+
+     PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF
+                     M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.
+
+          The Emperor Nerva                                          306
+
+          Prosperity of the empire                                   306
+
+          Trajan                                                     307
+
+          His wise administration                                    307
+
+          The Dacian war                                             308
+
+          Conquests in the East                                      308
+
+          Trajan's public works                                      309
+
+          Reign of Hadrian                                           309
+
+          His travels                                                310
+
+          His death                                                  312
+
+          Antoninus Pius                                             313
+
+          His excellent character                                    313
+
+          Marcus Aurelius                                            314
+
+          His conduct                                                315
+
+          He defeats the Barbarians                                  316
+
+          The depraved Commodus                                      316
+
+          His vices                                                  316
+
+          Is assassinated                                            316
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLII.
+
+                FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.
+
+          Pertinax made emperor                                      319
+
+          Is assassinated                                            319
+
+          Didius Julianus                                            319
+
+          Severus                                                    320
+
+          His severe rule                                            320
+
+          Geta and Caracalla                                         321
+
+          Papinian executed                                          321
+
+          Cruelties of Caracalla                                     322
+
+          Elagabalus                                                 322
+
+          Alexander Severus                                          322
+
+          Maximin                                                    323
+
+          The Goths invade the empire                                324
+
+          Valerian                                                   325
+
+          Thirty tyrants                                             325
+
+          Zenobia                                                    325
+
+          Aurelian                                                   325
+
+          The Emperor Tacitus                                        326
+
+          Frugal habits of Carus                                     326
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLIII.
+
+         FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
+
+          Diocletian                                                 327
+
+          His colleagues                                             328
+
+          Persecution of the Christians                              329
+
+          Abdication of Diocletian                                   329
+
+          Constantine the Great                                      330
+
+          His administration                                         331
+
+          The Council of Nice                                        332
+
+          Constantinople                                             332
+
+          Its magnificence                                           333
+
+          The praefectures                                            334
+
+          Christianity the national religion                         334
+
+          Taxes                                                      334
+
+          Family of Constantine                                      335
+
+          He is baptized and dies                                    335
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLIV.
+
+         FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS,
+                                 A.D. 476.
+
+          The three sons of Constantine                              336
+
+          Constantius jealous of Julian                              337
+
+          Julian becomes emperor                                     337
+
+          Attempts to restore Paganism                               337
+
+          Valentinian                                                338
+
+          The Huns appear in Europe                                  338
+
+          The Goths cross the Danube                                 338
+
+          Theodosius the Great                                       339
+
+          Stilicho                                                   339
+
+          Alaric enters Italy                                        340
+
+          Luxury of the Romans                                       340
+
+          Sack of Rome                                               341
+
+          Arcadius and Honorius                                      341
+
+          The Vandals                                                342
+
+          The Huns                                                   342
+
+          Romulus Augustulus                                         343
+
+          Extinction of the Empire of the West                       343
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XLV.
+
+             ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.
+
+          Decline of letters                                         344
+
+          Epic poetry--Lucan                                         344
+
+          Silius Italicus                                            344
+
+          Claudian                                                   345
+
+          Persius, Juvenal                                           345
+
+          Martial                                                    346
+
+          History--Velleius Paterculus                               346
+
+          Valerius Maximus                                           346
+
+          Tacitus                                                    347
+
+          Quintus Curtius                                            347
+
+          Rhetoric--Seneca the elder                                 348
+
+          Quintilian                                                 348
+
+          Appuleius                                                  349
+
+          Philosophy--Seneca                                         349
+
+          The elder Pliny                                            349
+
+          His nephew                                                 350
+
+          Grammarians--Macrobius                                     350
+
+          Marcellinus                                                350
+
+          Legal writers--Gains                                       350
+
+          Science and art                                            351
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The Roman Forum                                             FRONTISPIECE
+Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens                        TITLE-PAGE
+Map of Italy
+Temple of Janus                                                       vi
+Julius Caesar                                                         vii
+Virgil                                                               xxx
+Tivoli, the ancient Tibur                                              1
+Gate of Arpinum                                                        6
+The Alban Hills                                                        7
+Plan of the City of Romulus                                           11
+Salii carrying the Ancilia                                            13
+Arch of Volaterrae                                                     15
+Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina                                    16
+Cloaca Maxima                                                         17
+Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills             21
+Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors      23
+The Campagna of Rome                                                  29
+The Environs of Rome                                                  33
+Tarpeian Rock                                                         36
+View in the neighborhood of Veii                                      41
+Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored                                45
+Ruins at Capua                                                        52
+Coin of Pyrrhus                                                       60
+Temple of Vesta                                                       67
+Mount Ercta in Sicily                                                 68
+Columna Rostrata                                                      71
+Plan of Mount Ercta                                                   76
+Coin of Carthage                                                      77
+Coin of Hiero                                                         81
+Lake Trasimenus                                                       82
+Map of the coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the history of
+      the Punic Wars                                                  85
+Route of Hannibal                                                     89
+Plain of Cannae                                                        91
+Hannibal                                                              99
+The Capitoline Wolf                                                  105
+Coin of Antiochus the Great                                          106
+Roman Soldiers                                                       113
+Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus                                        115
+Lictors                                                              116
+A Roman general addressing the soldiers                              125
+Scipio Africanus                                                     126
+Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges          134
+Plan of Carthage                                                     141
+Personification of the River Tiber                                   143
+Stairs of the modern Capitol                                         148
+The Forum in its present state                                       155
+Temple of Saturn at Rome                                             160
+A Roman Trophy                                                       161
+Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua                                     168
+Caius Marius                                                         169
+Fasces                                                               172
+Tomb of Metella Caecilia                                              173
+Beneventum in Samnium                                                177
+Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation      178
+Terracina                                                            181
+Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia                                           186
+Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia                             189
+Brundusium                                                           190
+Coin of Sulla                                                        198
+Cn. Pompeius Magnus                                                  199
+Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome                                 204
+Coin of Mithridates                                                  205
+Coin of Tigranes                                                     207
+Cicero                                                               214
+Coin of Pompey                                                       222
+Julius Caesar                                                         223
+Temple of Hercules at Rome                                           228
+Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison Carree_         229
+Ruins on the Esquiline                                               235
+Marcus Brutus                                                        241
+Coin of Julius Caesar                                                 250
+Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga                             251
+M. Antonius                                                          252
+Philippi                                                             259
+Coin of Antony and Cleopatra                                         261
+M. Agrippa                                                           262
+Plan of Actium                                                       268
+Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire                             271
+Horace                                                               272
+Maecenas                                                              285
+Aureus of Augustus Caesar                                             288
+Gold Coin of Agrippa                                                 292
+The Carpentum or Chariot                                             293
+Medal of Augustus                                                    294
+Medal of Nero                                                        295
+Roman Galley                                                         299
+Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius                                        306
+Trajan's Pillar                                                      308
+Hadrian's Mausoleum restored                                         311
+Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoninus Pius                            313
+Commodus                                                             317
+Pertinax                                                             318
+Septimius Severus                                                    319
+Caracalla                                                            321
+Alexander Severus                                                    323
+Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spolatro                        327
+Constantino and Fausta                                               330
+Arch of Constantine                                                  331
+Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, and Bosphorus                      333
+Map of Constantinople                                                333
+Julian the Apostate                                                  336
+Juvenal                                                              351
+Coin of Augustus                                                     361
+
+[Illustration: Virgil.]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ROME.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tivoli, the ancient Tibur.]
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
+
+
+Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which project
+from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on
+the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a natural barrier, and it
+is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its shores are washed on the
+west by the "Mare Inferum," or the Lower Sea, and on the east by the
+Adriatic, called by the Romans the "Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea.
+It may be divided into two parts, the northern consisting of the great
+plain drained by the River Padus, or _Po_, and its tributaries, and the
+southern being a long tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone
+running down its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length
+of the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles.
+The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the southern
+portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till the time of
+the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of the Po in Italy. To
+this country they gave the general name of GALLIA CISALPINA, or Gaul on
+this (the Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited
+by Gauls. The western-most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian
+tribes, and was therefore called LIGURIA, while its eastern extremity
+formed the Roman province of VENETIA.
+
+The name ITALIA was originally applied to a very small tract of country.
+It was at first confined to the southern portion of Calabria, and was
+gradually extended northward, till about the time of the Punic wars it
+indicated the whole peninsula south of the Rivers Rubicon and Macra, the
+former separating Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, the latter Liguria and
+Etruria. Italy, properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being
+filled up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the offshoots
+or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea,
+but in others leave a considerable space of level or low country.
+Excluding the plain of the Po, it was divided into the following
+districts:[1]
+
+1. ETRURIA, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the
+River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the Tiber
+also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from Umbria,
+afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. Its inhabitants
+were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being still preserved in
+the name of _Tuscany_. Besides the Tiber it possesses only one other
+river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, upon which the city of
+_Florence_ now stands. Of its lakes the most considerable is the Lacus
+Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in circumference, celebrated for the
+great victory which Hannibal there gained over the Romans.
+
+2. UMBRIA, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the
+valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was separated on
+the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on the south by the
+AEsis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sabines.
+
+3. PICENUM extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the AEsis to
+that of the Matrinus and inland as far as the central ridge of the
+Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the south by the
+Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sabini. Its inhabitants, the
+Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is mentioned below.
+
+4. The SABINI inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the central chain
+of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Latium, and
+the country of the Marsi and Vestini. They were one of the most ancient
+races of Italy, and the progenitors of the far more numerous tribes
+which, under the names of Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread
+themselves to the east and south. Modern writers have given the general
+name of _Sabellians_ to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other
+mountaineers, were brave, hardy, and frugal; and even the Romans looked
+up to them with admiration on account of their proverbial honesty and
+temperance.
+
+5. The MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, and MARRUCINI inhabited the valleys of
+the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being probably all of
+Sabine origin. The MARSI dwelt inland around the basin of the Lake
+Fucinus, which is about thirty miles in circumference, and the only
+one of any extent in the central Apennines. The PELIGNI also occupied an
+inland district east of the MARSI. The VESTINI dwelt east of the
+Sabines, and possessed on the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space
+between the mouth of the Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of
+about six miles. The MARRUCINI inhabited a narrow strip of country on
+the Adriatic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the
+Vestini and on the south by the Frentani.
+
+6. The FRENTANI dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the frontiers
+of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded on the west by
+the Samnites, from whom they were originally descended, but they appear
+in Roman history as an independent people.
+
+7. LATIUM was used in two senses. It originally signified only the land
+of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded by the Tiber
+on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the sea on the west, and
+by the Alban Hills on the south. But after the conquest of the
+Volscians, Hernici, AEquians, and other tribes, originally independent,
+the name of Latium was extended to all the country which the latter had
+previously occupied. It was thus applied to the whole region from the
+borders of Etruria to those of Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris.
+The original abode of the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban
+Mountains are a great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have
+been filled with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban Lake is one of
+the most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the
+_Campagna_, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating tract,
+intersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep
+channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is composed.
+The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient times. The malaria
+of the Campagna renders Rome itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn;
+and the Pontine Marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of
+Latium for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential.
+
+8. CAMPANIA extended along the coast from the Liris, which separated it
+from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the boundary of Lucania. It is
+the fairest portion of Italy. The greater part of it is an unbroken
+plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in modern times for its
+extraordinary beauty and fertility. The _Bay of Naples_--formerly called
+Sinus Cumanus and Puteolanus, from the neighboring cities of Cumae and
+Puteoli--is one of the most lovely spots in the world; and the softness
+of its climate, as well as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the
+Roman nobles, who had numerous villas along its coasts.
+
+9. SAMNIUM was an inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi and
+Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the west by Latium
+and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It is a mountainous country,
+being entirely filled with the masses of the Apennines. Its inhabitants,
+the Samnites, were of Sabine origin, as has been already mentioned, and
+they settled in the country at a comparatively late period. They were
+one of the most warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce
+struggle with the Romans.
+
+10. APULIA extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the Frentani on
+the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded on the west by the
+Apennines, which separated it from Samnium and Lucania. It consists
+almost entirely of a great plain, sloping down from the Apennines to the
+sea.
+
+11. CALABRIA formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, and
+surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no mountains, and
+only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines running to the southwest
+through Lucania and the Bruttii.
+
+12. LUCANIA was bounded on the north by Campania and Samnium, on the
+east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The Apennines run
+through the province in its whole extent. The Lucanians were a branch of
+the Samnite nation, which separated from the main body of that people,
+and pressed on still farther to the south.
+
+13. The BRUTTII[2] inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, lying
+south of Lucania; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed
+throughout by the chain of the Apennines.
+
+Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. The
+lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its shores on
+both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to
+adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest
+parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of the Apennines corn is
+produced in abundance; olives flourish on the southern slopes of the
+mountains; and the vine is cultivated in every part of the peninsula,
+the vineyards of northern Campania being the most celebrated in
+antiquity.
+
+The early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great
+classes--the _Italians_ proper, the _Iapygians_, and the _Etruscans_,
+who are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective
+languages.
+
+(1.) The _Italians_ proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. They
+were divided into two branches, the _Latins_ and the _Umbro-Sabellians_,
+including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their numerous colonies.
+The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabellians, though marked by
+striking differences, still show clearest evidence of a common origin,
+and both are closely related to the Greek. It is evident that at some
+remote period a race migrated from the East, embracing the ancestors of
+both the Greeks and Italians--that from it the Italians branched
+off--and that they again were divided into the Latins on the west and
+the Umbrians and Sabellians on the east.
+
+(2.) The _Iapygians_ dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast corner
+of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here been discovered,
+clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to a different race from
+those whom we have designated as the Italians. They were doubtless the
+oldest inhabitants of Italy, who were driven toward the extremity of the
+peninsula as the Latins and Sabellians pressed farther to the south.
+
+(3.) The _Etruscans_, or, as they called themselves, _Rasena_, form a
+striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the Greeks.
+Their language is radically different from the other languages of Italy;
+and their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people
+originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races. Their
+religion was of a gloomy character, delighting in mysteries and in wild
+and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. Most ancient writers relate
+that the Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to
+Italy; but this is very improbable, and it is now more generally
+believed that the Etruscans descended into Italy from, the Rhaetian Alps.
+It is expressly stated by ancient writers that the Rhaetians were
+Etruscans, and that they spoke the same language; while their name is
+perhaps the same as that of Rasena, the native name of the Etruscans. In
+more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans inhabited
+not only the country called Etruria, but also the great plain of the Po,
+as far as the foot of the Alps. Here they maintained their ground till
+they were expelled or subdued by the invading Gauls. The Etruscans, both
+in the north of Italy and to the south of the Apennines, consisted of a
+confederacy of twelve cities, each of which was independent, possessing
+the power of even making war and peace on its own account. In Etruria
+proper Volsinii was regarded as the metropolis.
+
+Besides these three races, two foreign races also settled in the
+peninsula in historical times. These are the _Greeks_ and the Gauls.
+
+(4.) The _Greeks_ planted so many colonies upon the coasts of southern
+Italy that they gave to that district the name of Magna Graecia. The most
+ancient, and, at the same time, the most northerly Greek city in Italy,
+was Cumae in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies were situated
+farther to the south, where many of them attained to great power and
+opulence. Of these, some of the most distinguished were Tarentum,
+Sybaris, Croton, and Metapontum.
+
+(5.) The _Gauls_, as we have already said, occupied the greater part of
+northern Italy, and were so numerous and important as to give to the
+whole basin of the Po the name of Gallia Cisalpina. They were of the
+same race with the Gauls who inhabited the country beyond the Alps, and
+their migration and settlement in Italy were referred by the Roman
+historian to the time of the Tarquins.
+
+[Illustration: Gate of Arpinum.]
+
+[Footnote 1: The description which follows in the text must be compared
+with the map of Italy given in this work.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The name "Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers
+on ancient geography, is not found in any classical author.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Alban Hills.]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
+
+
+The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only a few
+miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominions at first over
+Italy and then over the civilized world. The city lay in the central
+part of the peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and about fifteen
+miles from its mouth. Its situation was upon the borders of three of the
+most powerful races in Italy, the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Though
+originally a Latin town, it received at an early period a considerable
+Sabine population, which left a permanent impression upon the sacred
+rites and religious institutions of the people. The Etruscans exercised
+less influence upon Rome, though it appears nearly certain that a part
+of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the two Tarquins
+represent the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome. The
+population of the city may therefore be regarded as one of mixed origin,
+consisting of the three elements of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, but
+the last in much smaller proportion than the other two. That the Latin
+element predominated over the Sabine is also evident from the fact that
+the language of the Romans was a Latin and not a Sabellian dialect.
+
+The early history of Rome is given in an unbroken narrative by the Roman
+writers, and was received by the Romans themselves as a faithful record
+of facts. But it can no longer be regarded in that light. Not only is it
+full of marvelous tales and poetical embellishments, of contradictions
+and impossibilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all
+history must be based. The reader, therefore, must not receive the
+history of the first four centuries of the city as a statement of
+undoubted facts, though it has unquestionably preserved many
+circumstances which did actually occur. It is not until we come to the
+war with Pyrrhus that we can place full reliance upon the narrative as a
+trustworthy statement of facts. With this caution we now proceed to
+relate the celebrated legends of the foundation and early history of
+Home.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AEneas, son of Anchises and Venus, fled after the fall of Troy to seek a
+new home in a foreign land. He carried with him his son Ascanius, the
+Penates or household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.[3] Upon reaching
+the coast of Latium he was kindly received by Latinus, the king of the
+country, who gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. AEneas now built
+a city, which he named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. But Lavinia had
+been previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. This
+youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. He was
+slain, however, by the hands of AEneas; but in a new war which broke out
+three years afterward the Trojan hero disappeared amid the waters of the
+River Numicius, and was henceforward worshiped under the name of Jupiter
+Indiges, or "god of the country."
+
+Ascanius, who was also called Iulus, removed from Lavinium thirty years
+after its foundation, and built Alba Longa, or the "Long White City," on
+a ridge of the Alban Mount about fifteen miles southeast of Rome. It
+became the most powerful city in Latium, and the head of a confederacy
+of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the family of AEneas succeeded Ascanius.
+The last of these, named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius.
+Amulius, the younger, seized the kingdom; and Numitor, who was of a
+peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. Amulius,
+fearing lest the children of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his
+usurpation, caused his only son to be murdered, and made his daughter,
+Rhea Silvia, one of the vestal virgins, who were compelled to live and
+die unmarried. But the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of
+twins. She was, in consequence, put to death, because she had broken
+her vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the river. The Tiber
+had overflowed its banks far and wide; and the cradle in which the babes
+were placed was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on
+the root of a wild fig-tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the
+stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them; and when
+they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred to Mars, brought
+it to them. At length, this marvelous spectacle was seen by Faustulus,
+the king's shepherd, who took the children home to his wife, Acca
+Larentia. They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew up along with the
+sons of their foster-parents on the Palatine Hill.
+
+A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled
+their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aventine. Remus was taken by
+a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor. His age and noble bearing made
+Numitor think of his grandsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the
+tale of the marvelous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterward
+Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor; suspicion was
+changed into certainty, and the old man recognized them as his
+grandsons. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had
+suffered. With the help of their faithful comrades they slew Amulius,
+and placed Numitor on the throne.
+
+Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left Alba to
+found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute arose between the
+brothers where the city should be built, and after whose name it should
+be called. Romulus wished to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the
+Aventine. It was agreed that the question should be decided by the gods;
+and each took his station on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the
+pleasure of the gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and
+as the day was dawning Remus saw six vultures; but at sunrise, when
+these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each
+claimed the augury in his own favor; but the shepherds decided for
+Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield.
+
+1. REIGN OF ROMULUS, B.C. 753-716.--Romulus now proceeded to mark out
+the boundaries of his city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a plow,
+and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine. This formed the sacred limits
+of the city, and was called the _Pomoerium_. To the original city on
+the Palatine was given the name of _Roma Quadrata_, or Square Rome, to
+distinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over the seven
+hills.
+
+Rome is said to have been founded on the 21st of April, 753 years before
+the Christian era.
+
+On the line of the Pomoerium Romulus began to raise a wall. One day
+Remus leapt over it in scorn; whereupon Romulus slew him, exclaiming,
+"So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my walls." Romulus now found
+his people too few in numbers. Accordingly, lie set apart on the
+Capitoline Hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which homicides and
+runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus became filled with men,
+but they wanted women, and the inhabitants of the neighboring cities
+refused to give their daughters to such an outcast race. Romulus
+accordingly resolved to obtain by force what he could not obtain by
+treaty. He proclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the
+god Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the
+festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers with their wives
+and children, but the Roman youths rushed upon their guests and carried
+off the virgins. The parents returned home and prepared for vengeance.
+The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, Caenina, Antemnae and
+Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were defeated by the
+Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand Acron, king of Caenina, and
+dedicated his arms and armor, as _spolia opima_, to Jupiter. These were
+offered when the commander of one army slew with his own hand the
+commander of another, and were only gained twice afterward in Roman
+history. At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of
+the Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great that
+Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to retire into
+the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus had also fortified
+the top of the Capitoline Hill, which he intrusted to the care of
+Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia, dazzled by the golden bracelets of
+the Sabines, promised to betray the hill to them "if they would give her
+what they wore on their left arms." Her offer was accepted. In the
+night-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when she claimed
+her reward they threw upon her the shields "which they wore on their
+left arms," and thus crushed her to death. One of the heights of the
+Capitoline Hill preserved her name, and it was from the Tarpeian Rock
+that traitors were afterward hurled down. On the next day the Romans
+endeavored to recover the hill. A long and desperate battle was fought
+in the valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the
+Romans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed a temple to
+Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon his men took courage and
+returned again to the combat. At length the Sabine women, who were the
+cause of the war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and
+fathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard; the two people not
+only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. The Romans dwelt on
+the Palatine under their king Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline
+under their king Titus Tatius.[4] The two kings and their senates met
+for deliberation in the valley between the two hills, which was hence
+called _Comitium_, or the place of meeting, and which afterward became
+the Roman Forum. But this union did not last long. Titus Tatius was
+slain at Lavinium by some Latins to whom he had refused satisfaction for
+outrages committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled alone over
+both Romans and Sabines. He reigned, in all, thirty-seven years. One
+day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus Martius, near the
+Goat's Fool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, and a dreadful storm
+dispersed the people. When daylight returned Romulus had disappeared,
+for his father Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot.
+Shortly afterward he appeared in more than mortal beauty to the senator
+Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell the Romans to worship him under the
+name of the god Quirinus.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of the City of Romulus.]
+
+As Romulus was regarded as the founder of Rome, its most ancient
+political institutions and the organization of the people were ascribed
+to him by the popular belief.
+
+(i.) The Roman people consisted only of _Patricians_ and their
+_Clients_. The Patricians formed the Populus Romanus, or sovereign
+people. They alone had political rights; the Clients were entirely
+dependent upon them. A Patrician had a certain number of Clients
+attached to him personally. To these he acted as a _Patronus_ or Patron.
+He was bound to protect the interests of the Client both in public and
+private, while the Client had to render many services to his patron.
+
+(ii.) The Patricians were divided by Romulus into _three Tribes_; the
+Ramnes, or Romans of Romulus; the Tities, or Sabines of Titus Tatius;
+and the Luceres, or Etruscans of Caeles, a Lucumo or Etruscan noble, who
+assisted Romulus in the war against the Sabines. Each tribe was divided
+into 10 curiae, and each curiae into 10 gentes. The 30 curiae formed the
+_Comitia Curiata_, a sovereign assembly of the Patricians. This assembly
+elected the king, made the laws, and decided in all cases affecting the
+life of a citizen.
+
+To assist him in the government Romulus selected a number of aged men,
+forming a _Senate_, or Council of Elders, who were called Patres, or
+Senators. It consisted at first of 100 members, which number was
+increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated in the state. The 20
+curiae of the Ramnes and Tities each sent 10 members to the senate, but
+the Luceres were not yet represented.
+
+(iii.) Each of the three tribes was bound to furnish 1000 men for the
+infantry and 100 men for the cavalry. Thus 3000 foot-soldiers and 300
+horse-soldiers formed the original army of the Roman state, and were
+called a _Legion_.
+
+2. REIGN OF NUMA POMPILIUS, B.C. 716-673.--On the death of Romulus, the
+Senate, at first, would not allow the election of a new king. The
+Senators enjoyed the royal power in rotation as Inter-reges, or
+between-kings. In this way a year passed. But the people at length
+insisted that a king should be chosen, and the Senate were obliged to
+give way. The choice fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a
+native of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of Tatius. The
+forty-three years of Numa's reign glided away in quiet happiness without
+any war or any calamity.
+
+As Romulus was the founder of the political institutions of Rome, so
+Numa was the author of the religious institutions. Instructed by the
+nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia, he instituted
+the Pontiffs, four in number, with a Pontifex Maximus at their head, who
+had the general superintendence of religion; the Augurs, also four in
+number, who consulted the will of the gods on all occasions, both
+private and public; three Flamens, each of whom attended to the worship
+of separate deities--Jupiter,[5] Mars, and Quirinus; four Vestal
+Virgins, who kept alive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba
+Longa; and twelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the
+sacred shields.[6] Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture,
+and marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed under the
+care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple of Janus, a god
+represented with two heads looking different ways. The gates of this
+temple were to be open during war and closed in time of peace.
+
+[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia.]
+
+3. REIGN OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS, B.C. 673-641.--Upon the death of Numa an
+interregnum again followed; but soon afterward Tullus Hostilius, a
+Roman, was elected king. His reign was as warlike as that of Numa had
+been peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the destruction of Alba
+Longa. A quarrel having arisen between the two cities, and their armies
+having been drawn up in array against each other, the princes determined
+to avert the battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army.
+There were in the Roman army three brothers, born at the same birth,
+named Horatii; and in the Alban army, in like manner, three brothers,
+born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The two sets of brothers
+were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the people to whom the
+conquerors belonged should rule the other. Two of the Horatii were
+slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius,
+who was unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend with
+the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of them
+separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three opponents at
+unequal distances. Suddenly turning round, he slew, first one, then the
+second, and finally the third. The Romans were declared the conquerors,
+and the Albans their subjects. But a tragical event followed. As
+Horatius was entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met
+him, and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii,
+her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that the anger
+of her brother was kindled, and, stabbing her with his sword, he
+exclaimed, "So perish every Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this
+murder he was condemned by the two judges of blood to be hanged upon the
+fatal tree, but he appealed to the people, and they gave him his life.
+
+Shortly afterward Tullus Hostilius made war against the Etruscans of
+Fidenae and Veii. The Albans, under their dictator Mettius Fuffetius,
+followed him to the war as the subjects of Rome. In the battle against
+the Etruscans, the Alban dictator, faithless and insolent, withdrew to
+the hills, but when the Etruscans were defeated he descended to the
+plain, and congratulated the Roman king. Tullus pretended to be
+deceived. On the following day he summoned the two armies to receive
+their praises and rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were
+surrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their sentence. Their
+dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses driven opposite ways; their
+city was to be razed to the ground; and they themselves, with their
+wives and children, transported to Rome. Tullus assigned to them the
+Caelian Hill for their habitation. Some of the noble families of Alba
+were enrolled among the Roman patricians, but the great mass of the
+Alban people were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling class.
+They were the origin of the Roman _Plebs_, who were thus quite distinct
+from the Patricians and their Clients. The Patricians still formed
+exclusively the Populus, or Roman people, properly so called. The Plebs
+were a subject-class without any share in the government.
+
+After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and sought to win
+the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, by prayers and divination. But
+Jupiter was angry with him, and smote him and his whole house with fire
+from heaven. Thus perished Tullus, after a reign of thirty-two years.
+
+4. REIGN OF ANCUS MARCIUS, B.C. 640-616.--Ancus Marcius, the successor
+of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son of Numa's daughter. He
+sought to tread in the footsteps of his grandfather by reviving the
+religious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect; but a war with the
+Latins called him from the pursuits of peace. He conquered several of
+the Latin cities, and removed many of the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+assigned them the Aventine for their habitation. Thus the number of the
+Plebeians was greatly enlarged. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, whose
+duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state when any dispute
+arose, to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
+commenced, and to perform the proper religious rites on the declaration
+of war. He also founded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber,
+built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans,
+and united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called the
+Pons Sublicius, because it was made of wooden piles, and erected a
+prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign of twenty-four
+years.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Volaterrae.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was
+said to have fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Rome with the most
+sacred care.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The Sabines were called _Quirites_, and this name was
+afterward applied to the Roman people in their civil capacity.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis.]
+
+[Footnote 6: These shields were called _Ancilia_. One of these shields
+is said to have fallen from heaven; and Numa ordered eleven others to be
+made exactly like it, that it might not be known and stolen.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina.]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC DOWN
+TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.
+
+
+5. REIGN OF LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, or the ELDER TARQUIN, B.C.
+616-578.--The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan by birth, but a Greek
+by descent. His father Demaratus was a wealthy citizen of Corinth, who
+settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, where he married an Etruscan
+wife. Their son married Tanaquil, who belonged to one of the noblest
+families in Tarquinii, and himself became a Lucumo or a noble in the
+state. But he aspired to still higher honors; and, urged on by his wife,
+who was an ambitious woman, he resolved to try his fortune at Rome.
+Accordingly, he set out for this city, accompanied by a large train of
+followers. When he had reached the Janiculum an eagle seized his cap,
+and, after carrying it away to a great height, placed it again upon his
+head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade
+her husband hope for the highest honors. Her predictions were soon
+verified. He took the name of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and gained the
+favor both of Ancus Marcius and the people. Ancus appointed the stranger
+guardian of his children; and, when he died, the senate and the people
+unanimously elected Tarquin to the vacant throne.
+
+The reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in war and by
+great works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and took their town
+Collatia, which he placed under his nephew Egerius, who was thence
+called Collatinus. He also captured many of the Latin towns, and became
+the ruler of all Latium; but the important works which he executed in
+peace have rendered his name still more famous. The great cloacae, or
+sewers, by which he drained the lower parts of the city, still remain,
+after so many ages, with not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus
+Maximus, and instituted the great or Roman games performed in the
+circus. He also made some changes in the constitution of the state. He
+added to the Senate 100 new members, taken from the Luceres, the third
+tribe, and called _patres minorum gentium_, to distinguish them from the
+old Senators, who were now termed _patres majorum gentium_. To the three
+centuries of equites established by Romulus he wished to add three new
+centuries, and to call them after himself and two of his friends. But
+his plan was opposed by the augur Attus Navius, who said that the gods
+forbade it. The tale runs that the king, to test the augur, asked him to
+divine whether what he was thinking of could be done. After consulting
+the heavens, the augur replied that it could; whereupon the king said,
+"I was thinking that thou shouldst cut this whetstone with a razor."
+Navius, without a moment's hesitation, took a razor and cut it in twain.
+In consequence of this miracle, Tarquin gave up his design of
+establishing new centuries; but with each of the former centuries he
+associated another under the same name, so that henceforth there were
+the first and second Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. The number of Vestal
+Virgins was also increased from four to six, the two new vestals being
+probably taken from the Luceres.
+
+[Illustration: Cloaca Maxima.]
+
+Tarquin had a favorite, Servius Tullius, said to have been the son of a
+female slave taken at the capture of the Latin town Corniculum. His
+infancy was marked by prodigies which foreshadowed his future greatness.
+On one occasion a flame played around his head, as he was asleep,
+without harming him. Tanaquil foresaw the greatness of the boy, and from
+this time he was brought up as the king's child. Tarquin afterward gave
+him his daughter in marriage, and left the government in his hands. But
+the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin should transmit the
+crown to his son-in-law, hired two countrymen to assassinate the king.
+These men, feigning to have a quarrel, came before the king to have
+their dispute decided, and while he was listening to the complaint of
+one, the other gave him a deadly wound with his axe. But the sons of
+Ancus did not reap the fruit of their crime; for Tanaquil, pretending
+that the king's wound was not mortal, told them that he would soon
+return, and that he had, meantime, appointed Servius to act in his
+stead. Servius forthwith proceeded to discharge the duties of king,
+greatly to the satisfaction of the people; and when the death of Tarquin
+could no longer be concealed, he was already in firm possession of the
+regal power. Tarquin had reigned thirty-eight years.
+
+6. SERVIUS TULLIUS, B.C. 578-534.--Servius thus succeeded to the throne
+without being elected by the Senate and the Assembly of the Curiae. The
+reign of this king is almost as barren of military exploits as that of
+Numa. His great deeds were those of peace; and he was regarded by
+posterity as the author of the later Roman constitution, just as Romulus
+was of the earlier. Three important acts are assigned to Servius by
+universal tradition. Of these the greatest was:
+
+I. The reform of the Roman Constitution. In this reform his two main
+objects were to give the Plebeians political rights, and to assign to
+property that influence in the state which had previously belonged
+exclusively to birth. To carry his purpose into effect he made a twofold
+division of the Roman people, one territorial and the other according to
+property.
+
+_a._ It must be recollected that the only existing political
+organization was that of the Patricians into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300
+gentes; but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory into _Thirty
+Tribes_, and, as this division was simply local, these tribes contained
+Plebeians as well as Patricians. But, though the institution of the
+Thirty Tribes gave the Plebeians a political organization, it conferred
+upon them no political power, nor any right to take part in the
+elections, or in the management of public affairs. At a later time the
+tribes assembled in the forum for the transaction of business, and were
+hence called _Comitia Tributa_. The Patricians were then excluded from
+this assembly, which was summoned by the Tribunes of the Plebs, and was
+entirely Plebeian.
+
+_b._ The means by which Servius gave the Plebeians a share in the
+government was by establishing a new Popular Assembly, in which
+Patricians and Plebeians alike voted. It was so arranged that the
+wealthiest persons, whether Patricians or Plebeians, possessed the chief
+power. In order to ascertain the property of each citizen, Servius
+instituted the _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and
+their property. All Roman citizens possessing property to the amount of
+12,500 asses and upward[7] were divided into five great _Classes_. The
+First Class contained the richest citizens, the Second Class the next in
+point of wealth, and so on. The whole arrangement was of a military
+character. Each of the five Classes was divided into a certain number of
+Centuries or Companies, half of which consisted of Seniores from the age
+of 46 to 60, and half of Juniores from the age of 17 to 45. All the
+Classes had to provide their own arms and armor, but the expense of the
+equipment was in proportion to the wealth of each Class. The Five
+_Classes_ formed the infantry. To these five Classes were added two
+centuries of smiths and carpenters, and two of trumpeters and
+horn-blowers. These four centuries voted with the Classes. Those persons
+whose property did not amount to 12,500 asses were not included in the
+Classes, and formed a single century.
+
+At the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These consisted
+of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician Equites, as founded
+by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius Priscus, and the other twelve
+being chosen from the chief plebeian families.[8]
+
+The Centuries formed the new National Assembly. They mustered as an army
+in the Campus Martius, or the Field of Mars, on the banks of the Tiber,
+outside the city. They voted by Centuries, and were hence called the
+_Comitia Centuriata_. Each Century counted as one vote, but did not
+consist of the same number of men. On the contrary, in order to give the
+preponderance to wealth, the first or richest class contained a far
+greater number of Centuries than any of the other classes (as will be
+seen from the table below), although they must at the same time have
+included a much smaller number of men. The Equites and First Class alone
+amounted to 100 Centuries, or more than half of the total number; so
+that, if they agreed to vote the same way, they possessed at once an
+absolute majority. An advantage was also given to age; for the Seniores,
+though possessing an equal number of votes, must of course have been
+very inferior in number to the Juniores.
+
+Servius made the Comitia Centuriata the sovereign assembly of the
+nation; and he accordingly transferred to it from the Comitia Curiata
+the right of electing kings and the higher magistrates, of enacting and
+repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal from the sentence of
+a judge. But he did not dare to abolish the old Patrician assembly, and
+was even obliged to enact that no vote of the Comitia Centuriata should
+be valid till it had received the sanction of the Comitia Curiata.
+
+Thus, in consequence of the legislation, we shall find that Rome
+subsequently possessed three sovereign assemblies: 1. The _Comitia
+Centuriata_, consisting of both Patricians and Plebeians, and voting
+according to Centuries; 2. The _Comitia Curiata_, consisting exclusively
+of Patricians, and voting according to Curiae; 3. The _Comitia Tributa_,
+exclusively of Plebeians, and voting according to Tribes.
+
+II. The second great work of Servius was the extension of the
+Pomoerium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the completion of the
+city by incorporating with it the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline
+Hills.[9] He surrounded the whole with a stone wall, called after him
+the wall of Servius Tullius; and from the Porta Collina to the Esquiline
+Gate, where the hills sloped gently to the plain, he constructed a
+gigantic mound nearly a mile in length, and a moat 100 feet in breadth
+and 30 in depth, from which the earth of the mound was dug. Rome thus
+acquired a circumference of five miles, and this continued to be the
+legal extent of the city till the time of the emperors, although suburbs
+were added to it.
+
+III. An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome and the cities
+of Latium became the members of one great league, was one of the great
+events which distinguished the reign of Servius.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven
+Hills.]
+
+Servius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons of Tarquinius
+Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a quiet and gentle wife;
+Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and ambitious woman. The character of
+the two brothers was the very opposite of the wives who had fallen to
+their lot; for Lucius was proud and haughty, but Aruns unambitious and
+quiet. The wife of Aruns, enraged at the long life of her father, and
+fearing that at his death her husband would tamely resign the
+sovereignty to his elder brother, resolved to murder both her father and
+husband. Her fiendish spirit put into the heart of Lucius thoughts of
+crime which he had never entertained before. Lucius made way with his
+wife, and the younger Tullia with her husband; and the survivors,
+without even the show of mourning, were straightway joined in
+unhallowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband to murder
+her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he so ardently coveted.
+Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the Patricians, who were enraged at the
+reforms of Servius; and when the plot was ripe he entered the forum
+arrayed in the kingly robes, seated himself in the royal chair, in the
+senate-house, and ordered the senators to be summoned to him as their
+king. At the first news of the commotion Servius hastened to the
+senate-house, and, standing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to come down
+from the throne; but Tarquin sprang forward, seized the old man, and
+flung him down the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king hastened
+home; but, before he reached it, he was overtaken by the servants of
+Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house and greeted her
+husband as king; but her transports of joy struck even him with horror.
+He bade her go home; and, as she was returning, her charioteer pulled up
+and pointed out the corpse of her father lying in his blood across the
+road. She commanded him to drive on; the blood of her father spirted
+over the carriage and on her dress; and from that day forward the place
+bore the name of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied; for Tarquin
+said, scoffingly, "Romulus too went without burial;" and this impious
+mockery is said to have given rise to his surname of Superbus, or the
+Proud. Servius had reigned forty-four years.
+
+7. Reign of LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, or, THE PROUD, B.C.
+534-510.--Tarquin commenced his reign without any of the forms of
+election. One of his first acts was to abolish all the privileges which
+had been conferred upon the Plebeians by Servius. He also compelled the
+poor to work at miserable wages upon his magnificent buildings, and the
+hardships which they suffered were so great that many put an end to
+their lives. But he did not confine his oppressions to the poor. All the
+senators and patricians whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted,
+were put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself with a
+body-guard, by whose means he was enabled to carry out his designs. But,
+although a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great influence and
+power among the surrounding nations, partly by his alliances and partly
+by his conquests. He gave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius,
+of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latins, by whose means he acquired
+great influence in Latium. Any Latin chiefs like Turnus Herdonius, who
+attempted to resist him, were treated as traitors, and punished with
+death. At the solemn meeting of the Latins at the Alban Mount, Tarquin
+sacrificed the bull on behalf of all the allies, and distributed the
+flesh to the people of the league.
+
+Strengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarquin turned his arms against the
+Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils
+of which he commenced the erection of a magnificent temple on the
+Capitoline Hill, which his father had vowed. This temple was dedicated
+to the three gods of the Latin and Etruscan religions, Jupiter, Juno,
+and Minerva. A human head (_caput_), fresh, bleeding and undecayed, is
+said to have been found by the workmen as they were digging the
+foundations, and being accepted as a sign that the place was destined to
+become the head of the world, the name of CAPITOLIUM was given to the
+temple, and thence to the hill. In a stone vault beneath were deposited
+the Sibylline books, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. One day a
+Sibyl, a prophetess from Cumae, appeared before the king and offered to
+sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to buy them she went away and
+burned three, and then demanded the same sum for the remaining six as
+she had asked for the nine. But the king laughed, whereupon she again
+burnt three and then demanded the same sum as before for the remaining
+three. Wondering at this strange conduct, the king purchased the books.
+They were placed under the care of two patricians, and were consulted
+when the state was in danger.
+
+Tarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which refused to
+enter into the league. Unable to take the city by force, he had recourse
+to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill, treated by his
+father, and covered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The
+infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the command of their troops;
+and when he had obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he
+sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the city
+into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden when the
+messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking off the heads of the
+tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put to death or
+banished, on false charges, all the leading men of the place, and then
+had no difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father.
+
+In the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a strange
+portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the royal palace, and
+seized on the entrails of the victim. The king, in fear, sent his two
+sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle at Delphi. They were
+accompanied by their cousin L. Junius Brutus. One of the sisters of
+Tarquin had been married to M. Brutus, a man of great wealth, who died,
+leaving two sons under age.[10] Of these the elder was killed by
+Tarquin, who coveted their possessions; the younger escaped his
+brother's fate only by feigning idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus
+propitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick inclosed in a
+hollow staff. After executing the king's commission, Titus and Aruns
+asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after their father. The
+priestess replied, whichsoever should first kiss his mother. The princes
+agreed to keep the matter secret from Sextus, who was at Rome, and to
+cast lots between themselves. Brutus, who better understood the meaning
+of the oracle, fell, as if by chance, when they quitted the temple, and
+kissed the earth, the mother of them all.
+
+Soon afterward Tarquin laid siege to Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. The
+place could not be taken by force, and the Roman army lay encamped
+beneath the walls. Here, as the king's sons, and their cousin Tarquinius
+Collatinus, were feasting together, a dispute arose about the virtue of
+their wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they mounted their
+horses to visit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where
+they surprised the king's daughters at a splendid banquet. They then
+hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late in the night, they
+found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. The
+beauty and virtue of Lucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. A few
+days after he returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably received by
+Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of night he entered her
+chamber with a drawn sword, threatening that, if she did not yield to
+his desires, he would kill her and lay by her side a slave with his
+throat cut, and would declare that he had killed them both taken in
+adultery. Fear of such a shame forced Lucretia to consent; but, as soon
+as Sextus had departed, she sent for her husband and father. Collatinus
+came, accompanied by L. Brutus, her father, Lucretius, brought with him
+P. Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them what
+had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dishonor, and then stabbed
+herself to the heart. They all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off his
+assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their head. They carried the
+corpse into the market-place of Collatia. There the people took up arms,
+and renounced the Tarquins. A number of young men attended the funeral
+procession to Rome. Brutus summoned the people, and related the deed of
+shame. All classes were inflamed with the same indignation. A decree was
+passed deposing the king, and banishing him and his family from the
+city. Brutus now set out for the army at Ardea. Tarquinius meantime had
+hastened to Rome, but found the gates closed against him. Brutus was
+received with joy at Ardea; and the army renounced their allegiance to
+the tyrant. Tarquin, with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at
+Caere, in Etruria. Sextus fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after
+murdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death.
+
+Tarquin had reigned 22 years when he was driven out of Rome. In memory
+of this event an annual festival was celebrated on the 24th of February,
+called the _Regifugium_ or _Fugalia_.
+
+THE REPUBLIC.--Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Tarquin the Proud had made
+the name of king so hateful that the people resolved to intrust the
+kingly power to two men, who were only to hold office for a year. In
+later times they were called _Consuls_, but at their first institution
+they were named _Praetors_. They were elected by the Comitia Curiata, and
+possessed the same honors as the king had had. The first consuls were L.
+Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus (B.C. 509). But the people so hated the
+very name and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus was obliged to resign his
+office and retire from Rome. P. Valerius was elected consul in his
+place.
+
+Meantime embassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking that his private
+property should be given up to him. The demand seemed just to the Senate
+and the People; but, while the embassadors were making preparation for
+carrying away the property, they formed a conspiracy among the young
+Roman nobles for the restoration of the royal family. The plot was
+discovered by means of a slave, and among the conspirators were found
+the two sons of Brutus himself. But the consul would not pardon his
+guilty children, and ordered the lictors[11] to put them to death with
+the other traitors. The agreement to surrender the property was made
+void by this attempt at treason. The royal goods were given up to the
+people to plunder.
+
+As the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavored to recover the throne by
+arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused the cause of their
+Etruscan kinsmen, and marched against Rome. The two Consuls advanced to
+meet them. When Aruns, the king's son, saw Brutus at the head of the
+Roman cavalry, he spurred his horse to the charge. Brutus did not shrink
+from the combat; and both fell from their horses mortally wounded by
+each other's spears. A desperate battle between the two armies now
+followed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was heard in
+the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had conquered, as the
+Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed at this, the Etruscans fled;
+and Valerius, the surviving Consul, returned to Rome, carrying with him
+the dead body of Brutus. The matrons mourned for Brutus a whole year,
+because he had revenged the death of Lucretia.
+
+This was the first war for the restoration of Tarquin.
+
+Valerius was now left without a colleague; and as he began to build a
+house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked down upon the forum,
+the people feared that he was aiming at kingly power. Thereupon Valerius
+not only pulled down the house, but, calling an assembly of the people,
+he ordered the lictors to lower the fasces before them, as an
+acknowledgment that their power was superior to his. He likewise brought
+forward a law enacting that every citizen who was condemned by a
+magistrate should have a right of appeal to the people. Valerius became,
+in consequence, so popular that he received the surname of _Publicola_,
+or "The People's Friend."
+
+Valerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a successor to
+Brutus, and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius, however, lived only a
+few days, and M. Horatius was elected consul in his place. It was
+Horatius who had the honor of consecrating the temple on the Capitol,
+which Tarquin had left unfinished when he was driven from the throne.
+
+The second year of the republic (B.C. 508) witnessed the second attempt
+of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now applied for help to Lars
+Porsena, the powerful ruler of the Etruscan town of Clusium, who marched
+against Rome at the head of a vast army. The Romans could not meet him
+in the field; and Porsena seized without opposition the Janiculum, a
+hill immediately opposite the city, and separated from it only by the
+Tiber. Rome was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans would have
+entered the city by the Sublician bridge had not Horatius Cocles, with
+two comrades, kept the whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans broke
+down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way he sent back his two
+companions, and withstood alone the attacks of the foe till the cracks
+of the falling timbers and the shouts of his countrymen told him that
+the bridge had fallen. Then praying, "O Father Tiber, take me into thy
+charge and bear me up!" he plunged into the stream and swam across in
+safety, amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a statue in his
+honor, and allowed him as much land as he could plow round in one day.
+Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gallant deed
+of Horatius, and Roman writers loved to tell
+
+    "How well Horatius kept the bridge
+      In the brave days of old."
+
+The Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon began
+to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mucius,
+resolved to deliver his country by murdering the invading king. He
+accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp; but, ignorant of the person
+of Porsena, killed the royal secretary instead. Seized and threatened
+with torture, he thrust his right hand into the fire on the altar, and
+there let it burn, to show how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his
+courage, the king bade him depart in peace; and Mucius, out of
+gratitude, advised him to make peace with Rome, since three hundred
+noble youths, he said, had sworn to take the life of the king, and he
+was the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucius was henceforward
+called Scaevola, or the _Left-handed_, because his right hand had been
+burnt off. Porsena, alarmed for his life, which he could not secure
+against so many desperate men, forthwith offered peace to the Romans on
+condition of their restoring to the Veientines the land which they had
+taken from them. These terms were accepted, and Porsena withdrew his
+troops from the Janiculum after receiving ten youths and ten maidens as
+hostages from the Romans. Cloelia, one of the maidens, escaped from
+the Etruscan camp, and swam across the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back
+by the Romans to Porsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not
+only set her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of the
+hostages whom she pleased.
+
+Thus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by force.[12]
+
+After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his son-in-law,
+Octavius Mamilius, of Tusculum. The thirty Latin cities now espoused the
+cause of the exiled king, and declared war against Rome. The contest was
+decided by the battle of the Lake Regillus, which was long celebrated
+in Roman story, and the account of which resembles one of the battles in
+the Iliad. The Romans were commanded by the Dictator,[13] A. Postumius,
+and by T. AEbutius, the Master of the Horse; at the head of the Latins
+were Tarquin and Octavius Mamilius. The struggle was fierce and bloody,
+but the Latins at length fled. Almost all the chiefs on either side fell
+in the conflict, or were grievously wounded. Titus, the son of Tarquin,
+was killed; and the aged king was wounded, but escaped with his life. It
+was related in the old tradition that the Romans gained this battle by
+the assistance of the gods Castor and Pollux, who were seen charging the
+Latins at the head of the Roman cavalry, and who afterward carried to
+Rome the tidings of the victory. A temple was built in the forum on the
+spot where they appeared, and their festival was celebrated yearly.
+
+This was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins. The Latins
+were completely humbled by this victory. Tarquinius Superbus had no
+other state to which he could apply for assistance. He had already
+survived all his family; and he now fled to Cumae, where he died a
+wretched and childless old man (B.C. 496).
+
+[Illustration: Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by
+Lictors.]
+
+[Footnote 7: The _As_ was originally a pound weight of copper of 12
+ounces.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The following table will show the census of each class, and
+the number of centuries which each contained:
+
+_Equites._--Centuriae                                   18
+_First Class._--Census 100,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriae Seniorum                           40 \
+  Centuriae Juniorum                           40  >    82
+  Centuriae Fabrum (smiths and carpenters)      2 /
+_Second Class._--Census, 75,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriae Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriae Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Third Class._--Census, 50,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriae Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriae Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Fourth Class._--Census, 25,000 asses and upward.
+  Centuriae Seniorum                           10 \
+  Centuriae Juniorum                           10 /     20
+_Fifth Class._--Census, 12,500 asses and upward.
+  Centuriae Seniorum                           15 \
+  Centuriae Juniorum                           15  >    32
+  Centuriae cornicinum, tubicinum               2 /
+  Centuriae capita censorum                              1
+                                                      ---
+  Sum total of the centuriae                           198
+]
+
+[Footnote 9: The celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the
+Palatine, Aventine, Capitoline, Caelian, Quirinal, Viminal, and
+Esquilian. The Mons Pincius was not included within the Servian Wall.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The following genealogical table exhibits the relationship
+of the family:
+
+                             Demaratus of Corinth.
+                                       |
+                     ----------------------------------------
+                     |                                      |
+              TARQUINIUS PRISCUS.                         Aruns.
+                     |                                      |
+       --------------------------------------------         |
+       |               |              |           |         |
+   Tarquinia,      Tarquinia,   L. TARQUINIUS   Aruns.   Egerius,
+    married         married       SUPERBUS.            commander of
+Servius Tullius.   M. Brutus.         |                  Collatia.
+                     |                |                     |
+       -----------------        ------------------          |
+       |               |        |       |        |          |
+    M. Brutus,   L. Brutus,   Titus.  Sextus.  Aruns.    Tarquinius
+      put to        the                                  Collatinus,
+     death by      Consul.                                married
+    Tarquinius.                                           Lucretia.
+]
+
+[Footnote 11: The _Lictors_ were public officers who attended upon the
+Roman magistrate. Each consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon
+their shoulders _fasces_, which were rods bound in the form of a bundle,
+and containing an axe in the middle.]
+
+[Footnote 12: There is, however, reason to believe that these brilliant
+stories conceal one of the earliest and greatest disasters of the city.
+It appears that Rome was really conquered by Porsena, and lost all the
+territory which the kings had gained on the right side of the Tiber.
+Hence we find the thirty tribes, established by Servius Tullius, reduced
+to twenty after the war with Porsena.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The _Dictator_ was an extraordinary magistrate appointed
+by one of the Consuls in seasons of great peril. He possessed absolute
+power. Twenty-four lictors attended him, bearing the axes in the fasces,
+even in the city; and from his decision there was no appeal. He could
+not hold the office longer than six months, and he usually laid it down
+much sooner. He appointed a _Magister Equitum_, or Master of the Horse,
+who acted as his lieutenant. From the time of the appointment of the
+Dictator, all the other magistrates, even the Consuls, ceased to
+exercise any power.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Campagna of Rome.]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 498-451.
+
+
+The history of Rome for the next 150 years consists internally of the
+struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians, and externally of the
+wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, AEquians, and other tribes in the
+immediate neighborhood of Rome.
+
+The internal history of Rome during this period is one of great
+interest. The Patricians and Plebeians formed two distinct orders in the
+state. After the banishment of the kings the Patricians retained
+exclusive possession of political power. The Plebeians, it is true,
+could vote in the Comitia Centuriata, but, as they were mostly poor,
+they were outvoted by the Patricians and their clients. The Consuls and
+other magistrates were taken entirely from the Patricians, who also
+possessed the exclusive knowledge and administration of the law. In one
+word, the Patricians were a ruling and the Plebeians a subject class.
+But this was not all. The Patricians formed not only a separate
+_class_, but a separate _caste_, not marrying with the Plebeians, and
+worshiping the gods with different religious rites. If a Patrician man
+married a Plebeian wife, or a Patrician woman a Plebeian husband, the
+state refused to recognize the marriage, and the offspring was treated
+as illegitimate.
+
+The Plebeians had to complain not only of political, but also of private
+wrongs. The law of debtor and creditor was very severe at Rome. If the
+borrower did not pay the money by the time agreed upon, his person was
+seized by the creditor, and he was obliged to work as a slave.[14] Nay,
+in certain cases he might even be put to death by the creditor; and if
+there were more than one, his body might be cut in pieces and divided
+among them. The whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the
+Plebeians; and what rendered the case still harder was, that they were
+frequently compelled, through no fault of their own, to become
+borrowers. They were small landholders, living by cultivating the soil
+with their own hands; but as they had to serve in the army without pay,
+they had no means of engaging laborers in their absence. Hence, on their
+return home, they were left without the means of subsistence or of
+purchasing seed for the next crop, and borrowing was their only
+resource.
+
+Another circumstance still farther aggravated the hardships of the
+Plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land called _Ager
+Publicus_, or the "Public Land." This land originally belonged to the
+kings, being set apart for their support; and it was constantly
+increased by conquest, as it was the practice on the subjugation of a
+people to deprive them of a certain portion of their land. This public
+land was let by the state subject to a rent; but as the Patricians
+possessed the political power, they divided the public land among
+themselves, and paid for it only a nominal rent. Thus the Plebeians, by
+whose blood and unpaid toil much of this land had been won, were
+excluded from all participation in it.
+
+It was not to be expected that the Plebeians would submit to such
+grievous injustice. The contest was twofold. It was a struggle of a
+subject against a ruling class, and of rich against poor. The Plebeians
+strove to obtain an equal share not only in the political power, but
+also in the public land.
+
+The cruelty of the Patrician creditors was the most pressing evil, and
+led to the first reform. In B.C. 494 the Plebeians, after a campaign
+against the Volscians, instead of returning to Rome, retired to the
+Sacred Mount, a hill about two miles from the city, near the junction
+of the Arno and the Tiber. Here they determined to settle and found a
+new town, leaving Rome to the Patricians and their clients. This event
+is known as the _Secession to the Sacred Mount_. The Patricians,
+alarmed, sent several of their number to persuade the Plebeians to
+return. Among the deputies was the aged Menenius Agrippa, who had great
+influence with the Plebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of
+the Belly and the Members.
+
+"Once upon a time," he said, "the Members refused to work any longer for
+the Belly, which led a lazy life, and grew fat upon their toils. But
+receiving no longer any nourishment from the Belly, they soon began to
+pine away, and found that it was to the Belly they owed their life and
+strength."
+
+The fable was understood, and the Plebeians agreed to treat with the
+Patricians. It was decided that existing debts should be canceled, and
+that all debtors in bondage should be restored to freedom. It was
+necessary, however, to provide security for the future, and the
+Plebeians therefore insisted that two of their own number should be
+elected annually, to whom the Plebeians might appeal for assistance
+against the decisions of the Patrician magistrates. These officers were
+called _Tribunes of the Plebs_. Their persons were declared sacred and
+inviolate; they were never to quit the city during their year of office;
+and their houses were to remain open day and night, that all who were in
+need of help might apply to them. Their number was soon afterward
+increased to five, and at a later time to ten. They gradually gained
+more and more power, and obtained the right of putting a veto[15] upon
+any public business.[16] At the Sacred Mount the Plebeians also obtained
+the privilege of having two AEdiles of their order appointed. These
+officers had at a later time the care of the public buildings and roads,
+and the superintendence of the police of the city.
+
+Emboldened by this success, the Plebeians now demanded a share in the
+public land. And in this they found an unexpected supporter among the
+Patricians themselves. Sp. Cassius, one of the most distinguished men in
+the state, who had formed the league between the Romans, Latins, and
+Hernicans, brought forward in his third consulship a law, by which a
+portion of the public land was to be divided among the Plebeians (B.C.
+486). This was the first Agrarian Law mentioned in Roman history. It
+must be recollected that all the Agrarian laws dealt only with the
+public land, and never touched the property of private persons.
+Notwithstanding the violent opposition of the Patricians, the law was
+passed; but it was never carried into execution, and the Patricians soon
+revenged themselves upon its author. In the following year he was
+accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned to death. He was
+scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground.
+
+We now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the kings Rome had
+risen to a superiority over her neighbors, and had extended her dominion
+over the southern part of Etruria and the greater part of Latium. The
+early history of the republic presents a very different spectacle. For
+the next 100 years she is engaged in a difficult and often dubious
+struggle with the Etruscans on the one hand, and the Volscians and
+AEquians on the other. It would be unprofitable to relate the details of
+these petty campaigns; but there are three celebrated legends connected
+with them which must not be passed over.
+
+1. CORIOLANUS AND THE VOLSCIANS, B.C. 488.--C. Marcius, surnamed
+Coriolanus, from his valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli,
+was a brave but haughty Patrician youth. He was hated by the Plebeians,
+who refused him the consulship. This inflamed him with anger; and
+accordingly, when the city was suffering from famine, and a present of
+corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus advised the Senate not to distribute
+it among the Plebeians unless they gave up their Tribunes. Such
+insolence enraged the Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on
+the spot had not the tribunes summoned him before the Comitia of the
+Tribes. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but defiance; and his
+kinsmen and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned to
+exile. He now turned his steps to Antium, the capital of the Volscians,
+and offered to lead them against Rome. Attius Tullius, king of the
+Volscians, persuaded his countrymen to appoint Coriolanus their general.
+Nothing could check his victorious progress; town after town fell before
+him; and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging the lands
+of the Plebeians, but sparing those of the Patricians. The city was
+filled with despair. The ten first men in the Senate were sent in hopes
+of moving his compassion. But they were received with the utmost
+sternness, and told that the city must submit to his absolute will. Next
+day the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and all the priests, came in their
+robes of office, and in vain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed
+lost; but Rome was saved by her women. Next morning the noblest matrons,
+headed by Veturia, the aged mother of Corolanus, and by his wife
+Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to his tent.
+Their lamentations turned him from his purpose. "Mother," he said,
+bursting into tears, "thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He then
+led the Volscians home, but they put him to death because he had spared
+Rome. Others relate that he lived among the Volscians to a great age,
+and was often heard to say that "none but an old man can feel how
+wretched it is to live in a foreign land."
+
+[Illustration: The Environs of Rome.]
+
+2. THE FABIA GENS AND THE VEIENTINES, B.C. 477.--The Fabii were one of
+the most powerful of the Patrician houses. For seven successive years
+one of the Consuls was always a Fabius. The Fabii had been among the
+leading opponents of the Agrarian Law; and Kaeso Fabius had taken an
+active part in obtaining the condemnation of Sp. Cassius. But shortly
+afterward we find this same Kaeso the advocate of the popular rights, and
+proposing that the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into
+effect. He was supported in his new views by his powerful house, though
+the reasons for their change of opinion we do not know. But the Fabii
+made no impression upon the great body of the Patricians, and only
+earned for themselves the hearty hatred of their order. Finding that
+they could no longer live in peace at Rome, they determined to leave the
+city, and found a separate settlement, where they might still be useful
+to their native land. One of the most formidable enemies of the republic
+was the Etruscan city of Veii, situated about twelve miles from Rome.
+Accordingly, the Fabian house, consisting of 306 males of full age,
+accompanied by their wives and children, clients and dependents, marched
+out of Rome by the right-hand arch of the Carmental Gate, and proceeded
+straight to the Cremera, a river which flows into the Tiber below Veii.
+On the Cremera they established a fortified camp, and, sallying thence,
+they laid waste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained
+the whole weight of the Veientine war; and all the attempts of the
+Veientines to dislodge them proved in vain. But at length they were
+enticed into an ambuscade, and were all slain. The settlement was
+destroyed, and no one of the house survived except a boy who had been
+left behind at Rome, and who became the ancestor of the Fabii, afterward
+so celebrated in Roman history. The Fabii were sacrificed to the hatred
+of the Patricians; for the consul T. Menenius was encamped a short way
+off at the time, and he did nothing to save them.
+
+3. CINCINNATUS AND THE AEQUIANS, B.C. 458.--The AEquians in their numerous
+attacks upon the Roman territory generally occupied Mount Algidus, which
+formed a part of the group of the Alban Hills in Latium. It was
+accordingly upon this mount that the battles between the Romans and
+AEquians most frequently took place. In the year 458 B.C. the Roman
+consul L. Minucius was defeated on the Algidus, and surrounded in his
+camp. Five horsemen, who made their escape before the Romans were
+completely encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The Senate
+forthwith appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator.
+
+L. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story. When the
+deputies of the Senate came to him to announce his elevation to the
+dictatorship they found him driving a plow, and clad only in his tunic
+or shirt. They bade him clothe himself, that he might hear the commands
+of the Senate. He put on his toga, which his wife Racilia brought him.
+The deputies then told him of the peril of the Roman army, and that he
+had been made Dictator. The next morning, before daybreak, he appeared
+in the forum, and ordered all the men of military age to meet him in the
+evening in the Field of Mars, with food for five days, and each with
+twelve stakes. His orders were obeyed; and with such speed did he march,
+that by midnight he reached Mount Algidus. Placing his men around the
+AEquian camp, he told them to raise the war-cry, and at the same time to
+begin digging a trench and raising a mound, on the top of which the
+stakes were to be driven in. The other Roman army, which was shut in,
+hearing the war-cry, burst forth from their camp, and fought with the
+AEquians all night. The Dictator's troops thus worked without
+interruption, and completed the intrenchment by the morning. The AEquians
+found themselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced to
+surrender. The Dictator made them pass under the yoke, which was formed
+by two spears fixed upright in the ground, while a third was fastened
+across them. Cincinnatus entered Rome in triumph only twenty-four hours
+after he had quitted it, having thus saved a whole Roman army from
+destruction.
+
+In reading the wars of the early Republic, it is important to recollect
+the League formed by Spurius Cassius, the author of the Agrarian Law
+between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans. This League, to which
+allusion has been already made, was of the most intimate kind, and the
+armies of the three states fought by each other's sides. It was by means
+of this League that the AEquians and Volscians were kept in check, for
+they were two of the most warlike nations in Italy, and would have been
+more than a match for the unsupported arms of Rome.
+
+[Footnote 14: Debtors thus given over to their creditors were called
+_Addicti_.]
+
+[Footnote 15: This was called the right of _intercession_, from
+_intercedo_, "to come between."]
+
+[Footnote 16: The Tribunes were originally elected at the Comitia of the
+Centuries, where the influence of the Patricians was predominant; but by
+the Publilian Law, proposed by the tribune Publilius Volero, and passed
+B.C. 471, the election was transferred to the Comitia of the Tribes, by
+which means the Plebeians obtained the uncontrolled election of their
+own officers.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tarpeian Rock.]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.
+
+
+From the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of the Decemvirs
+was a period of more than thirty years. During the whole of this time
+the struggle between the Patricians and the Plebeians was increasing.
+The latter constantly demanded, and the former as firmly refused, the
+execution of the Agrarian Law of Cassius. But, though the Plebeians
+failed in obtaining this object, they nevertheless made steady progress
+in gaining for themselves a more important position in the city. In B.C.
+471 the Publilian Law was carried, by which the election of the Tribunes
+and Plebeian AEdiles was transferred from the Comitia of the Centuries to
+those of the Tribes.[17] From this time the Comitia of the Tribes may be
+regarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, ranking with
+those of the Centuries and the Curies. But the Patricians still retained
+exclusive possession of the administrative and judicial powers, and
+there were no written laws to limit their authority and to regulate
+their decisions. Under these circumstances, the Tribune C. Terentilius
+Arsa proposed, in B.C. 462, that a commission of Ten Men (Decemviri)
+should be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by which a check might be
+put to the arbitrary power of the Patrician magistrates. This
+proposition, as might have been expected, met with the most vehement
+opposition from the Patricians. But the Plebeians were firm, and for
+five successive years the same Tribunes were re-elected. It was during
+this struggle that an attempt was made upon the Capitol by Herdonius, a
+Sabine chief, with a band of outlaws and slaves. It was a turbulent
+period, and the Patricians had recourse even to assassination. At
+length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was effected, and
+it was arranged that Three Commissioners (Triumviri) were to be sent
+into Greece to collect information respecting the laws of Solon at
+Athens, as well as of the other Greek states. After an absence of two
+years the three commissioners returned to Rome (B.C. 452), and it was
+now resolved that a Council of Ten, or Decemvirs, should be appointed to
+draw up a code of laws, and, at the same time, to carry on the
+government and administer justice. All the other magistrates were
+obliged to abdicate, and no exception was made even in favor of the
+Tribunes. The Decemvirs were thus intrusted with supreme power in the
+state. They entered upon their office at the beginning of B.C. 451. They
+were all Patricians. At their head stood Appius Claudius and T.
+Genucius, who had been already appointed consuls for the year. They
+discharged the duties of their office with diligence, and dispensed
+justice with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day
+in succession, and the fasces were carried only before the one who
+presided for the day. They drew up a Code of Ten Tables, in which equal
+justice was dealt out to both orders. The Ten Tables received the
+sanction of the Comitia of the Centuries, and thus became law.
+
+On the expiration of their year of office all parties were so well
+satisfied with the manner in which the Decemvirs had discharged their
+duties that it was resolved to continue the same form of government for
+another year, more especially as some of them said that their work was
+not finished. A new Council of Ten was accordingly elected, of whom
+Appius Claudius alone belonged to the former body. He had so carefully
+concealed his pride and ambition during the previous year that he had
+been the most popular member of the council, and the Patricians, to
+prevent his appointment for another year, had ordered him to preside at
+the Comitia for the elections, thinking that he would not receive votes
+for himself. But Appius set such scruples at defiance, and not only
+returned himself as elected, but took care that his nine colleagues
+should be subservient to his views. He now threw off the mask he had
+hitherto worn, and acted as the tyrant of Rome. Each Decemvir was
+attended by twelve lictors, who earned the fasces with the axes in them,
+so that 120 lictors were seen in the city instead of 12. The Senate was
+rarely summoned. No one was now safe, and many of the leading men
+quitted Rome. Two new Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in
+all; but these new laws were of the most oppressive kind, and confirmed
+the Patricians in their most odious privileges.
+
+When the year came to a close the Decemvirs neither resigned nor held
+Comitia for the election of successors, but continued to hold their
+power in defiance of the Senate and of the People. Next year (B.C. 449)
+the Sabines and AEquians invaded the Roman territory, and two armies were
+dispatched against them, commanded by some of the Decemvirs. Appius
+remained at Rome to administer justice. But the soldiers fought with no
+spirit under the command of men whom they detested, and two acts of
+outrageous tyranny caused them to turn their arms against their hated
+masters. In the army fighting against the Sabines was a centurion named
+L. Sicinius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had fought in 120
+battles; he had slain eight of the enemy in single combat; had received
+40 wounds, all in front; he had accompanied the triumphs of nine
+generals; and had war-crowns and other rewards innumerable. As Tribune
+of the Plebs four years before, he had taken an active part in opposing
+the Patricians, and was now suspected of plotting against the Decemvirs.
+His death was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a company of
+soldiers as if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. But in a lonely spot
+they fell upon him and slew him, though not until he had destroyed most
+of the traitors. His comrades, who were told that he had fallen in an
+ambush of the enemy, discovered the foul treachery that had been
+practiced when they saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers who had
+evidently been slain by him. The Decemvirs prevented an immediate
+outbreak only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, but the troops were
+ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation.
+
+In the other army sent against the AEquians there was a well-known
+centurion named Virginius. He had a beautiful daughter, betrothed to L.
+Icilius, an eminent leader of the Plebeian order. The maiden had
+attracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius Claudius. He at first tried
+bribes and allurements, but when these failed he had recourse to an
+outrageous act of tyranny. One morning, as Virginia, attended by her
+nurse, was on the way to her school, which was in one of the booths
+surrounding the forum, M. Claudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the
+damsel and claimed her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help
+brought a crowd around them, and all parties went before the Decemvir.
+In his presence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that
+Virginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been imposed
+upon Virginius by his wife, who was childless. He farther stated that he
+would prove this to Virginius as soon as he returned to Rome, and he
+demanded that the girl should meantime be handed over to his custody.
+Appius, fearing a riot, said that he would let the cause stand over till
+the next day, but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he
+should know how to maintain the laws. Straightway two friends of the
+family made all haste to the camp, which they reached the same evening.
+Virginius immediately obtained leave of absence, and was already on his
+way to Rome, when the messenger of Appius arrived, instructing his
+colleagues to detain him. Early next morning Virginius and his daughter
+came into the forum with their garments rent. The father appealed to the
+people for aid, and the women in their company sobbed aloud. But, intent
+upon the gratification of his passions, Appius cared not for the misery
+of the father and the girl, and hastened to give sentence, by which he
+consigned the maiden to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a
+large body of patricians and their clients, ordered his lictors to
+disperse the mob. The people drew back, leaving Virginius and his
+daughter alone before the judgment-seat. All help was gone. The unhappy
+father then prayed the Decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to the
+nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was
+really his daughter. The request was granted. Virginius drew them both
+aside, and, snatching up a butcher's-knife from one of the stalls,
+plunged it into his daughter's breast, exclaiming, "There is no way but
+this to keep thee free." In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The
+crowd made way for him, and, holding his bloody knife on high, he rushed
+to the gate of the city and hastened to the army. His comrades espoused
+his cause, expelled their commanders, and marched toward Rome. They were
+soon joined by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius had
+carried the tidings. The Plebeians in the city flocked to them, and they
+all resolved to retire once more to the Sacred Mount.
+
+This second secession extorted from the Patricians the second great
+charter of the Plebeian rights. The Patricians compelled the Decemvirs
+to resign, and sent L. Valerius and M. Horatius, two of the most eminent
+men of their order, to negotiate with the Plebeians. It was finally
+agreed that the Tribunes should be restored, that the authority of the
+Comitia Tributa should be recognized, and that the right of appeal to
+the people against the power of the supreme magistrates should be
+confirmed. The Plebeians now returned to the city, and elected, for the
+first time, ten Tribunes instead of five, a number which remained
+unchanged down to the latest times. Virginius, Icilius, and Numitorius
+were among the new Tribunes.
+
+Two Consuls were elected in place of the Decemvirs, and the choice of
+the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius and Horatius. The
+new Consuls now redeemed their promises to the Plebeians by bringing
+forward the laws which are called after them, the Valerian and Horatian
+Laws. These celebrated laws enacted:
+
+1. That every Roman citizen should have the right of appeal against the
+sentence of the supreme magistrate. This was, in fact, a solemn
+confirmation of the old law of Valerius Publicola, passed in the first
+year of the republic. It was enacted again a third time in B.C. 300, on
+the proposal of M. Valerius, the Consul. These repeated enactments gave
+a still farther sanction to the law. In the same way the Great Charter
+of England was ratified several times.
+
+2. That the _Plebiscita_, or resolutions passed by the Plebeians in the
+Comitia Tributa, should have the force of laws, and should be binding
+alike upon Patricians and Plebeians.
+
+3. That the persons of the Tribunes, AEdiles, and other Plebeian
+magistrates should be sacred, and whoever injured them should be sold as
+a slave.
+
+Virginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into prison to
+await his trial. But the proud Patrician, seeing that his condemnation
+was certain, put an end to his own life. Oppius, another of the
+Decemvirs, and the personal friend of Appius, was condemned and
+executed. The other Decemvirs were allowed to go into exile, but they
+were all declared guilty, and their property confiscated to the state.
+
+The Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation of the Roman
+law, and long continued to be held in the highest estimation. But they
+probably did little more than fix in a written form a large body of
+customary law, though even this was a benefit to the Plebeians, as they
+were no longer subject to the arbitrary decisions of the Patrician
+magistrates. The Patricians still retained their exclusive privileges;
+and the eleventh table even gave the sanction of law to the old custom
+which prohibited all intermarriage (_connuubium_) between the two
+orders.
+
+[Footnote 17: See note on p. 31. (Footnote 16 of this
+e-text--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: View in the neighborhood of Veii.]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. B.C. 448-390.
+
+
+The efforts of the leaders of the Plebeians were now directed to two
+subjects, the removal of the prohibition of intermarriage between the
+two orders, and the opening of the Consulship to their own order. They
+attained the first object four years after the Decemvirate by the Lex
+Canuleia, proposed by Canuleius, one of the Tribunes (B.C. 445). But
+they did not carry this law without a third secession, in which they
+occupied the Janiculum. At the same time a compromise was effected with
+respect to the Consulship. The Patricians agreed that the supreme power
+in the state should be intrusted to new officers bearing the title of
+_Military Tribunes with Consular Power_, who might be chosen equally
+from Patricians and Plebeians. Their number varied in different years
+from three to six. In B.C. 444 three Military Tribunes were nominated
+for the first time. In the following year (443) two new magistrates,
+called _Censors_, were appointed. They were always to be chosen from the
+Patricians; and the reason of the institution clearly was to deprive
+the Military Tribunes of some of the most important functions, which had
+been formerly discharged by the Consuls. The Censors originally held
+office for a period of five years, which was called a _lustrum_; but
+their tenure was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
+its institution (B.C. 443), by a law of the Dictator Mamercus AEmilius,
+though they continued to be appointed only once in five years.[18]
+
+Though the Military Tribunes could from their first institution be
+chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the Patricians
+in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till B.C. 400, or nearly
+forty years afterward, that any Plebeians were actually elected. In B.C.
+421 the Quaestorship was also thrown open to them. The Quaestors were the
+paymasters of the state; and as the Censors had to fill up vacancies in
+the Senate from those who had held the office of Quaestor, the Plebeians
+thus became eligible for the Senate.
+
+During these struggles between the two orders an event took place which
+is frequently referred to by later writers. In the year 440 B.C. there
+was a great famine at Rome. Sp. Maelius, one of the richest of the
+Plebeian knights, expended his fortune in buying up corn, which he sold
+to the poor at a small price, or distributed among them gratuitously.
+The Patricians thought, or pretended to think, that he was aiming at
+kingly power: and in the following year (439) the aged Quintius
+Cincinnatus, who had saved the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was
+appointed Dictator. He nominated C. Servilius Ahala his Master of the
+Horse. During the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were
+garrisoned by the Patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus appeared in
+the forum with a strong force, and summoned Maelius to appear before his
+tribunal. But seeing the fate which awaited him, he refused to go,
+whereupon Ahala rushed into the crowd and struck him dead upon the spot.
+His property was confiscated, and his house was leveled to the ground.
+The deed of Ahala is frequently mentioned by Cicero and other writers in
+terms of the highest admiration, but it was regarded by the Plebeians at
+the time as an act of murder. Ahala was brought to trial, and only
+escaped condemnation by a voluntary exile.
+
+In their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful, and, aided
+by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made steady progress in
+driving back their old enemies the Volscians and AEquians. About this
+time they planted several colonies in the districts which they
+conquered. These Roman colonies differed widely from those of ancient
+Greece and of modern Europe. They were of the nature of garrisons
+established in conquered towns, and served both to strengthen and extend
+the power of Rome. The colonists received a portion of the conquered
+territory, and lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who
+retained the use of the land.
+
+The Romans now renewed their wars with the Etruscans; and the capture of
+the important city of Veii was the first decisive advantage gained by
+the Republic. The hero of this period was Camillus, who stands out
+prominently as the greatest general of the infant Republic, who saved
+Rome from the Gauls, and whom later ages honored as a second Romulus.
+
+Veii, however, was only taken after a long and severe struggle. It was
+closely allied with Fidenae, a town of Latium, not more than five or six
+miles from Rome. The two cities frequently united their arms against
+Rome, and in one of these wars Lars Tolumnius, the king of Veii, was
+slain in single combat by A. Cornelius Cossus, one of the Military
+Tribunes, and his arms dedicated to Jupiter, the second of the three
+instances in which the _Spolia Opima_ were won (B.C. 437). A few years
+afterward Fidenae was taken and destroyed (B.C. 426), and at the same
+time a truce was granted to the Veientines for twenty years. At the
+expiration of this truce the war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to
+subdue Veii as they had done Fidenae. The siege of Veii, like that of
+Troy, lasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as
+marvelous as the wooden horse by which Troy was taken. The waters of the
+Alban Lake rose to such a height as to deluge the neighboring country.
+An oracle declared that Veii could not be taken until the waters of the
+lake found a passage to the sea. This reached the ears of the Romans,
+who thereupon constructed a tunnel to carry off its superfluous
+waters.[19] The formation of this tunnel is said to have suggested to
+the Romans the means of taking Veii. M. Furius Camillus, who was
+appointed Dictator, commenced digging a mine beneath the city, which was
+to have its outlet in the citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian
+deity of Veii. When the mine was finished, the attention of the
+inhabitants was diverted by feigned assaults against the walls.
+Camillus led the way into the mine at the head of a picked body of
+troops. As he stood beneath the temple of Juno, he heard the soothsayer
+declare to the king of the Veientines that whoever should complete the
+sacrifice he was offering would be the conqueror. Thereupon the Romans
+burst forth and seized the flesh of the victim, which Camillus offered
+up. The soldiers who guarded the walls were thus taken in the rear, the
+gates were thrown open, and the city soon filled with Romans. The booty
+was immense, and the few citizens who escaped the sword were sold as
+slaves. The image of Juno was carried to Rome, and installed with great
+pomp on Mount Aventine, where a temple was erected to her. Camillus
+entered Rome in a chariot drawn by four white horses. Rome had never yet
+seen so magnificent a triumph (B.C. 396).
+
+One circumstance, which occurred during the siege of Veii, deserves
+notice. As the Roman soldiers were obliged to pass the whole year under
+arms, in order to invest the city during the winter as well as the
+summer, they now, for the first time, received pay.
+
+Veii was a more beautiful city than Rome, and, as it was now without
+inhabitants, many of the Roman people wished to remove thither. At the
+persuasion of Camillus the project was abandoned; but the territory of
+Veii was divided among the Plebeians.
+
+Falerii was almost the only one of the Etruscan cities which had
+assisted Veii, and she was now exposed single-handed to the vengeance of
+the Romans. It is related that, when Camillus appeared before Falerii, a
+schoolmaster of the town treacherously conducted the sons of the noblest
+families into the Roman camp, but that Camillus, scorning the baseness
+of the man, ordered his arms to be tied behind him, and the boys to flog
+him back into the town; whereupon the inhabitants, overcome by such
+generosity, gave up their arms, and surrendered to the Romans (B.C.
+394).
+
+Camillus was one of the proudest of the Patricians; and he now incurred
+the hatred of the Plebeians by calling upon every man to refund a tenth
+of the booty taken at Veii; because he had made a vow to consecrate to
+Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He was accused of having appropriated the
+great bronze gates at Veii, and was impeached by one of the Tribunes.
+Seeing that his condemnation was certain, he went into exile, praying as
+he left the walls that the Republic might soon have cause to regret him
+(B.C. 491). His prayer was heard, for the Gauls had already crossed the
+Apennines, and next year Rome was in ashes.
+
+[Footnote 18: The Censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the
+state, with the exception of the Dictatorship. The duties of the Censors
+were numerous and important. They not only took the _census_--or the
+register of the citizens and their property--hut they also chose the
+members of the Senate, exercised a superintendence over the whole public
+and private life of the citizens, and, in addition, had the
+administration of the finances of the state.]
+
+[Footnote 19: This remarkable work, which, after the lapse of more than
+two thousand years, still continues to serve the purpose for which it
+was originally designed, is cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which
+the Alban Hill is composed. The length of the tunnel is about 6000 feet,
+and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored.]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE TWO
+ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.
+
+
+The Gauls or Celts were in ancient times spread over the greater part of
+Western Europe. They inhabited Gaul and the British isles, and had in
+the time of the Tarquins crossed the Alps and taken possession of
+Northern Italy. But they now spread farther south, crossed the
+Apennines, and laid waste with fire and sword the provinces of Central
+Italy. Rome fell before them, and was reduced to ashes; but the details
+of its capture are clearly legendary. The common story runs as follows:
+
+The Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, led by their chief Brennus, laid
+siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan city over which Lars Porsena
+once reigned. Such reputation had Rome gained through her conquests in
+Etruria, that Clusium applied to her for aid (B.C. 391). The Senate sent
+three embassadors, sons of the chief pontiff, Fabius Ambustus, to warn
+the barbarians not to touch an ally of Rome. But the Gauls treated their
+message with scorn; and the embassadors, forgetting their sacred
+character, fought in the Clusine ranks. One of the Fabii slew with his
+own hands a Gallic chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off his
+armor. Brennus therefore sent to Rome to demand satisfaction. The Roman
+people not only refused to give it, but elected the three Fabii as
+Military Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this insult, the
+Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened southward toward Rome.
+All the inhabitants fled before them into the towns. They pursued their
+course without injuring any one, crying to the guards upon the walls of
+the towns they passed, "Our way lies for Rome." On the news of their
+approach the Roman army hurried out of the city, and on the 16th of July
+(B.C. 300), a day ever after regarded as disastrous, they met the Gauls
+on the Allia, a small river which flows into the Tiber, on its left
+bank, about eleven miles from Rome. Brennus attacked the Romans on the
+flank, and threw them into confusion. A general panic seized them: they
+turned and fled. Some escaped across the Tiber to Veii, and a few
+reached Rome, but the greater number were slain by the Gauls.
+
+The loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were not left to
+guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved that those in the
+vigor of their age should withdraw to the Capitol, taking with them all
+the provisions in the city; that the priests and Vestal Virgins should
+convey the objects of religious reverence to Caere; and that the rest of
+the population should disperse among the neighboring towns. But the aged
+senators, who had been Consuls or Censors, seeing that their lives were
+no longer of any service to the state, sat down in the forum on their
+curule thrones awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the city they
+found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on, without seeing a human
+being till they came to the forum. Here they beheld the aged senators
+sitting immovable, like beings of another world. For some time they
+gazed in awe at this strange sight, till at length one of the Gauls
+ventured to go up to M. Papirius and stroke his white beard. The old man
+struck him on the head with his ivory sceptre; whereupon the barbarian
+slew him, and all the rest were massacred. The Gauls now began
+plundering the city; fires broke out in several quarters; and with the
+exception of a few houses on the Palatine, which the chiefs kept for
+their own residence, the whole city was burnt to the ground.
+
+The Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only one steep way
+leading up to it, and all the assaults of the besiegers were easily
+repelled. They thereupon turned the siege into a blockade, and for seven
+months were encamped amid the ruins of Rome. But their numbers were soon
+thinned by disease, for they had entered Rome in the most unhealthy time
+of the year, when fevers have always prevailed. The failure of
+provisions obliged them to ravage the neighboring countries, the people
+of which began to combine for defense against the marauders. Meantime
+the scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veii, and here
+resolved to recall Camillus from banishment, and appoint him Dictator.
+In order to obtain the consent of the Senate, a daring youth, named
+Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across the Tiber and climb the
+Capitol. He reached the top unperceived by the enemy, obtained the
+approval of the Senate to the appointment of Camillus, and returned
+safely to Veii. But next day some Gauls observed the traces of his
+steps, and in the dead of night they climbed up the same way. The
+foremost of them had already reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels
+and the dogs, when the cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from sleep.
+These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared notwithstanding the
+gnawings of hunger; and the Romans were now rewarded for their piety. M.
+Manlius thrust down the Gaul who had clambered up, and gave the alarm.
+The Capitol was thus saved; and down to latest times M. Manlius was
+honored as one of the greatest heroes of the early Republic.
+
+Still no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol. The
+Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay the barbarians
+1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their quitting the city and its
+territory. Brennus brought false weights, and, when the Romans exclaimed
+against this injustice, the Gallic chief threw his sword also into the
+scale, crying, "Woe to the vanquished!" But at this very moment Camillus
+marched into the forum, ordered the gold to be taken away, and drove the
+Gauls out of the city. Another battle was fought on the road to Gabii,
+in which the Gauls were completely destroyed, and their leader Brennus
+taken prisoner. This tale, however, is an invention of Roman vanity. We
+learn from other sources that the Gauls retreated because their
+settlements in Northern Italy were attacked by the Venetians; and there
+can be little doubt that their departure was hastened by a present of
+Roman gold. The Gauls frequently repeated their inroads, and for many
+years to come were the constant dread of the Romans.
+
+When the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was once their city
+their hearts sank within them. The people shrank from the expense and
+toil of rebuilding their houses, and loudly demanded that they should
+all remove to Veii, where the private dwellings and public buildings
+were still standing. But Camillus and the Patricians strongly urged them
+not to abandon the homes of their fathers, and they were at length
+persuaded to remain. The state granted bricks, and stones were fetched
+from Veii. Within a year the city rose from its ashes; but the streets
+were narrow and crooked; the houses were frequently built over the
+sewers; and the city continued to show, down to the great fire of Nero,
+evident traces of the haste and irregularity with which it had been
+rebuilt. Rome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her
+territory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins and
+Hernicans dissolved the League with the Romans, and wars broke out on
+every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillus was the soul of
+the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman legions against their
+enemies, and always with success. The rapidity with which the Romans
+recovered their power after so terrible a disaster would seem
+unaccountable but for the fact that the other nations had also suffered
+greatly from the inroads of the Gauls, who still continued to ravage
+Central Italy. Two of their invasions of the Roman territory are
+commemorated by celebrated legends, which may be related here, though
+they belong to a later period.
+
+In B.C. 361 the Gauls and Romans were encamped on either bank of the
+Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the ranks and insultingly
+challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius, a Roman youth, obtained
+permission from his general to accept the challenge, slew the giant, and
+took from the dead body the golden chain (_torques_) which the barbarian
+wore around his neck. His comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus,
+which he handed down to his descendants.
+
+In B.C. 349 another distinguished Roman family earned its surname from a
+single combat with a Gaul. Here again a Gallic warrior of gigantic size
+challenged any one of the Romans to single combat. His challenge was
+accepted by M. Valerius, upon whose helmet a raven perched; and as they
+fought, the bird flew into the face of the Gaul, striking at him with
+its beak and flapping his wings. Thus Valerius slew the Gaul, and was
+called in consequence "Corvus," or the "Raven."
+
+It is now necessary to revert to the internal history of Rome. Great
+suffering and discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined homes and
+ravaged lands, the poor citizens had been obliged to borrow money to
+rebuild their houses and cultivate their farms. The law of debtor and
+creditor at Rome, as we have already seen, was very severe, and many
+unfortunate debtors were carried away to bondage. Under these
+circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, came forward as
+the patron of the poor. This distinguished man had been bitterly
+disappointed in his claims to honor and gratitude. While Camillus, his
+personal enemy, who had shared in none of the dangers of the siege, was
+repeatedly raised to the highest honors of the state, he, who had saved
+the Capitol, was left to languish in a private station. Neglected by his
+own order, Manlius turned to the Plebeians. One day he recognized in the
+forum a soldier who had served with him in the field, and whom a
+creditor was carrying away in fetters. Manlius paid his debt upon the
+spot, and swore that, as long as he had a single pound, he would not
+allow any Roman to be imprisoned for debt. He sold a large part of his
+property, and applied the proceeds to the liberation of his
+fellow-citizens from bondage. Supported now by the Plebeians, he came
+forward as the accuser of his own order, and charged them with
+appropriating to their own use the gold which had been raised to ransom
+the city from the Gauls. The Patricians in return accused him, as they
+had accused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he was brought
+to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries in the Campus Martius, he
+proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors whom he had slain, the
+forty military distinctions which he had won in battle, and the
+innumerable scars upon his breast, and then turning toward the Capitol
+he prayed the immortal gods to remember the man who had saved their
+temples from destruction. After such an appeal, his condemnation was
+impossible, and his enemies therefore contrived to break up the
+assembly. Shortly afterward he was arraigned on the same charges before
+the Comitia of the Curies in the Peteline Grove. Here he was at once
+condemned, and was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. His house, which was
+on the Capitol, was razed to the ground (B.C. 384).
+
+The death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check to the
+Plebeian cause. A few years afterward the contest came to a crisis. In
+B.C. 376 C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L. Sextius, being Tribunes of
+the Plebs, determined to give the Plebeians an equal share in the
+political power, to deprive the Patricians of the exclusive use of the
+public land, and to remove the present distress of the Plebeians. For
+this purpose they brought forward three laws, which are celebrated in
+history under the name of THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS.[20] These were:
+
+I. That in future Consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be
+appointed, and that one of the two Consuls _must_ be a Plebeian.
+
+II. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugera[21] of the
+public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures more than 100 head
+of large and 500 of small cattle, under penalty of a heavy fine.
+
+III. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should be
+deducted from the principal, and that the remainder should be repaid in
+three yearly instalments.
+
+These great reforms naturally excited the most violent opposition, and
+the Patricians induced some of the Plebeians to put their veto upon the
+measures of their colleagues. But Licinius and Sextius were not to be
+baffled in this way, and they exercised their veto by preventing the
+Comitia of the Centuries from electing any magistrates for the next
+year. Hence no Consuls, Military Tribunes, Censors, or Quaestors could be
+appointed; and the Tribunes of the Plebs and the AEdiles, who were
+elected by the Comitia of the Tribes, were the only magistrates in the
+state. For five years did this state of things continue. C. Licinius and
+L. Sextius were re-elected annually, and prevented the Comitia of the
+Centuries from appointing any magistrates. At the end of this time they
+allowed Military Tribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with the
+Latins; but so far were they from yielding any of their demands, that to
+their former Rogations they now added another: That the care of the
+Sibylline books, instead of being intrusted to two men (duumviri), both
+Patricians, should be given to ten men (decemviri), half of whom should
+be Plebeians.
+
+Five years more did the struggle last; but the firmness of the Tribunes
+at length prevailed. In B.C. 367 the Licinian Rogations were passed, and
+L. Sextius was elected the first Plebeian Consul for the next year. But
+the Patricians made one last effort to evade the law. By the Roman
+constitution, the Consuls, after being elected by the Comitia
+Centuriata, received the Imperium, or sovereign power, from the Comitia
+Curiata. The Patricians thus had it in their power to nullify the
+election of the Centuries by refusing the Imperium. This they did when
+L. Sextius was elected Consul; and they made Camillus, the great
+champion of their order, Dictator, to support them in their new
+struggle. But the old hero saw that it was too late, and determined to
+bring about a reconciliation between the two orders. A compromise was
+effected. The Imperium was conferred upon L. Sextius; but the judicial
+duties were taken away from the Consuls, and given to a new magistrate
+called _Praetor_. Camillus vowed to the goddess Concord a temple for his
+success.
+
+The long struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians was thus brought
+to a virtual close. The Patricians still clung obstinately to the
+exclusive privileges which they still possessed; but when the Plebeians
+had once obtained a share in the Consulship, it was evident that their
+participation in the other offices of the state could not be much longer
+delayed. We may therefore anticipate the course of events by narrating
+in this place that the first Plebeian Dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus in
+B.C. 356; that the same man was the first Plebeian Censor five years
+afterward (B.C. 351); that the Praetorship was thrown open to the
+Plebeians in B.C. 336; and that the Lex Ogulnia in B.C. 300, which
+increased the number of the Pontiffs from four to eight, and that of the
+Augurs from four to nine, also enacted that four of the Pontiffs and
+five of the Augurs should be taken from the Plebeians.
+
+About thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another important
+reform, which abridged still farther the privileges of the Patricians,
+was effected by the PUBLILIAN LAWS, proposed by the Dictator Q.
+Publilius Philo in B.C. 339. These were:
+
+I. That the Resolutions of the Plebs should be binding on all the
+Quirites,[22] thus giving to the Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the
+Tribes the same force as the Laws passed at the Comitia of the
+Centuries.
+
+II. That all laws passed at the Comitia of the Centuries should receive
+previously the sanction of the Curies; so that the Curies were now
+deprived of all power over the Centuries.
+
+III. That one of the Censors must be a Plebeian.
+
+The first of these laws seems to be little move than a re-enactment of
+one of the Valerian and Horatian laws, passed after the expulsion of the
+Decemvirs;[23] but it is probable that the latter had never been really
+carried into effect. Even the Publilian Law upon this subject seems to
+have been evaded; and it was accordingly enacted again by the Dictator
+Q. Hortensius in B.C. 286. In this year the last Secession of the
+Plebeians took place, and the LEX HORTENSIA is always mentioned as the
+law which gave to Plebiscita passed at the Comitia of the Tribes the
+full power of laws binding upon the whole nation. From this time we hear
+of no more civil dissensions till the times of the Gracchi, a hundred
+and fifty years afterward, and the Lex Hortensia may therefore be
+regarded as the termination of the long struggle between the two orders.
+
+[Footnote 20: _A Rogatio_ differed from a _Lex_, as a _Bill_ from an
+_Act_ of Parliament. A Rogatio was a law submitted to the assembly of
+the people, and only became a Lex when enacted by them.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A _Jugerum_ was rather more than half an acre.]
+
+[Footnote 22: _Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent._]
+
+[Footnote 23: See p. 40. (The end of Chapter V.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Ruins at Capua.]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS. B.C.
+367-290.
+
+
+United at home, the Romans were now prepared to carry on their foreign
+wars with more vigor; and their conquests of the Samnites and Latins
+made them the virtual masters of Italy. But the years which immediately
+followed the Licinian laws were times of great suffering. A pestilence
+raged in Rome, which carried off many of the most distinguished men, and
+among others the aged Camillus (B.C. 362). The Tiber overflowed its
+banks, the city was shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in
+the forum. The soothsayers declared that the gulf could never be filled
+up except by throwing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The
+tale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods could mean, a
+noble youth named M. Curtius came forward, and, declaring that Rome
+possessed nothing so valuable as her brave citizens, mounted his steed
+and leaped into the abyss in full armor, whereupon the earth closed over
+him. This event is assigned to the year 362 B.C.
+
+During the next few years the Gauls renewed their inroads, of which we
+have already spoken, and in the course of which Manlius Torquatus and
+Valerius Corvus gained such glory. The Romans steadily extended their
+dominion over the southern part of Etruria and the country of the
+Volscians, and the alliance with the Latins was renewed. Fifty years had
+elapsed since the capture of the city by the Gauls, and Rome was now
+strong enough to enter into a contest with the most formidable enemy
+which her arms had yet encountered. The SAMNITES were at the height of
+their power, and the contest between them and the Romans was virtually
+for the supremacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have already seen, were
+a people of Sabine origin, and had emigrated to the country which they
+inhabited at a comparatively late period. They consisted of four
+different tribes or cantons, the Pentri, Hirpini, Caraceni, and Caudini,
+of whom the two former were the most important. They inhabited that part
+of the Apennines which lies between Campania and Lucania, but they were
+not contented with their mountain-homes, and overran the rich plains
+which lay at their feet. They became the masters of Campania and
+Lucania, and spread themselves almost to the southern extremity of
+Italy. But the Samnites of Campania and Lucania had in course of time
+broken off all connection with the parent nation, and sometimes were
+engaged in hostilities with the latter. It was a contest of this kind
+that led to the war between the Romans and the Samnites of the
+Apennines. On the borders of Campania and Samnium dwelt a people, called
+the Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their independence. Being
+attacked by the Samnites, this people implored the assistance of the
+Campanians, which was readily granted. Thereupon the Samnites turned
+their arms against the Campanians, and, after occupying Mount Tifata,
+which overlooks the city of Capua, they descended into the plain, and
+defeated the Campanians in a pitched battle at the very gates of Capua.
+The Campanians, being shut up within the city, now applied for
+assistance to Rome, and offered to place Capua in their hands. The
+Romans had only a few years previously concluded an alliance with the
+Samnites; but the bait of the richest city and the most fertile soil in
+Italy was irresistible, and they resolved to comply with the request.
+Thus began the Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace,
+lasted 53 years.
+
+FIRST SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 343-341.--The Romans commenced the war by
+sending two consular armies against the Samnites; and the first battle
+between the rival nations was fought at the foot of Mount Gaurus, which
+lies about three miles from Cumae. The Samnites were defeated with great
+loss; and it has been justly remarked that this battle may be regarded
+as one of the most memorable in history, since it was a kind of omen of
+the ultimate issue of the great contest which had now begun between the
+Samnites and Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained two
+other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city in triumph.
+But two causes prevented the Romans from prosecuting their success. In
+the first place, the Roman army, which had been wintering in Capua, rose
+in open mutiny; and the poorer Plebeians in the city, who were oppressed
+by debt, left Rome and joined the mutineers. In the second place, the
+increasing disaffection of the Latins warned the Romans to husband their
+resources for another and more terrible struggle. The Romans, therefore,
+abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians, concluded a treaty of peace and
+alliance with the Samnites in B.C. 341, so that in the great Latin war,
+which broke out in the following year, the Samnites fought on the side
+of the Romans.
+
+THE LATIN WAR, B.C. 340-338.--The Latins had, as already stated, renewed
+their league with Rome in B.C. 356, and consequently their troops had
+fought along with the Romans in the war against the Samnites. But the
+increasing power of Rome excited their alarm; and it became evident to
+them that, though nominally on a footing of equality, they were, in
+reality, becoming subject to Rome. This feeling was confirmed by the
+treaty of alliance which the Romans had formed with the Samnites. The
+Latins, therefore, determined to bring matters to a crisis, and sent two
+Praetors, who were their chief magistrates, to propose to the Romans that
+the two nations should henceforth form one state; that half of the state
+should consist of Latins, and that one of the two Consuls should be
+chosen from Latium. These requests excited the greatest indignation at
+Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. The Senate met in the
+Temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive the Latin deputation, and,
+after hearing their proposals, the Consul, T. Manlius Torquatus, the
+same who had slain the Gaul in single combat, declared that, if the
+Republic should cowardly yield to these demands, he would come into the
+senate-house sword in hand and cut down the first Latin he saw there.
+The tale goes on to say that in the discussion which followed, when both
+parties were excited by anger, the Latin Praetor defied the Roman
+Jupiter; that thereupon an awful peal of thunder shook the building; and
+that, as the impious man hurried down the steps from the temple, he fell
+from top to bottom, and lay there a corpse.
+
+War was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were made on both
+sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome should become a Latin
+town, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The Romans had elected to the
+consulship two of their most distinguished men. The Patrician Consul
+was, as already mentioned, T. Manlius Torquatus; his Plebeian colleague
+was P. Decius Mus, who had gained great renown in the recent war against
+the Samnites. The two Consuls marched through Samnium into Campania, and
+threatened Capua, thus leaving Rome exposed to the attacks of the
+Latins. But the Consuls foresaw that the Latins would not abandon Capua,
+their great acquisition; and the event proved their wisdom. The contest
+was thus withdrawn from the territory of Rome and transferred to
+Campania, where the Romans could receive assistance from the neighboring
+country of their Samnite allies. It was at the foot of Mount Vesuvius
+that the two armies met, and here the battle was fought which decided
+the contest. It was like a civil war. The soldiers of the two armies
+spoke the same language, had fought by each others' sides, and were well
+known to one another. Under these circumstances, the Consuls published a
+proclamation that no Roman should engage in single combat with a Latin
+on pain of death. But the son of Torquatus, provoked by the insults of a
+Tusculan officer, accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and
+carried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. The Consul had
+within him the heart of Brutus; he would not pardon this breach of
+discipline, and ordered the unhappy youth to be beheaded by the lictor
+in the presence of the assembled army.
+
+In the night before the battle a vision appeared to each Consul,
+announcing that the general of one side and the army of the other were
+doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the one whose wing first began
+to waver should devote himself and the army of the enemy to the gods of
+the lower world. Decius commanded the left wing; and when it began to
+give way, he resolved to fulfill his vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus,
+he repeated after him the form of words by which he devoted himself and
+the army of the enemy to the gods of the dead and the mother earth; then
+leaping upon his horse, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and
+was slain. The Romans gained a signal victory. Scarcely a fourth part of
+the Latins escaped (B.C. 340).
+
+This victory made the Romans masters of Campania, and the Latins did
+not dare to meet them again in the field. The war continued two years
+longer, each city confining itself to the defense of its own walls, and
+hoping to receive help from others in case of an attack. But upon the
+capture of Pedum in B.C. 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and
+garrisons were placed in their towns. The Romans were now absolute
+masters of Latium, and their great object was to prevent the Latin
+cities from forming any union again. For this purpose not only were all
+general assemblies forbidden, but, in order to keep the cities
+completely isolated, the citizens of one town could not marry or make a
+legal contract of bargain or sale with another.[24] Tibur and Praeneste,
+the two most powerful cities of the League, which had taken the most
+active part in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but
+were allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving their own
+laws, and renewing from time to time their treaties with Rome. The
+inhabitants of several other towns, such as Tusculum and Lanuvium,
+received the Roman franchise; their territory was incorporated in that
+of the Republic; and two new tribes were created to carry these
+arrangements into effect. Many of the most distinguished Romans sprung
+from these Latin towns.
+
+Twelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and the
+commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this time the Roman arms
+continued to make steady progress. One of their most important conquests
+was that of the Volscian town of Privernum in B.C. 329, from which time
+the Volscians, so long the formidable enemies of Rome, disappear as an
+independent nation. The extension of the Roman power naturally awakened
+the jealousy of the Samnites; and the assistance rendered by them to the
+Greek cities of Palaeopolis and Neapolis was the immediate occasion of
+the Second Samnite War. These two cities were colonies of the
+neighboring Cumae, and were situated only five miles from each other. The
+position of Palaeopolis, or the "Old City," is uncertain; but Neapolis,
+or the "New City," stands on the site of a part of the modern Naples.
+The Romans declared war against the two cities in B.C. 327, and sent the
+Consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce them to subjection. The Greek
+colonists had previously formed an alliance with the Samnites, and now
+received powerful Samnite garrisons. Publilius encamped between the
+cities; and as he did not succeed in taking them before his year of
+office expired, he was continued in the command with the title of
+_Proconsul_, the first time that this office was created. At the
+beginning of the following year Palaeopolis was taken; and Neapolis only
+escaped the same fate by concluding an alliance with the Romans.
+Meanwhile the Romans had declared war against the Samnites.
+
+SECOND OR GREAT SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 326-304.--The Second Samnite War
+lasted 22 years, and was by far the most important of the three wars
+which this people waged with Rome. During the first five years (B.C.
+326-322) the Roman arms were generally successful. The Samnites became
+so disheartened that they sued for peace, but obtained only a truce for
+a year. It was during this period that the well-known quarrel took place
+between L. Papirius Cursor and Q. Fabius Maximus, the two most
+celebrated Roman generals of the time, who constantly led the armies of
+the Republic to victory. In B.C. 325 L. Papirius was Dictator, and Q.
+Fabius his Master of the Horse. Recalled to Rome by some defect in the
+auspices, the Dictator left the army in charge of Fabius, but with
+strict orders not to venture upon an engagement. Compelled or provoked
+by the growing boldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked and defeated them
+with great loss. But this victory was no extenuation for his offense in
+the eyes of the Dictator. Papirius hastened back to the camp, burning
+with indignation that his commands had been disobeyed, and ordered his
+lictors to seize Fabius and put him to death. The soldiers, whom Fabius
+had led to victory, rose in his defense; and in the night he escaped to
+Rome, to implore the protection of the Senate. He was stating the case
+to the Fathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house, followed by his
+lictors, and demanded that the offender should be given up for
+execution. But the Senate, the people, and the aged father of Maximus
+interceded so strongly for his life, that the Dictator was obliged to
+give way and to grant an ungracious pardon.
+
+The year's truce had not expired when the Samnites again took up arms,
+and for the next seven years (B.C. 321-315) the balance of success
+inclined to their side. This appears to have been mainly owing to the
+military abilities of their general C. Pontius, who deserves to be
+ranked among the chief men of antiquity. In the first year of his
+command he inflicted upon the Romans one of the severest blows they ever
+sustained in the whole course of their history.
+
+In B.C. 321 the two Consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, marched into
+Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum. Near the town of Caudium
+they entered the celebrated pass called the CAUDINE FORKS (Furculae
+Caudinae). It consisted of two narrow defiles or gorges, between which
+was a tolerably spacious plain, but shut in on each side by mountains.
+The Romans, thinking the Samnites to be far distant, had marched through
+the first pass and the plain; but when they came to the second they
+found it blocked up by works and trunks of trees, so as to be quite
+impassable. Retracing their steps to the pass by which they had
+entered, they found that the enemy had meantime taken possession of this
+also. They were thus blocked up at either end, and, after making vain
+attempts to force their way through, were obliged to surrender at
+discretion. Thus both Consuls and four legions fell into the hands of
+the Samnites. C. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. He agreed
+to dismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore the ancient
+alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and to give up all the
+places which they had conquered during the war. The Consuls and the
+other superior officers swore to these terms in the name of the
+Republic, and six hundred Roman knights were given as hostages. The
+whole Roman army was now allowed to depart, and each Roman soldier
+marched out singly under the yoke.
+
+When the news of this disaster reached Rome the Senate refused to ratify
+the peace, and resolved that the two Consuls and all the officers who
+had sworn to the peace should be delivered up to the Samnites as persons
+who had deceived them. They were conducted to Caudium by a Fetialis; and
+when they appeared before the tribunal of C. Pontius, Postumius, with
+superstitious folly, struck the Fetialis with his foot, saying that he
+was now a Samnite citizen, and that war might be renewed with justice by
+the Romans, since a Samnite had insulted the sacred envoy of the Roman
+people. But Pontius refused to accept the persons who were thus offered,
+and told them, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the
+army to the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions returned to
+Rome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the hands of the Samnites.
+
+The disaster of Caudium shook the fate of many of the Roman allies, and
+the fortune of war was for some years in favor of the Samnites. But in
+B.C. 314 the tide of success again turned, and the decisive victory of
+the Consuls in that year opened the way into the heart of Samnium. From
+this time the Romans were uniformly successful; and it seemed probable
+that the war was drawing to a close, when the Etruscans created a
+powerful diversion by declaring war against Rome in B.C. 311. But the
+energy and ability of Q. Fabius Maximus averted this new danger. He
+boldly carried the war into the very heart of Etruria, and gained a
+decisive victory over the forces of the League. The Samnites also were
+repeatedly defeated; and after the capture of Bovianum, the chief city
+of the Pentri, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was granted them
+in B.C. 304, on condition of their acknowledging the supremacy of Rome.
+
+At the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the AEquians and Hernicans
+were reduced to subjection after a brief struggle. A part of the AEquian
+territory was incorporated in that of Rome by the addition of two new
+tribes, and two colonies were planted in the other portion. The Marsi,
+Marrucini, Peligni, and other nations of Central Italy, entered into a
+league with the Romans on equal terms. Thus, in B.C. 300, the power of
+Rome seemed firmly established in Central Italy. But this very power
+awakened the jealousy of the surrounding nations, and the Samnites
+exerted themselves to form a new and formidable coalition. The Etruscans
+and Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and called in the
+assistance of the Senonian Gauls.
+
+THIRD SAMNITE WAR, B.C. 298-290.--As soon as the Etruscans and Umbrians
+were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded Lucania. The Lucanians
+invoked the assistance of the Romans, who forthwith declared war against
+the Samnites. The Republic had now to contend at one and the same time
+against the Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls, and Samnites; but she carried on
+the struggle with the utmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians,
+and Gauls in the north, and the Samnites in the south. At length, in
+B.C. 295, the Samnites joined their confederates in Umbria. In this
+country, near the town of Sentinum, a desperate battle was fought, which
+decided the fortune of the war. The two Roman Consuls were the aged Q.
+Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus. The victory was long doubtful. The
+wing commanded by Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the
+Gauls, when he determined to imitate the example of his father, and to
+devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death gave fresh
+courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete and decisive victory.
+Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, who had taken the most active
+part in forming the coalition, was slain. But, though the League was
+thus broken up, the Samnites continued the struggle for five years
+longer. During this period C. Pontius, who had defeated the Romans at
+the Caudine Forks, again appeared, after twenty-seven years, as the
+leader of the Samnites, but was defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great
+loss and taken prisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as
+the triumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol (B.C. 292). This
+shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest stains on
+the Roman annals. Two years afterward the Samnites were unable to
+continue any longer the hopeless struggle, and became the subjects of
+Rome. The third and last Samnite war was brought to a close in B.C. 290.
+
+[Footnote 24: According to the Roman expression, the _Jus Connubii_ and
+_Jus Commercii_ were forbidden.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Pyrrhus.]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY. B.C.
+290-265.
+
+
+Ten years elapsed from the conclusion of the third Samnite war to the
+arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the Etruscans and Gauls
+renewed the war in the north, but were defeated with great slaughter
+near the Lake Vadimo. This decisive battle appears to have completely
+crushed the Etruscan power; and it inflicted so severe a blow upon the
+Gauls that we hear no more of their ravages for the next sixty years.
+
+In the south the Lucanians also rose against Rome. The extension of the
+Roman dominion in the south of the peninsula had brought the state into
+connection with the Greek cities, which at one period were so numerous
+and powerful as to give to this part of Italy the name of Magna
+Graecia.[25] Many of these cities had now fallen into decay through
+internal dissensions and the conquests of the Lucanians and other
+Sabellian tribes; but Tarentum, originally a Lacedaemonian colony, still
+maintained her former power and splendor. The Tarentines naturally
+regarded with extreme jealousy the progress of the Roman arms in the
+south of Italy, and had secretly instigated the Etruscans and Lucanians
+to form a new coalition against Rome. But the immediate cause of the war
+between the Lucanians and Romans was the assistance which the latter had
+rendered to the Greek city of Thurii. Being attacked by the Lucanians,
+the Thurians applied to Rome for aid, and the Consul C. Fabricius not
+only relieved Thurii, but defeated the Lucanians and their allies in
+several engagements (B.C. 252). Upon the departure of Fabricius a Roman
+garrison was left in Thurii. The only mode now of maintaining
+communication between Rome and Thurii was by sea; but this was virtually
+forbidden by a treaty which the Romans had made with Tarentum nearly
+twenty years before, in which treaty it was stipulated that no Roman
+ships of war should pass the Lacinian promontory. But circumstances were
+now changed, and the Senate determined that their vessels should no
+longer be debarred from the Gulf of Tarentum. There was a small squadron
+of ten ships in those seas under the command of L. Valerius; and one
+day, when the Tarentines were assembled in the theatre, which looked
+over the sea, they saw the Roman squadron sailing toward their harbor.
+This open violation of the treaty seemed a premeditated insult, and a
+demagogue urged the people to take summary vengeance. They rushed down
+to the harbor, quickly manned some ships, and gained an easy victory
+over the small Roman squadron. Only half made their escape, four were
+sunk, one taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this the Tarentines
+marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants to dismiss the Roman
+garrison, and then plundered the town.
+
+The Senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these outrages and
+to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, was introduced with his colleagues into the theatre, to state
+to the assembled people the demands of the Roman Senate. He began to
+address them in Greek, but his mistakes in the language were received
+with peals of laughter from the thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a
+hearing, much less an answer, Postumius was leaving the theatre, when a
+drunken buffoon rushed up to him and sullied his white robe in the most
+disgusting manner. The whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and
+clapping of hands, which became louder and louder when Postumius held up
+his sullied robe and showed it to the people. "Laugh on now," he cried,
+"but this robe shall be washed in torrents of your blood."
+
+War was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an embassy to
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him, in the name of all the Italian
+Greeks, to cross over into Italy in order to conduct the war against the
+Romans. They told him that they only wanted a general, and that all the
+nations of Southern Italy would flock to his standard. Pyrrhus needed no
+persuasion to engage in an enterprise which realized the earliest dreams
+of his ambition. The conquest of Italy would naturally lead to the
+sovereignty of Sicily and Africa, and he would then be able to return to
+Greece with the united forces of the West to overcome his rivals and
+reign as master of the world. But as he would not trust the success of
+his enterprise to the valor and fidelity of Italian troops, he began to
+make preparations to carry over a powerful army. Meantime he sent Milo,
+one of his generals, with a detachment of 3000 men, to garrison the
+citadel of Tarentum. Pyrrhus himself crossed over from Epirus toward the
+end of B.C. 281, taking with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, and 20
+elephants.
+
+Upon reaching Tarentum he began to make preparations to carry on the war
+with activity. The Tarentines soon found they had obtained a master
+rather than an ally. He shut up the theatre and all other public places,
+and compelled their young men to serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all
+his activity, the Romans were first in the field. The Consul M. Valerius
+Laevinus marched into Lucania; but as the army of Pyrrhus was inferior to
+that of the Romans, he attempted to gain time by negotiation in order
+that he might be joined by his Italian allies. He accordingly wrote to
+the Consul, offering to arbitrate between Rome and the Italian states;
+but Laevinus bluntly told him to mind his own business and retire to
+Epirus. Fearing to remain inactive any longer, although he was not yet
+joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the Romans with his
+own troops and the Tarentines. He took up his position between the towns
+of Pandosia and Heraclea, on the River Siris. The Romans, who were
+encamped on the other side of the river, were the first to begin the
+battle. They crossed the river, and were immediately attacked by the
+cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led them to the charge in person, and
+distinguished himself as usual by the most daring acts of valor. The
+Romans, however, bravely sustained the attack; and Pyrrhus, finding that
+his cavalry could not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance.
+The battle was still contested most furiously: seven times did both
+armies advance and retreat; and it was not till Pyrrhus brought forward
+his elephants, which bore down every thing before them, that the Romans
+took to flight, leaving their camp to the conqueror (B.C. 280).
+
+This battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he had
+undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the Romans forming their
+line as they crossed the river, he said to his officers, "In war, at any
+rate, these barbarians are not barbarous;" and afterward, as he saw the
+Roman dead lying upon the field with all their wounds in front, he
+exclaimed, "If these were my soldiers, or if I were their general, we
+should conquer the world." And, though his loss had been inferior to
+that of the Romans, still so large a number of his officers and best
+troops had fallen, that he said, "Another such victory, and I must
+return to Epirus alone." He therefore resolved to avail himself of this
+victory to conclude, if possible, an advantageous peace. He sent his
+minister Cineas to Rome with the proposal that the Romans should
+recognize the independence of the Greeks in Italy, restore to the
+Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians, and Bruttians all the possessions which
+they had lost in war, and make peace with himself and the Tarentines.
+As soon as peace was concluded on these terms he promised to return all
+the Roman prisoners without ransom. Cineas, whose persuasive eloquence
+was said to have won more towns for Pyrrhus than his arms, neglected no
+means to induce the Romans to accept these terms. The prospects of the
+Republic seemed so dark and threatening that many members of the Senate
+thought it would be more prudent to comply with the demands of the king;
+and this party would probably have carried the day had it not been for
+the patriotic speech of the aged Ap. Claudius Caucus, who denounced the
+idea of a peace with a victorious foe with such effect that the Senate
+declined the proposals of the king, and commanded Cineas to quit Rome
+the same day.
+
+Cineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for nothing from
+negotiation; that the city was like a temple of the gods, and the Senate
+an assembly of kings. Pyrrhus now advanced by rapid marches toward Rome,
+ravaging the country as he went along, and without encountering any
+serious opposition. He at length arrived at Praeneste, which fell into
+his hands. He was now only 24 miles from Rome, and his outposts advanced
+six miles farther. Another march would have brought him under the walls
+of the city; but at this moment he learned that peace was concluded with
+the Etruscans, and that the other Consul had returned with his army to
+Rome. All hope of compelling the Romans to accept the peace was now
+gone, and he therefore resolved to retreat. He retired slowly into
+Campania, and from thence withdrew into winter quarters to Tarentum.
+
+As soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the Romans sent an
+embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom or exchange of prisoners. The
+embassadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most distinguished manner;
+and his interviews with C. Fabricius, who was at the head of the
+embassy, form one of the most famous stories in Roman history. Fabricius
+was a fine specimen of the sturdy Roman character. He cultivated his
+farm with his own hands, and, like his contemporary Curius, was
+celebrated for his incorruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain
+to work upon his cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large
+sums of money offered by Pyrrhus; and when an elephant, concealed behind
+him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius remained
+unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that Pyrrhus attempted to
+persuade him to enter into his service and accompany him to Greece. The
+object of the embassy failed. The king refused to exchange the
+prisoners; but, to show them his trust in their honor, he allowed them
+to go to Rome in order to celebrate the Saturnalia, stipulating that
+they were to return to Tarentum if the Senate would not accept the terms
+which he had previously offered through Cineas. The Senate remained firm
+in their resolve, and all the prisoners returned to Pyrrhus, the
+punishment of death having been denounced against those who should
+remain in the city.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 279) the war was renewed, and a battle was
+fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their camp, which was so near to
+the field of battle that not more than 6000 fell, while Pyrrhus lost
+more than half this number. The victory yielded Pyrrhus little or no
+advantage, and he was obliged to retire to Tarentum for the winter
+without effecting any thing more during the campaign. In the last
+battle, as well as in the former, the brunt of the action had fallen
+almost exclusively upon his Greek troops; and the state of Greece, which
+this year was overrun by the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect
+any re-enforcements from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard
+his surviving Greeks by another campaign with the Romans, and
+accordingly lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily,
+who begged him to come to their assistance against the Carthaginians. It
+was necessary, however, first to suspend hostilities with the Romans,
+who were likewise anxious to get rid of so formidable an opponent, that
+they might complete the subjugation of Southern Italy without farther
+interruption. When both parties had the same wishes it was not difficult
+to find a fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion. This was
+afforded at the beginning of the following year (B.C. 278) by one of the
+servants of Pyrrhus deserting to the Romans, and proposing to the
+Consuls to poison his master. They sent back the deserter to the king,
+saying that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. Thereupon
+Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome with all the Roman
+prisoners, without ransom and without conditions; and the Romans granted
+him a truce.
+
+Leaving Milo with part of his troops in possession of Tarentum, Pyrrhus
+now crossed over into Sicily. He remained there upward of two years. At
+first he met with brilliant success, and deprived the Carthaginians of a
+great part of the island. Subsequently, however, he received a severe
+repulse in an attempt which he made upon the impregnable town of
+Lilybaeum. The fickle Greeks now began to form cabals and plots against
+him. This led to retaliation on his part, and he soon became as anxious
+to abandon the island as he had been before to leave Italy. Accordingly,
+when his Italian allies again begged him to come to their assistance, he
+readily complied with their request, and arrived in Italy in the autumn
+of B.C. 276. His troops were now almost the same in number as when he
+first landed in Italy, but very different in quality. The faithful
+Epirots had for the most part fallen, and his present soldiers consisted
+chiefly of mercenaries, whom he had levied in Italy. One of his first
+operations was the recovery of Locri, which had revolted to the Romans;
+and as he here found himself in great difficulties for want of money to
+pay his troops, he was induced to take possession of the treasures of
+the Temple of Proserpine in that town; but the ships conveying the money
+were wrecked. This circumstance deeply affected the mind of Pyrrhus; he
+ordered the treasures which were saved to be restored to the temple, and
+from this time became haunted by the idea that the wrath of Proserpine
+was pursuing him, and dragging him down to ruin.
+
+The following year (B.C. 274) closed the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. The
+Consul M'. Curius marched into Samnium, and his colleague into Lucania.
+Pyrrhus advanced against Curius, who was encamped in the neighborhood of
+Beneventum, and resolved to fight with him before he was joined by his
+colleague. As Curius did not wish to risk a battle with his own army
+alone, Pyrrhus planned a night-attack upon his camp. But he
+miscalculated the time and the distance; the torches burnt out, the men
+missed their way, and it was already broad daylight when he reached the
+heights above the Roman camp. Still their arrival was quite unexpected;
+but, as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led out his men. The troops
+of Pyrrhus, exhausted by fatigue, were easily put to the rout; two
+elephants were killed and eight more taken. Encouraged by this success,
+Curius no longer hesitated to meet the king in the open plain, and
+gained a decisive victory. Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum with only a few
+horsemen. Shortly afterward he crossed over to Greece, leaving Milo with
+a garrison at Tarentum. Two years afterward he perished in an attack
+upon Argos, ingloriously slain by a tile hurled by a woman from the roof
+of a house.
+
+The departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian tribes
+exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless continued the
+hopeless struggle a little longer; but in B.C. 272 Tarentum fell into
+the hands of Rome, and in a few years afterward every nation in Italy,
+to the south of the Macra and the Rubicon, owned the supremacy of Rome.
+She had now become one of the first powers in the ancient world. The
+defeat of Pyrrhus attracted the attention of the nations of the East;
+and in B.C. 273, Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, sent an embassy to
+Rome, and concluded a treaty with the Republic.
+
+The dominion which Rome had acquired by her arms was confirmed by her
+policy. She pursued the same system which she had adopted upon the
+subjugation of Latium, keeping the cities isolated from one another, but
+at the same time allowing them to manage their own affairs. The
+population of Italy was divided into three classes. _Cives Romani_,
+_Nomen Latinum_, and _Socii_.
+
+I. CIVES ROMANI, or ROMAN CITIZENS.--These consisted: (1.) Of the
+citizens of the thirty-three Tribes into which the Roman territory was
+now divided, and which extended north of the Tiber a little beyond Veii,
+and southward as far as the Liris; though even in this district there
+were some towns, such as Tibur and Praeneste, which did not possess the
+Roman franchise. (2.) Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in
+different parts of Italy. (3.) Of the citizens of municipal towns upon
+whom the Roman franchise was conferred. In some cases the Roman
+franchise was granted without the right of voting in the Comitia
+(_civitas sine suffragio_), but in course of time this right also was
+generally conceded.
+
+II. NOMEN LATINUM, or the LATIN NAME.--This term was applied to the
+colonies founded by Rome which did not enjoy the rights of Roman
+citizenship, and which stood in the same position with regard to the
+Roman state as had been formerly occupied by the cities of the Latin
+League. The name originated at a period when colonies were actually sent
+out in common by the Romans and Latins, but similar colonies continued
+to be founded by the Romans alone long after the extinction of the Latin
+League. In fact, the majority of the colonies planted by Rome were of
+this kind, the Roman citizens who took part in them voluntarily
+resigning their citizenship, in consideration of the grants of land
+which they obtained. But the citizen of any Latin colony might emigrate
+to Rome, and be enrolled in one of the Roman tribes, provided he had
+held a magistracy in his native town. These Latin colonies--the _Nomen
+Latinum_--were some of the most flourishing towns in Italy.
+
+III. SOCII, or ALLIES, included the rest of Italy. Each of the towns
+which had been conquered by Rome had formed a treaty (_foedus_) with
+the latter, which determined their rights and duties. These treaties
+were of various kinds, some securing nominal independence to the towns,
+and others reducing them to absolute subjection.
+
+The political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the Latin wars,
+have been already in great part anticipated. Appius Claudius, afterward
+named Caecus, or the Blind, introduced a dangerous innovation in the
+constitution during the Second Samnite War. Slavery existed at Rome, as
+among the other nations of antiquity; and as many slaves, from various
+causes, acquired their liberty, there gradually sprung up at Rome a
+large and indigent population of servile origin. These Freedmen were
+Roman citizens, but they could only be enrolled in the four city-tribes,
+so that, however numerous they might become, they could influence only
+the votes of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his Censorship (B.C.
+312), when making out the lists of citizens, allowed the Freedmen to
+enroll themselves in any tribe they pleased; but this dangerous
+innovation was abolished by the Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius
+Mus (B.C. 304), who restored all the Freedmen to the four city-tribes.
+The Censorship of Appius is, however, memorable for the great public
+works which he executed. He made the great military road called the
+Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome to Capua, a distance of 120
+miles, which long afterward was continued across the Apennines to
+Brundusium. He also executed the first of the great aqueducts (Aqua
+Appia) which supplied Rome with such an abundance of water.
+
+Cn. Flavius, the son of a Freedman, and Secretary to Appius Claudius,
+divulged the forms and times to be observed in legal proceedings. These
+the Patricians had hitherto kept secret; they alone knew the days when
+the courts would be held, and the technical pleadings according to which
+all actions must proceed. But Flavius, having become acquainted with
+these secrets, by means of his patron, published in a book a list of the
+formularies to be observed in the several kinds of actions, and also set
+up in the forum a whited tablet containing a list of all the days on
+which the courts could be held. In spite of his ignominious birth, he
+was made a Senator by Appius Claudius, and was elected Curule AEdile by
+the people.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.)]
+
+[Footnote 25: See p. 6. (The end of Chapter I.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Mount Ercta in Sicily.]
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.
+
+
+Rome, now mistress of Italy, entered upon a long and arduous straggle
+with Carthage, which ruled without a rival the western waters of the
+Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was founded by the
+Phoenicians[26] of Tyre in B.C. 814, according to the common
+chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a branch of the Semitic
+race, to which the Hebrews also belonged. Carthage rose to greatness by
+her commerce, and gradually extended her empire over the whole of the
+north of Africa, from the Straits of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene.
+Her Libyan subjects she treated with extreme harshness, and hence they
+were always ready to revolt against her so soon as a foreign enemy
+appeared upon her soil.
+
+The two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually out of a few
+of the chief families, and were called _Suffetes_.[27] There was a
+Senate of Three Hundred members, and also a smaller Council of One
+Hundred, of which the latter were the most powerful, holding office for
+life, and exercising an almost sovereign sway over the other authorities
+in the state. The government was a complete oligarchy; and a few old,
+rich, and powerful families divided among themselves the influence and
+power of the state. These great families were often opposed to each
+other in bitter feuds, but concurred in treating with contempt the mass
+of the people.
+
+In her foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops, which her
+great wealth enabled her to procure in abundance from Spain, Italy, and
+Greece, as well as from Libya. Sardinia and Corsica were among her
+earliest conquests, and Sicily was also one of the first objects of her
+military enterprise. The Phoenician colonies in this island came under
+her dominion as the power of Tyre declined; and having thus obtained a
+firm footing in Sicily, she carried on a long struggle for the supremacy
+with the Greek cities. It was here that she came into contact with the
+Roman arms. The relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been
+peaceful, and a treaty, concluded between the two states in the first
+years of the Roman republic, had been renewed more than once. But the
+extension of Roman dominion had excited the jealousy of Carthage, and
+Rome began to turn longing eyes to the fair island at the foot of her
+empire. It was evident that a struggle was not far distant, and Pyrrhus
+could not help exclaiming, as he quitted Sicily, "How fine a
+battle-field are we leaving to the Romans and Carthaginians!"
+
+The city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide Sicily from
+Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. They were a body of
+Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian origin, who had served under
+Agathocles, and after the death of that tyrant (B.C. 289) were marched
+to Messana, in order to be transported to Italy. Being hospitably
+received within the city, they suddenly rose against the inhabitants,
+massacred the male population, and made themselves masters of their
+wives and property. They now took the name of Mamertini, or "Children of
+Mars," from Mamers, a Sabellian name for that deity. They rapidly
+extended their power over a considerable portion of the north of Sicily,
+and were formidable enemies to Syracuse. Hiero, having become king of
+Syracuse, determined to destroy this nest of robbers, advanced against
+them with a large army, defeated them in battle, and shut them up within
+Messana. The Mamertines were obliged to look out for help; one party
+wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and the other to invoke the
+assistance of Rome. The latter ultimately prevailed, and an embassy was
+sent to implore immediate aid. The temptation was strong, for the
+occupation of Messana by a Carthaginian garrison might prove dangerous
+to the tranquillity of Italy. Still the Senate hesitated; for only six
+years before Hiero had assisted the Romans in punishing the Campanian
+mercenaries, who had seized Rhegium in the same way as the Mamertines
+had made themselves masters of Messana. The voice of justice prevailed,
+and the Senate declined the proposal. But the Consuls, thirsting for
+glory, called together the popular assembly, who eagerly voted that the
+Mamertines should be assisted; in other words, that the Carthaginians
+should not be allowed to obtain possession of Messana. The Consul App.
+Claudius, the son of the blind Censor, was to lead an army into Sicily.
+But during this delay the Carthaginian party in Messana had obtained the
+ascendency, and Hanno, with a Carthaginian garrison, had been admitted
+into the citadel. Hiero had concluded peace with the Mamertines through
+the mediation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer even a
+pretext for the interference of the Romans. But a legate of the Consul
+App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded the Mamertines to
+expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and the Carthaginians now
+proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea and land, and the Romans no
+longer hesitated to declare war against Carthage. Such was the
+commencement of the first Punic War (B.C. 264).
+
+The Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, while the
+Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. But the Consul App.
+Claudius, having contrived to elude the Carthaginian squadron, landed
+near the town of Messana, and defeated in succession the forces of
+Syracuse and Carthage. In the following year (263) the Romans followed
+up their success against Hiero. The two Consuls advanced to the walls of
+Syracuse, ravaging the territory of the city and capturing many of its
+dependent towns. The king became alarmed at the success of the Romans;
+and thinking that they would prove more powerful than the Carthaginians,
+he concluded a peace with Rome. From this time till his death, a period
+of nearly fifty years, Hiero remained the firm and steadfast ally of the
+Romans.
+
+The Romans, now freed from the hostility of Syracuse, laid siege to
+Agrigentum, the second of the Greek cities in Sicily, which had espoused
+the cause of the Carthaginians at the commencement of the war. The siege
+lasted seven months, and numbers perished on both sides. But at length
+the Romans gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian army which
+had been sent to raise the siege, and obtained possession of the town
+(B.C. 262).
+
+The first three years of the war had already made the Romans masters of
+the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy were exposed to the
+ravages of the Carthaginian fleet, and the Romans saw that they could
+not hope to bring the war to a successful termination so long as
+Carthage was mistress of the sea. They had only a small number of
+triremes, galleys with three banks of oars, and were quite unable to
+cope with the quinqueremes, or large vessels with five banks of oars, of
+which the Carthaginian navy consisted. The Senate, with characteristic
+energy, determined to build a fleet of these larger vessels. A
+Carthaginian quinquereme, which had been wrecked upon the coast of
+Italy, served as a model; and in the short space of sixty days from the
+time the trees were felled, 130 ships were launched. While the ships
+were building, the rowers were trained on scaffolds placed upon the land
+like benches of ships at sea. We can not but feel astonished at the
+daring of the Romans, who, with ships thus hastily and clumsily built,
+and with crews imperfectly trained, sailed to attack the navy of the
+first maritime state in the world. This was in the fifth year of the war
+(B.C. 260). One of the Consuls, Cn. Cornelius, first put to sea with
+only 17 ships, but was surprised near Lipara, and taken prisoner with
+the whole of his squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, now took the
+command of the rest of the fleet. He saw that the only means of
+conquering the Carthaginians by sea was to deprive them of all the
+advantages of manoeuvring, and to take their ships by boarding. For
+this purpose, every ship was provided with a boarding-bridge 36 feet in
+length, which was pulled up by a rope and fastened to a mast in the fore
+part of the ship. As soon as an enemy's ship came near enough, the rope
+was loosened, the bridge fell down, and became fastened by means of an
+iron spike in its under side. The boarders then poured down the bridge
+into the enemy's ship. Thus prepared, Duilius boldly sailed out to meet
+the fleet of the enemy. He found them off the Sicilian coast, near Mylae.
+The Carthaginians hastened to the fight as if to a triumph, but their
+ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges, and when it came to a
+close fight their crews were no match for the veteran soldiers of Rome.
+The victory of Duilius was complete. Thirty-one of the enemy's ships
+were taken, and fourteen destroyed; the rest only saved themselves by an
+ignominious flight. On his return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a
+magnificent triumph. Public honors were conferred upon him; he was to be
+escorted home in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and
+the sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of the
+conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata, was set up in
+the forum.[28]
+
+[Illustration: Columna Rostrata.]
+
+For the next few years the war languished, and nothing of importance was
+effected on either side; but in the ninth year of the struggle (B.C.
+256) the Romans resolved by strenuous exertions to bring it to a
+conclusion. They therefore made preparations for invading Africa with a
+great force. The two Consuls, M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius, set
+sail with 330 ships, took the legions on board in Sicily, and then put
+out to sea in order to cross over to Africa. The Carthaginian fleet,
+consisting of 350 ships, met them near Ecnomus, on the southern coast of
+Sicily. The battle which ensued was the greatest sea-fight that the
+ancient world had yet seen. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again
+annihilated all the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was
+decisive. They lost only 24 ships, while they destroyed 30 of the
+enemy's vessels, and took 64 with all their crews. The passage to Africa
+was now clear, and the remainder of the Carthaginian fleet hastened home
+to defend the capital. The Romans landed near the town of Clupea, or
+Aspis, which they took, and there established their head-quarters. From
+thence they laid waste the Carthaginian territory with fire and sword,
+and collected an immense booty from the defenseless country. On the
+approach of winter, Manlius, one of the Consuls, by order of the Senate,
+returned to Rome with half of the army, while Regulus remained with the
+other half to prosecute the war. He carried on his operations with the
+utmost vigor, and was greatly assisted by the incompetency of the
+Carthaginian generals. The enemy had collected a considerable force,
+which they intrusted to three commanders, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and
+Hamilcar; but these generals avoided the plains, where their cavalry and
+elephants would have given them an advantage over the Roman army, and
+withdrew into the mountains. There they were attacked by Regulus, and
+utterly defeated with great loss; 15,000 men were killed in battle, and
+5000 men, with 18 elephants, were taken. The Carthaginian troops retired
+within the walls of the capital, and Regulus now overran the country
+without opposition. Many towns fell into the power of the Romans, and
+among others Tunis, which was at the distance of only 20 miles from
+Carthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering their
+independence, and their roving bands completed the devastation of the
+country. The Carthaginians, in despair, sent a herald to Regulus to
+solicit peace; but the Roman general, intoxicated with success, would
+only grant it on such intolerable terms that the Carthaginians resolved
+to continue the war and hold out to the last. In the midst of their
+distress and alarm, succor came to them from an unexpected quarter.
+Among the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage was a
+Lacedaemonian of the name of Xanthippus. He pointed out to the
+Carthaginians that their defeats were owing to the incompetency of their
+generals, and not to the superiority of the Roman arms; and he inspired
+such confidence in the government, that he was forthwith placed at the
+head of their troops. Relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants,
+Xanthippus boldly marched into the open country to meet the enemy,
+though his forces were very inferior in number to the Romans. Regulus
+readily accepted battle thus offered; but it ended in his total
+overthrow. Thirty thousand Romans were slain; scarcely 2000 escaped to
+Clupea, and Regulus himself, with 500 more, was taken prisoner. This was
+in the year B.C. 255.
+
+Another disaster awaited the Romans in this year. Their fleet, which had
+been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of the army of Regulus, had
+not only succeeded in their object, but had gained a victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet. They were returning home when they were overtaken
+off Camarina, in Sicily, by a fearful storm. Nearly the entire fleet was
+destroyed, and the coast was strewed for miles with wrecks and corpses.
+
+The Romans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to work to build a
+new fleet, and in less than three months 220 ships were ready for sea.
+But the same fate awaited them. In B.C. 253 the Consuls had ravaged the
+coasts of Africa, but, on their return, were again surprised by a
+fearful storm off Cape Palinurus. A hundred and fifty ships were
+wrecked. This blow, coming so soon after the other, damped the courage
+even of the Romans; they determined not to rebuild the fleet, and to
+keep only 60 ships for the defense of the coast of Italy and the
+protection of the transports.
+
+The war was now confined to Sicily; but, since the defeat of Regulus,
+the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the elephants, that
+their generals did not venture to attack the Carthaginians. At length,
+in B.C. 250, the Roman proconsul, L. Metellus, accepted battle under the
+walls of Panormus, and gained a decisive victory. The Carthaginians lost
+20,000 men; 13 of their generals adorned the triumph of Metellus; and
+104 elephants were also led in the triumphal procession. This was the
+most important battle that had been yet fought in Sicily, and had a
+decisive influence upon the issue of the contest. It so raised the
+spirits of the Romans that they determined once more to build a fleet of
+200 sail. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring
+the war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome to propose an
+exchange of prisoners, and to offer terms of peace.
+
+Regulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed to
+accompany the embassadors, with the promise that he would return to
+Carthage if their proposals were declined. This embassy is the subject
+of one of the most celebrated stories in the Roman annals. The orators
+and poets relate how Regulus at first refused to enter the city as a
+slave of the Carthaginians; how afterward he would not give his opinion
+in the Senate, as he had ceased by his captivity to be a member of that
+illustrious body; how, at length, when induced by his countrymen to
+speak, he endeavored to dissuade the Senate from assenting to a peace,
+or even to an exchange of prisoners; and when he saw them wavering, from
+their desire to redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the
+Carthaginians had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate
+his life; and how, finally, when the Senate, through his influence,
+refused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the
+persuasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to Carthage,
+where a martyr's death awaited him. It is related that he was placed in
+a barrel covered over with iron nails, and thus perished. Other writers
+state, in addition, that, after his eyelids had been cut off, he was
+first thrown into a dark dungeon, and then suddenly exposed to the full
+rays of a burning sun. When the news of the barbarous death of Regulus
+reached Rome, the Senate is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, two
+of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who
+revenged themselves by putting them to death with cruel torments.
+
+Regulus was one of the favorite characters of early Roman story. Not
+only was he celebrated for his heroism in giving the Senate advice which
+secured him a martyr's death, but also on account of his frugality and
+simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius, he lived on his
+hereditary farm, which he cultivated with his own hands; and subsequent
+ages loved to tell how he petitioned the Senate for his recall from
+Africa when he was in the full career of victory, as his farm was going
+to ruin in his absence, and his family was suffering from want.
+
+The Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the northwestern
+corner of the island, and Lilybaeum and Drepanum were the only two towns
+remaining in their hands. Lilybaeum, situated upon a promontory at the
+western extremity of the island, was the strong-hold of the Carthaginian
+power; and accordingly the Romans determined to concentrate all their
+efforts, and to employ the armies of both Consuls in attacking this
+city. This siege, which is one of the most memorable in ancient history,
+commenced in B.C. 250, and lasted till the termination of the war. In
+the second year of the siege (B.C. 249), the Consul P. Claudius, who lay
+before Lilybaeum, formed the design of attacking the Carthaginian fleet
+in the neighboring harbor of Drepanum. In vain did the auguries warn
+him. The keeper of the sacred chickens told him that they would not
+eat. "At any rate," said he, "let them drink;" and he ordered them to be
+thrown overboard. His impiety met with a meet reward. He was defeated
+with great loss; 93 of his ships were taken or destroyed, and only 30
+escaped. Great was the indignation at Rome. He was recalled by the
+Senate, ordered to appoint a Dictator, and then to lay down his office.
+Claudius, in scorn, named M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his
+freedmen. But the Senate would not brook this insult; they deprived the
+unworthy man of the honor, and appointed in his place A. Atilius
+Calatinus.
+
+The other Consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He was sailing
+along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800 vessels, intended to
+relieve the wants of the army at Lilybaeum, when he was overtaken by one
+of those terrible storms which had twice before proved so fatal to the
+Roman fleets. The transports were all dashed to pieces, and of his 105
+ships of war only two escaped. Thus the Roman fleet was a third time
+destroyed. These repeated misfortunes compelled the Romans to abandon
+any farther attempts to contest the supremacy of the sea.
+
+About this time a really great man was placed at the head of the
+Carthaginian army--a man who, at an earlier period of the war, might
+have brought the struggle to a very different termination. This was the
+celebrated Hamilcar Barca,[29] the father of the still more celebrated
+Hannibal. He was still a young man at the time of his appointment to the
+command in Sicily (B.C. 247). His very first operations were equally
+daring and successful. Instead of confining himself to the defense of
+Lilybaeum and Drepanum, with which the Carthaginian commanders had been
+hitherto contented, he made descents upon the coast of Italy, and then
+suddenly landed on the north of Sicily, and established himself, with
+his whole army, on a mountain called Hercte (the modern _Monte
+Pellegrino_), which overhung the town of Panormus (the modern
+_Palermo_), one of the most important of the Roman possessions. Here he
+maintained himself for nearly three years, to the astonishment alike of
+friends and foes, and from hence he made continual descents into the
+enemy's country, and completely prevented them from making any vigorous
+attacks either upon Lilybaeum or Drepanum. All the efforts of the Romans
+to dislodge him were unsuccessful; and he only quitted Hercte in order
+to seize Eryx, a town situated upon the mountain of this name, and only
+six miles from Drepanum. This position he held for two years longer; and
+the Romans, despairing of driving the Carthaginians out of Sicily so
+long as they were masters of the sea, resolved to build another fleet.
+In B.C. 242 the Consul Lutatius Catulus put to sea with a fleet of 200
+ships, and in the following year he gained a decisive victory over the
+Carthaginian fleet, commanded by Hanno, off the group of islands called
+the AEgates.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Mount Ercta. A. Ercta, now _Monte Pellegrino_. B.
+Panormus, the modern _Palermo_.]
+
+This victory gave the Romans the supremacy by sea. Lilybaeum, Drepanum,
+and Eryx might now be reduced by famine. The Carthaginians were weary of
+the war, and indisposed to make any farther sacrifices. They therefore
+sent orders to Hamilcar to make peace on the best terms he could. It was
+at length concluded on the following conditions: that Carthage should
+evacuate Sicily and the adjoining islands; that she should restore the
+Roman prisoners without ransom, and should pay the sum of 3200 talents
+within the space of ten years (B.C. 241). All Sicily, with the exception
+of the territory of Hiero, now became a portion of the Roman dominions,
+and was formed into a Province, governed by a Praetor, who was sent
+annually from Rome.
+
+[Footnote 26: The Phoenicians were called by the Latins _Poeni_,
+whence the adjective _punicus_, like _munire_ from _moenia_, and
+_punire_ from _poena_.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Probably the same as the Hebrew _Shofetim_, i.e., Judges.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The inscription upon this column, or, at any rate, a very
+ancient copy of it, is still preserved in the Capitoline Museum at
+Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Barca_ is the same as the Hebrew word _Barak_,
+"lightning."]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Carthage.]
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-210.
+
+
+Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. The
+power of Carthage, though crippled, was not destroyed; and Hamilcar
+returned home, burning with hatred against Rome, and determined to renew
+the war upon a favorable opportunity. But a new and terrible danger
+threatened Carthage upon her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had
+been transported from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war,
+being unable to obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny. Their
+leaders were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and Matho, a Libyan.
+They were quickly joined by the native Libyans, and brought Carthage
+almost to the brink of destruction. They laid waste the whole country
+with fire and sword, made themselves masters of all the towns except the
+capital, and committed the most frightful atrocities. Carthage owed her
+safety to the genius and abilities of Hamilcar. The struggle was fierce
+and sanguinary, but was at length brought to a successful issue, after
+it had lasted more than three years, by the destruction of all the
+mercenaries. It was called the War without Peace, or the Inexpiable War
+(B.C. 238).
+
+The Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition of Carthage to
+demand from her the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and the payment of
+a farther sum of 1200 talents. The mercenary troops in Sardinia, who had
+also revolted, had applied to Rome for assistance; and the Senate
+menaced her rival with war unless she complied with these unjust
+demands. Resistance was impossible, and Sardinia and Corsica were now
+formed into a Roman province, governed, like Sicily, by a Praetor sent
+annually from Rome (B.C. 238). This act of robbery added fresh fuel to
+the implacable animosity of Hamilcar against the grasping Republic. He
+now departed for Spain, where for many years he steadily worked to lay
+the foundation of a new empire, which might not only compensate for the
+loss of Sicily and Sardinia, but enable him at some time to renew
+hostilities against Rome.
+
+Rome was now at peace, and in B.C. 235 the Temple of Janus, which had
+remained open since the days of Numa, was closed for a second time. Two
+new tribes were added to the Roman territory, thus making their total
+number thirty-five.
+
+The Temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The Illyrians, who dwelt
+near the head of the Adriatic upon its eastern side, were a nation of
+pirates, who ravaged the coasts of this sea. The Senate having sent
+embassadors to the Illyrian queen, Teuta, to complain of these outrages,
+she not only refused to attend to their complaints, but caused one of
+the embassadors to be murdered. War was straightway declared, and a
+Roman army for the first time crossed the Adriatic (B.C. 229). Demetrius
+of Pharos, an unprincipled Greek, who was the chief counselor of Teuta,
+deserted his mistress, and surrendered to the Romans the important
+island of Corcyra. Teuta was obliged to yield to the Romans every thing
+they demanded, and promised that the Illyrians should not appear south
+of Lissa with more than two vessels. The suppression of piracy in the
+Adriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Grecian states, and deserves
+notice as the first occasion upon which the Romans were brought into
+immediate contact with Greece. The Consul Postumius, who had wintered in
+Illyria, sent envoys to Athens, Corinth, and other Grecian cities, to
+explain what had been done. The envoys were received with honor, and
+thanks were returned to Rome (B.C. 228).
+
+The Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end when they
+became involved in a formidable struggle with their old enemies the
+Gauls. Since the conquest of the Senones in B.C. 289, and of the Boii in
+B.C. 283, the Gauls had remained quiet. The Romans had founded the
+colony of Sena after the subjugation of the Senones; and in B.C. 268
+they had still farther strengthened their dominion in those parts by
+founding the colony of Ariminum. But the greater part of the soil from
+which the Senones were ejected became Public Land. In B.C. 232 the
+Tribune C. Flaminius carried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this
+portion of the public land, known by the name of the "Gallic Land,"[30]
+should be distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii,
+who dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the
+assistance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined by
+them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the Alps, they set
+out for Rome.
+
+All Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of the disaster
+of the Allia. The Sibylline Books being consulted, declared that Rome
+must be twice occupied by a foreign foe; whereupon the Senate ordered
+that two Gauls and a Grecian woman should be buried alive in the forum.
+The allies eagerly offered men and supplies to meet a danger which was
+common to the whole peninsula. An army of 150,000 foot and 6000 horse
+was speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near Telamon in
+Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the armies of the two Consuls.
+As many as 40,000 of their men were slain, and 10,000 taken prisoners
+(B.C. 225). The Romans followed up their success by invading the country
+of the Boii, who submitted in the following year (B.C. 224).
+
+In B.C. 223 the Romans for the first time crossed the Po, and the Consul
+C. Flaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. The Consuls
+of the next year, Cn. Cornelius Scipio and M. Claudius Marcellus,
+continued the war against the Insubres, who called in to their aid a
+fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcellus slew with his own hand
+Viridomarus, the chief of the Insubrian Gauls, and thus gained the third
+_Spolia Opima_. At the same time Scipio took Mediolanum (Milan), the
+chief town of the Insubres. This people now submitted without
+conditions, and the war was brought to an end. To secure their recent
+conquests, the Romans determined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at
+Placentia and Cremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded
+in B.C. 218, and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia, a road
+constructed by C. Flaminius during his consulship (B.C. 220), from Rome
+to Ariminum, secured the communication with the north of Italy.
+
+While the Romans were engaged in the Gallic wars, the traitor Demetrius
+of Pharos had usurped the chief power in Illyria, and had ventured upon
+many acts of piracy. In B.C. 219 the Consul L. AEmilius Paullus crossed
+the Adriatic, and soon brought this second Illyrian war to an end.
+Demetrius fled to Philip of Macedon, where we shall shortly afterward
+see him prompting this king to make war against Rome. The greater part
+of Illyria was restored to the native chiefs; but the Romans retained
+possession of Corcyra, and of the important towns of Apollonia and
+Oricum on the coast.
+
+Meanwhile Hamilcar had been steadily pursuing his conquests in Spain.
+The subjugation of this country was only a means to an end. His great
+object, as already stated, was to obtain the means of attacking, and, if
+possible, crushing that hated rival who had robbed his country of
+Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. His implacable animosity against Rome is
+shown by the well-known tale that, when he crossed over to Spain in B.C.
+235, taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years old, he made
+him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. During the eight years
+that Hamilcar continued in Spain he carried the Carthaginian arms into
+the heart of the country. While he conquered several states in war, he
+gained over others by negotiation, and availed himself of their services
+as allies or mercenaries. He fell in battle in B.C. 229, and was
+succeeded in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. His plans were
+ably carried out by his successor. The conciliatory manners of Hasdrubal
+gained him the affections of the Spaniards; and he consolidated the
+Carthaginian empire in Spain by the foundation of New Carthage, now
+Cartagena, in a situation admirably chosen on account of its excellent
+harbor and easy communication with Africa, as well as from its proximity
+to the silver mines, which supplied him with the means of paying his
+troops. The conduct of his warlike enterprises was intrusted to the
+youthful Hannibal, who had been trained in arms under the eye of his
+father, and who already displayed that ability for war which made him
+one of the most celebrated generals in ancient or modern times. The
+successes of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal could not fail to attract the notice
+of the Romans, and in B.C. 227 they concluded a treaty with the latter,
+by which the River Iberus (Ebro) was fixed as the northern boundary of
+the Carthaginian empire in Spain.
+
+Hasdrubal was assassinated in B.C. 221 by a slave whose master he had
+put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such a remarkable ascendency
+over the army that the soldiers unanimously proclaimed him
+commander-in-chief, and the government at Carthage hastened to ratify an
+appointment which they had not, in fact, the power to prevent. Hannibal
+was at this time in the 26th year of his age. There can be no doubt that
+he already looked forward to the invasion and conquest of Italy as the
+goal of his ambition; but it was necessary for him first to complete the
+work which had been so ably begun by his two predecessors, and to
+establish the Carthaginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. This he
+accomplished in two campaigns, in the course of which he brought all the
+nations south of the Iberus into subjection to Carthage.
+
+Early in the spring of B.C. 219 he proceeded to lay siege to Saguntum, a
+city of Greek origin, founded by the Zacynthians. Though situated to the
+south of the Iberus, and therefore not included under the protection of
+the treaty between Hasdrubal and the Romans, Sagantum had concluded an
+alliance with the latter people. There could be little doubt, therefore,
+that an attack upon this city would inevitably bring on a war with Rome;
+but for this Hannibal was prepared, or, rather, it was unquestionably
+his real object. The immediate pretext of his invasion was the same of
+which the Romans so often availed themselves--some injury inflicted by
+the Saguntines upon one of the neighboring tribes, who invoked the
+assistance of Hannibal. But the resistance of the city was long and
+desperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly eight months that
+he made himself master of the place. During all this period the Romans
+sent no assistance to their allies. They had, indeed, as soon as they
+heard of the siege, dispatched embassadors to Hannibal, but he referred
+them for an answer to the government at home, and they could obtain no
+satisfaction from the Carthaginians, in whose councils the war-party had
+now a decided predominance. A second embassy was sent, after the fall of
+Saguntum, to demand the surrender of Hannibal, in atonement for the
+breach of the treaty. After much discussion, Q. Fabius, one of the Roman
+embassadors, holding up a fold of his toga, said, "I carry here peace
+and war; choose ye which ye will." "Give us which you will," was the
+reply. "Then take war," said Fabius, letting fall his toga. "We accept
+the gift," cried the Senators of Carthage. Thus commenced the Second
+Punic War.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Hiero.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Gallicus ager.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Lake Trasimenus.]
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. B.C.
+218-216.
+
+
+The Second Punic War was not so much a contest between the powers of two
+great nations--between Carthage and Rome--as between the individual
+genius of Hannibal on one hand, and the combined energies of the Roman
+people on the other. The position of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar.
+His command in Spain, and the powerful army there, which was entirely at
+his own disposal, rendered him in great measure independent of the
+government at Carthage, and the latter seemed disposed to devolve all
+responsibility upon him. Even now they did little themselves to prepare
+for the impending contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after the
+conquest of Saguntum, had returned once more to New Carthage for the
+winter, and was there actively engaged in preparations for transporting
+the scene of war in the ensuing campaign from Spain into Italy. At the
+same time he did not neglect to provide for the defense of Spain and
+Africa during his absence. In the former country he placed his brother
+Hasdrubal, with a considerable army, great part of which was composed of
+Africans, while he sent over a large body of Spanish troops to
+contribute to the defense of Africa, and even of Carthage itself.
+
+All his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted his winter
+quarters at New Carthage in the spring of B.C. 218, and crossed the
+Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. The tribes between
+that river and the Pyrenees offered at first a vigorous resistance, and,
+though they were quickly subdued, Hannibal thought it necessary to leave
+behind him a force of 11,000 men under Hanno to maintain this
+newly-acquired province. His forces were farther thinned by desertion
+during the passage of the Pyrenees, which obliged him to send home a
+large body of his Spanish troops. With a greatly diminished army, but
+one on which he could securely rely, he now continued his march from the
+foot of the Pyrenees to the Rhone without meeting with any opposition;
+for the Gaulish tribes through which he passed were favorably disposed
+to him, or had been previously gained over by his enemies.
+
+The Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed to Spain, but
+various causes had detained him in Italy, and upon landing at Massilia
+(Marseilles) he found that Hannibal was already advancing toward the
+Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian general effected his passage across the
+river, notwithstanding the opposition of the Gauls; and when Scipio
+marched up the left bank of the river he found that Hannibal had
+advanced into the interior of Gaul, and was already three days in
+advance of him. Despairing, therefore, of overtaking Hannibal, he
+determined to sail back to Italy and await him in Cisalpine Gaul; but as
+the Republic had already an army in that province, he sent the greater
+part of his own forces into Spain under the command of his brother Cn.
+Scipio. This prudent step probably saved Rome; for if the Carthaginians
+had maintained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have
+concentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italy, and have
+sent him such strong re-enforcements after the battle of Cannae as would
+have compelled Rome to submit.
+
+Hannibal, after crossing the Rhone, continued his march up the left bank
+of the river as far as its confluence with the Isere. Here he interposed
+in a dispute between two rival chiefs of the Allobroges, and, by lending
+his aid to establish one of them firmly on the throne, secured the
+co-operation of an efficient ally, who greatly facilitated his farther
+progress. But in his passage across the Alps he was attacked by the
+barbarians, and as he struggled through the narrow and dangerous defiles
+the enemy destroyed numbers of his men. It was some days before he
+reached the summit of the pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from
+hostile attacks, but the descent was difficult and dangerous. The
+natural difficulties of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season
+(the beginning of October, at which time the snows had already commenced
+in the high Alps), caused him almost as much loss as the opposition of
+the barbarians on the other side of the mountains. So heavy were his
+losses from these combined causes, that, when he at length emerged from
+the valley of Aosta into the plains of the Po and encamped in the
+friendly country of the Insubres, he had with him no more than 20,000
+foot and 6000 horse.[31] Such were the forces with which he descended
+into Italy to attempt the overthrow of a power that a few years before
+was able to muster a disposable force of above 700,000 fighting men.
+
+Five months had been employed in the march from New Carthage to the
+plains of Italy, of which the actual passage of the Alps had occupied
+fifteen days. Hannibal's first care was now to recruit the strength of
+his troops, exhausted by the hardships and fatigues they had undergone.
+After a short interval of repose, he turned his arms against the
+Taurinians (a tribe bordering on, and hostile to, the Insubrians), whom
+he quickly reduced, and took their principal city (Turin). The news of
+the approach of P. Scipio next obliged him to turn his attention toward
+a more formidable enemy. In the first action, which took place in the
+plains westward of the Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops of
+the two armies were alone engaged, and the superiority of Hannibal's
+Numidian horse at once decided the combat in his favor. The Romans were
+completely routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded; in consequence
+of which he hastened to retreat beyond the Ticinus and the Po, under the
+walls of Placentia. Hannibal crossed the Po higher up, and, advancing to
+Placentia, offered battle to Scipio; but the latter declined the combat,
+and withdrew to the hills on the left bank of the Trebia. Here he was
+soon after joined by the other Consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus, who had
+hastened from Ariminum to his support. Their combined armies were
+greatly superior to that of the Carthaginians, and Sempronius was eager
+to bring on a general battle, of which Hannibal, on his side, was not
+less desirous, notwithstanding the great inferiority of his force. The
+result was decisive; the Romans were completely defeated, with heavy
+loss; and the remains of their shattered army, together with the two
+Consuls, took refuge within the walls of Placentia. The battles of the
+Ticinus and Trebia had been fought in December, and the winter had
+already begun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal's troops suffered
+severely from cold, and all his elephants perished except one. But his
+victory had caused all the wavering tribes of the Gauls to declare in
+his favor, and he was now able to take up his winter quarters in
+security, and to levy fresh troops among the Gauls while he awaited the
+approach of spring.
+
+[Illustration: Coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the History of
+the Punic.]
+
+As soon as the season permitted the renewal of military operations (B.C.
+217), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian tribes, who had
+lately declared in his favor, and descended by the valley of the Macra
+into the marshes on the banks of the Arno. He had apparently chosen this
+route in order to avoid the Roman armies, which guarded the more obvious
+passes of the Apennines; but the hardships and difficulties which he
+encountered in struggling through the marshes were immense; great
+numbers of his horses and beasts of burden perished, and he himself lost
+the sight of one eye by a violent attack of ophthalmia. At length,
+however, he reached Faesulae in safety, and was able to allow his troops a
+short interval of repose.
+
+The Consuls for this year were Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius. The
+latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which occasioned
+the Gallic War, and in his first consulship he had gained a great
+victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. 79)(Sixth paragraph of Chapter
+XI.--Transcriber). He had been raised to his second consulship by
+popular favor, in spite of the opposition of the Senate; and he hurried
+from Rome before the Ides of March,[32] lest the Senate might throw any
+obstacle in the way of his entering upon his consulship. He was a man of
+great energy, but headstrong and reckless. When Hannibal arrived at
+Faesulae, Flaminius was with his army at Arretium. It was always the
+object of Hannibal to bring the Roman commanders to a battle, and
+therefore, in moving from Faesulae, he passed by the Roman general, and
+advanced toward Perugia, laying waste the fertile country on his line of
+march. Flaminius immediately broke up his camp, and, following the
+traces of Hannibal, fell into the snare which was prepared for him. His
+army was attacked under the most disadvantageous circumstances, where it
+was hemmed in between rocky heights, previously occupied by the enemy,
+and the Lake of Trasimenus. Its destruction was almost complete.
+Thousands fell by the sword, among whom was the Consul himself;
+thousands more perished in the lake, and no less than 15,000 prisoners
+fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his side is said to have lost
+only 1500 men. Hannibal's treatment of the captives on this occasion, as
+well as after the battle of the Trebia, was marked by the same policy
+on which he afterward uniformly acted; the Roman citizens alone were
+retained as prisoners, while their Italian allies were dismissed without
+ransom to their respective homes. By this means he hoped to excite the
+nations of Italy against their Roman masters, and to place himself in
+the position of the leader of a national movement rather than that of a
+foreign invader. It was probably in order to give time for this feeling
+to display itself that he did not, after so decisive a victory, push on
+toward Rome itself; but, after an unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman
+colony of Spoletium, he turned aside through the Apennines into Picenum,
+and thence into the northern part of Apulia. Here he spent a great part
+of the summer, and was able effectually to refresh his troops, who had
+suffered much from the hardships of their previous marches; but no
+symptoms appeared of the insurrections he had looked for among the
+Italians.
+
+Meantime the Romans had collected a fresh army, which they placed under
+the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had been elected Dictator by the
+Comitia of the Centuries. Fabius formed a different plan for the
+campaign. He determined to keep the heights, and not to risk a battle,
+but at the same time to watch the Carthaginian army, cut off its
+supplies, and harass and annoy it in every possible way. From pursuing
+this policy he received the surname of _Cunctator_, or the _Lingerer_.
+
+Hannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the rich plains of
+Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that fertile territory.
+But he was unable either to make himself master of any of the towns, or
+to draw the wary Fabius to a battle. The Roman general contented himself
+with occupying the mountain passes leading from Samnium into Campania,
+by which Hannibal must of necessity retreat, and believed that he had
+caught him, as it were, in a trap; but Hannibal eluded his vigilance by
+an ingenious stratagem, passed the defiles of the Apennines without
+loss, and established himself in the plains of Apulia, where he
+collected supplies from all sides, in order to prepare for the winter.
+Meantime the Romans, having become impatient at the inactivity of
+Fabius, raised Minucius, the Master of the Horse, to an equality in
+command with Fabius. His rashness very nearly gave Hannibal the
+opportunity, for which he was ever on the watch, to crush the Roman army
+by a decisive blow; but Fabius was able to save his colleague from
+destruction; and Hannibal, after obtaining only a partial advantage,
+took up his winter quarters at the small town of Geronium. Minucius
+acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master of the Horse.
+
+During the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing an
+unusually large force into the field. The people thought that it needed
+only a man of energy and decision at the head of an overwhelming force
+to bring the war to a close. They therefore raised to the consulship C.
+Terentius Varro, said to have been the son of a butcher, who had been
+for some time regarded as the champion of the popular party. The Senate
+regarded this election with dismay, as Varro possessed no military
+experience; and they therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his
+colleague L. AEmilius Paullus, who had distinguished himself by the way
+in which he had conducted the Illyrian war during his consulship.
+
+Hannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (B.C. 216), when,
+compelled to move by the want of provisions, he surprised the Roman
+magazines at Cannae, a small town of Apulia, and established his
+head-quarters there until the harvest could be got in. Meanwhile the two
+Roman Consuls arrived at the head of an army of little less than 90,000
+men. To this mighty host Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the right
+bank of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cannae. We have no statement
+of the numbers of his army, but it is certain that it must have been
+greatly inferior to that of the enemy; notwithstanding which, the
+excellence of his cavalry, and the disciplined valor of his African and
+Spanish infantry, gave him the most decisive victory. The immense army
+of the Romans was not only defeated, but annihilated, and between forty
+and fifty thousand men are said to have fallen in the field, among whom
+was the Consul AEmilius Paullus, both the Consuls of the preceding year,
+the late Master of the Horse, Minucius, above eighty senators, and a
+multitude of the wealthy knights who composed the Roman cavalry. The
+other Consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small
+band of resolute men forced their way from the Roman camp to Canusium;
+all the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal has
+been generally blamed for not following up his advantage at once, after
+so decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon Rome itself--a
+measure which was strongly urged upon him by Maharbal. "Only send me on
+with the cavalry," said this officer, "and within five days thou shalt
+sup in the Capitol." Whatever may be the motives that deterred Hannibal
+from marching upon Rome, we can not but be surprised at his apparent
+inactivity after the battle. He probably expected that so brilliant a
+success would immediately produce a general rising among the nations of
+Italy, and remained for a time quietly in Apulia, until they should have
+had time to declare themselves. Nor were his hopes disappointed; the
+Hirpinians, all the Samnites (except the Pentrian tribe), and almost all
+the Apulians, Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favor of Carthage.
+But, though the whole of the south of Italy was thus apparently lost to
+the Romans, yet the effect of this insurrection was not so decisive as
+it would at first appear; for the Latin colonies, which still, without
+exception, remained faithful, gave the Romans a powerful hold upon the
+revolted provinces; and the Greek cities on the coast, though mostly
+disposed to join the Carthaginians, were restrained by the presence of
+Roman garrisons. Hence it became necessary to support the insurrection
+in the different parts of Italy with a Carthaginian force. Hannibal
+marched first into Samnium, and from thence into Campania, where he
+obtained possession of the important city of Capua, the gates of which
+were opened to him by the popular party. Here he established his army in
+winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war, in which
+Hannibal had met with uninterrupted success. Three great victories in
+three years, followed by the revolt of a city scarcely inferior to Rome
+itself in importance, seemed to promise a speedy termination of the war.
+
+[Illustration: Route of Hannibal. (See p. 90.) (After footnote
+32--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 31: The pass of the Alps which Hannibal crossed was probably
+the Graian Alps, or _Little St. Bernard_. See note "On the Passage of
+Hannibal across the Alps" at the end of this chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 32: At this time the Consuls entered upon their office on the
+Ides of March. It was not till B.C. 153 that the consulship commenced on
+the Kalends of January.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS.
+
+(See p. 84.)(Fourth paragraph of Chapter XII.--Transcriber)
+
+
+The narrative in the text is taken from that of the Greek historian
+Polybius, which is certainly by far the most trustworthy that has
+descended to us; but that author has nowhere clearly stated by which of
+the passes across the Alps Hannibal effected his march; and this
+question has given rise to much controversy both in ancient and modern
+times. Into this discussion our limits will not allow us to enter, but
+the following may be briefly stated as the general results: 1. That
+after a careful examination of the text of Polybius, and comparison of
+the different localities, his narrative will be found, on the whole, to
+agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed the Graian Alps,
+or _Little St. Bernard_; though it can not be denied that there are some
+difficulties attending this line, especially in regard to the descent
+into Italy. 2. That Caelius Antipater certainly represented him as taking
+this route (Liv., xxi., 38); and as he is known to have followed the
+Greek history of Silenus, who is said to have accompanied Hannibal in
+many of his campaigns, his authority is of the greatest weight. 3. That
+Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose him to have crossed the
+Cottian Alps, or _Mont Genevre_. But the main argument that appears to
+have weighed with Livy, as it has done with several modern writers on
+the subject, is the assumption that Hannibal descended in the first
+instance into the country of the Taurinians, which is opposed to the
+direct testimony of Polybius, who says expressly that he descended among
+the Insubrians, and _subsequently_ mentions his attack on the
+Taurinians. 4. That, as according to Livy himself (xxi., 29), the
+Gaulish emissaries who acted as Hannibal's guides were Boians, it was
+natural that these should conduct him by the passage that led directly
+into the territory of their allies and brothers-in-arms, the Insubrians,
+rather than into that of the Taurinians, a Ligurian tribe, who were at
+this very time in a state of hostility with the Insubrians. And this
+remark will serve to explain why Hannibal chose apparently a longer
+route, instead of the more direct one of Mont Genevre. Lastly, it is
+remarkable that Polybius, though he censures the exaggerations and
+absurdities with which earlier writers had encumbered their narrative,
+does not intimate that any doubt was entertained as to the line of
+march; and Pompey, in a letter to the Senate, written in 73 B.C.,
+alludes to the route of Hannibal across the Alps as something well
+known. Hence it appears clear that the passage by which he crossed them
+must have been one of those frequented in subsequent times by the
+Romans. This argument seems decisive against the claims of _Mont Cenis_,
+which have been advocated by some modern writers, that pass having
+apparently never been used till the Middle Ages--See _Dict. of Greek and
+Roman Biography_, vol. ii., p. 334, 335.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Plain of Cannae.]
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE BATTLE
+OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.
+
+
+Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, and the enervating
+effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal became a favorite
+theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later ages. The futility of such
+declamations is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that the
+superiority of that army in the field remained as decided as ever. Still
+it may be truly said that the winter spent at Capua (B.C. 216-215) was
+in great measure the turning-point of Hannibal's fortune, and from this
+time the war assumed an altered character. The experiment of what he
+could effect with his single army had now been fully tried, and,
+notwithstanding all his victories, it had decidedly failed; for Rome was
+still unsubdued, and still provided with the means of maintaining a
+protracted contest. But Hannibal had not relied on his own forces alone,
+and he now found himself, apparently at least, in a condition to
+commence the execution of his long-cherished plan--that of arming Italy
+itself against the Romans, and crushing the ruling power by means of her
+own subjects. It was to this object that his attention was henceforth
+mainly directed. From this time, also, the Romans changed their plan of
+operations, and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one great army in the
+field, they hemmed in his movements on all sides, guarded all the most
+important towns with strong garrisons, and kept up an army in every
+province of Italy to thwart the operations of his lieutenants and check
+the rising disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to follow in
+detail the complicated operations of the subsequent campaigns, during
+which Hannibal himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions,
+appearing suddenly wherever his presence was called for, and astonishing
+and often baffling the enemy by the rapidity of his marches. All that we
+can do is to notice very briefly the leading events which distinguished
+each successive campaign.
+
+The campaign of B.C. 215 was not marked by any decisive events. The
+Consuls were Q. Fabius Maximus (whose plan of conducting the war had
+been fully vindicated by the terrible defeat of Cannae) and Tiberius
+Sempronius Gracchus. With the advance of spring Hannibal took up his
+camp on Mount Tifata, where, while awaiting the arrival of
+re-enforcements from Carthage, he was at hand to support his partisans
+in Campania and oppose the Roman generals in that province. But his
+attempts on Cumae and Neapolis were foiled, and even after he had been
+joined by a force from Carthage (very inferior, however, to what he had
+expected), he sustained a repulse before Nola, which was magnified by
+the Romans into a defeat. As the winter approached he withdrew into
+Apulia, and took up his quarters in the plains around Arpi. But other
+prospects were already opening before him. In his camp on Tifata he had
+received embassies from Philip, king of Macedon, and Hieronymus of
+Syracuse, both of which he had eagerly welcomed, and thus sowed the
+seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two formidable enemies against
+the Roman power.
+
+These two collateral wars in some degree drew off the attention of both
+parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans still opposed to the
+Carthaginian general a chain of armies which fettered all his
+operations; and though Hannibal was ever on the watch for the
+opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign of B.C. 214 was still less
+decisive than that of the preceding year. Fabius was again elected
+Consul, and Marcellus was appointed his colleague. Early in the summer
+Hannibal advanced from Apulia to his former station on Mount Tifata to
+watch over the safety of Capua; from thence he had descended to the Lake
+Avernus, in hopes of making himself master of Puteoli, when a prospect
+was held out to him of surprising the important city of Tarentum.
+Thither he hastened by forced marches, but arrived too late; Tarentum
+had been secured by a Roman force. After this his operations were of
+little importance, until he again took up his winter quarters in Apulia.
+
+During the following summer (B.C. 213), while all eyes were turned
+toward the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost wholly inactive in
+the neighborhood of Tarentum, the hopes he still entertained of making
+himself master of that important city rendering him unwilling to quit
+that quarter of Italy. Before the close of the ensuing winter he was
+rewarded with the long-looked-for prize, and Tarentum was betrayed into
+his hands by two of its citizens. The advantage, however, was
+incomplete, for a Roman garrison still held possession of the citadel,
+from which he was unable to dislodge them. The next year (B.C. 212) was
+marked by important events in Sicily and Spain, to which we must now
+direct our attention.
+
+Hiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the battle
+of Cannae (B.C. 216), and was succeeded by his grandson Hieronymus, a
+vain youth, who abandoned the alliance of Rome for that of Carthage. But
+he was assassinated after a reign of fifteen months, and a republican
+form of government was established in Syracuse. A contest ensued between
+the Roman and Carthaginian parties in Syracuse, but the former
+ultimately prevailed, and Epicydes and Hippocrates, two brothers whom
+Hannibal had sent to Syracuse to espouse his interests, had to quit the
+city, and took refuge at Leontini. Such was the state of affairs when
+the Consul Marcellus arrived in Sicily (B.C. 214). He forthwith marched
+against Leontini, which Epicydes and Hippocrates defended with a
+considerable force. He took the city by storm, and, though he spared the
+inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Roman deserters whom he found
+among the troops that had formed the garrison. This sanguinary act at
+once alienated the minds of the Sicilians, and alarmed the mercenary
+troops in the service of Syracuse. The latter immediately joined
+Hippocrates and Epicydes, who had made their escape to Herbessus; the
+gates of Syracuse were opened to them by their partisans within the
+walls, and the party hostile to Rome was thus established in the
+undisputed command of that city. Marcellus now appeared before Syracuse
+at the head of his army, and, after a fruitless summons to the
+inhabitants, proceeded to lay siege to the city both by sea and land.
+His attacks were vigorous and unremitting, and were directed especially
+against the quarter of Achradina[33] from the side of the sea; but,
+though he brought many powerful military engines against the walls,
+these were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and science
+of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of the besieged. All the
+efforts of the assailants were baffled; and the Roman soldiers were
+inspired with so great a dread of Archimedes and his engines,[34] that
+Marcellus was compelled to give up all hopes of carrying the city by
+open force, and to turn the siege into a blockade. The siege was
+prolonged far on into the summer of B.C. 212, nor did there appear any
+prospect of its termination, as the communications of the besieged by
+sea were almost entirely open. In this state of things Marcellus
+fortunately discovered a part of the walls more accessible than the
+rest; and, having prepared scaling ladders, effected an entrance at this
+point during the night which followed a great festival, and thus made
+himself master of Epipolae. The two quarters called Tyche and Neapolis
+were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder; but Epicydes still
+held the island-citadel and the important quarter of Achradina, which
+formed two separate and strong fortresses. Marcellus, however, made
+himself master of the fort of Euryalus, and had closely invested
+Achradina, when the Carthaginian army under Himilco and Hippocrates
+advanced to the relief of the city. Their efforts were, however, in
+vain; all their attacks on the camp of Marcellus were repulsed, and they
+were unable to effect a junction with Epicydes and the Syracusan
+garrison. The unhealthiness of the country soon gave rise to a
+pestilence which carried off both the Carthaginian generals and led to
+the entire break-up of the army. Shortly afterward the treachery of a
+leader of Spanish mercenaries in the Syracusan service opened to
+Marcellus the gates of Achradina, and in the general attack that ensued
+he made himself master of the island of Ortygia also. The city was given
+up to plunder, and Archimedes was slain by a Roman soldier, being so
+intent upon a mathematical problem at the time that he did not answer a
+question that was asked him. He was deeply regretted by Marcellus, who
+gave orders for his burial, and befriended his surviving relatives.[35]
+
+The booty found in the captured city was immense: besides the money in
+the royal treasury, which was set apart for the coffers of the state,
+Marcellus carried off many of the works of art with which the city had
+been adorned, to grace his own triumph and the temples at Rome. This was
+the first instance of a practice which afterward became so general; and
+it gave great offense not only to the Greeks of Sicily, but to a large
+party at Rome itself.
+
+The fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately, by the
+subjugation of the whole island by the Romans; but these successes were
+counterbalanced by the defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain. We
+have already seen that P. Scipio, when he landed at Massilia and found
+himself unable to overtake Hannibal in Gaul, sent his brother Cneius
+with the army into Spain, while he himself returned to Italy. In the
+following year (B.C. 217) Publius himself crossed over into Spain, where
+he found that his brother had already obtained a firm footing. They
+continued in Spain for several years, during which they gained many
+victories, and prevented Hasdrubal from marching into Italy to support
+his victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled to Africa to oppose
+Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, who was carrying on war against
+Carthage, the Scipios availed themselves of his absence to strengthen
+their power still farther. They gained over new tribes to the Roman
+cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians into their pay, and felt themselves so
+strong in B.C. 212 that they resolved to cross the Iberus and to make a
+vigorous effort to drive the Carthaginians out of Spain. They
+accordingly divided their forces; but the result was fatal. Publius was
+destroyed, with the greater part of his troops; and Cneius was also
+defeated, and fell in battle, twenty-nine days after the death of his
+brother. These victories seemed to establish the superiority of Carthage
+in Spain, and open the way for Hasdrubal to join his brother in Italy.
+
+In Italy (B.C. 212) the two Consuls Appius Claudius and Q. Fulvius began
+to draw together their forces for the purpose of besieging Capua.
+Hannibal advanced to relieve it, and compelled the Consuls to withdraw;
+but he was unable to force either of them to fight. Shortly afterward he
+returned again to the south to urge on the siege of the citadel of
+Tarentum, which still held out; and he spent the winter and the whole of
+the ensuing spring (B.C. 211) in its immediate neighborhood. But during
+his absence the Consuls had renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted
+it with such activity, that they had succeeded in surrounding the city
+with a double line of intrenchments. The pressing danger once more
+summoned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented himself before
+the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from without, while the
+garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous sally from the walls. Both
+attacks were however repulsed, and Hannibal, foiled in his attempt to
+raise the siege by direct means, determined on the bold manoeuvre of
+marching directly upon Rome itself, in hopes of thus compelling the
+Consuls to abandon their designs upon Capua, in order to provide for the
+defense of the city. But this daring scheme was again frustrated; the
+appearance of Hannibal before the gates of Rome for a moment struck
+terror through the city; but a considerable body of troops was at the
+time within the walls; and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of
+Hannibal's march, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from
+Capua, while he still left with the other Consul a force amply
+sufficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed in the
+main object of his advance, and he had no means of effecting any thing
+against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius confined themselves
+strictly to the defensive, allowing him to ravage the whole country
+without opposition, up to the very walls of Rome. Nothing therefore
+remained for him but to retreat, and he accordingly recrossed the Anio,
+and marched slowly and sullenly through the land of the Sabines and
+Samnites, ravaging the country which he traversed. From thence he
+retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua to its fate. The city soon after
+surrendered to the Romans. Its punishment was terrible. All the leaders
+of the insurrection were beheaded; the chief men were imprisoned; and
+the rest of the people were sold. The city and its territory were
+confiscated, and became part of the Roman domain.
+
+The commencement of the next season (B.C. 210) was marked by the fall of
+Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to Marcellus; but this
+loss was soon avenged by the total defeat and destruction of the army of
+the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. The Consul Marcellus, on his
+part, carefully avoided an action for the rest of the campaign, while he
+harassed his opponent by every possible means. Thus the rest of that
+summer too wore away without any important results. But this state of
+comparative inactivity was necessarily injurious to the cause of
+Hannibal; the nations of Italy that had espoused that cause when
+triumphant now began to waver in their attachment; and in the course of
+the following summer (B.C. 209) the Samnites and Lucanians submitted to
+Rome, and were admitted to favorable terms. A still more disastrous blow
+to the Carthaginian cause was the loss of Tarentum, which was betrayed
+into the hands of Fabius, as it had been into those of Hannibal. In vain
+did the latter seek to draw the Roman general into a snare; the wary
+Fabius eluded his toils. The recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit
+in the military life of the aged Fabius, and was a noble completion to
+his long list of achievements. From the time of the battle of Cannae he
+had directed almost exclusively the councils of his country, and his
+policy had been pre-eminently successful; but the times now demanded
+bolder measures, and something else was necessary than the caution of
+the Lingerer to bring the war to a close.
+
+After the fall of Tarentum Hannibal still traversed the open country
+unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies. Yet we can not
+suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate success from any efforts
+of his own; his object was doubtless now only to maintain his ground in
+the south until his brother Hasdrubal should appear in the north of
+Italy, an event to which he had long anxiously looked forward. Yet the
+following summer (B.C. 208) was marked by some brilliant achievements.
+The two Consuls, Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to Hannibal
+in Lucania, allowed themselves to be led into an ambush, in which
+Marcellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally wounded. Marcellus was one
+of the ablest of the Roman generals. Hannibal displayed a generous
+sympathy for his fate, and caused due honors to be paid to his remains.
+
+The following year (B.C. 207) decided the issue of the war in Italy. The
+war in Spain during the last few years had been carried on with
+brilliant success by the young P. Scipio, of whose exploits we shall
+speak presently. But in B.C. 208, Hasdrubal, leaving the two other
+Carthaginian generals to make head against Scipio, resolved to set out
+for Italy to the assistance of his brother. As Scipio was in undisputed
+possession of the province north of the Iberus, and had secured the
+passes of the Pyrenees on that side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains
+near their western extremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul. After
+spending a winter in that country, he prepared to cross the Alps in the
+spring of B.C. 207, and to descend into Italy. The two Consuls for this
+year were C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius. Nero marched into Southern
+Italy to keep a watch upon Hannibal; Livius took up his quarters at
+Ariminum to oppose Hasdrubal. The latter experienced little loss or
+difficulty in crossing the Alps. The season of the year was favorable,
+and the Gauls were friendly to his cause. But instead of pushing on at
+once into the heart of Italy, he allowed himself to be engaged in the
+siege of Placentia, and lost much precious time in fruitless efforts to
+reduce that colony. When at length he abandoned the enterprise, he sent
+messengers to Hannibal to apprize him of his movements, and concert
+measures for their meeting in Umbria. But his dispatches fell into the
+hands of the Consul Nero, who formed the bold resolution of instantly
+marching with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, and fall
+upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal could receive
+any information of his brother's movements. Nero executed his design
+with equal secrecy and rapidity. Hannibal knew nothing of his departure,
+and in a week's time Nero marched 250 miles to Sena, where his colleague
+was encamped in presence of Hasdrubal. He entered the camp of Livius in
+the night, that his arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians.
+After a day's rest the two Consuls proceeded to offer battle; but
+Hasdrubal, perceiving the augmented numbers of the Romans, and hearing
+the trumpet sound twice, felt convinced that the Consuls had united
+their forces, and that his brother had been defeated. He therefore
+declined the combat, and in the following night commenced his retreat
+toward Ariminum. The Romans pursued him, and he found himself compelled
+to give them battle on the right bank of the Metaurus. On this occasion
+Hasdrubal displayed all the qualities of a consummate general; but his
+forces were greatly inferior to those of the enemy, and his Gaulish
+auxiliaries were of little service. The gallant resistance of the
+Spanish and Ligurian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the Romans;
+but all was of no avail, and seeing the battle irretrievably lost, he
+rushed into the midst of the enemy, and fell, sword in hand, in a manner
+worthy of the son of Hamilcar and the brother of Hannibal. The Consul
+Nero hastened back to Apulia almost as speedily as he had come, and
+announced to Hannibal the defeat and death of his brother by throwing
+into his camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. "I recognize," said
+Hannibal, sadly, "the doom of Carthage."
+
+The victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, decisive of
+the fate of the war in Italy, and the conduct of Hannibal shows that he
+felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned all thoughts of
+offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons from Metapontum and
+other towns that he still held in Lucania, collected together his forces
+within the peninsula of the Bruttii. In the fastnesses of that wild and
+mountainous region he maintained his ground for nearly four years, while
+the towns that he still possessed on the coast gave him the command of
+the sea.
+
+[Footnote 33: See the map in the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 34: The story that Archimedes set the Roman ships on fire by
+the reflected rays of the sun is probably a fiction, though later
+writers give an account of this burning mirror.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Upon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed
+in a cylinder. When Cicero was Quaestor in Sicily (B.C. 75), he found his
+tomb near one of the gates of the city, almost hid among briers, and
+forgotten by the Syracusans.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Hannibal.]
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+SECOND PUNIC WAR. THIRD PERIOD: FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE
+CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
+
+
+After the battle of the Metaurus, the chief interest of the war was
+transferred to Spain and Africa. The Roman armies were led by a youthful
+hero, perhaps the greatest man that Rome ever produced, with the
+exception of Julius Caesar. The remaining period of the war is little
+more than the history of P. Scipio. This extraordinary man was the son
+of P. Scipio, who fell in Spain in B.C. 212, as already related. In his
+early years he acquired, to an extraordinary extent, the confidence and
+admiration of his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe
+that he was a special favorite of heaven; and he never engaged in any
+public or private business without first going to the Capitol, where he
+sat some time alone, enjoying communion with the gods. For all he
+proposed or executed he alleged the divine approval: he believed himself
+in the revelations which he asserted had been vouchsafed to him; and the
+extraordinary success which attended all his enterprises deepened this
+belief.
+
+P. Scipio is first mentioned in B.C. 218 at the battle of the
+Ticinus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father,
+though he was then only 17 years of age. He fought at Cannae two years
+afterward (B.C. 216), when he was already a tribune of the soldiers, and
+was one of the few Roman officers who survived that fatal day. He was
+chosen along with Appius Claudius to command the remains of the army,
+which had taken refuge at Canusium; and it was owing to his youthful
+heroism and presence of mind that the Roman nobles, who had thought of
+leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their rash
+project into effect. He had already gained the favor of the people to
+such an extent that he was unanimously elected AEdile in B.C. 212. On
+this occasion he gave indications of the proud spirit, and of the
+disregard of all the forms of law, which distinguished him throughout
+life; for when the tribunes objected to the election, because he was not
+of the legal age, he haughtily replied, "If all the Quirites wish to
+make me AEdile, I am old enough." After the death of Scipio's father and
+uncle, C. Nero was sent out as Propraetor to supply their place; but
+shortly afterward the Senate resolved to increase the army in Spain, and
+to place it under the command of a Proconsul to be elected by the
+people. But when they were assembled for this purpose, none of the
+generals of experience ventured to apply for so dangerous a command. At
+length Scipio, who was then barely twenty-four, to the surprise of every
+one, offered himself as a candidate. But the confidence which he felt in
+himself he communicated to the people, and he was accordingly chosen
+with enthusiasm to take the command.
+
+Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of B.C. 210. He found that the
+three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal, son of Barca, Hasdrubal, son of
+Gisco, and Mago, were not on good terms, and were at the time engaged in
+separate enterprises in distant parts of the peninsula. Instead of
+attacking any of them singly, he formed the project of striking a deadly
+blow at the Carthaginian power by a sudden and unexpected attack upon
+New Carthage. He gave the command of the fleet to his intimate friend
+Laelius, to whom alone he intrusted the secret of the expedition, while
+he led the land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The
+project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian garrison did
+not amount to more than a thousand men, and before any succor could
+arrive New Carthage was taken by assault. The hostages who had been
+given by the various Spanish tribes to the Carthaginians had been placed
+for security in the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who
+treated them with kindness; and the hostages of those people who
+declared themselves in favor of the Romans were restored without ransom.
+Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines of arms, corn, and other
+necessaries, for the Carthaginians had there deposited their principal
+stores.
+
+The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. Many of
+the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause; and when Scipio
+took the field in the following year (B.C. 209) Mandonius and Indibilis,
+two of the most powerful and hitherto the most faithful supporters of
+Carthage, quitted the camp of Hasdrubal Barca, and awaited the arrival
+of the Roman commander. Hasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near
+the town of Baecula, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquiver),
+where he was attacked and defeated by Scipio. He succeeded, however, in
+making good his retreat, and retired into northern Spain. He
+subsequently crossed the Pyrenees, and marched into Italy to the
+assistance of his brother Hannibal, as already narrated.
+
+In B.C. 207 Scipio gained possession of nearly the whole of Spain, by a
+decisive victory near a place variously called Silpia or Elinga, but the
+position of which is quite uncertain.
+
+Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and Mago, took refuge within the walls of
+Gades, which was almost the only place that now belonged to the
+Carthaginians; and all the native chiefs hastened to acknowledge the
+supremacy of Rome. But the victories of Scipio had had but a small share
+in winning Spain. His personal influence had won far more people than
+his arms had conquered. He had gained such an ascendency over the
+Spaniards by his humanity and courage, his courtesy and energy, that
+they were ready to lay down their lives for him, and wished to make him
+their king.
+
+The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a means to an
+end. He had formed the project of transferring the war to Africa, and
+thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. He
+therefore resolved, before returning to Rome, to cross over into Africa,
+and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of some of the
+native princes. His personal influence had already secured the
+attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the Massylians, or
+Western Numidians, who was serving in the Carthaginian army in Spain;
+and he trusted that the same personal ascendency might gain the more
+powerful support of Syphax, the king of the Massaesylians, or Eastern
+Numidians. With only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province
+and repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old adversary,
+Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, who had crossed over from Gades for the same
+purpose; and the two generals spent several days together in friendly
+intercourse. Scipio made a great impression upon Syphax; but the charms
+of Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in
+marriage to Syphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax
+married her, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally of
+the Carthaginians.
+
+During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection had broken
+out in Spain; but on his return it was speedily put down, and terrible
+vengeance was inflicted upon the town of Illiturgis, which had taken the
+principal share in the revolt. Scarcely had this danger passed away when
+Scipio was seized with a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman
+soldiers, discontented with not having received their usual pay, availed
+themselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny; but Scipio
+quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy. He crushed the last
+remains of the insurrection in Spain; and to crown his other successes,
+Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. Mago had quitted Spain, and
+crossed over into Liguria, to effect a diversion in favor of his brother
+Hannibal, and there was therefore now no longer any enemy left in Spain.
+
+Scipio returned to Rome in B.C. 206, and immediately offered himself as
+a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for the following year
+(B.C. 205) by the unanimous votes of all the centuries, although he had
+not yet filled the office of Praetor, and was only 30 years of age. His
+colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus, who could not,
+therefore, leave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on
+abroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. The
+latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the contest to
+an end at the gates of Carthage; but the older members of the Senate,
+and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed the project, partly through
+timidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All that
+Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permission to
+invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage of the Republic;
+but the Senate resolutely refused him an army, thus making the
+permission of no practical use. The allies had a truer view of the
+interests of Italy than the Roman Senate; from all the towns of Italy
+volunteers flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. The Senate
+could not refuse to allow him to enlist these volunteers; and such was
+the enthusiasm in his favor that he was able to cross over to Sicily
+with an army and a fleet, contrary to the expectations and even the
+wishes of the Senate. While busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent
+over Laelius to Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of
+co-operation with Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly
+succeeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had no authority
+in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of Locri, and after the
+conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius in command. The latter had
+been guilty of such acts of excesses against the inhabitants, that they
+sent an embassy to Rome to complain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus
+eagerly availed himself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against
+the conduct of Scipio, and to urge his immediate recall. Scipio's
+magnificent style of living, and his love of Greek literature and art,
+were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations upon old Roman
+manners and frugality. It was asserted that the time which ought to be
+given to the exercise and the training of his troops was wasted in the
+Greek gymnasia or in literary pursuits. Though the Senate lent a willing
+ear to these attacks, they did not venture upon his immediate recall,
+but sent a commission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army.
+During the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations;
+and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his army
+and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners were
+astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to return to Rome,
+they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as possible.
+
+Accordingly, in B.C. 204, Scipio, who was now Proconsul, sailed from
+Lilybaeum and landed in Africa, not far from Utica. He was immediately
+joined by Masinissa, who rendered him the most important services in the
+war. He commenced the campaign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his
+quarters on a projecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot
+which long bore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the
+Carthaginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under the
+command of Hasdrubal, son of Cisco, Scipio's old opponent in Spain; and
+Syphax came to their assistance with a great force.
+
+In the beginning of B.C. 203 Scipio planned a night-attack upon the two
+camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With the assistance of
+Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with success: the two camps were
+burned to the ground, and only a few of the enemy escaped the fire and
+the sword. Among these, however, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax; the
+former fled to Carthage, where he persuaded the Senate to raise another
+army, and the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he
+likewise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again
+defeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his appearance
+again in Carthage, and Syphax once more fled into Numidia. Scipio did
+not give the Numidian prince any repose; he was pursued by Laelius and
+Masinissa, and finally taken prisoner. Among the captives who fell into
+their hands was Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long
+loved, and had expected to marry when she was given to his rival.
+Masinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity, but, to
+prevent her falling into the hands of the Romans, determined to marry
+her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly celebrated without delay;
+but Scipio, fearful of the influence which she might exercise over his
+ally, sternly upbraided him with his weakness, and insisted on the
+immediate surrender of the princess. Unable to resist this command,
+Masinissa spared her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl
+of poison, which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to
+her own life.
+
+These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that they resolved
+to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted Italy in B.C. 203, to the
+great joy of the Romans. For more than 15 years had he carried on the
+war in that country, laying it waste from one extremity to another; and
+during all this period his superiority in the field had been
+uncontested. The Romans calculated that in these 15 years their losses
+in the field alone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men; a
+statement which will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the
+continued combats in which they were engaged by their ever-watchful foe.
+
+As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Carthaginians
+revived, and they looked forward to a favorable termination of the war.
+Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of the real state of affairs;
+he saw that the loss of a battle would be the ruin of Carthage, and he
+was therefore anxious to conclude a peace before it was too late.
+Scipio, who was eager to have the glory of bringing the war to a close,
+and who feared lest his enemies in the Senate might appoint him a
+successor, was equally desirous of a peace. The terms, however, which
+the Roman general proposed seemed intolerable to the Carthaginians; and
+as Hannibal, at a personal interview with Scipio, could not obtain any
+abatement of the hard conditions, he was forced, against his will, to
+continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which are related
+very differently, our limits will not permit us to enter. The decisive
+battle was at length fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, on the
+Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama; and Hannibal, according to the
+express testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occasion all the
+qualities of a consummate general. But he was now particularly deficient
+in that formidable cavalry which had so often decided the victory in his
+favor; his elephants, of which he had a great number, were rendered
+unavailing by the skillful management of Scipio; and the battle ended in
+his complete defeat, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran
+infantry. Twenty thousand of his men fell on the field of battle, as
+many were made prisoners, and Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped
+the pursuit of Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first
+to admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the
+impossibility of the farther prosecution of the war. The terms, however,
+now imposed by Scipio were much more severe than before. Carthage had
+no alternative but submission; but the negotiations were continued for
+some time, and a final treaty was not concluded till the following year
+(B.C. 201). By this treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to
+preserve their independence and territory in Africa, but to give up all
+claims to any foreign possessions; that they were to surrender all
+prisoners and deserters, all their ships of war except ten triremes, and
+all their elephants; that they were not to make war in Africa, or out of
+Africa, without the consent of Rome; that they were to acknowledge
+Masinissa as king of Numidia; that they were to pay 10,000 talents in
+silver in the course of fifty years.
+
+Scipio returned to Italy in B.C. 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He
+was received with universal enthusiasm; the surname of Africanus was
+conferred upon him, and the people, in their gratitude, were anxious to
+distinguish him with the most extraordinary marks of honor. It is
+related that they wished to make him Consul and Dictator for life, and
+to erect his statue in the Comitia, the Senate-house, and even in the
+Capitol, but that he prudently declined all these invidious
+distinctions.
+
+[Illustration: The Capitoline Wolf.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antiochus the Great.]
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WARS IN THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS. B.C.
+214-188.
+
+
+The Second Punic War made the Romans undisputed masters of the western
+shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica were Roman
+provinces; Spain owned the Roman supremacy; Carthage was completely
+humbled, and her powerful neighbor Masinissa was the steadfast ally of
+Rome. The Roman Republic was now the most powerful state in the ancient
+world. Her legions had been trained to war by long struggles with Gauls,
+Spaniards, and Africans, and were superior to all other troops in
+discipline, experience, and valor. She now naturally turned her eyes
+toward the East, whose effeminate nations seemed to offer an easy
+conquest.
+
+The Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of Alexander the
+Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The mighty kingdom of SYRIA,
+which had once extended from the Indus to the AEgean Sea, had now lost
+some of its fairest provinces. The greater part of Asia Minor no longer
+owned the authority of the Syrian kings. PONTUS was governed by its own
+rulers. A large body of Gauls had settled in the northern part of
+Phrygia, which district was now called GALATIA after them. A new kingdom
+was founded in Mysia, to which the name of PERGAMUS was given from its
+chief city; and Attalus, who was king of Pergamus during the Second
+Punic War, formed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Syria
+and Macedonia. The king of Syria at this time was Antiochus III., who,
+from his victory over the Parthians, had received the surname of the
+Great.
+
+EGYPT was governed by the Greek monarchs who bore the name of Ptolemy.
+They had, even as early as the time of Pyrrhus, formed an alliance with
+Rome (see p. 66)(Fourteenth paragraph of Chapter IX.--Transcriber). The
+kingdom had since declined in power, and upon the death of Ptolemy IV.,
+surnamed Philopator, in B.C. 205, the ministers of his infant son
+Ptolemy Epiphanes, dreading the ambitious designs of the Macedonian and
+Syrian kings, placed him under the protection of the Roman Senate, who
+consented to become his guardians.
+
+The Republic of RHODES was the chief maritime power in the AEgean Sea. It
+extended its dominion over a portion of the opposite coasts of Caria and
+Lycia, and over several of the neighboring islands. Like the king of
+Pergamus, the Rhodians had formed an alliance with Rome as a protection
+against Macedonia.
+
+MACEDONIA was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time by Philip
+V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended the throne in B.C.
+220, at the early age of seventeen. His dominion extended over the
+greater part of Greece; but two new powers had sprung up since the death
+of Alexander, which served as some counterpoise to the Macedonian
+supremacy. Of these the most important was the ACHAEAN LEAGUE, which
+embraced Corinth, Arcadia, and the greater part of the Peloponnesus.[36]
+The AETOLIAN LEAGUE included at this time a considerable portion of
+Central Greece. ATHENS and SPARTA still retained their independence, but
+with scarcely a shadow of their former greatness and power.
+
+Such was the state of the Eastern world when it came into contact with
+the arms of Rome.
+
+We have already seen that during the Second Punic War Philip had been
+engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic. Demetrius of Pharos, who
+had been driven by the Romans from his Illyrian dominions,[37] had taken
+refuge at the court of Philip, and soon acquired unbounded influence
+over the mind of the young king. This wily Greek urged him to take up
+arms against the grasping Republic; and the ambition of Philip was still
+farther excited by the victories of Hannibal. After the battle of Cannae
+(B.C. 216) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal; but, instead of
+supporting the Carthaginian army and fleet, his proceedings were marked
+by an unaccountable degree of hesitation and delay. It was not till B.C.
+214 that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, and laid siege to
+Oricus and Apollonia, which the Romans had retained possession of at the
+close of the Illyrian war.[37] He succeeded in taking Oricus; but the
+arrival of a small Roman force, under the command of M. Valerius
+Laevinus, compelled him to raise the siege of Apollonia, and to burn his
+own ships to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. For the
+next three years the war was carried on with unaccountable slackness on
+both sides; but in B.C. 211 it assumed a new character in consequence of
+the alliance which the Romans formed with the AEtolian League. Into the
+details of the campaigns which followed it is unnecessary to enter; but
+the attention of the Romans was soon afterward directed to affairs in
+Spain, and the AEtolians were left almost alone to cope with Philip. The
+Achaeans also joined Philip against the AEtolians, and the latter people
+were so hard pressed that they were glad to make peace with the
+Macedonian king. Shortly afterward the Romans, who were desirous of
+turning their undivided attention to the invasion of Africa, also
+concluded peace with him (B.C. 205).
+
+The peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War, was probably
+regarded by both parties as little more than a suspension of
+hostilities. Philip even went so far as to send to the Carthaginians in
+Africa a body of 4000 men, who fought at Zama under the command of
+Hannibal. At the same time he proceeded to carry out his plans for his
+own aggrandizement in Greece, with out any regard to the Roman alliances
+in that country. In order to establish his naval supremacy in the AEgean
+Sea, he attacked the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, both of
+whom were allies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with
+Antiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian
+monarchy, which was placed under the guardianship of the Roman people.
+
+It was impossible for the Senate to pass over these acts of hostility,
+and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of the Second Punic
+War, the Consul P. Sulpicius Galba proposed to the Comitia of the
+Centuries that war should be declared against Philip. But the people
+longed for repose, and rejected the proposition by the almost unanimous
+vote of every century. It was only by the most earnest remonstrance, and
+by representing to them that, unless they attacked Philip in Greece, he
+would invade Italy, like Hannibal, that they were induced to reverse
+their decision and declare war (B.C. 200).
+
+Philip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which had joined
+Attalus and the Rhodians. The Consul Galba crossed over to Epirus, and
+Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet; but before he withdrew, Philip,
+prompted by anger and revenge, displayed his barbarism by destroying the
+gardens and buildings in the suburbs, including the Lyecum and the
+tombs of the Attic heroes; and in a second incursion which he made with
+large re-enforcements he committed still greater excesses. For some
+time, however, the war lingered on without any decided success on
+either side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in B.C. 199,
+effected nothing of importance, and it was not till the appointment of
+the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to the command that the war was
+earned on with energy and vigor (B.C. 198). He forced his way through
+the passes of Antigonea, which were occupied by the enemy, invaded
+Thessaly, and took up his winter quarters in Phocis and Locris. In the
+following year (B.C. 197) the struggle was brought to a termination by
+the battle of Cynoscephalae (Dogs' Heads), a range of hills near
+Scotussa, in Thessaly. The Roman legions gained an easy victory over the
+once formidable Macedonian phalanx: 8000 Macedonians were killed and
+5000 taken prisoners, while Flamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was
+obliged to sue for peace, and in the following year (B.C. 196) a treaty
+was ratified by which the Macedonians were compelled to renounce their
+supremacy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian towns, to
+surrender their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the
+war, half at once, and half by annual instalments in the course of ten
+years. Thus ended the SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.
+
+At the ensuing Isthmian games, which were celebrated at Corinth in the
+summer of this year, Flamininus was present, and a herald at his command
+solemnly proclaimed the independence and freedom of Greece. This
+unexpected news was received with overwhelming gratitude and joy; the
+throngs of people that crowded round Flamininus to catch a sight of
+their liberator, or to touch his garment, were so enormous as almost to
+endanger his life. Flamininus remained two years longer in Greece in
+order to settle the affairs of the country. He seems to have been
+actuated by a sincere desire to restore the internal peace and welfare
+of Greece; and whenever his actions appear at variance with this object,
+he was under the influence of the policy of the Republic. Thus, though
+he made war upon Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and deprived him of the
+southern portion of Laconia, he did not expel him from Sparta, that he
+might serve as a useful check upon the Achaeans. When Flamininus returned
+to Italy in B.C. 194, he withdrew the Roman garrisons from all the
+Grecian towns, even from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, the three
+strongest fortresses in the country, which were called the Fetters of
+Greece. On his departure he convoked an assembly of the Greeks at
+Corinth, in which he exhorted them to use their freedom wisely, and to
+remain faithful to Rome. Flamininus had been absent five years. His
+reputation was second only to that of Scipio Africanus. His triumph,
+which was most magnificent, lasted three days.
+
+It has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an alliance with
+Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great, for the dismemberment
+of the Egyptian monarchy. During the war between Philip and the Romans,
+Antiochus had occupied Asia Minor, and was preparing to cross into
+Greece. Upon the conclusion of this war, Flamininus sternly forbade him
+to set foot in Europe, and for a time he shrank from a contest with the
+victorious arms of Rome. But the AEtolians, who had fought on the Roman
+side, were discontented with the arrangements of Flamininus. Their
+arrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory of
+Cynoscephalae, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the spoils of
+the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before the AEtolians
+endeavored to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antiochus to enter into a
+league against the Romans. Philip at once refused, but Nabis took up
+arms, and Antiochus willingly entered into the designs of the AEtolians.
+At this time Hannibal appeared as an exile at the Syrian court. After
+the Second Punic War he had set himself to work, like his father
+Hamilcar at the end of the previous war, to prepare means for renewing
+the contest at no distant period. He introduced various reforms in the
+constitution, and seems to have deprived the Oligarchy of their
+exclusive power; but they avenged themselves by denouncing him to the
+Romans as engaged in negotiations with Antiochus to induce him to take
+up arms against Rome. The Senate sent envoys to Carthage to inquire into
+these charges; and Hannibal, seeing that his enemies were too strong for
+him, secretly took flight, and reached the court of Antiochus in safety.
+He was received with the highest honors, and urged the king to place an
+army at his disposal with which he might invade Italy. But Antiochus was
+persuaded by the AEtolians to cross over into Greece, and accordingly
+landed at Demetrias in Thessaly in B.C. 192. The Romans now declared war
+against Antiochus, and in the following year (B.C. 191) the Consul
+Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly. The king had intrenched himself
+in the passes of Thermopylae, that he might prevent the Romans from
+penetrating into Central Greece. But there was, as is well known, a
+difficult passage across Mount Oeta, by which the Persians had
+descended to fight with Leonidas. This passage was now forced by M.
+Cato, who was serving as one of the Consul's lieutenants, and as soon as
+he appeared in the rear of the Syrian army they fled in confusion, and
+the battle was won. Antiochus now hastened back to Asia, abandoning all
+farther hopes of conquest in Greece. As soon as he had placed the sea
+between himself and the Romans he thought that he was safe; but
+Hannibal warned him of his error, and said that he wondered that the
+Romans had not already followed him.
+
+Next year (B.C. 190) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the great
+Africanus, and C. Laelius, the intimate friend of the latter, were
+Consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the command of the war against
+Antiochus; but the Senate had not much confidence in his ability, and it
+was only in consequence of his brother Africanus offering to serve under
+him as his lieutenant that he obtained the command which he desired.
+Meantime Antiochus had collected a vast army from all parts of his
+dominions, and, advancing northward from Ephesus, laid waste the kingdom
+of Pergamus. But upon the approach of the Roman army, which entered Asia
+by crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus retreated southward; and the
+decisive battle was fought near Magnesia, at the foot of Mount Sipylus.
+The Romans obtained an easy and bloodless victory over the vast but
+disorderly rabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 Romans fell, while
+Antiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave up the contest in despair,
+and humbly sued for peace. The conditions were hard. He had to cede all
+his dominions west of Mount Taurus (that is, the whole of Asia Minor),
+to pay 15,000 Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his
+elephants and ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans Hannibal and
+some others who had taken refuge at his court. Hannibal foresaw his
+danger, and made his escape to Crete, from whence he afterward repaired
+to the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia.
+
+L. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing with him
+enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he assumed the surname
+of ASIATICUS.
+
+The Romans were now at leisure to punish the AEtolians, who had to make
+head against the Romans by themselves. The Consul M. Fulvius Nobilior
+(B.C. 189) took their chief town, Ambracia, after an obstinate
+resistance, and compelled them to sue for peace. This was granted, but
+on the most humiliating conditions. They were required to acknowledge
+the supremacy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests they had recently
+made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid
+the Romans in their wars. The power of the AEtolian league was thus
+forever crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till
+a much later period.
+
+The colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Vulso, who had
+received Asia as his province, that he might conclude the peace which
+his predecessor, Scipio Asiaticus, had made with Antiochus, and arrange
+the affairs of Asia. But Manlius was not content with the subordinate
+part allotted to him; and being anxious for booty as much as for glory,
+he attacked the Galatians in Asia Minor, without waiting for any
+instructions from the Senate, and in direct opposition to the ten
+commissioners who had been sent to arrange conjointly with him the
+affairs of Asia. This was the first instance in which a Roman general
+had made war without the authority of the Senate or the People; a
+dangerous precedent, which was afterward only too faithfully followed.
+The Galatians were, as has been already said, a body of Gauls, who,
+after laying waste a great part of Asia Minor, had settled in the north
+of Phrygia. They had fought in the army of Antiochus at Magnesia, and
+this supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching against them. He
+defeated them in two battles, and compelled them to sue for peace. The
+campaign greatly enriched Manlius and his legions, as the Gauls had
+accumulated enormous wealth by their many conquests in Asia.
+
+Manlius remained another year (B.C. 188) in the East as Proconsul, and,
+in conjunction with the ten commissioners, formally concluded the peace
+with Antiochus, and settled the affairs of Asia. Eumenes, the king of
+Pergamus, received Mysia, Lydia, and part of Caria. The Rhodians
+obtained the remaining portion of Caria, together with Lycia and
+Pisidia. Manlius returned to Rome in B.C. 187, and his triumph, like
+that of Scipio Asiaticus, was most magnificent. But his soldiers, like
+that of Scipio, introduced into the city the luxuries of the East. These
+campaigns, as we shall presently see, exercised a most injurious
+influence upon the character of the Roman nobles and people, teaching
+them to love war for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them to
+acts of robbery and rapine.
+
+[Footnote 36: See the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 214.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See p. 79. (Eighth paragraph of Chapter
+XI.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)]
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+WARS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. B.C. 200-175.
+
+
+While the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth and winning
+easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the West were carrying
+on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls, Ligurians, and Spaniards.
+The Romans had hardly concluded the Second Punic War when they received
+intelligence that Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, had excited several
+tribes in Northern Italy to take up arms against Rome. These were the
+Gauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardy
+mountaineers, inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime Alps. They
+commenced the war in B.C. 200 by the capture and destruction of the
+Roman colony of Placentia, and by laying siege to that of Cremona, the
+two strong-holds of the Roman dominion in Northern Italy. The Romans now
+set themselves to work, with the characteristic stubbornness of their
+nation, to subdue thoroughly these tribes. The Insubres and the
+Cenomani, to the north of the Po, were the first to yield; but the Boii
+resisted for some years all the efforts of the Romans, and it was not
+till B.C. 191 that the Consul P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their
+final submission. He slaughtered the Boii without mercy, and made it one
+of the claims of his triumph that he had left only children and old men
+alive. This warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from
+henceforth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and gradually adopted
+the language and customs of Rome. The submission of the people was
+secured by the foundation of new colonies and the formation of military
+roads. In B.C. 190 a colony was established at Bononia, now Bologna, in
+the country of the Boii, and six years afterward others were also
+founded at Mutina (Modena) and Parma. A military road made by M. AEmilius
+Lepidus, Consul for B.C. 180, and called the Via AEmilia, was a
+continuation of the Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past Placentia,
+Mutina, and Parma to Placentia. The subjugation of the Ligurians was a
+longer and more difficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued the
+war, with intermissions, for a period of eighty years. The Romans, after
+penetrating into the heart of Liguria, were seldom able to effect more
+than to compel the enemy to disperse, and take refuge in their villages
+and castles, of which the latter were mountain fastnesses, in which they
+were generally able to defy their pursuers. But into the details of
+these long-protracted and inglorious hostilities it is unnecessary to
+enter.
+
+The conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Carthaginians out of
+Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in that country. Accordingly,
+soon after the end of the Second Punic War (about B.C. 198), the Romans
+proceeded to consolidate their dominion in Spain by dividing it into two
+provinces, each governed by a Praetor, which were called Hispania
+Citerior, or Hither Spain, and Hispania Ulterior, or Farther Spain, and
+divided from each other by the Iberus or the Ebro. But it was little
+more than the eastern part of the peninsula that was really subject to
+Rome. The powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the
+Lusitanians in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gallaecians in the
+northwest, still maintained their independence. The division of the
+country into two provinces showed that the Romans intended to occupy it
+permanently, and occasioned a general insurrection.
+
+The Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more fully presently,
+was sent to put down this insurrection (B.C. 195). The whole country was
+in arms; but his military genius and indefatigable industry soon
+re-established the superiority of Rome. He gained several decisive
+victories, contrived to set tribe against tribe, and took native
+mercenaries into his pay. The details of his campaign are full of
+horrors. We read of the wholesale slaughter of men who had laid down
+their arms, of multitudes sold as slaves, and of many more who had put
+themselves to death to escape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel
+any compunctions of conscience in the performance of what he considered
+a rigorous public task. He boasted of having destroyed more towns in
+Spain than he had spent days in that country. When he had reduced the
+whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, and temporary submission, he
+returned to Rome, and was rewarded with a triumph.
+
+The severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. They again
+took up arms, and continued to resist the Roman Praetors for the next
+sixteen years, till Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the father of the
+celebrated tribunes, after gaining several brilliant victories over the
+Celtiberians, granted them an honorable peace. By his wise measures and
+conciliatory conduct he won the affections of the natives, and induced
+them to submit to the Roman supremacy (B.C. 179).
+
+It remains to mention two other wars in the West. The Sardinians and
+Corsicans revolted, and held out for two years against the Conqueror of
+Spain (B.C. 177-175). But Gracchus effected their complete subjugation,
+and brought to Rome so large a number of captives for sale as to give
+rise to the proverb "Sardi venales" for any thing that was cheap and
+worthless.
+
+The Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been conquered by
+the Romans just before the Second Punic War. But their complete
+subjugation was now necessary, on account of their proximity to the
+newly-formed province of Cisalpine Gaul. Accordingly, the Consuls
+invaded Istria in B.C. 178, and in the following year the whole people
+was reduced to submission.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a Coin.)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Lictors.]
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.
+
+
+The career of foreign conquest upon which the Republic had now entered
+continued with little or no interruption till the establishment of the
+Empire. We may here pause to take a brief survey of the form of
+government, as well as of the military organization by which these
+conquests were effected.
+
+The earlier history of the Roman constitution has been already related.
+We have seen how, after a long struggle, the Plebeians acquired complete
+political equality with the Patricians. In the Second Punic War, the
+antagonism between the two orders had almost disappeared, and the only
+mark of separation between them in political matters was the regulation
+that, of the two Consuls and two Censors, one must be a Patrician and
+the other a Plebeian. Even this fell into disuse upon the rise of the
+new Nobility, of which we shall speak in the next chapter. The
+Patricians gradually dwindled away, and it became the custom to elect
+both Consuls and Censors from the Plebeians.[38]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. THE MAGISTRATES.--Every Roman citizen who aspired to the consulship
+had to pass through a regular gradation of public offices, and the
+earliest age at which he could become a candidate for them was fixed by
+a law passed in B.C. 179, and known by the name of the Lex Annalis. The
+earliest age for the Quaestorship, which was the first of these
+magistracies, was 27 years; for the AEdileship, 37; for the Praetorship,
+40; and for the Consulship, 43.
+
+All magistrates at Rome were divided into _Curules_ and those who were
+not Curules. The Curule Magistrates were the Dictators, Censors,
+Consuls, Praetors, and Curule AEdiles, and were so called because they had
+the right of sitting upon the _Sella Curulis_, originally an emblem of
+kingly power, imported, along with other insignia of royalty, from
+Etruria.
+
+1. The _Quaestors_ were the paymasters of the state. It was their duty to
+receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary payments for the
+military and civil services. There were originally only two Quaestors,
+but their number was constantly increased with the conquests of the
+Republic. Besides two Quaestors who always remained at Rome, every Consul
+or Praetor who conducted a war or governed a province was attended by one
+of these magistrates.
+
+2. The _AEdileship_ was originally a Plebeian office, instituted at the
+same time as the Tribuneship of the Plebs.[39] To the two Plebeian
+AEdiles two Curule AEdiles were added in B.C. 365. The four AEdiles in
+common had the charge of the public buildings,[40] the care of the
+cleansing and draining of the city, and the superintendence of the
+police. They had also the regulation of the public festivals; and the
+celebration of the Ludi Magni, or Great Games, was their especial
+function. Originally they received a sum of money from the state to
+defray the expenses of these games, but the grant was withdrawn about
+the time of the First Punic War; a measure attended with important
+consequences, since the higher magistracies were thus confined to the
+wealthy, who alone could defray the charges of these costly
+entertainments. After the Macedonian and Syrian wars, the Curule AEdiles
+often incurred a prodigious expense, with the view of pleasing the
+people, and securing their votes in future elections.
+
+3. The institution of the _Praetorship_ in B.C. 366 has been already
+narrated. There was originally only one Praetor, subsequently called
+Praetor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the administration of justice. In
+B.C. 246 a second Praetor was added, who had to decide cases in which
+foreigners were concerned, and who was hence called Praetor Peregrinus.
+When the territories of the state extended beyond Italy, new Praetors
+were created to govern the provinces. Two Praetors were appointed to
+take the administration of Sicily and Sardinia (B.C. 227), and two more
+were added when the two Spanish provinces were formed (B.C. 197). There
+were thus six Praetors, two of whom staid in the city and the other four
+went abroad. Each Praetor was attended by six Lictors.
+
+4. The _Consuls_ were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome, and were
+at the head both of the state and the army. They convoked the Senate and
+the Assembly of the Centuries; they presided in each, and had to see
+that the resolutions of the Senate and the People were carried into
+effect. They had the supreme command of the armies in virtue of the
+Imperium conferred upon them by a special vote of the People. At the
+head of the army, they had full power of life and death over their
+soldiers. They were preceded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of
+power was enjoyed by them month by month in turn.
+
+The magistrates above-mentioned were elected annually, but it was the
+practice frequently to prolong the command of the Consuls or Praetors in
+the provinces under the titles of Proconsuls or Propraetors. In the later
+times of the Republic it was usual for both Consuls and several Praetors
+to remain at Rome during their year of office, and at its close to take
+the command of provinces, with the titles of Proconsuls or Propraetors.
+
+5. The _Dictatorship_, which occurs so often in the early history of the
+Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic War. As the
+Republic became powerful, and had no longer to dread any enemies in
+Italy, there was no necessity for such an extraordinary magistracy as
+the Dictatorship, but whenever internal dangers seemed to require a
+stronger executive, the Senate invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power.[41]
+
+6. The _Censors_ were two in number, elected every five years, but they
+held their office for a year and a half. They were taken, as a general
+rule, from those who had been previously Consuls, and their office was
+regarded as the highest dignity in the state. Their duties, which were
+very extensive and very important, may be divided into three classes,
+all of which, however, were closely connected.
+
+(_a_). Their first and most important duty was to take the Census. This
+was not simply a list of the population, according to the modern use of
+the word, but a valuation of the property of every Roman citizen. This
+valuation was necessary, not only for the assessment of the
+property-tax, but also for determining the position of every citizen in
+the state, which was regulated, in accordance with the constitution of
+Servius Tullius, by the amount of his property. Accordingly, the Censors
+had to draw up lists of the Classes and Centuries. They also made out
+the lists of the Senators and Equites, striking out the names of all
+whom they deemed unworthy, and filling up all vacancies in the Senate.
+
+(_b._) The Censors possessed a general control over the conduct and
+morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important power they
+were not guided by any rules of law, but simply by their own sense of
+duty. They punished acts of private as well as public immorality, and
+visited with their censure not only offenses against the laws, but every
+thing opposed to the old Roman character and habits, such as living in
+celibacy, extravagance, luxury, etc. They had the power of degrading
+every citizen to a lower rank, of expelling Senators from the Senate, of
+depriving the Equites of their horses, and of removing ordinary citizens
+from their tribes, and thus excluding them from all political rights.
+
+(_c._) The Censors also had the administration of the finances of the
+state, under the direction of the Senate. They let out the taxes to the
+highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five years.[42] They
+likewise received from the Senate certain sums of money to keep the
+public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in repair,[43] and to construct
+new public works in Rome and other parts of Italy. Hence we find that
+many of the great public roads, such as the Via Appia and Via Flaminia,
+were made by Censors.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. THE SENATE.--The Senate was in reality the executive government of
+Rome, and the Magistrates, of whom we have been speaking, were only its
+ministers. The Senate consisted of Three Hundred members, who held the
+dignity for life unless expelled by the Censors for reasons already
+mentioned, but they could not transmit the honor to their sons. All
+vacancies in the body were filled up by the Censors every five years
+from those who had held the Quaestorship or any higher magistracy. The
+Censors were thus confined in their selection to those who had already
+received the confidence of the people, and no one could therefore enter
+the Senate unless he had some experience in political affairs.
+
+The power of the Senate was very great. It exercised a control over
+legislation, since no law could be proposed to the Assemblies of the
+People unless it had first received the approval of the Senate. In many
+cases "Senatus consulta"[44] were passed, which had the force of laws
+without being submitted to the Popular Assemblies at all. This was
+especially the case in matters affecting religion, police,
+administration, the provinces, and all foreign relations.
+
+In foreign affairs the authority of the Senate was absolute, with the
+exception of declaring war and making peace, which needed the sanction
+of the Centuries. The Senate assigned the provinces into which the
+Consuls and Praetors were to be sent; they determined the manner in which
+a war was to be conducted, and the number of troops to be levied; they
+prolonged the command of a general or superseded him at their pleasure,
+and on his return they granted or refused him a triumph; they alone
+carried on negotiations with foreign states, and all embassadors to
+foreign powers were appointed by the Senate from their own body.
+
+In home affairs they had the superintendence in all matters of religion.
+They had also the entire administration of the finances. When the
+Republic was in danger the Senate had the power of suspending the laws
+by the appointment of a Dictator, or by investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power, as already mentioned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES.--1. The _Comitia Curiata_, the Patrician
+assembly, had become a mere form as early as the First Punic War. The
+gradual decline of its power has been already traced. It continued to
+meet for the transaction of certain matters pertaining to the Patrician
+gentes, but was represented simply by 30 lictors.
+
+2. The constitution of the _Comitia Centuriata_, as established by
+Servius Tullius,[45] had undergone a great change between the time of
+the Licinian Rogations and the Punic Wars, but both the exact time and
+nature of this change are unknown. It appears, however, that its object
+was to give more power and influence to the popular element in the
+state. For this purpose the 35 tribes were taken as the basis of the new
+Constitution of the Centuries. Each tribe was probably divided into five
+property Classes, and each Classis was subdivided into two Centuries,
+one of Seniores and the other of Juniores. Each tribe would thus contain
+10 Centuries, and, consequently, the 35 tribes would have 350 Centuries,
+so that, with the 18 Centuries of the Knights, the total number of the
+Centuries would be 368.
+
+The Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the higher
+magistrates, the power of enacting laws, of declaring war and making
+peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accusations for treason
+were brought before the Centuries, and in all criminal matters every
+Roman citizen could appeal to them.[46] But, notwithstanding these
+extensive powers, their influence in the state was gradually superseded
+by the Assembly of the Tribes.
+
+3. The _Comitia Tributa_ obtained its superior influence and power
+mainly through its Tribunes. The Assembly of the Centuries, being
+summoned and presided over by the Consuls, was, to a great extent, an
+instrument in the hands of the Senate, while that of the Tribes, being
+guided by its own magistrates, and representing the popular element, was
+frequently opposed to the Senate, and took an active part in the
+internal administration of the state. The increasing power of the
+Tribunes naturally led to a corresponding increase in the power of the
+Tribes. The right of Intercession[47] possessed by the Tribunes was
+extended to all matters. Thus we find the Tribunes preventing the
+Consuls from summoning the Senate and from proposing laws to the Comitia
+of the Centuries. As the persons of the Tribunes were sacred, the Senate
+could exercise no control over them, while they, on the contrary, could
+even seize a Consul or a Censor, and throw him into prison. The only
+effective check which the Senate had upon the proceedings of the
+Tribunes was, that one Tribune could put his veto upon the acts of his
+colleagues. Consequently, by securing the support of one member of the
+body, the Senate were able to prevent the other Tribunes from carrying
+out their plans.
+
+The _Plebiscita_ enacted by the Tribes had the same force as the _Leges_
+of the Centuries.[48] There were thus two sovereign assemblies at Rome,
+each independent of the other; that of the Tribes, as already observed,
+was the most important at the period which we have now reached.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IV. FINANCES.--The ordinary expenditure of the Roman state was not
+large. All the magistrates discharged their duties without pay; and the
+allied troops, which formed so large a portion of a Roman army, were
+maintained by the allies themselves. The expenses of war were defrayed
+by a property-tax called _Tributum_, which was usually one in a
+thousand, or one tenth per cent., but after the last war with Macedonia
+the treasury received such large sums from the provinces that the
+tributum was abolished. From this time the expenses of the state were
+almost entirely defrayed by the taxes levied in the provinces. The other
+revenues of the state, which bore the general name of _Vectigalia_, may
+be dismissed with a few words. They consisted of the rents arising from
+the public lands, of the customs' duties, of the taxes upon mines, salt,
+etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+V. THE ARMY.--The Roman army was originally called _Legio_; and this
+name, which is coeval with the foundation of Rome, continued down to the
+latest times. The Legion was therefore not equivalent to what we call a
+regiment, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms, infantry,
+cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively employed, artillery
+also. The number of soldiers who, at different periods, were contained
+in a legion, does not appear to have been absolutely fixed, but to have
+varied within moderate limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000
+foot-soldiers. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
+the Second Punic War the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
+infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
+ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries after Marius
+the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally approaching to the
+higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard to the infantry, 300
+horsemen formed the regular complement of the legion. The organization
+of the legion differed at different periods.
+
+1. _First Period. Servius Tullius._--The legion of Servius is so closely
+connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
+discussed,[49] and it is only necessary to state here that it was a
+phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the front ranks being furnished
+with a complete suit of armor, their weapons being long spears, and
+their chief defense the round Argolic shield (_clipeus_).
+
+2. _Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340.--The legion in B.C.
+340 had almost entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now
+drawn up in three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The
+soldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of youths in the
+first bloom of manhood, distributed into 15 companies or maniples
+(_manipuli_), a moderate space being left between each. The maniple
+contained 60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a
+standard-bearer (_vexillarius_). The second line, the Principes, was
+composed of men in the full vigor of life, divided in like manner into
+15 maniples, all heavily armed. The two lines of the Hastati and
+Principes taken together amounted to 30 maniples, and formed the
+Antepilani. The third line, the Triarii, composed of tried veterans, was
+also in 15 divisions, but each of these was triple, containing 3
+maniples. In these triple maniples the veterans, or Triarii proper,
+formed the front ranks; immediately behind them stood the Rorarii,
+inferior in age and prowess, while the Accensi, or supernumeraries, less
+trustworthy than either, were posted in the extreme rear.
+
+3. _Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio._--Under
+ordinary circumstances four legions were levied yearly, two being
+assigned to each Consul. It must be observed that a regular consular
+army no longer consisted of Roman legions only, but, as Italy became
+gradually subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
+bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies usually exceeded
+that of the citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly distinct, both
+in the camp and in the battle-field.
+
+The men belonging to each legion were separated into four divisions. 1.
+1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart to form the Velites, the
+light-armed troops or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next
+in age (or who were of the same age with the preceding, but more
+wealthy) formed the Hastati. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full
+vigor of manhood, formed the Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most
+experienced formed the Triarii. When the number of soldiers in the
+legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
+proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the same.
+The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into 10 companies,
+called Maniples. The Velites were not divided into companies, but were
+distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. Each
+maniple was subdivided into two centuries, commanded by a centurion.
+Each legion had six superior officers, called Tribuni Militum. The
+legion was also divided into 10 cohorts; and as the cohorts were all
+equal to each other, the strength of the cohort varied from time to time
+with the strength of the legion, and thus at different periods ranged
+between the limits of 300 and 600.
+
+Three hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion, divided
+into 10 troops (_turmae_), out of which three officers were chosen named
+Decuriones.
+
+The infantry furnished by the Socii was for the most part equal in
+number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as numerous,
+and the whole were divided equally between the two consular armies. Each
+Consul named 12 superior officers, who were termed Praefecti Sociorum,
+and corresponded by the Legionary Tribunes.
+
+_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall of the
+Republic._[50]--After the times of the Gracchi the following changes in
+military affairs may be noticed: In the first consulship of Marius the
+legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades, without distinction
+of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were armed and equipped in the
+same manner, all being now furnished with the pilum. The legionaries,
+when in battle-order, were no longer arranged in three lines, each
+consisting of ten maniples with an open space between each maniple, but
+in two lines, each consisting of five cohorts, with a space between each
+cohort. The younger soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in
+reserve, the van being composed of veterans. As a necessary result of
+the above arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, Principes, and
+Triarii ceased to exist. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
+included under the general term Levis Armatura, consisted for the most
+part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in the use of some
+national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers, the Cretan archers
+(_sagittarii_), and the Moorish dartmen. When operations requiring great
+activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by mere
+skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, and
+marched without baggage for these special services.[51] The cavalry of
+the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous to that which
+took place with regard to the light-armed troops. The Roman Equites
+attached to the army were very few in number, and were chiefly employed
+as aids-de-camp and on confidential missions. The bulk of the cavalry
+consisted of foreigners, and hence we find the legions and the cavalry
+spoken of as completely distinct from each other. After the termination
+of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants of Italy became Roman
+citizens, the ancient distinction between the Legiones and the Socii
+disappeared, and all who had served as Socii became incorporated with
+the Legiones.
+
+In the course of the history the Triumphs granted to victorious generals
+have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief description of
+them may appropriately close this sketch of the Roman army. A Triumph
+was a solemn procession, in which a victorious general entered the city
+in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was preceded by the captives and
+spoils taken in war, was followed by his troops, and, after passing in
+state along the Via Sacra, ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in
+the Temple of Jupiter. From the beginning of the Republic down to the
+extinction of liberty a Triumph was recognized as the summit of military
+glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman general.
+After any decisive battle had been won, or a province subdued by a
+series of successful operations, the general forwarded to the Senate a
+laurel-wreathed dispatch containing an account of his exploits. If the
+intelligence proved satisfactory the Senate decreed a public
+thanksgiving.[52] After the war was concluded, the general, with his
+army, repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a given
+day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the Senate was held
+without the walls, that he might have an opportunity of urging his
+pretensions in person, and these were then scrutinized and discussed
+with the most jealous care. If the Senate gave their consent, they at
+the same time voted a sum of money toward defraying the necessary
+expenses, and one of the Tribunes applied for a plebiscitum to permit
+the Imperator to retain his imperium on the day when he entered the
+city. This last form could not be dispensed with, because the imperium
+conferred by the Comitia did not include the city itself; and
+accordingly the military power of the general ceased as soon as he
+re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been previously
+suspended by a special enactment.
+
+[Illustration: A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: Two Plebeian Consuls were first appointed in B.C. 172, and
+two Plebeian Censors in B.C. 131.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See p. 31. (Eighth paragraph of Chapter IV.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 40: Hence their name, from _AEdes_, a temple.]
+
+[Footnote 41: This was done by the well-known formula "Videant," or
+"Dent operam Consules, ne quid res publica detriment capiat."]
+
+[Footnote 42: These farmers of the public revenue were called
+_Publicani_.]
+
+[Footnote 43: It is not easy to define with accuracy the respective
+duties of the Censors and AEdiles in relation to the public buildings;
+but it may be stated in general that the superintendence of the AEdiles
+was more in the way of police, while that of the Censors had reference
+to all financial matters.]
+
+[Footnote 44: A _Senatus consultum_ was so called because the Consul who
+brought a matter before the Senate was said _Senatum consulere_.]
+
+[Footnote 45: See p. 19.(Ninth paragraph of Chapter III.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 46: The technical word for this appeal was _Provocatio_. The
+word _Appellatio_ signified an appeal from one magistrate to another.]
+
+[Footnote 47: See p. 31.(Eighth paragraph of Chapter IV.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 48: See p. 40.(Eighth paragraph of Chapter V.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 49: See p. 19.(Ninth paragraph of Chapter III.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 50: We anticipate the course of events in order to give under
+one view the history of the Roman legion.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as
+_expediti_, _expediti milites_, _expeditae cohortes_, and even _expeditae
+legiones_.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Called _Supplicatio_.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Scipio Africanus.]
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND
+SCIPIO.
+
+
+The conquests of the Romans in the East had exercised a most pernicious
+influence upon the national character. They were originally a hardy,
+industrious, and religious race, distinguished by unbending integrity
+and love of order. They lived with great frugality upon their small
+farms, which they cultivated with their own hands; but they were stern
+and somewhat cruel, and cared little or nothing for literature and the
+arts. Upon such a people the sudden acquisition of wealth produced its
+natural effects. They employed it in the gratification of their
+appetites, and in coarse sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles,
+such as Scipio Africanus, Flamininus (the conqueror of Philip), and
+others, acquired a love for Greek literature and art; but the great mass
+of the nation imitated only the vices of the Greeks. Cooks, who had
+formerly been the cheapest kind of slaves at Rome, now became the most
+valuable. A love of luxury and a general depravity gradually spread
+through all classes of society. A striking instance of the growing
+licentiousness of the times was brought to light in B.C. 186. It was
+discovered that the worship of Bacchus had been introduced from Southern
+Italy into Rome and other towns, and that secret societies were formed,
+which, under the cloak of this worship, indulged in the most abominable
+vices. A stringent inquiry was made into these practices; the most
+guilty were put to death; and a decree of the Senate was passed,
+forbidding the worship of Bacchus in Rome and throughout Italy.
+
+Another circumstance will illustrate the manners of the times. L.
+Flamininus, the brother of the conqueror of Philip, and Consul in B.C.
+192, took with him into Cisalpine Gaul a beautiful Carthaginian boy, to
+whom he was attached. The youth complained of leaving Rome just before
+the exhibition of the games of the gladiators. Shortly after reaching
+the province, when Flamininus was feasting with his favorite, a Boian
+chief came into the Consul's tent to implore his protection. Flamininus
+seized this opportunity to please the boy, and, telling him that he
+should be rewarded for not seeing the gladiators, he ordered an
+attendant to stab the Gaul, that his favorite might enjoy the dying
+agonies of the man.
+
+The increasing love of gladiatorial combats was another indication of
+the national character. These brutalizing sports are said to have taken
+their origin from the Etruscans, who were accustomed to kill slaves and
+captives at the funerals of their relatives. They were first exhibited
+at Rome in the beginning of the First Punic War (B.C. 264). At first
+confined to funerals, they were afterward exhibited by the AEdiles at the
+public games, with the view of pleasing the people. The passion for this
+brutalizing amusement rose to a great height toward the end of the
+Republic and under the Empire. Great pains were taken with the training
+of gladiators, who were divided into different classes according to
+their arms and modes of fighting.
+
+Among many other important consequences of these foreign wars, two
+exercised an especial influence upon the future fate of the Republic.
+The nobles became enormously rich, and the peasant proprietors almost
+entirely disappeared. The wealthy nobles now combined together to keep
+in their own families the public offices of the state, which afforded
+the means of making such enormous fortunes. Thus a new Nobility was
+formed, resting on wealth, and composed alike of plebeian and patrician
+families. Every one whose ancestry had not held any of the curule
+magistracies[53] was called a New Man, and was branded as an
+upstart.[54] It became more and more difficult for a New Man to rise to
+office, and the Nobles were thus almost an hereditary aristocracy in the
+exclusive possession of the government. The wealth they had acquired in
+foreign commands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious expense in
+the celebration of the public games in their aedileship, with the view of
+gaining the votes of the people at future elections, but also to spend
+large sums of money in the actual purchase of votes. The first law
+against bribery[55] was passed in B.C. 181, a sure proof of the growth
+of the practice.
+
+The decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable consequence of
+these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the earlier times the
+citizen-soldier, after a few weeks' campaign, returned home to cultivate
+his land; but this became impossible when wars were carried on out of
+Italy. Moreover, the soldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found
+life in the camp more pleasant than the cultivation of the ground. He
+was thus as ready to sell his land as the nobles were anxious to buy it.
+But money acquired by plunder is soon squandered. The soldier, returning
+to Rome, swelled the ranks of the poor; and thus, while the nobles
+became richer and richer, the lower classes became poorer and poorer. In
+consequence of the institution of slavery there was little or no demand
+for free labor, and as prisoners taken in war were sold as slaves, the
+slave-market was always well supplied. The estates of the wealthy were
+cultivated by large gangs of slaves; and even the mechanical arts, which
+give employment to such large numbers in the modern towns of Europe,
+were practiced by slaves, whom their masters had trained for the
+purpose. The poor at Rome were thus left almost without resources; their
+votes in the popular assembly were nearly the only thing they could turn
+into money, and it is therefore not surprising that they were ready to
+sell them to the highest bidder.
+
+Many distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman virtues
+disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corruptions of the
+national character. Of this party the most conspicuous member was M.
+Porcius Cato, who may be taken as a type of the old Roman character. He
+was born at Tusculum in B.C. 234. When a young man, the death of his
+father put him in possession of a small hereditary estate in the Sabine
+territory, at a distance from his native town. It was here that he
+passed the greater part of his boyhood, hardening his body by healthful
+exercise, and superintending and sharing the operations of the farm.
+Near his estate was an humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after
+three triumphs, by its owner M. Curius Dentatus, whose warlike exploits
+and simple character were often talked of with admiration in the
+neighborhood. The ardor of the youthful Cato was kindled. He resolved to
+imitate the character, and hoped to rival the glory, of Dentatus.
+Opportunity was not wanting. He took his first military lessons in the
+campaigns against Hannibal, and gained the favor and friendship of
+Fabius Maximus. He was also patronized by L. Valerius Flaccus, a Roman
+noble in his neighborhood, and a warm supporter of the old Roman
+manners, who had observed Cato's eloquence, as well as his martial
+spirit. Encouraged by Fabius and Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for
+office, and was elected Quaestor in B.C. 204. He followed P. Scipio
+Africanus to Sicily, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation
+between Cato and Scipio which ought to subsist between a Quaestor and his
+Proconsul. Fabius had opposed the permission given to Scipio to carry
+the attack into the enemy's home, and Cato, whose appointment was
+intended to operate as a check upon Scipio, adopted the views of his
+friend. Cato was Praetor in Sardinia in B.C. 198, where he took the
+earliest opportunity of illustrating his principles by his practice. He
+diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a single
+attendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and restrained
+usury with unsparing severity. He had now established a reputation for
+pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue. He was looked upon as the
+living type and representative of the ideal ancient Roman. To the
+advancement of such a man opposition was vain. In B.C. 195 he was
+elected Consul with his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus.
+During his consulship a strange scene took place peculiarly illustrative
+of Roman manners. In B.C. 215, at the height of the Punic War, a law had
+been passed, proposed by the Tribune Oppius, that no woman should
+possess more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a garment of divers
+colors, nor drive a carriage with horses within a mile of the city,
+except for the purpose of attending the public celebration of religious
+rites. Now that Hannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded with
+Carthaginian wealth, there being no longer any necessity for women to
+contribute toward the exigencies of an impoverished treasury the savings
+spared from their ornaments and pleasures, two Tribunes thought it time
+to propose the abolition of the Oppian law; but they were opposed by two
+of their colleagues. The most important affairs of state excited far
+less interest and zeal than this singular contest. The matrons blockaded
+every avenue to the forum, and intercepted their husbands as they
+approached, beseeching them to restore the ancient ornaments of the
+Roman matrons. Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague Cato was
+inexorable. Finally, the women carried the day. Worn out by their
+importunity, the two Tribunes withdrew their opposition, and the hated
+law was abolished by the suffrage of all the tribes.
+
+Cato's campaign in Spain during his Consulship, which added greatly to
+his military reputation, has been already related. He afterward served
+in Greece under M. Glabrio, where he distinguished himself at the battle
+of Thermopylae fought against Antiochus (B.C. 191).
+
+The victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first man in the
+Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies. But the party of
+Fabius still cherished their old animosity against him, and Cato
+inherited the hatred of his friend and patron. After the return of P.
+Scipio and his brother Lucius from the war against Antiochus, they were
+charged with having been bribed to let off the Syrian monarch too
+leniently, and of having appropriated to their own use a portion of the
+money which had been paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. The first
+blow was directed against Lucius Scipio. At the instigation of Cato, the
+two Petillii Tribunes of the people required Lucius to render an account
+of all sums of money which he had received from Antiochus. Lucius
+accordingly prepared his accounts; but, as he was in the act of
+delivering them up, the proud conqueror of Hannibal indignantly snatched
+them out of his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying "it was unworthy
+to call to account for a few thousands a man who had paid millions into
+the treasury." But this haughty conduct appears to have produced an
+unfavorable impression, and his brother, when brought to trial in the
+course of the tame year, was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a
+heavy fine. The Tribune ordered him to be dragged to prison, and there
+detained till the money was paid; whereupon Africanus, still more
+enraged at this fresh insult to his family, and setting himself above
+the laws, rescued his brother from the hands of the Tribune's officer.
+The contest would probably have been attended with fatal results had not
+Tib. Gracchus, the father of the celebrated Tribune, and then Tribune
+himself, had the prudence, although he disapproved of the violent
+conduct of Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from the sentence of
+imprisonment.
+
+The successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened his enemies
+to bring the great Africanus himself before the people. His accuser was
+the Tribune M. Naevius. When the trial came on, Scipio did not condescend
+to say a single word in refutation of the charges that had been brought
+against him, but descanted long and eloquently upon the signal services
+he had rendered to the commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the
+trial was adjourned till the following day. Early next morning, when the
+Tribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was
+summoned, he proudly reminded the people that this was the anniversary
+of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal at Zama, and called upon
+them to neglect all disputes and lawsuits, and follow him to the
+Capitol, there to return thanks to the immortal gods, and pray that they
+would grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a
+chord which vibrated in every heart; their veneration for the hero
+returned; and he was followed by such crowds to the Capitol that the
+Tribunes were left alone in the rostra. Having thus set all the laws at
+defiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to his country
+seat at Liternum. The Tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but
+Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never returned to
+Rome. He would neither submit to the laws, nor aspire to the sovereignty
+of the state, and he therefore resolved to expatriate himself forever.
+He passed his remaining days in the cultivation of his estate at
+Liternum, and at his death is said to have requested that his body might
+be buried there, and not in his ungrateful country (B.C. 183).
+
+Hannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent. Scipio was the
+only member of the Senate who opposed the unworthy persecution which the
+Romans employed against their once dreaded foe. Each of these great men,
+possessing true nobility of soul, could appreciate the other's merits. A
+story is told that Scipio was one of the embassadors sent to Antiochus
+at Ephesus, at whose court Hannibal was then residing, and that he there
+had an interview with the great Carthaginian, who declared him the
+greatest general that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a manner
+the most flattering to Scipio. The latter had asked, "Who was the
+greatest general?" "Alexander the Great," was Hannibal's reply. "Who was
+the second?" "Pyrrhus." "Who was the third?" "Myself," replied the
+Carthaginian. "What would you have said, then, if you had conquered me?"
+asked Scipio, in astonishment. "I should then have placed myself above
+Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all other generals."
+
+After the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already seen, took
+up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there found for some
+years a secure asylum. But the Romans could not be at ease so long as
+Hannibal lived, and T. Flamininus was at length dispatched to the court
+of Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. The Bithynian king
+was unable to resist; but Hannibal, who had long been in expectation of
+such an event, took poison to avoid falling into the hands of his
+implacable foes.
+
+We now return to Cato, whose Censorship (B.C. 184) was a great epoch in
+his life. He applied himself strenuously to the duties of his office,
+regardless of the enemies he was making. He repaired the water-courses,
+paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the rents paid by the
+publicani for farming the taxes, and diminished the contract-prices
+disbursed by the state to the undertakers of public works. There can be
+no doubt that great abuses existed in the management of the public
+finances, with which nothing but the undaunted courage and
+administrative abilities of Cato could have successfully grappled. He
+was disturbing a nest of hornets, and all his future life was troubled
+by their buzz, and their attempts to sting. But, though he was accused
+no fewer than forty-four times during the course of his life, it was
+only once that his enemies prevailed against him. His enactments against
+luxury were severe and stringent. He levied a heavy tax upon expensive
+slaves and costly furniture and dress. He justly degraded from the
+Senate L. Flamininus for the act of abominable cruelty in Gaul which has
+been already narrated.[56]
+
+The strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminished in
+force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old age to the
+study of Greek literature, with which in youth he had no acquaintance,
+although he was not ignorant of the Greek language. Himself an historian
+and orator, the excellences of Demosthenes and Thucydides made a deep
+impression upon his kindred mind. But throughout life his conduct was
+guided by prejudices against classes and nations whose influence he
+deemed to be hostile to the simplicity of the old Roman character. When
+Eumenes, king of Pergamus, visited Rome after the war with Antiochus,
+and was received with honor by the Senate, and splendidly entertained by
+the nobles, Cato was indignant at the respect paid to the monarch,
+refused to go near him, and declared that "kings were naturally
+carnivorous animals." He had an antipathy to physicians, because they
+were mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted with Roman lives.
+He loudly cautioned his eldest son against them, and dispensed with
+their attendance. When Athens sent three celebrated philosophers,
+Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaues, to Rome, in order to negotiate a
+remission of the 500 talents which the Athenians had been awarded to pay
+to the Oropians, Carneades excited great attention by his philosophical
+conversation and lectures, in which he preached the pernicious doctrine
+of an expediency distinct from justice, which he illustrated by the
+example of Rome herself: "If Rome were stripped of all that she did not
+justly gain, the Romans might go back to their huts." Cato, offended
+with his principles, and jealous of the attention paid to the Greek,
+gave advice which the Senate followed: "Let these deputies have an
+answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible."
+
+Cato was an unfeeling and cruel master. His conduct toward his slaves
+was detestable. The law held them to be mere chattels, and he treated
+them as such, without any regard to the rights of humanity. After supper
+he often severely chastised them, thong in hand, for trifling acts of
+negligence, and sometimes condemned them to death. When they were worn
+out, or useless, he sold them, or turned them out of doors. He treated
+the lower animals no better. His war-horse, which bore him through his
+campaign in Spain, he sold before he left the country, that the state
+might not be charged with the expenses of its transport. As years
+advanced he sought gain with increasing eagerness, but never attempted
+to profit by the misuse of his public functions. He accepted no bribes;
+he reserved no booty to his own use; but he became a speculator, not
+only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial waters, and
+pleasure-grounds. In this, as in other points, he was a representative
+of the old Romans, who were a money-getting and money-loving people.
+
+[Footnote 53: See p. 117.(Third paragraph of Chapter XVII.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 54: The _Nobiles_ were distinguished from the _Ignobiles_. The
+outward distinction of the former was the _Jus Imaginum_. These Imagines
+were figures with painted masks of wax, representing the ancestors who
+had held any of the curule magistracies. They were placed in cases in
+the atrium or reception-hall of the house, and were carried in the
+funeral procession of a member of the family. Any one who first obtained
+a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobility of his family.
+Such a person was himself neither a _Nobilis_ nor an _Ignobilis_. He was
+termed a _Novus Homo_, or a new man.]
+
+[Footnote 55: The Latin word for bribery is _ambitus_, literally
+canvassing. It must not be confounded with _repetundae_, the offense of
+extortion or pecuniary corruption committed by magistrates in the
+provinces or at Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 56: See p. 127.(Second paragraph of Chapter
+XVIII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian
+Bridges.]
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHAEAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.
+
+
+In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, the last
+monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of Philip had been
+spent in preparations for a renewal of the war, which he foresaw to be
+inevitable; and when Perseus ascended the throne, he found himself amply
+provided with men and money for the impending contest. But, whether from
+a sincere desire of peace, or from irresolution of character, he sought
+to avert an open rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts
+of his reign was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the treaty which
+they had concluded with his father. It is probable that neither party
+was sincere in the conclusion of this peace, at least neither could
+entertain any hope of its duration; yet a period of seven years elapsed
+before the mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into open
+hostilities. Meanwhile, Perseus was not idle; he secured the attachment
+of his subjects by equitable and popular measures, and formed alliances
+not only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but also with the
+Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which surrounded his dominions.
+The Romans naturally viewed these proceedings with jealousy and
+suspicion; and at length, in 172, Perseus was formally accused before
+the Roman Senate by Eumenes, king of Pergamus, in person, of
+entertaining hostile designs against the Roman power. The murder of
+Eumenes near Delphi, on his return homeward, of which Perseus was
+suspected, aggravated the feeling against him at Rome, and in the
+following year war was declared.
+
+Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army, but of
+all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians, ventured to support
+him against so formidable a foe. Yet the war was protracted three years
+without any decisive result; nay, the balance of success seemed on the
+whole to incline in favor of Perseus, and many states, which before were
+wavering, now showed a disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed
+parsimony restrained him from taking advantage of their offers, and in
+B.C. 168 the arrival of the Consul L. AEmilius Paullus completely changed
+the aspect of affairs. Perseus was driven from a strong position which
+he had taken up on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna,
+and, finally, to accept an engagement near that town. At first the
+serried ranks of the phalanx seemed to promise superiority; but its
+order having been broken by the inequalities of the ground, the Roman
+legionaries penetrated the disordered mass, and committed fearful
+carnage, to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to
+Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the sacred
+island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to surrender himself to
+a Roman squadron. He was treated with courtesy, but was reserved to
+adorn the triumph of his conqueror. Such was the end of the Macedonian
+empire. The Senate decreed that Macedonia should be divided into four
+districts, each under the jurisdiction of an oligarchical council.
+
+Before leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the Senate to inflict a
+terrible punishment upon the Epirotes, because they had favored Perseus.
+Having placed garrisons in the seventy towns of Epirus, he razed them
+all to the ground in one day, and carried away 150,000 inhabitants as
+slaves. Epirus never recovered from this blow. In the time of Augustus
+the country was still a scene of desolation, and the inhabitants had
+only ruins and villages to dwell in.
+
+Paullus arrived in Italy toward the close of B.C. 167. The booty which
+he brought with him from Macedonia, and which he paid into the Roman
+treasury, was of enormous value; and his triumph, which lasted three
+days, was the most splendid that Rome had yet seen. Before his triumphal
+car walked the captive monarch of Macedonia, and behind it, on
+horseback, were his two eldest sons, Q. Fabius Maximus, and P. Scipio
+Africanus the younger, both of whom had been adopted into other
+families. But his glory was darkened by the death of his two younger
+sons, one dying a few days before, and the other a few days after his
+triumph.
+
+After the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but, in consequence
+of the intercession of Paullus, he was released, and permitted to end
+his days in an honorable captivity at Pella. His son Alexander learned
+the Latin language, and became a public clerk at Rome.
+
+The fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real mistress of the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The most haughty monarchs trembled
+before the Republic. Antiochus Epiphanes had invaded Egypt, and was
+marching upon Alexandria, when he was met by three Roman commissioners,
+who presented him with a decree of the Senate, commanding him to abstain
+from hostilities against Egypt. The king, having read the decree,
+promised to take it into consideration with his friends, whereupon
+Popillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping forward, drew a
+circle round the king with his staff, and told him that he should not
+stir out of it till he had given a decisive answer. The king was so
+frightened by this boldness that he immediately promised to withdraw his
+troops. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, whose conduct during the war with
+Perseus had excited the suspicion of the Senate, hastened to make his
+submission in person, but was not allowed to enter Rome. Prusias, king
+of Bithynia, had the meanness to appear at Rome with his head shaven,
+and in the dress of a liberated slave. The Rhodians, who had offered
+their mediation during the war with Perseus, were deprived of Lycia and
+Caria. In Greece itself the Senate acted in the same arbitrary manner.
+It was evident that they meant to bring the whole country under their
+sway. In these views they were assisted by various despots and traitors
+in the Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a man of great
+influence among the Achaeans, who for many years had lent himself as the
+base tool of the Romans. He now denounced more than a thousand Achaeans
+as having favored the cause of Perseus. Among them were the historian
+Polybius, and the most distinguished men in every city of the League.
+They were all apprehended and sent to Italy, where they were distributed
+among the cities of Etruria, without being brought to trial. Polybius
+alone was allowed to reside at Rome in the house of AEmilius Paullus,
+where he became the intimate friend of his son Scipio Africanus the
+younger. The Achaean League continued to exist, but it was really subject
+to Callicrates. The Achaean exiles languished in confinement for
+seventeen years. Their request to be allowed to return to their native
+land had been more than once refused; but the younger Scipio Africanus
+at length interceded on their behalf, and prevailed upon Cato to
+advocate their return. The conduct of the aged Senator was kinder than
+his words. He did not interpose till the end of a long debate, and then
+simply asked, "Have we nothing better to do than to sit here all day
+long debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to
+their graves here or in Achaia?" A decree of the Senate gave the exiles
+permission to return; but, when Polybius was anxious to obtain from the
+Senate restoration to their former honors, Cato bade him, with a smile,
+beware of returning to the Cyclops' den to fetch away any trifles he had
+left behind him.
+
+The Achaean exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from 1000 to 300,
+landed in Greece (B.C. 151) with feelings exasperated by their long
+confinement, and ready to indulge in any rash enterprise against Rome.
+Polybius, who had returned with the other exiles, in vain exhorted them
+to peace and unanimity, and to avoid a hopeless struggle with the Roman
+power. Shortly afterward an adventurer laid claim to the throne of
+Macedonia (B.C. 149). He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but
+he pretended to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name of
+Philippus. At first he met with some success, and defeated the Roman
+Praetor Juventius, but, after reigning scarcely a year, he was conquered
+and taken prisoner by Q. Metellus.
+
+The temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war-party in the
+Achaean League. Polybius had quitted the country to join his friend
+Scipio in Africa; and Diaeus and Critolaues, the most violent enemies of
+Rome, had now undisputed sway in the League. Diaeus incited the Achaeans
+to attack Sparta, on the ground that, instead of appealing to the League
+respecting a boundary question, as they ought to have done, they had
+violated its laws by sending a private embassy to Rome. The Spartans,
+feeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to the
+Romans for assistance; and in B.C. 147 two Roman commissioners were sent
+to Greece to settle these disputes. The commissioners decided that not
+only Sparta, but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of
+Achaia, should be restored to independence. Their decision occasioned
+serious riots at Corinth. All the Spartans in the town were seized, and
+even the Roman commissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return
+to Rome a fresh embassy was dispatched to demand satisfaction for these
+outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Critolaues, then
+Strategus of the League, rendered all attempts at accommodation
+fruitless, and, after the return of the embassadors, the Senate declared
+war against the League. The cowardice and incompetence of Critolaues as a
+general were only equaled by his previous insolence. On the approach of
+the Romans from Macedonia under Metellus he did not even venture to make
+a stand at Thermopylae; and, being overtaken by them near Scarphea, in
+Locris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Diaeus, who
+succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage,
+and made preparations to defend Corinth. Metellus had hoped to have had
+the honor of bringing the war to a conclusion, and had almost reached
+Corinth, when the Consul L. Mummius landed on the Isthmus and assumed
+the command. The struggle was soon brought to a close. Diaeus was
+defeated in battle; and Corinth was immediately evacuated, not only by
+the troops of the League, but also by the greater part of the
+inhabitants. On entering the city, Mummius put to the sword the few
+males who remained, sold the women and children as slaves, and, having
+earned away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (B.C. 146).
+Corinth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art; but Mummius was so
+insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with those who
+contracted to convey them to Italy that, if any were lost in the
+passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value! Mummius then
+employed himself in chastising and regulating the whole of Greece; and
+ten commissioners were sent from Rome to settle its future condition.
+The whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was formed
+into a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, derived from that
+confederacy which had made the last struggle for political existence.
+The Roman commissioners then proceeded northward, and also formed
+Macedonia into a province. Polybius, who had hastened to Greece
+immediately after the capture of Corinth, exerted all his influence to
+alleviate the misfortunes of his countrymen, and to procure for them
+favorable terms. As a friend of Scipio he was received by the Roman
+commissioners with great distinction, and obtained from them a
+relaxation of some of the most severe enactments which had been made
+against the Achaeans.
+
+Metellus and Mummius both triumphed on their return to Rome, the former
+taking the surname of Macedonicus, the latter that of Achaicus.
+
+Carthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same year as
+Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the battle of Zama had
+restored some degree of prosperity to the state; and, though the Roman
+party obtained the supremacy after he had been compelled to fly to
+Antiochus, the commercial activity of the Carthaginians restored to the
+city much of its former influence. Rome looked with a jealous eye upon
+its reviving power, and encouraged Masinissa to make repeated
+aggressions upon its territory. At length the popular party, having
+obtained more weight in the government, made a stand against these
+repeated encroachments of Masinissa. Thereupon Cato recommended an
+instant declaration of war against Carthage; but this met with
+considerable opposition in the Senate, and it was at length arranged
+that an embassy should be sent to Africa to gain information as to the
+real state of affairs. The ten embassadors, of whom Cato was the chief,
+offered their arbitration, which was accepted by Masinissa, but rejected
+by the Carthaginians, who had no confidence in Roman justice. The
+deputies accurately observed the warlike preparations and the defenses
+of the frontier. They then entered the city, and saw the strength and
+population it had acquired since the Second Punic War. Upon their return
+Cato was the foremost in asserting that Rome would never be safe as long
+as Carthage was so powerful, so hostile, and so near. One day he drew a
+bunch of early ripe figs from beneath his robe, and, throwing it upon
+the floor of the Senate-house, said to the assembled fathers, who were
+astonished at the freshness and fineness of the fruit, "Those figs were
+gathered but three days ago at Carthage; so close is our enemy to our
+walls." From that time forth, whenever he was called upon for his vote
+in the Senate, though the subject of debate bore no relation to
+Carthage, his words were, "Delenda est Carthago," "Carthage must be
+destroyed."[57]
+
+Cato's opinion prevailed, and the Senate only waited for a favorable
+opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred. The popular party
+having driven into exile the powerful partisans of Masinissa, the old
+Numidian king invaded the Carthaginian territory, and defeated the army
+which had been raised to oppose him (B.C. 150). This led to a change in
+the government, and the aristocratical party, once more restored to
+power, hastened to make their submission to Rome. But the Romans had
+resolved upon war, and, when the Carthaginian embassadors arrived at
+Rome, the two Consuls were already levying troops. The embassadors,
+knowing that resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger of the
+Senate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to send 300 youths
+of the noblest families to meet the Consuls at Lilybaeum, and were told
+that the Consuls would acquaint them with the farther orders of the
+Senate. At Lilybaeum the Consuls found the hostages awaiting them, and
+then promised the Carthaginian envoys that the decision of the Senate
+should be announced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica, which
+surrendered to them in despair, the Consuls informed the Carthaginians
+that, as their state would henceforth be under the protection of Rome,
+they had no longer any occasion for arms, and must surrender all the
+munitions of war. Even this demand was complied with, and the Roman
+commissioners who were sent to Carthage brought to the Roman camp
+200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 catapults. The Consuls, thinking that
+the state was now defenseless, threw off the mask, and announced the
+final resolution of the Senate: "That Carthage must be destroyed, and
+that its inhabitants must build another city ten miles distant from the
+coast." When this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage
+seized all the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than submit to
+so perfidious a foe. All the Italians within the walls were massacred;
+the members of the former government took to flight, and the popular
+party once more obtained the power. Almost superhuman efforts were made
+to obtain means of defense; corn was collected from every quarter; arms
+were manufactured day and night; the women cut off their long hair to be
+made into strings for the catapults, and the whole city became one vast
+work-shop. The Consuls now saw that it would be necessary to have
+recourse to force; but they had no military ability, and their attacks
+were repulsed with great loss. The younger Scipio Africanus, who was
+then serving in the army as military tribune, displayed great bravery
+and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army from
+destruction. Still no permanent success was gained, and Scipio returned
+to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the soldiers that he would come
+back as their commander. In the following year (B.C. 148) the new Consul
+L. Calpurnius Piso was even less successful than his predecessors. The
+soldiers became discontented; the Roman Senate and people, who had
+anticipated an easy conquest, were indignant at their disappointment,
+and all eyes were turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became a
+candidate for the aedileship for the ensuing year (B.C. 147), he was
+unanimously elected Consul, though he was only thirty-seven years old,
+and had not, therefore, attained the legal age for the office.
+
+This remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son of L. AEmilius
+Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was adopted by P. Scipio, the
+son of the great Africanus, and is therefore called Scipio Africanus
+Minor, to distinguish him from his grandfather by adoption. To these
+names that of AEmilianus is sometimes added to mark the family of his
+birth, so that his full designation was P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus
+AEmilianus. His intimacy with the historian Polybius has been already
+mentioned. He appears from his earliest years to have devoted himself
+with ardor to the study of literature; and he eagerly availed himself of
+the superior knowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary
+pursuits. He was accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all his
+campaigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, lost no
+opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature and
+philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did he neglect
+the literature of his own country, for Terence was admitted to his
+intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted him in the composition of
+his comedies. His friendship with Laelius, whose tastes and pursuits were
+so congenial to his own, has been immortalized by Cicero's celebrated
+treatise "On Friendship."
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Carthage.
+
+A. Inner Port. B. Outer Port. C. Outlet to Sea. D. Scipio's Mole. E. New
+Outlet to Sea, cut by the Carthaginians.]
+
+Scipio landed in Africa in B.C. 147. His first step was to restore
+discipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb of
+Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a work across the entrance of
+the harbor to cut off the city from all supplies by sea. But the
+Carthaginians defended themselves with a courage and an energy rarely
+paralleled in history. While Scipio was engaged in this laborious task,
+they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner port, and cut a new
+channel communicating with the sea. Hence, when Scipio at length
+succeeded in blocking up the entrance of the harbor, he found all his
+labor useless, as the Carthaginians sailed out to sea by the new outlet.
+But this fleet was destroyed after an obstinate engagement which lasted
+three days. At length, in the following year (B.C. 146), Scipio had made
+all his preparations for the final assault. The Carthaginians defended
+themselves with the courage of despair. They fought from street to
+street, and from house to house, and the work of destruction and
+butchery went on for six days. The fate of this once magnificent city
+moved Scipio to tears; and, anticipating that a similar catastrophe
+might one day befall Rome, he is said to have repeated the lines of the
+Iliad over the flames of Carthage: "The day shall come when sacred Troy
+shall perish, and Priam and his people shall be slain."
+
+Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a splendid
+triumph on account of his victory. The surname of Africanus, which he
+had inherited by adoption, had now been acquired by his own exploits.
+
+A portion of the dominions of Carthage was assigned to Utica. The
+remainder was formed into a Roman province under the name of Africa.
+Carthage itself was leveled to the ground, and a curse pronounced upon
+any who should rebuild the city. C. Gracchus, however, only twenty-four
+years afterward, attempted to found a new city upon the ancient site
+under the name of Junonia; but evil prodigies at its foundation, and the
+subsequent death of Gracchus, interrupted this design. The project was
+revived by Julius Caesar, and was carried into effect by Augustus; and
+Roman Carthage, built at a short distance from the former city, became
+the capital of Africa, and one of the most flourishing cities in the
+ancient world. In the fifth century it was taken by Genseric, and made
+the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It was retaken by
+Belisarius, but was finally captured and destroyed by the Arabs in A.D.
+647. Its site is now desolate, marked only by a few ruins.
+
+[Footnote 57: This story must appear to strange to those who know not
+that it was a custom for Roman Senators, when called upon for their
+vote, to express--no matter what the question--any opinion which they
+deemed of great importance to the welfare of the state.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Personification of the River Tiber.]
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.
+
+
+The generous policy of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in B.C. 179[58] had
+secured for Spain a long period of tranquillity. But in B.C. 153, the
+inhabitants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the walls of their
+town, which was forbidden by one of the articles in the treaty of
+Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many years. The
+Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, and the Consul Q.
+Fabius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign against them. His
+successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, grandson of the Marcellus
+who was celebrated in the Second Punic War, carried on the war with
+vigor, and concluded a peace with the enemy on very fair terms (B.C.
+152). The Consul of the following year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding
+the Celtiberians at peace, turned his arms against the Vaccaei, Cantabri,
+and other nations as yet unknown to the Romans. At the same time the
+Praetor Ser. Sulpicius Galba invaded Lusitania, but, though he met with
+some advantage at first, he was subsequently defeated with great loss,
+and escaped with only a few horsemen. In the following year (B.C. 150)
+he again invaded the country from the south, while Lucullus attacked it
+from the north. The Lusitanians therefore sent embassadors to Galba to
+make their submission. He received them with kindness, lamented the
+poverty of their country, and promised to assign them more fertile
+lands, if they would meet him in three bodies, with their wives and
+children, in three places which he fixed upon. The simple people
+believed him. But he meditated one of the most atrocious acts of
+treachery and cruelty recorded in history. He fell upon each body
+separately, and butchered them, men, women, and children, without
+distinction. Among the very few who escaped was Viriathus, the future
+avenger of his nation. Galba was brought to trial on his return to Rome
+on account of this outrage; and Cato, then in the 85th year of his age,
+inveighed against his treachery and baseness. But Galba was eloquent and
+wealthy, and the liberal employment of his money, together with the
+compassion excited by his weeping children and ward, obtained his
+acquittal.
+
+Viriathus appears to have been one of those able guerrilla chiefs whom
+Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is said to have
+been first a shepherd and afterward a robber, but he soon acquired
+unbounded influence over the minds of his countrymen. After the massacre
+of Galba, those Lusitanians who had not left their homes rose as a man
+against the rule of such treacherous tyrants. Viriathus at first avoided
+all battles in the plains, and waged an incessant predatory warfare in
+the mountains; and he met with such continued good fortune, that numbers
+flocked to his standard. The aspect of affairs seemed at length so
+threatening that in B.C. 145 the Romans determined to send the Consul Q.
+Fabius Maximus into the country. In the following year Fabius defeated
+Viriathus with great loss; but this success was more than
+counterbalanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest and most
+noble-minded of the Spaniards. The war is usually known by the name of
+the Numantine, from Numantia, a town on the River Douro, and the capital
+of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian tribes.
+
+Henceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one in the north
+against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south against Viriathus
+and the Lusitanians. The war against the Lusitanians was at first
+brought to a conclusion. In B.C. 141 Viriathus surprised the Proconsul
+Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where escape was impossible. He
+used his victory with moderation, and suffered the Romans to depart
+uninjured, on condition of their allowing the Lusitanians to retain
+undisturbed possession of their own territory, and recognizing him as a
+friend and ally of Rome. This treaty was ratified by the Roman people;
+but the Consul Q. Servilius Caepio, who succeeded Fabius in the command
+in southern Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and
+renewed the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to Caepio to
+propose fresh terms of peace; but the Roman Consul persuaded them, by
+promises of large rewards, to murder their general. On their return they
+assassinated him in his own tent, and made their escape to the Roman
+camp before the Lusitanians were aware of the death of their chief. But,
+when the murderers claimed their reward, the Consul coolly told them
+that the Romans did not approve of the murder of a general by his own
+soldiers. The Lusitanians continued in arms a little longer, but the war
+virtually terminated by the death of Viriathus. Their country was
+finally reduced to subjection by the Consul D. Junius Brutus in B.C.
+138, who also crossed the rivers Douro and Minho, and received the
+surname of Callaicus in consequence of his receiving the submission of
+the Callaici, or Gallaeci, a people in the northwest of Spain.
+
+The war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with success by
+the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his Praetorship had
+defeated the pretender to the Macedonian throne. But the successors of
+Metellus experienced repeated disasters, and at length, in B.C. 137, the
+Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus, being entirely surrounded by the
+Celtiberians, was obliged to sign a peace with them, in which he
+recognized their independence. He only obtained these terms on condition
+that his Quaestor, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, who was greatly respected by
+the Spaniards for his father's sake, should become responsible for the
+execution of the treaty. The Senate refused to ratify it, and went
+through the hypocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus, bound and
+naked, to the enemy. But the Numantines, like the Samnites in a similar
+case, declined to accept the offering.
+
+The Numantine war continued in the same disastrous manner to the Roman
+arms, and the people now called upon Scipio Africanus to bring it to a
+conclusion. We have already traced the career of this eminent man till
+the fall of Carthage. In B.C. 142 he was Censor with L. Mummius. In the
+administration of the duties of his office he followed in the footsteps
+of Cato, and attempted to repress the growing luxury and immorality of
+his contemporaries; but his efforts were thwarted by his colleague. He
+vainly wished to check in the people the appetite for foreign conquests;
+and in the solemn prayer which he offered at the conclusion of the
+lustrum he changed the usual supplication for the enlargement of the
+Republic into one for its preservation. He was now elected Consul a
+second time, and was sent into Spain in B.C. 134. His first efforts were
+directed, as in Africa, to the restoration of discipline in the army,
+which had become disorganized and demoralized by every kind of
+indulgence. Two remarkable men served under Scipio in this war. Marius,
+afterward seven times Consul, and the Numidian prince Jugurtha. Having
+brought his troops into an effective condition, Scipio, in the following
+year, proceeded to lay siege to Numantia. The town was defended by its
+inhabitants with the courage and perseverance which has pre-eminently
+distinguished the Spaniards in all ages in the defense of their walled
+towns. It was not till they had suffered the most dreadful extremities
+of famine, eating even the bodies of the dead, that they surrendered the
+place (B.C. 133). Fifty of the principal inhabitants were selected to
+adorn Scipio's triumph; the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was
+leveled to the ground. He now received the surname of Numantinus, in
+addition to that of Africanus.
+
+During the Numantine war Rome was menaced by a new danger, which
+revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic. We have already had
+occasion to describe the decay of the free population in Italy, and the
+great increase in the number of slaves from the foreign conquests of the
+state.[59] As slaves were cheap, in consequence of the abundant supply,
+the masters did not care for their lives, and treated them with great
+barbarity. A great part of the land in Italy was turned into
+sheep-walks. The slaves were made responsible for the sheep committed to
+their care, and were left to supply themselves with food as they best
+could. It was an aggravation of their wretched lot, that almost all
+these slaves had once been freemen, and were not distinguished from
+their masters by any outward sign, like the negroes in the United
+States. In Sicily the free population had diminished even more than in
+Italy; and it was in this island that the first Servile War broke out.
+Damophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna, had treated his slaves with
+excessive barbarity. They entered into a conspiracy against their cruel
+master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name of Eunus, who belonged
+to another master. This Eunus pretended to the gift of prophecy, and
+appeared to breathe flames of fire from his mouth. He not only promised
+them success, but joined in the enterprise himself. Having assembled to
+the number of about 400 men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and, being
+joined by their fellow-citizens within the town, quickly made themselves
+masters of it. Great excesses were committed, and almost all the freemen
+were put to death with horrid tortures. Eunus had, while yet a slave,
+prophesied that he should become king. He now assumed the royal diadem,
+and the title of King Antiochus. Sicily was at this time swarming with
+slaves, a great proportion of them Syrians, who flocked to the standard
+of their countryman and fellow-bondsman. The revolt now became general,
+and the island was delivered over to the murderous fury of men maddened
+by oppression, cruelty, and insult. The Praetors, who first led armies
+against them, were totally defeated; and in B.C. 134 it was thought
+necessary to send the Consul C. Fulvius Flaccus to subdue the
+insurrection. But neither he, nor the Consul of the following year,
+succeeded in this object; and it was not till B.C. 132 that the Consul
+P. Rupilius brought the war to an end by the capture of Tauromenium and
+Enna, the two strong-holds of the insurgents. The life of Eunus was
+spared, probably with the intention of carrying him to Rome, but he died
+in prison at Morgantia.
+
+About the same time died Attalus Philometor, the last king of Pergamus,
+leaving no children (B.C. 133). He beqeuathed his kingdom and treasures
+to the Roman people; but Aristonicus, a natural son of Eumenes, the
+father of Attalus, laid claim to the crown. He even defeated the Consul
+P. Licinius Crassus, who fell in the engagement (B.C. 131), but he was
+himself defeated and taken prisoner in the following year. The kingdom
+of Pergamus was formed into a Roman province under the name of Asia
+(B.C. 129).
+
+The foreign dominions of Rome now comprised the ten following provinces,
+to which is added the date of the formation of each: 1. Sicily, B.C.
+241. 2. Sardinia and Corsica, B.C. 238. 3, 4. The two Spains, Citerior
+and Ulterior, B.C. 205. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, B.C. 191. 6. Macedonia,
+B.C. 146. 7. Illyricum, probably formed at the same time as Macedonia.
+8. Achaia, that is, Southern Greece, virtually a province after the
+capture of Corinth, B.C. 146, though the exact date of its formation is
+unknown. 9. Africa, consisting of the dominions of Carthage, B.C. 146.
+10. Asia, including the kingdom of Pergamus, B.C. 129. To these an
+eleventh was added in B.C. 118 by the conquest of the southern portion
+of Transalpine Gaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with
+the other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the
+"Provincia," a name which has been retained in the modern Provence.
+
+[Footnote 58: See p. 115.(The end of Chapter XVI.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 59: See p. 128.(Fifth paragraph of Chapter XVIII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Stairs of the modern Capitol.]
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.
+
+
+The more thoughtful Romans had foreseen the dangers with which Rome was
+menaced by the impoverishment of her free population, and the alarming
+increase in the number of slaves. It is said that Laelius, the friend of
+the elder Scipio Africanus, had at the close of the Second Punic War
+meditated some reforms to arrest the growing evil, but had given them up
+as impracticable. The Servile War in Sicily had lately revealed the
+extent of the peril to which the Republic was exposed. It must have been
+felt by many that the evil would never have reached its present height
+if the Livinian Law had been observed, if men had been appointed to
+watch over its execution, and if the newly-acquired public lands had
+from time to time been distributed among the people. But the nobles,
+from long possession, had come to regard the public land as their own;
+many had acquired their portions by purchase, inheritance, or marriage;
+and every one shrank from interfering with interests supported by long
+prescription and usage. Still, unless something was done, matters would
+become worse; the poor would become poorer, and the slaves more
+numerous, and the state would descend more rapidly into the yawning
+abyss beneath it. Under these circumstances, two young men, belonging to
+one of the noblest families in Rome, came forward to save the Republic,
+but perished in the attempt. Their violent death may be regarded as the
+beginning of the Civil Wars, which ended in the destruction of freedom,
+and the establishment of the despotism of the Empire.
+
+Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus,
+whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for so many years.[60]
+They lost their father at an early age, but they were educated with the
+utmost care by their mother, Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus
+the elder, who had inherited from her father a love of literature, and
+united in her person the severe virtue of the ancient Roman matron with
+the superior knowledge and refinement which then prevailed in the higher
+classes at Rome. She engaged for her sons the most eminent Greek
+teachers; and it was mainly owing to the pains she took with their
+education that they surpassed all the Roman youths of their age.
+Tiberius was nine years older than his brother Caius. The latter had
+more ability, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and won all hearts by
+the simplicity of his demeanor and his graceful and persuasive
+eloquence. So highly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he reached
+the age of manhood he was elected Augur, and at the banquet given at his
+installation Appius Claudius, then Chief of the Senate, offered him his
+daughter in marriage. When Appius returned home and informed his wife
+that he had just betrothed their daughter, she exclaimed, "Why in such a
+hurry, unless you have got Tib. Gracchus for her husband?" Sempronia,
+the only sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Scipio
+Africanus. Tiberius was thus, by birth and marriage, connected with the
+noblest families in the Republic--the grandson of the conqueror of
+Hannibal--the son-in-law of the Chief of the Senate--and the
+brother-in-law of the destroyer of Carthage.
+
+Tiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the first
+who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was Quaestor in B.C. 137, and
+accompanied the Consul C. Hostilius to Spain, where he saved the army by
+obtaining a treaty with the Numantines, which the Senate refused to
+ratify.[61] In passing through Etruria, on his way to Spain, Tiberius
+had observed with grief and indignation the deserted state of that
+fertile country. Thousands of foreign slaves were tending the flocks
+and cultivating the soil of the wealthy landowners, while Roman
+citizens, thus thrown out of employment, could scarcely procure their
+daily bread, and had not a clod of earth to call their own. He now
+conceived the design of applying a remedy to this state of things, and
+with this view became a candidate for the Tribunate, and was elected for
+the year B.C. 133.
+
+Tiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure which he
+brought forward had previously received the approbation of some of the
+wisest and noblest men in the state; of his own father-in-law Appius
+Claudius; of P. Mucius Scaevola, the great jurist, who was then Consul;
+and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It was proposed to re-enact the
+Licinian Law of B.C. 364--which had, in fact, never been repealed--but
+with some modifications and additions. As in the Licinian Law, no one
+was to be allowed to possess more than 500 jugera of public land; but,
+to relax the stringency of this rule, every possessor might hold in
+addition 250 jugera for each of his sons. All the rest of the public
+land was to be taken away from them and distributed among the poor
+citizens, who were not to be permitted to alienate these lots, in order
+that they might not be again absorbed into the estate of the wealthy. An
+indemnity was to be given from the public treasury for all buildings
+erected upon lands thus taken away. Three commissioners (Triumviri) were
+to be elected by the tribes in order to carry this law into execution.
+
+The Law affected only Public Lands, but it was no less a revolutionary
+measure. It is true that no prescription can, as a general rule, be
+pleaded against the rights of the state, but the possessors of the
+public lands had enjoyed them without question for so long a period that
+they had come to regard these lands as their private property. In many
+cases, as we have already said, they had been acquired by _bona fide_
+purchase, and the claim of the state, now advocated by Gracchus, was
+regarded as downright robbery. Attacks upon property have produced the
+greatest convulsions in all states, and the Roman landowners were ready
+to have recourse to any measures to defeat the law. But the thousands
+who would be benefited by it were determined to support Tiberius at any
+risk. He told them that "the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and
+holes, and hiding-places, while the men who fought and bled in defense
+of Italy wandered about with their wives and children without a spot of
+ground to rest upon." It was evident that the law would be carried, and
+the landowners therefore resorted to the only means left to them. They
+persuaded M. Octavius, one of the Tribunes, to put his veto upon the
+measure of his colleague. This was a fatal and unexpected obstacle. In
+vain did Tiberius implore Octavius to withdraw his veto. The contest
+between the Tribunes continued for many days. Tiberius retaliated by
+forbidding the magistrates to exercise any of their functions, and by
+suspending, in fact, the entire administration of the government. But
+Octavius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to depose him
+from his office. He summoned an Assembly of the People and put the
+question to the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had
+already voted for the deposition of Octavius, and the addition of one
+tribe would reduce him to a private condition, when Tiberius stopped the
+voting, anxious, at the last moment, to prevent the necessity of so
+desperate a measure. Octavius, however, would not yield. "Complete what
+you have begun," was his only answer to the entreaties of his colleague.
+The eighteenth tribe voted, and Tiberius ordered him to be dragged from
+the rostra. Octavius had only exercised his undoubted rights, and his
+deposition was clearly a violation of the Roman constitution. This gave
+the enemies of Gracchus the handle which they needed. They could now
+justly charge him not only with revolutionary measures, but with
+employing revolutionary means to carry them into effect.
+
+The Agrarian Law was passed without farther opposition, and the three
+commissioners elected to put it in force were Tiberius himself, his
+father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother Caius, then a youth of
+twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Numantia. About the same time news
+arrived of the death of Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamus, who had
+bequeathed his kingdom and treasures to the Republic. Tiberius therefore
+proposed that these treasures should be distributed among the people who
+had received assignments of lands, to enable them to stock their farms
+and to assist them in their cultivation. He even went so far as to
+threaten to deprive the Senate of the regulation of the new province,
+and to bring the subject before the Assembly of the People. The
+exasperation of the Nobility was intense. They tried every means to
+blacken the character of the Tribune, and even spread a report that he
+had received, a diadem and a purple robe from the envoy from Pergamus,
+and that he meditated making himself King of Rome. It was evident that
+his life would be no longer safe when he ceased to be protected by the
+sanctity of the Tribune's office. Accordingly, he became a candidate for
+the Tribunate for the following year. The Tribunes did not enter upon
+their office till December, but the election took place in June, at
+which time the country people, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged
+in getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had already voted in his
+favor, when the nobility interrupted the election by maintaining that
+it was illegal, since no man could be chosen Tribune for two consecutive
+years. After a violent debate the Assembly was adjourned till the
+following day. Tiberius now became alarmed lest his enemies should get
+the upper hand, and he went round the forum with his child, appealing to
+the sympathy of the people and imploring their aid. They readily
+responded to his appeal, escorted him home, and a large crowd kept watch
+around his house all night.
+
+Next day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the open space in
+front of the Temple of Jupiter. The Senate also assembled in the Temple
+of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica, the leader of the more violent party
+in the Senate, called upon the Consul Mucius Scaevola to stop the
+re-election, but the Consul declined to interfere. Fulvius Flaccus, a
+Senator, and a friend of Tiberius, hastened to inform him of the speech
+of Nasica, and told him that his death was resolved upon. Thereupon the
+friends of Tiberius prepared to resist force by force; and as those at a
+distance could not hear him, on account of the tumult and confusion, the
+Tribune pointed with his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was
+in danger. His enemies exclaimed that he was asking for the crown. The
+news reached the Senate. Nasica appealed to the Consul to save the
+Republic, but as Scaevola still refused to have recourse to violence,
+Nasica sprung up and exclaimed, "The Consul is betraying the Republic!
+let those who wish to save the state follow me." He then rushed out of
+the Senate-house, followed by many of the Senators. The people made way
+for them; and they, breaking up the benches, armed themselves with
+sticks, and rushed upon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to
+the Temple of Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, and
+in his flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising he
+received the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was quickly
+dispatched. Upward of 300 of his partisans were slain on the same day.
+Their bodies were thrown into the Tiber. This was the first blood shed
+at Rome in civil strife since the expulsion of the kings.
+
+Notwithstanding their victory, the Nobles did not venture to propose the
+repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new Commissioner was chosen in the
+place of Tiberius. The popular indignation was so strongly excited
+against Scipio Nasica that his friends advised him to withdraw from
+Italy, though he was Pontifex Maximus, and therefore ought not to have
+quitted the country. He died shortly afterward at Pergamus.
+
+All eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned to Rome in
+B.C. 132. When Scipio received at Numantia the news of the death of
+Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed in the verse of Homer[62]--
+
+    "So perish all who do the like again."
+
+The people may have thought that the brother-in-law of Tiberius would
+show some sympathy with his reforms and some sorrow for his fate. They
+were, however, soon undeceived. Being asked in the Assembly of the
+Tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, the Tribune, who was now the leader of the
+popular party, what he thought of the death of Tiberius, he boldly
+replied that "he was justly slain." The people, who had probably
+expected a different answer, loudly expressed their disapprobation;
+whereupon Scipio, turning to the mob, bade them be silent, since Italy
+was only their step-mother.[63] The people did not forget this insult;
+but such was his influence and authority that the Nobility were able to
+defeat the bill of Carbo by which the Tribunes might be re-elected as
+often as the people pleased. Scipio was now regarded as the acknowledged
+leader of the Nobility, and the latter resolved to avail themselves of
+his powerful aid to prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from being
+carried into effect. The Italians were alarmed at the prospect of losing
+some of their lands, and Scipio skillfully availed himself of the
+circumstance to propose in the Senate (B.C. 129) that all disputes
+respecting the lands of the Italians should be taken out of the hands of
+the Commissioners and transferred to the Consuls. This would have been
+equivalent to an abrogation of the law, and accordingly the three
+Commissioners offered the most vehement opposition to his proposal. In
+the forum he was attacked by Carbo, with the bitterest invectives, as
+the enemy of the people; and upon his again expressing his approval of
+the death of Tiberius, the people shouted out, "Down with the tyrant!"
+In the evening he went home accompanied by the Senate and a great number
+of the Italians. He retired to his sleeping-room with the intention of
+composing a speech for the following day. Next morning Rome was thrown
+into consternation by the news that Scipio was found dead in his room.
+The most contradictory rumors were circulated respecting his death, but
+it was the general opinion that he was murdered. Suspicion fell upon
+various persons, but Carbo was most generally believed to have been the
+murderer. There was no inquiry into the cause of his death (B.C. 129).
+
+Scipio was only 56 at the time of his death. To the Republic his loss
+was irreparable. By his last act he had come forward as the patron of
+the Italians. Had he lived he might have incorporated them in the Roman
+state, and by forming a united Italy have saved Rome from many of the
+horrors and disasters which she afterward suffered.
+
+The leaders of the popular party perceived the mistake they had made in
+alienating the Italians from their cause, and they now secured their
+adhesion by offering them the Roman citizenship if they would support
+the Agrarian Law. As Roman citizens they would, of course, be entitled
+to the benefits of the law, while they would, at the same time, obtain
+what they had so long desired--an equal share in political power. But
+the existing citizens, who saw that their own importance would be
+diminished by an increase in their numbers, viewed such a proposal with
+the utmost repugnance. So strong was their feeling that, when great
+numbers of the Italians had flocked to Rome in B.C. 126, the Tribune M.
+Junius Pennus carried a law that all aliens should quit the city. Caius
+Gracchus spoke against this law, and his friends still remained faithful
+to the cause of the Italians. In the following year (B.C. 125), M.
+Fulvius Flaccus, who was then Consul, brought forward a Reform Bill,
+granting the Roman citizenship to all the Italian allies. But it was
+evident that the Tribes would reject this law, and the Senate got rid of
+the proposer by sending him into Transalpine Gaul, where the Massilians
+had implored the assistance of Rome against the Salluvians. In the
+previous year Caius Gracchus had gone to Sardinia as Quaestor, so that
+the Senate had now removed from Rome two of their most troublesome
+opponents, and the Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons.
+Bitter was the disappointment of the Italians. Fregellae, a town of
+Latium, and one of the eighteen Latin colonies which had remained
+faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War, took up arms, but its
+example was not followed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of the
+unequal contest. It was quickly reduced by the Praetor L. Opimius; the
+city was utterly destroyed; and the insurrection, which a slight success
+would have made universal, was thus nipped in its bud (B.C. 125).
+
+[Illustration: The Forum in its present state.]
+
+Caius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs since his
+brother's death. He had spoken only twice in public: once in favor of
+the law of Carbo for the re-election of Tribunes, and a second time in
+opposition to the Alien Act of Junius Pennus, as already mentioned. But
+the eyes of the people were naturally turned toward him. His abilities
+were known, and the Senate dreaded his return to Rome. He had been
+already two years in Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him
+there another year by sending fresh troops to the province, and by
+commanding the Proconsul to remain in the island. But Caius suddenly
+appeared at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (B.C. 124). His enemies
+brought him before the Censors to account for his conduct, but he
+defended himself so ably that not only was no stigma put upon him, but
+he was considered to have been very badly used. He showed that he had
+served in the army twelve years, though required to serve only ten; that
+he had acted as Quaestor two years, though the law demanded only one
+year's service; and he added that he was the only soldier who took out
+with him a full purse and brought it back empty.
+
+Exasperated by the persecution of the Senate, Caius determined to become
+a candidate for the Tribuneship, and to reform the Roman constitution.
+He was elected for the year B.C. 123, and lost no time in bringing
+forward a number of important measures which are known as the Sempronian
+Laws. His legislation was directed to two objects: the amelioration of
+the condition of the poor, and the weakening of the power of the Senate.
+Caius was the greatest orator of all his contemporaries; the contagion
+of his eloquence was irresistible, and the enthusiasm of the people
+enabled him to carry every thing before him.
+
+I. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people were:
+
+1. The extension of the Agrarian Law of his brother by planting new
+colonies in Italy and the provinces.
+
+2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that corn should be sold to
+every citizen at a price much below its market value. This was the first
+of the _Leges Frumentariae_, which were attended with the most injurious
+effects. They emptied the treasury, at the same time that they taught
+the poor to become state paupers, instead of depending upon their own
+exertions for a living.
+
+3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped at the
+expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted from their pay,
+as had hitherto been the case.
+
+II. The most important laws designed to diminish the power of the Senate
+were:
+
+1. The law by which the Judices were to be taken only from the Equites,
+and not from the Senators, as had been the custom hitherto. This was a
+very important enactment, and needs a little explanation. All offenses
+against the state were originally tried in the Popular Assembly; but
+when special enactments were passed for the trial of particular
+offenses, the practice was introduced of forming a body of Judices for
+the trial of these offenses. This was first done upon the passing of the
+Calpurnian Law (B.C., 149) for the punishment of provincial magistrates
+for extortion in their government (_De Repetendis_). Such offenses had
+to be tried before the Praetor and a jury of Senators; but as these very
+Senators either had been or hoped to be provincial magistrates, they
+were not disposed to visit with severity offenses of which they
+themselves either had been or were likely to be guilty. By depriving the
+Senators of this judicial power, and by transferring it to the Equites,
+Gracchus also made the latter a political order in the state apart from
+their military character. The name of Equites was now applied to all
+persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as Judices, whether
+they served in the army or not. From this time is dated the creation of
+an _Ordo Equestris_, whose interests were frequently opposed to those of
+the Senate, and who therefore served as a check upon the latter.
+
+2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings of the
+Senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the Senate had
+assigned the provinces to the Consuls after their election, and thus had
+had it in their power to grant wealthy governments to their partisans,
+or unprofitable ones to those opposed to them. It was now enacted that,
+before the election of the Consuls, the Senate should determine the two
+provinces which the Consuls should have; and that they should,
+immediately after election, settle between themselves, by lot or
+otherwise, which province each should take.
+
+These laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he became
+for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re-elected Tribune for the
+following year (B.C. 122), though he did not offer himself as a
+candidate. M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had been Consul in B.C. 125, was also
+chosen as one of his colleagues. Flaccus, it will be recollected, had
+proposed in his consulship to give the Roman franchise to the Italian
+allies, and it was now determined to bring forward a similar measure.
+Caius therefore brought in a bill conferring the citizenship upon all
+the Latin colonies, and making the Italian allies occupy the position
+which the Latins had previously held. This wise measure was equally
+disliked in the forum and the Senate. Neither the influence nor the
+eloquence of Gracchus could induce the people to view with satisfaction
+the admission of the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with
+themselves. The Senate, perceiving that the popularity of Gracchus had
+been somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his colleague, M. Living
+Drusus--who was noble, well-educated, wealthy, and eloquent--to
+undermine his influence with the people. With the sanction of the
+Senate, Drusus now endeavored to outbid Gracchus. He played the part of
+a demagogue in order to supplant the true friend of the people. He gave
+to the Senate the credit of every popular law which he proposed, and
+gradually impressed the people with the belief that the Nobles were
+their best friends. Gracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum
+and Capua, and named among the founders some of the most respectable
+citizens. Drusus introduced a law for establishing no fewer than twelve
+colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each. Gracchus, in the
+distribution of the public land, reserved a rent payable to the public
+treasury. Drusus abolished even this payment. He also gained the
+confidence of the people by asking no favor for himself; he took no part
+in the foundation of colonies, and left to others the management of
+business in which any money had to be expended. Gracchus, on the other
+hand, superintended every thing in person; and the people, always
+jealous in pecuniary matters, began to suspect his motives. During his
+absence in Africa, whither he had gone as one of the three Commissioners
+for founding a colony upon the ruins of Carthage, Drusus was able to
+weaken his popularity still farther. On his return he endeavored in vain
+to reorganize his party and recover his power. Both he and Flaccus
+failed in being re-elected Tribunes; while L. Opimius and Q. Fabius, two
+personal enemies of Gracchus, were raised to the Consulship. The two new
+Consuls had no sooner entered upon office (B.C. 121) than they resolved
+to drive matters to extremities. One of the first measures of Opimius
+was a proposal to repeal the law for colonizing Carthage, because it had
+been established upon the site which Scipio had cursed. It was evident
+that a pretext was only sought for taking the life of Gracchus, and
+Flaccus urged him to repel violence by force. Caius shrunk from this
+step, but an accident gave his enemies the pretext which they longed
+for. The tribes had assembled at the Capitol to decide upon the colony
+at Carthage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against
+Gracchus, insolently cried out, "Make way for honest men, you rascals."
+Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look, and the man was
+immediately stabbed by an unknown hand. The assembly immediately broke
+up, and Gracchus returned home, foreseeing the advantage which this
+unfortunate occurrence would give to his enemies. The Senate declared
+Gracchus and Flaccus public enemies, and invested the Consuls with
+dictatorial powers. During the night Opimius took possession of the
+Temple of Castor and Pollux, which overlooked the forum; summoned a
+meeting of the Senate for the following morning, and ordered all the
+partisans of the Senate to be present, each with two armed slaves.
+Flaccus seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine, and distributed arms
+to his followers: here he was joined by Gracchus. Civil war was thus
+declared. After some fruitless attempts at negotiation, the Consul
+proceeded to attack the Aventine. Little or no resistance was made, and
+Flaccus and Gracchus took to flight, and crossed the Tiber by the
+Sublician bridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of the Furies,
+accompanied only by a single slave. When the pursuers reached the spot
+they found both of them dead. The slave had first killed his master and
+then himself. The head of Gracchus was cut off, and carried to Opimius,
+who gave to the person who brought it its weight in gold. Flaccus was
+also put to death, together with numbers of his party. Their corpses
+were thrown into the Tiber, their houses demolished, and their property
+confiscated. Even their widows were forbidden to wear mourning. After
+the bloody work had been finished, the Consul, by order of the Senate,
+dedicated a temple to Concord!
+
+At a later time statues of the two Gracchi were set up in public places,
+and the spots on which they fell were declared holy ground; but for the
+present no one dared to show any sympathy for their fate. Their mother
+Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she was visited by the most
+distinguished men. She loved to recount to her guests the story of her
+noble sons, and narrated their death without showing sorrow or shedding
+tears, as if she had been speaking of heroes of the olden time.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Saturn at Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 60: See p. 115.(The end of Chapter XVI.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 61: See p. 146.(Fifth paragraph of Chapter XX.--Transcriber)]
+
+[Footnote 62: _Od._, i. 47.]
+
+[Footnote 63: It must be recollected that the mob at Rome consisted
+chiefly of the four city tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could
+be enrolled in these four tribes alone.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A Roman Trophy.]
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.
+
+
+The murder of C. Gracchus and his adherents left the Nobility undisputed
+masters of the state, till their scandalous conduct in the Jugurthan War
+provoked a reaction against them, and raised to power a more terrible
+opponent than the Gracchi had ever been. This man, who took such signal
+vengeance upon the Nobility, was the lowborn MARIUS. He was a native of
+Arpinum, and was said to have worked for wages as a common peasant
+before he entered the ranks of the army. He first served in Spain, and
+was present at the siege of Numantia in B.C. 134. Here he distinguished
+himself so much that he attracted the notice of Scipio Africanus, and
+received from him many marks of honor. Scipio indeed admitted him to his
+table; and on a certain occasion, when one of the guests asked Scipio
+where the Roman people would find such another general after his death,
+he is said to have laid his hand on the shoulder of Marius, and said,
+"Perhaps here." The name of Marius does not occur again for many years,
+but he doubtless continued to serve in the army, and became so
+distinguished that he was at length raised to the Tribunate of the Plebs
+in B.C. 119, though not till he had attained the mature age of 38. Only
+two years had elapsed since the death of C. Gracchus; and the Nobles,
+flushed with victory, resolved to put down with a high hand the least
+invasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had the boldness to
+propose a law for the purpose of giving greater freedom at elections;
+and when the Senate attempted to overawe him, he ordered one of his
+officers to carry the Consul Metellus to prison. Marius now became a
+marked man. He lost his election to the AEdileship, and with difficulty
+obtained the Praetorship (B.C. 115); but he added to his influence by his
+marriage with Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar, the father of the
+future ruler of Rome. His military abilities recommended him to the
+Consul Metellus (B.C. 100), who was anxious to restore discipline in the
+army and to retrieve the glory of the Roman name, which had been
+tarnished by the incapacity and corruption of the previous generals in
+the Jugurthan War, which now requires our attention.
+
+Masinissa, the ruler of Numidia, and so long the faithful ally of the
+Romans, had died in B.C. 149, at the advanced age of 90, leaving three
+sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa, among whom his kingdom was
+divided by Scipio Africanus, according to the dying directions of the
+old king. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in their brother's lifetime,
+Micipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was a bastard son of Mastanabal; but
+Micipsa brought him up with his own sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal.
+Jugurtha distinguished himself so much that he began to excite the
+jealousy of Micipsa. In order to remove him to a distance, and not
+without a hope that he might perish in the war, Micipsa sent him, in
+B.C. 134, with an auxiliary force, to assist Scipio against Numantia;
+but this only proved to the young man a fresh occasion of distinction.
+By his zeal, courage, and ability he gained the favor not only of his
+commander, but of all the leading nobles in the Roman camp, by many of
+whom he was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes for
+acquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia; and notwithstanding the
+contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk deep into the
+mind of Jugurtha. On his return he was received with every demonstration
+of honor by Micipsa; nor did he allow his ambitious projects to break
+forth during the lifetime of the old man. Micipsa, on his death-bed,
+though but too clearly foreseeing what would happen, commended the two
+young princes to the care of Jugurtha; but at the very first interview
+which took place between them after his decease (B.C. 118) their
+dissensions broke out with the utmost fierceness. Shortly afterward
+Jugurtha found an opportunity to surprise and assassinate Hiempsal;
+whereupon Adherbal and his partisans rushed to arms, but were defeated
+in battle by Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to the Roman
+province, from whence he hastened to Rome to lay his cause before the
+Senate. Jugurtha had now the opportunity, for the first time, of putting
+to the test that which he had learnt in the camp before Numantia of the
+venality and corruption of the Roman nobility. He sent embassadors to
+Rome to counteract, by a lavish distribution of bribes, the effect of
+the just complaints of Adherbal, and by these means succeeded in
+averting the indignation of the Senate. A decree was, however, passed
+for the division of the kingdom of Numidia between the two competitors,
+and a committee of Senators sent to enforce its execution; but as soon
+as these arrived in Africa, Jugurtha succeeded in gaining them over by
+the same unscrupulous methods, and obtained, in the partition of the
+kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauritania, by far the larger
+and richer portion of the two (B.C. 117). But this advantage was far
+from contenting him, and shortly afterward he invaded the territories of
+his rival with a large army. Adherbal was defeated in the first
+engagement, his camp taken, and he himself with difficulty made his
+escape to the strong fortress of Cirta. Here he was closely blockaded by
+Jugurtha. The garrison surrendered on a promise of their lives being
+spared; but these conditions were shamefully violated by Jugurtha, who
+immediately put to death Adherbal and all his followers (B.C. 112).
+
+Indignation was now loud at Rome against the Numidian king; yet so
+powerful was the influence of those whose favor he had gained by his
+gold, that he would probably have prevailed upon the Senate to overlook
+all his misdeeds, had not one of the Tribunes, C. Memmius, by bringing
+the matter before the people, compelled the Senators to give way. War
+was accordingly declared against him, and one of the Consuls, L.
+Calpurnius Bestia, landed in Africa with a large army, and immediately
+proceeded to invade Numidia (B.C. 111). But Jugurtha easily bribed
+Bestia and M. Scaurus, who acted as his principal lieutenant, to grant
+him a favorable peace, on condition only of a pretended submission,
+together with the surrender of thirty elephants and a small sum of
+money. As soon as the tidings of this disgraceful transaction reached
+Rome, the indignation excited was so great that, on the proposition of
+C. Memmius, it was agreed to send the Praetor L. Cassius, a man of the
+highest integrity, to Numidia, in order to prevail on the king to
+repair in person to Rome, the popular party hoping to be able to convict
+the leaders of the Nobility by means of his evidence. The safe-conduct
+granted him by the state was religiously observed; but the scheme failed
+of its effect, for, as soon as Jugurtha was brought forward in the
+assembly of the people to make his statement, one of the Tribunes, who
+had been previously gained over by the friends of Scaurus and Bestia,
+forbade him to speak. He nevertheless remained at Rome for some time
+longer, and engaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been
+ultimately crowned with success had he not in the mean time ventured to
+assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting in a claim to the
+Numidian throne. It was impossible to overlook so daring a crime,
+perpetrated under the very eyes of the Senate. Jugurtha was ordered to
+quit Italy without delay. It was on this occasion that he is said, when
+leaving Rome, to have uttered the memorable words, "A city for sale, and
+destined to perish quickly, if it can find a purchaser."
+
+War was now inevitable; but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius Albinus, who
+arrived to conduct it (B.C. 110), and still more that of his brother
+Aulus, whom he left to command in his absence, when called away to hold
+the elections at Rome, proved as favorable to Jugurtha as the corruption
+of their predecessors. Aulus, having penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia, suffered himself to be surprised in his camp; great part of his
+army was cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the
+ignominy of passing under the yoke. But Jugurtha had little reason to
+rejoice in this success, great as it might at first appear; for the
+disgrace at once roused all the spirit of the Roman people; the treaty
+concluded by Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions made to
+raise troops, and one of the Consuls for the new year (B.C. 109), Q.
+Caecilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the honor of the
+Roman arms. But this did not satisfy the people. The scandalous conduct
+of so many of the Nobles had given fresh life to the popular party; and
+the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill for the appointment of three
+Commissioners to inquire into the conduct of all of those who had
+received bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, though one of the most guilty,
+managed to be put upon the Commission. But he dared not shield his
+confederates. Many men of the highest rank were condemned, among whom
+were Bestia, Albinus, and Opimius. The last named was the Opimius who
+acted with such ferocity toward Caius Gracchus and his party. He died in
+exile at Dyrrhachium some years afterward, in great poverty.
+
+The Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of the strictest
+integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his lieutenant, in B.C. 109.
+As soon as Jugurtha discovered the character of the new commander he
+began to despair of success, and made overtures for submission in
+earnest. These were apparently entertained by Metellus, while he sought
+in fact to gain over the adherents of the king, and induce them to
+betray him to the Romans, at the same time that he continued to advance
+into the enemy's territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his
+designs, attacked him suddenly on his march with a numerous force, but
+was, after a severe struggle, repulsed, and his army totally routed.
+Metellus ravaged the greater part of the country, but failed in taking
+the important town of Zama before he withdrew into winter quarters. But
+he had produced such an effect upon the Numidian king, that Jugurtha was
+induced, in the course of the winter, to make offers of unqualified
+submission, and even surrendered all his elephants, with a number of
+arms and horses, and a large sum of money, to the Roman general; but
+when called upon to place himself personally in the power of Metellus,
+his courage failed him, he broke off the negotiation, and once more had
+recourse to arms. Marius had greatly distinguished himself in the
+preceding campaign. The readiness with which he shared the toils of the
+common soldiers, eating of the same food, and working at the same
+trenches with them, had endeared him to them, and through their letters
+to their friends at Rome his praises were in everybody's mouth. His
+increasing reputation and popularity induced him to aspire to the
+Consulship. His hopes were increased by a circumstance which happened to
+him at Utica. While sacrificing at this place the officiating priest
+told him that the victims predicted some great and wonderful events, and
+bade him execute whatever purpose he had in his mind. Marius thereupon
+applied to Metellus for leave of absence, that he might proceed to Rome
+and offer himself as a candidate. The Consul, who belonged to a family
+of the highest nobility, at first tried to dissuade Marius from his
+presumptuous attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure; and when
+he could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he civilly evaded
+his request by pleading the exigencies of the public service, which
+required his presence and assistance. But, as Marius still continued to
+press him for leave of absence, Metellus said to him on one occasion,
+"You need not be in such a hurry to go to Rome; it will be quite time
+enough for you to apply for the Consulship along with my son." The
+latter, who was then serving with the army, was a youth of only twenty
+years of age, and could not, therefore, become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the next twenty years. This insult was never forgotten by
+Marius. He now began to intrigue against his general, and to represent
+that the war was purposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own
+vanity and love of military power. He openly declared that with one half
+of the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains; and as all his
+remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people began to regard him
+as the only person competent to finish the war. Metellus at last allowed
+him to leave Africa, but only twelve days before the election. Meeting
+with a favorable wind, he arrived at Rome in time, and was elected
+Consul with an enthusiasm which bore down all opposition. He received
+from the people the province of Numidia, although the Senate had
+previously decreed that Metellus should continue in his command. The
+exultation of Marius knew no bounds. In his speeches to the public, he
+gloried in his humble origin. He upbraided the Nobles with their
+effeminacy and licentiousness; he told them that he looked upon the
+Consulship as a trophy of his conquest over them; and he proudly
+compared his own wounds and military experience with their indolence and
+ignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the people and a great
+humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made them drink to the dregs
+the bitter cup. While engaged in these attacks upon the Nobility, he at
+the same time carried on a levy of troops with great activity, and
+enrolled any persons who chose to offer for the service, however poor
+and mean, instead of taking them from the five classes according to
+ancient custom.[64]
+
+Meantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as Proconsul
+(B.C. 108). But the campaign was not productive of such decisive results
+as might have been expected. Jugurtha avoided any general action, and
+eluded the pursuit of Metellus by the rapidity of his movements. Even
+when driven from Thala, a strong-hold which he had deemed inaccessible
+from its position in the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among
+the Gaetulians, and quickly succeeded in raising among those wild tribes
+a fresh army, with which he once more penetrated into the heart of
+Numidia. A still more important accession was that of Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, who had been prevailed upon to raise an army, and advance to
+the support of Jugurtha. Metellus, however, having now relaxed his own
+efforts, from disgust at hearing that C. Marius had been appointed to
+succeed him in the command, remained on the defensive, while he sought
+to amuse the Moorish king by negotiation. The arrival of Marius (B.C.
+107) infused fresh vigor into the Roman arms. He quickly reduced in
+succession almost all the strong-holds that still remained to Jugurtha,
+in some of which the king had deposited his principal treasures; and
+the latter, seeing himself thus deprived step by step of all his
+dominions, at length determined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his
+fortunes by one grand effort. He with difficulty prevailed on the
+wavering Bocchus, by the most extensive promises in case of success, to
+co-operate with him in this enterprise; and the two kings, with their
+united forces, attacked Marius on his march, when he was about to retire
+into winter quarters. Though the Roman general was taken by surprise for
+a moment, his consummate skill and the discipline of his troops proved
+again triumphant; the Numidians were repulsed, and their army, as usual
+with them in case of a defeat, dispersed in all directions. Jugurtha
+himself, after displaying the greatest courage in the action, cut his
+way almost alone through a body of Roman cavalry, and escaped from the
+field of battle. He quickly again gathered round him a body of Numidian
+horse; but his only hope of continuing the war now rested on Bocchus.
+The latter was for some time uncertain what course to adopt, but was at
+length gained over by Sulla, the Quaestor of Marius, to the Roman cause,
+and joined in a plan for seizing the person of the Numidian king.
+Jugurtha fell into the snare; he was induced, under pretense of a
+conference, to repair with only a few followers to meet Bocchus, when he
+was instantly surrounded, his attendants cut to pieces, and he himself
+made prisoner, and delivered in chains to Sulla, by whom he was conveyed
+directly to the camp of Marius. This occurred early in the year B.C.
+106.
+
+L. Cornelius Sulla, the Quaestor of Marius, who afterward plays such a
+distinguished part in Roman history, was descended from a Patrician
+family which had been reduced to great obscurity. But his means were
+sufficient to secure him a good education. He studied the Greek and
+Roman writers with diligence and success, and early imbibed that love of
+literature and art by which he was distinguished throughout his life.
+But he was also fond of pleasure, and was conspicuous even among the
+Romans for licentiousness and debauchery. He was in every respect a
+contrast to Marius. He possessed all the accomplishments and all the
+vices which the old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he
+was one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek profligacy
+who had since Cato's time become more and more common among the Roman
+Nobles. But Sulla's love of pleasure did not absorb all his time, nor
+enfeeble his mind; for no Roman during the latter days of the Republic,
+with the exception of Julius Caesar, had a clearer judgment, a keener
+discrimination of character, or a firmer will. Upon his arrival in
+Africa, Marius was not well pleased that a Quaestor had been assigned to
+him who was only known for his profligacy, and who had had no
+experience in war; but the zeal and energy with which Sulla attended to
+his new duties soon rendered him a useful and skillful officer, and
+gained for him the unqualified approbation of his commander,
+notwithstanding his previous prejudices against him. He was equally
+successful in winning the affections of the soldiers. He always
+addressed them with the greatest kindness, seized every opportunity of
+conferring favors upon them, was ever ready to take part in all the
+jests of the camp, and at the same time never shrank from sharing in all
+their labors and dangers. It is a curious circumstance that Marius gave
+to his future enemy and the destroyer of his family and party the first
+opportunity of distinguishing himself. The enemies of Marius claimed for
+Sulla the glory of the betrayal of Jugurtha, and Sulla himself took the
+credit of it by always wearing a signet ring representing the scene of
+the surrender.
+
+Marius continued more than a year in Africa after the capture of
+Jugurtha. He entered Rome on the first of January, B.C. 104, leading
+Jugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was then thrown into a dungeon,
+and there starved to death. Marius, during his absence, had been elected
+Consul a second time, and he entered upon his office on the day of his
+triumph. The reason of this unprecedented honor will be related in the
+following chapter.
+
+[Illustration: Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of
+Trajan.)]
+
+[Footnote 64: On this important change in the Roman army, see p. 124.
+(The end of Chapter XVII.--Transcriber)]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Caius Marius.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101.--SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
+B.C. 103-101.
+
+
+A greater danger than Rome had experienced since the time of Hannibal
+now threatened the state. Vast numbers of barbarians, such as spread
+over the south of Europe in the later times of the Roman Empire, had
+collected together on the northern side of the Alps, and were ready to
+pour down upon Italy. The two leading nations of which they consisted
+are called Cimbri and Teutones, of whom the former were probably Celts
+and the latter Germans, but the exact parts of Europe from which they
+came can not be ascertained. The whole host is said to have contained
+300,000 fighting men, besides a much larger number of women and
+children. The alarm at Rome was still farther increased by the ill
+success which had hitherto attended the arms of the Republic against
+these barbarians. Army after army had fallen before them. The Cimbri
+were first heard of in B.C. 113, in Noricum, whence they descended into
+Illyricum, and defeated a Roman army under the command of Cn. Papirius
+Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzerland, where they were
+joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones. They next poured over Gaul,
+which they plundered and ravaged in every direction. The Romans sent
+army after army to defend the southwestern part of the country, which
+was now a Roman province; but all in vain. In B.C. 109 the Consul M.
+Junius Silanus was defeated by the Cimbri; in B.C. 107 the Tigurini cut
+in pieces, near the Lake of Geneva, the army of the Consul L. Cassius
+Longinus, the colleague of Marias, who lost his life in the battle; and
+shortly afterward M. Aurelius Scaurus was also defeated and taken
+prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was still to come. In B.C. 105 two
+consular armies, commanded by the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
+Proconsul Cn. Servilius Caepio, consisting of 80,000 men, were completely
+annihilated by the barbarians: only two men are said to have escaped the
+slaughter.
+
+These repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one at Rome
+felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the state, and he
+was accordingly elected Consul by the unanimous votes of all parties
+while he was still absent in Africa. He entered Rome in triumph, as we
+have already said, on the 1st of January, B.C. 104, which was the first
+day of his second Consulship. Meantime the threatened danger was for a
+while averted. Instead of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy,
+as had been expected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged
+for the next two or three years. This interval was advantageously
+employed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming them to
+hardships and toil. It was probably during this time that he introduced
+the various changes into the organization of the Roman army which are
+usually attributed to him. Notwithstanding the sternness and severity
+with which he punished the least breach of discipline, he was a favorite
+with his new soldiers, who learned to place implicit confidence in their
+general, and were delighted with the strict impartiality with which he
+visited the offenses of the officers as well as of the privates. As the
+enemy still continued in Spain, Marius was elected Consul a third time
+for the year B.C. 103, and also a fourth time for the following year,
+with Q. Lutatius Catulus as his colleague. It was in this year (B.C.
+102) that the long-expected barbarians arrived. The Cimbri, who had
+returned from Spain, united their forces with the Teutones. Marius first
+took up his position in a fortified camp upon the Rhone, probably in the
+vicinity of the modern Arles; and as the entrance of the river was
+nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his soldiers in digging a
+canal from the Rhone to the Mediterranean, that he might the more easily
+obtain his supplies from the sea.[65] Meantime the barbarians had
+divided their forces. The Cimbri marched round the northern foot of the
+Alps, in order to enter Italy by the northeast, crossing the Tyrolese
+Alps by the defiles of Tridentum (_Trent_). The Teutones and Ambrones,
+on the other hand, marched against Marius, intending, as it seems, to
+penetrate into Italy by Nice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious
+to accustom his soldiers to the savage and strange appearance of the
+barbarians, would not give them battle at first. The latter resolved to
+attack the Roman camp; but as they were repulsed in this attempt, they
+pressed on at once for Italy. So great were their numbers, that they are
+said to have been six days in marching by the Roman camp. As soon as
+they had advanced a little way, Marius followed them; and thus the
+armies continued to march for a few days, the barbarians in the front
+and Marius behind, till they came to the neighborhood of Aquae Sextiae
+(_Aix_). Here the decisive battle was fought. An ambush of 3000
+soldiers, which Marius had stationed in the rear of the barbarians, and
+which fell upon them when they were already retreating, decided the
+fortune of the day. Attacked both in front and rear, and also dreadfully
+exhausted by the excessive heat of the weather, they at length broke
+their ranks and fled. The carnage was dreadful; the whole nation was
+annihilated, for those who escaped put an end to their lives, and their
+wives followed their example. Immediately after the battle, as Marius
+was in the act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which was
+intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to him, and
+greeted him with the news of his being elected Consul for the fifth
+time.
+
+The Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy. The
+colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of defending the
+passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a strong position on the Athesis
+(Adige); but, in consequence of the terror of his soldiers at the
+approach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat even beyond the
+Po, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of Lombardy exposed to
+their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled to Rome. The Senate offered
+him a triumph for his victory over the Teutones, which he declined while
+the Cimbri were in Italy, and proceeded to join Catulus, who now
+commanded as Proconsul (B.C. 101). The united armies of the Consul and
+Proconsul crossed the Po, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, whom
+they found to the westward of Milan, near Vercellae, searching for the
+Teutones, of whose destruction they had not yet heard. The Cimbri met
+with the same fate as the Teutones; the whole nation was annihilated;
+and the women, like those of the Tentones, put an end to their lives.
+Marius was hailed as the savior of the state; his name was coupled with
+the gods in the libations and at banquets; and he received the title of
+third founder of Rome. He celebrated his victories by a brilliant
+triumph, in which, however, he allowed Catulus to share.
+
+During the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been exposed to the
+horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection broke out in the east
+of the island, where the slaves elected as their king one Salvius, a
+soothsayer. He displayed considerable abilities, and in a short time
+collected a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse. After defeating a Roman
+army he assumed all the pomp of royalty, and took the surname of
+Tryphon, which had been borne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The
+success of Salvius led to an insurrection in the western part of the
+island, where the slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio,
+who joined Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the death of
+Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had now assumed such a
+formidable aspect that, in B.C. 101, the Senate sent the Consul M.
+Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded in subduing the insurgents, and
+killed Athenio with his own hand. The survivors were sent to Rome, and
+condemned to fight with wild beasts; but they disdained to minister to
+the pleasures of their oppressors, and slew each other with their own
+hands in the amphitheatre.
+
+[Illustration: Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)]
+
+[Footnote 65: This canal continued to exist long afterward, and bore the
+name of _Fossa Mariana_.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Metella Caecilia.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES TO
+THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.
+
+
+The career of Marius had hitherto been a glorious one, and it would have
+been fortunate for him if he had died on the day of his triumph. The
+remainder of his life is full of horrors, and brings out into prominent
+relief the worst features of his character. As the time for the consular
+elections approached, Marius became again a candidate for the
+Consulship. He wished to be first in peace as well as in war, and to
+rule the state as well as the army. But he did not possess the qualities
+requisite for a popular leader at Rome; he had no power of oratory, and
+lost his presence of mind in the noise and shouts of the popular
+assemblies. In order to secure his election, he entered into close
+connection with two of the worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome,
+Saturninus and Glaucia. The former was a candidate for the Tribunate,
+and the latter for the Praetorship; and by their means, as well as by
+bribing the Tribes, Marius secured his election to the Consulship for
+the sixth time. Glaucia also obtained the Praetorship, but Saturninus was
+not equally successful. He lost his election chiefly through the
+exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in his stead. But Nonius paid
+dearly for the honor, for on the evening of his election he was murdered
+by the emissaries of Saturninus and Glaucia, and next morning, at an
+early hour, before the forum was full, Saturninus was chosen to fill up
+the vacancy.
+
+As soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (B.C. 100) he brought
+forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the soldiers of Marius the
+lands in Gaul which had been lately occupied by the Cimbri. He added to
+the law a clause that, if it was enacted by the people, every Senator
+should swear obedience to it within five days, and that whoever refused
+to do so should be expelled from the Senate, and pay a fine of twenty
+talents. This clause was specially aimed at Metellus, who, it was well
+known, would refuse to obey the requisition. In order to insure a
+refusal on the part of Metellus, Marius rose in the Senate, and declared
+that he would never take the oath, and Metellus made the same
+declaration; but when the law had been passed, and Saturninus summoned
+the Senators to the rostra to comply with the demands of the law,
+Marius, to the astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and
+advised the Senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused
+compliance; and on the following day Saturninus sent his beadle to drag
+him out of the Senate-house. Not content with this victory, Saturninus
+brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. The friends of Metellus
+were ready to take up arms in his defense; but he declined their
+assistance, and withdrew privately from the city. Saturninus brought
+forward other popular measures, of which our information is very scanty.
+He proposed a _Lex Frumentaria_, by which the state was to sell corn to
+the people at a very low price; and also a law for founding new colonies
+in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. In the election of the magistrates for
+the following year Saturninus was again chosen Tribune. Glaucia was at
+the same time a candidate for the Consulship, the two other candidates
+being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of Antonius was certain,
+and the struggle lay between Glaucia and Memmius. As the latter seemed
+likely to carry his election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired some
+ruffians, who murdered him openly in the comitia. All sensible people
+had previously become alarmed at the mad conduct of Saturninus and his
+partisans, and this last act produced a complete reaction against them.
+The Senate felt themselves now sufficiently strong to declare them
+public enemies, and invested the Consuls with dictatorial power. Marius
+was unwilling to act against his associates, but he had no alternative,
+and his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of others. Driven out
+of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the Quaestor Saufeius took refuge
+in the Capitol, but the partisans of the Senate cut off the pipes which
+supplied the citadel with water before Marius began to move against
+them. Unable to hold out any longer, they surrendered to Marius. The
+latter did all he could to save their lives: as soon as they descended
+from the Capitol, he placed them, for security, in the Curia Hostilia;
+but the mob pulled off the tiles of the Senate-house, and pelted them
+till they died. The Senate gave their sanction to the proceeding by
+rewarding with the citizenship a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed
+the honor of having killed Saturninus.
+
+Marius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself with such
+unprincipled adventurers. In the following year (B.C. 99) he left Rome,
+in order that he might not witness the return of Metellus from exile, a
+measure which he had been unable to prevent. He set sail for Cappadocia
+and Galatia under the pretense of offering sacrifices which he had vowed
+to the Great Mother. He had, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these
+countries. Finding that he was losing his popularity while the Republic
+was at peace, he was anxious to recover his lost ground by gaining fresh
+victories in war, and accordingly repaired to the court of Mithridates,
+in hopes of rousing him to attack the Romans.
+
+The mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which Marius had
+fallen, had given new strength to the Senate. They judged the
+opportunity favorable for depriving the Equites of the judicial power
+which they had enjoyed, with only a temporary cessation, since the time
+of C. Gracchus. The Equites had abused their power, as the Senate had
+done before them. They were the capitalists who farmed the public
+revenues in the provinces, where they committed peculation and extortion
+with habitual impunity. When accused, they were tried by accomplices and
+partisans. Their unjust condemnation of Rutilius Rufus had shown how
+unfit they were to be intrusted with judicial duties. Rutilius was a man
+of spotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucius
+Scaevola, Proconsul of Asia in B.C. 95, he displayed so much honesty and
+firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers of the taxes, that
+he became an object of fear and hatred to the whole body. Accordingly,
+on his return to Rome, a charge of malversation was trumped up against
+him, he was found guilty, and compelled to withdraw into banishment
+(B.C. 92).
+
+The following year (B.C. 91) witnessed the memorable Tribunate of M.
+Livius Drusus. He was the son of the celebrated opponent of C. Gracchus.
+He was a man of boundless activity and extraordinary ability. Like his
+father, he was an advocate of the party of the Nobles. He took up arms
+against Saturninus, and supported the Senate in the dispute for the
+possession of the judicial power. His election to the Tribunate was
+hailed by the Nobles with delight, and for a time he possessed their
+unlimited confidence. He gained over the people to the party of the
+Senate by various popular measures, such as the distribution of corn at
+a low price, and the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily. He
+was thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform of the judicia,
+which were, that the Senate should be increased from 300 to 600 by the
+addition of an equal number of Equites, and that the Judices should be
+taken from the Senate thus doubled in numbers. Drusus seems to have been
+actuated by a single-minded desire to do justice to all, but the measure
+was acceptable to neither party. The Senators viewed with dislike the
+elevation to their own rank of 300 Equites, while the Equites had no
+desire to transfer to a select few of their own order the profitable
+share in the administration of justice which they all enjoyed.
+
+Another measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular with the
+people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian allies the promise
+of the Roman franchise. Some of the most eminent men of Rome had long
+been convinced of the necessity of this reform. It had been meditated by
+the younger Scipio Africanus, and proposed by C. Gracchus. The Roman
+people, however, always offered it the most violent opposition. But
+Drusus still had many partisans. The Italian allies looked up to him as
+their leader, and loudly demanded the rights which had been promised
+them. It was too late to retreat; and, in order to oppose the formidable
+coalition against him, Drusus had recourse to sedition and conspiracy. A
+secret society was formed, in which the members bound themselves by a
+solemn oath to have the same friends and foes with Drusus, and to obey
+all his commands. The ferment soon became so great that the public peace
+was more than once threatened. The Allies were ready to take up arms at
+the first movement. The Consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator,
+resolved to meet his plots by counterplots. But he knew his danger, and
+whenever he went into the city kept a strong body-guard of attendants
+close to his person. The end could not much longer be postponed; and the
+civil war was on the point of breaking out, when one evening Drusus was
+assassinated in his own house, while dismissing the crowds who were
+attending him. A leather-cutter's knife was found sticking in his loins.
+Turning round to those who surrounded him, he asked them, as he was
+dying, "Friends and neighbors, when will the Commonwealth have a
+citizen like me again?"
+
+Even in the lifetime of Drusus the Senate had repealed all his laws.
+After his death the Tribune Q. Varius brought forward a law declaring
+all persons guilty of high treason who had assisted the cause of the
+Allies. Many eminent men were condemned under this law. This measure,
+following the assassination of Drusus, roused the indignation of the
+Allies to the highest pitch. They clearly saw that the Roman people
+would yield nothing except upon compulsion.
+
+[Illustration: Beneventum in Samnium.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of
+Federation.]
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.
+
+
+Rome had never been exposed to greater danger than at this time. Those
+who had been her bravest defenders now rose against her; and she would
+probably have perished had the whole Italian people taken part in the
+war. But the insurrection was confined almost exclusively to the
+Sabellians and their kindred races. The Etruscans and Umbrians stood
+aloof, while the Sabines, Volscians, and other tribes who already
+possessed the Roman franchise, supported the Republic, and furnished the
+materials of her armies. The nations which composed the formidable
+conspiracy against Rome were eight in number--the Marsians, Pelignians,
+Marrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samnites, Apulians, and Lucanians.
+Of these the Marsians were particularly distinguished for their courage
+and skill in war; and from the prominent part which they took in the
+struggle, it was frequently termed the Marsic as well as the Social War.
+
+The war broke out at Asculum in Picenum. The Proconsul Q. Servilius, who
+had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing that the inhabitants of
+Asculum were organizing a revolt, entered the town, and endeavored to
+persuade them to lay aside their hostile intentions. But he was
+murdered, together with his legate, by the exasperated citizens, and all
+the Romans in the place were likewise put to death. The insurrection now
+became general. The Allies entered upon the war with feelings of bitter
+hatred against their former rulers. They resolved to destroy Rome, and
+fixed upon Corfinium, a strong city of the Peligni, to which they gave
+the name of Italica, as the new capital of the Italian Confederation.
+The government of the new Republic was borrowed from that of Rome. It
+was to have two Consuls, twelve Praetors, and a Senate of 500 members. Q.
+Pompaedius Silo, a Marsian, one of the chief instigators of the war, and
+C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, who cherished the hereditary hatred of his
+countrymen against the Romans, were chosen Consuls. Under them were many
+able lieutenants, who had learned the art of war under the best Roman
+generals. The soldiers had also served, in the Roman armies, and were
+armed and disciplined in the same way, so that the contest partook of
+all the characters of a civil war. But the Romans had the great
+advantage which a single state always possesses over a confederation.
+
+Of the details of the war our information is meagre and imperfect. But
+in the military operations we clearly see that the Allies formed two
+principal groups: the one composed of the Marsians, with their neighbors
+the Marrucinians, Pelignians, Vestinians, and Picentines; the other of
+the Samnites, with the Lucanians and Apulians. The two Consuls, L.
+Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, took the field with powerful armies,
+and under them served Marius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals
+of the time. The Romans were fully aware of the formidable nature of the
+struggle, which was one for existence, and not for victory. In the first
+campaign the advantage was on the side of the Allies. The Samnites,
+under their Consul Papius, overran Campania, took most of the towns, and
+laid siege to Acerrae, into which Caesar threw himself. Pompaedius Silo was
+still more successful. He defeated the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus
+with great slaughter, Rutilius himself being slain in the battle. This
+disaster was to some extent repaired by Marius, who commanded a separate
+army in the neighborhood, and compelled the victorious Allies to retire.
+The old general then intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither
+the stratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him from his
+advantageous position. "If you are a great general," said Pompaedius,
+"come down and fight;" to which the veteran replied, "Nay, do _you_, if
+you are a great general, compel me to fight against my will." The Romans
+considered that Marius was over-cautious and too slow; and Plutarch says
+that his age and corpulence rendered him incapable of enduring the
+fatigue of very active service. But it is more probable that he was not
+very willing to destroy the Allies, who had been among his most active
+partisans, and to whom he still looked for support in his future
+struggles with the Nobility.
+
+The Romans now saw the necessity of making some concessions. The Lex
+Julia, proposed by the Consul Julius Caesar, granted the franchise to all
+the Latin colonies, and to those of the Allies who had remained faithful
+to Rome, or had laid down their arms. The effects of this concession
+were immediately seen. Several of the Allies hastened to avail
+themselves of it, and disunion and distrust were produced among the
+rest.
+
+The next campaign (B.C. 89) was decidedly favorable to the Romans. The
+Consuls were Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of the celebrated Triumvir,
+and L. Porcius Cato. The latter, it is true, was slain at the
+commencement of the campaign; but his loss was more than compensated by
+his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in consequence, the supreme command. He
+carried on the war with the utmost vigor, and completely eclipsed his
+old commander Marius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued the
+Hirpini, and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium. Here he
+defeated Papius Mutilus, the Samnite Consul, and followed up his victory
+by the capture of the strong town of Bovianum.
+
+Meanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in the north.
+Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate siege. The Marrucinians,
+Vestinians, Pelignians, and finally the Marsians, laid down their arms
+before the end of the year. Their submission was facilitated by the Lex
+Plautia Papiria, proposed by the Tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C.
+Papirius Carbo (B.C. 89), which completed the arrangements of the Lex
+Julia, and granted, in fact, every thing which the Allies had demanded
+before the war. All citizens of a town in alliance with Rome could
+obtain, by this law, the Roman franchise, provided they were at the time
+resident in Italy, and registered their names with the Praetor within
+sixty days.[66]
+
+The war was thus virtually brought to a conclusion within two years, but
+300,000 men, the flower of Rome and Italy, perished in this short time.
+The only nations remaining in arms were the Samnites and Lucanians, who
+still maintained a guerrilla warfare in their mountains, and continued
+to keep possession of the strong fortress of Nola, in Campania, from
+which all the efforts of Sulla failed to dislodge them.
+
+It now remained to be settled in what way the new citizens were to be
+incorporated in the Roman state. If they were enrolled in the
+thirty-five tribes, they would outnumber the old citizens. It was
+therefore resolved to form ten new tribes, which should consist of the
+new citizens exclusively; but, before these arrangements could be
+completed, the Civil War broke out.
+
+[Footnote 66: A law of the Consul Pompeius bestowed the Latin franchise
+upon all the citizens of the Gallic towns between the Po and the Alps,
+so that they now entered into the same relations with Rome as the Latins
+had formerly held.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Terracina.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.
+
+
+One reason which induced the Senate to bring the Social War to a
+conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king of Pontus,
+one of the ablest monarchs with whom Rome ever came into contact. The
+origin and history of this war will be narrated in the following
+chapter. The dispute between Marias and Sulla for the command against
+Mithridates was the occasion of the first Civil War. The ability which
+Sulla had displayed in the Social War, and his well-known attachment to
+the Senatorial party, naturally marked him out as the man to whom this
+important dignity was to be granted. He was accordingly elected Consul
+for the year 88 B.C., with Q. Pompeius Rufus as his colleague; and he
+forthwith received the command of the Mithridatic War. But Marius had
+long coveted this distinction; he quitted the magnificent villa which he
+had built at Misenum, and took up his residence at Rome; and in order to
+show that neither his age nor his corpulency had destroyed his vigor, he
+repaired daily to the Campus Martius, and went through the usual
+exercises with the young men. He was determined not to yield without a
+struggle to his hated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune
+Saturninus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument
+for his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus. Sulpicius was one of
+the greatest orators of the age, and had acquired great influence by his
+splendid talents. He was an intimate friend of the Tribune M. Livius
+Drusus, and had been himself elected Tribune for B.C. 88, through the
+influence of the Senatorial party, who placed great hopes in him; but,
+being overwhelmed with debt, he now sold himself to Marius, who promised
+him a liberal share of the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Accordingly,
+Sulpicius brought forward a law by which the Italians were to be
+distributed among the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the
+old Roman citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in each
+tribe, and would certainly confer upon Marius the command of the
+Mithridatic War. To prevent the Tribune from putting these rogations to
+the vote, the Consuls declared a justitium, during which no business
+could be legally transacted. But Sulpicius was resolved to carry his
+point; with an armed band of followers he entered the forum and called
+upon the Consuls to withdraw the justitium; and upon their refusal to
+comply with his demand he ordered his satellites to draw their swords
+and fall upon them. Pompeius escaped, but his son Quintus, who was also
+the son-in-law of Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself took refuge in the
+house of Marius, which was close to the forum, and in order to save his
+life he was obliged to remove the justitium.
+
+Sulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging Nola, which
+was still held by the Samnites (see p. 180)(Fifth paragraph of Chapter
+XXV.--Transcriber). The city was now in the hands of Sulpicius and
+Marius, and the rogations passed into law without opposition, as well as
+a third, conferring upon Marius the command of the Mithridatic War.
+Marius lost no time in sending some Tribunes to assume on his behalf the
+command of the army at Nola; but the soldiers, who loved Sulla, and who
+feared that Marius might lead another army to Asia, and thus deprive
+them of their anticipated plunder, stoned his deputies to death. Sulla
+found his soldiers ready to respond to his wishes; they called upon him
+to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city from the tyrants. He
+therefore hesitated no longer, but at the head of six legions broke up
+from his encampment at Nola, and marched toward the city. His officers,
+however, refused to serve against their country, and all quitted him,
+with the exception of one Quaestor. This was the first time that a Roman
+had ever marched at the head of Roman troops against the city. Marius
+was taken by surprise. Such was the reverence that the Romans
+entertained for law, that it seems never to have occurred to him or to
+his party that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against the state.
+Marius attempted to gain time for preparations by forbidding Sulla, in
+the name of the Republic, to advance any farther; but the Praetors who
+carried the command narrowly escaped being murdered by the soldiers; and
+Marius, as a last resource, offered liberty to the slaves who would join
+him. But it was all in vain. Sulla forced his way into the city, and
+Marius took to flight with his son and a few followers. Sulla used his
+victory with moderation. He protected the city from plunder; and only
+Marius, Sulpicius, and ten others of his bitterest enemies, were
+declared public enemies by the Senate. Sulpicius was betrayed by one of
+his slaves and put to death, but Marius and his son succeeded in making
+their escape. Marius himself embarked on board a ship at Ostia, with a
+few companions, and then sailed southward along the coast of Italy. At
+Circeii he and his companions were obliged to land on account of the
+violence of the wind and the want of provisions. After wandering about
+for a long time, they learned from some peasants that a number of
+horsemen had been in search of them; and they accordingly turned aside
+from the road, and passed the night in a deep wood in great want. But
+the indomitable spirit of the old man did not fail him; and he consoled
+himself and encouraged his companions by the assurance that he should
+still live to see his seventh Consulship, in accordance with a
+prediction that had been made to him in his youth. Shortly afterward,
+when they were near to Minturnae, they descried a party of horsemen
+galloping toward them. In great haste they hurried down to the sea, and
+swam off to two merchant vessels, which received them on board. The
+horsemen bade the crew bring the ship to land or throw Marius overboard;
+but, moved by his tears and entreaties, they refused to surrender him.
+The sailors soon changed their minds; and, fearing to keep Marius, they
+cast anchor at the mouth of the Liris, where they persuaded him to
+disembark, and rest himself from his fatigues till a wind should rise;
+but they had no sooner landed him than they immediately sailed away.
+Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps and marshes through which the
+Liris flows. With difficulty he reached the hut of an old man, who
+concealed him in a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds; but
+hearing shortly afterward the noise of his pursuers, he crept out of his
+hiding-place and threw himself into the marsh. He was discovered, and
+dragged out of the water; and, covered with mud, and with a rope round
+his neck, was delivered up to the authorities of Minturnae. The
+magistrates then deliberated whether they should comply with the
+instruction that had been sent from Rome to all the municipal towns to
+put Marius to death as soon as they found him. After some consultation
+they resolved to obey it, and sent a Cimbrian slave to carry out their
+orders. The room in which the old general was confined was dark; and, to
+the frightened barbarian, the eyes of Marius seemed to dart forth fire,
+and from the darkness a terrible voice shouted out, "Man! durst thou
+slay C. Marius?" The barbarian immediately threw down his sword, and
+rushed out of the house, exclaiming, "I can not kill C. Marius!"
+Straightway there was a revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of
+Minturnae. They repented of their ungrateful conduct toward a man who had
+saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for his departure, provided
+him with every thing necessary for the voyage, and, with prayers and
+wishes for his safety, placed him on board. The wind carried him to the
+island of AEnaria (now Ischia), where he found the rest of his friends;
+and from thence he set sail for Africa, which he reached in safety. He
+landed near the site of Carthage, but he had scarcely put his foot on
+shore before the Praetor Sextilius sent an officer to bid him leave the
+country, or else he would carry into execution the decree of the Senate.
+This last blow almost unmanned Marius: grief and indignation for a time
+deprived him of speech, and his only reply was, "Tell the Praetor that
+you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of Carthage."
+Shortly afterward Marius was joined by his son, and they crossed over to
+the island of Cercina, where they remained unmolested.
+
+Meantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which prepared the way
+for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla's soldiers were impatient for
+the plunder of Asia, and he therefore contented himself with repealing
+the Sulpician laws. He then sent forward his legions to Capua, that they
+might be ready to embark for Greece, but he himself remained in Rome
+till the Consuls were elected for the following year. The candidates
+whom he recommended were rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius,
+who belonged to the aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute
+man, and on L. Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side. Sulla
+did not attempt to oppose their election: to have recalled his legions
+to Rome would have been a dangerous experiment when the soldiers were so
+eager for the spoils of the East; and he only took the vain precaution
+of making Cinna promise that he would make no attempt to disturb the
+existing order of things. But as soon as Sulla had quitted Italy, Cinna
+brought forward again the law of Sulpicius for incorporating the new
+Italian citizens among the thirty-five tribes. The two Consuls had
+recourse to arms, Octavius to oppose and Cinna to carry the law. A
+dreadful conflict took place in the forum. The party of Octavius
+obtained the victory, and Cinna was driven out of the city with great
+slaughter. But Cinna, by means of the new citizens, whose cause he
+espoused, was soon at the head of a formidable army. As soon as Marius
+heard of these changes he set sail from Africa, and offered to serve
+under Cinna, who gladly accepted his proposal, and named him Proconsul;
+but Marius refused all marks of honor. The sufferings and privations he
+had endured had exasperated his proud and haughty spirit almost to
+madness, and nothing but the blood of his enemies could appease his
+resentment. He continued to wear a mean and humble dress, and his hair
+and beard had remained unshorn from the day he had been driven out of
+Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted the war with great vigor.
+He first captured the corn-ships, and thus cut off Rome from its usual
+supply of food. He next took Ostia and the other towns on the sea-coast,
+and, moving down the Tiber, encamped on the Janiculum. Famine began to
+rage in the city, and the Senate was obliged to yield. They sent a
+deputation to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but
+entreating them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the deputies
+sitting in his chair of office, and gave them a kind answer. Marius
+stood in silence by the side of the Consul, but his actions spoke louder
+than words. After the audience was over they entered the city. The most
+frightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain while seated in
+his curule chair. The streets ran with the noblest blood of Rome. Every
+one whom Marius hated or feared was hunted out and put to death; and no
+consideration, either of rank, talent, or former friendship, induced him
+to spare the victims of his vengeance. The great orator M. Antonius fell
+by the hands of his assassins; and his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who
+had triumphed with him over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his
+own life. Cinna was soon tired of the butchery; but the appetite of
+Marius seemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh
+victims for its gratification. Without going through the form of an
+election, Marius and Cinna named themselves Consuls for the following
+year (B.C. 86), and thus was fulfilled the prediction that Marius should
+be seven times Consul. But he did not long enjoy the honor: he was now
+in his seventy-first year; his body was worn out by the fatigues and
+sufferings he had recently undergone; and on the eighteenth day of his
+Consulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after a few days' illness.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.
+
+
+The kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being on the coast of
+the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally a satrapy of the
+Persian empire, extending from the River Halys on the west to the
+frontiers of Colchis on the east. Even under the later Persian kings the
+rulers of Pontus were really independent, and in the wars of the
+successors of Alexander the Great it became a separate kingdom. Most of
+its kings bore the name of Mithridates; and the fifth monarch of this
+name formed an alliance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the
+province of Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war
+against Aristonicus. He was assassinated about B.C. 120, and was
+succeeded by his son Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, who was
+then only about twelve years of age. His youth was remarkable, but much
+that has been transmitted to us respecting this period of his life wears
+a very suspicious aspect; it is certain, however, that when he attained
+to manhood he was not only endowed with consummate skill in all martial
+exercises, and possessed of a bodily frame inured to all hardships, but
+his naturally vigorous intellect had been improved by careful culture.
+As a boy he had been brought up at Sinope, where he had probably
+received the elements of a Greek education, and so powerful was his
+memory that he is said to have learned not less than twenty-five
+languages, and to have been able in the days of his greatest power to
+transact business with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule
+in their own peculiar dialect. As soon as he was firmly established on
+the throne he began to turn his arms against the neighboring nations. On
+the west his progress was hemmed in by the power of Rome, and the minor
+sovereigns of Bithynia and Cappadocia enjoyed the all-powerful
+protection of the Republic. But on the east his ambition found free
+scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between the Euxine and the
+confines of Armenia, including the whole of Colchis and the province
+called Lesser Armenia; and he even added to his dominions the Tauric
+Chersonesus, now called the _Crimea_. The Greek kingdom of Bosphorus,
+which formed a portion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his
+sway. Moreover, he formed alliances with Tigranes, king of Armenia, to
+whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, as well as with the
+warlike nations of the Parthians and Iberians. He thus found himself in
+possession of such great power and extensive resources, that he began to
+deem himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. Many causes of
+dissension had already arisen between them. Shortly after his accession,
+the Romans had taken advantage of his minority to wrest from him the
+province of Phrygia. In B.C. 93 they resisted his attempt to place upon
+the throne of Cappadocia one of his own nephews, and appointed a
+Cappadocian named Ariobarzanes to be king of that country. For a time
+Mithridates submitted; but the death of Nicomedes II., king of Bithynia,
+shortly afterward, at length brought matters to a crisis. That monarch
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicomedes III.; but Mithridates took
+the opportunity to set up a rival claimant, whose pretensions he
+supported with an army, and quickly drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia
+(B.C. 90). About the same time he openly invaded Cappadocia, and
+expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing his own son
+Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes had recourse to Rome,
+where they found ready support; a decree was passed that Nicomedes and
+Ariobarzanes should be restored to their respective kingdoms, and the
+execution of it was confided to M. Aquillius and L. Cassius.
+
+Mithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were restored to
+their dominions; but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced on the throne of
+Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman legates to invade the
+territories of Mithridates, into which he made a predatory incursion.
+Mithridates offered no resistance, but sent to the Romans to demand
+satisfaction, and it was not until his embassador was dismissed with an
+evasive answer that he prepared for immediate hostilities (B.C. 88). His
+first step was to invade Cappadocia, from which he easily expelled
+Ariobarzanes once more. His generals drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia,
+and defeated Aquillius. Mithridates, following up his advantage, not
+only made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman
+province of Asia. Here the universal discontent of the inhabitants,
+caused by the oppression of the Roman governors, enabled him to overrun
+the whole province almost without opposition. The Roman officers, who
+had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, were unable to
+collect any forces to oppose his progress; and Aquillius himself, the
+chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the King of Pontus.
+Mithridates took up his winter quarters at Pergamus, where he issued the
+sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to put to death on the same
+day all the Roman and Italian citizens who were to be found within their
+walls. So hateful had the Romans rendered themselves during the short
+period of their dominion, that these commands were obeyed with alacrity
+by almost all the cities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to
+have perished in this fearful massacre.
+
+The success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to declare against
+Rome, and the king accordingly sent his general Archelaus with a large
+army and fleet into Greece. Most of the Grecian states now declared in
+favor of Mithridates. Such was the position of affairs when Sulla landed
+in Epirus in B.C. 87. He immediately marched southward, and laid siege
+to Athens and the Piraeus. But for many months these towns resisted all
+his attacks. Athens was first taken in the spring of the following year;
+and Archelaus, despairing of defending the Piraeus any longer, withdrew
+into Boeotia, where he received some powerful re-enforcements from
+Mithridates. Piraeus now fell into the hands of Sulla, and both this
+place and Athens were treated with the utmost barbarity. The soldiers
+were indulged in indiscriminate slaughter and plunder. Having thus
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unfortunate Athenians, Sulla directed his
+arms against Archelaus in Boeotia, and defeated him with enormous loss
+at Chaeronea. Out of the 110,000 men of which the Pontic army consisted,
+Archelaus assembled only 10,000 at Chalcis, in Euboea, where he had
+taken refuge. Mithridates, on receiving news of this great disaster,
+immediately set about raising fresh troops, and was soon able to send
+another army of 80,000 men to Euboea. But he now found himself
+threatened with danger from a new and unexpected quarter. While Sulla
+was still occupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Rome had sent a
+fresh army to Asia under the Consul L. Valerius Flaccus to carry on the
+war at once against their foreign and domestic enemies. Flaccus was
+murdered by his troops at the instigation of Fimbria, who now assumed
+the command, and gained several victories over Mithridates and his
+generals in Asia (B.C. 85). About the same time the new army, which the
+king had sent to Archelaus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the
+neighborhood of Orchomenus. These repeated disasters made Mithridates
+anxious for peace, but it was not granted by Sulla till the following
+year (B.C. 84), when he had crossed the Hellespont in order to carry on
+the war in Asia. The terms of peace were definitely settled at an
+interview which the Roman general and the Pontic king had at Dardanus,
+in the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon all his conquests in
+Asia, to restrict himself to the dominions which he held before the
+commencement of the war, or pay a sum of 5000 talents, and surrender to
+the Romans a fleet of seventy ships fully equipped. Thus terminated the
+First Mithridatic War.
+
+Sulla was now at liberty to turn his aims against Fimbria, who was with
+his army at Thyatira. The name of Sulla carried victory with it. The
+troops of Fimbria deserted their general, who put an end to his own
+life. Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. After exacting enormous
+sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he left his legate, L. Licinius
+Murena, in command of that province, with two legions, and set sail with
+his own army to Athens. While preparing for his deadly struggle in
+Italy, he did not lose his interest in literature. He carried with him
+from Athens to Rome the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which
+contained most of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Brundisium.]
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+SECOND CIVIL WAR.--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH, B.C.
+83-78.
+
+
+Sulla landed at Brundisium in the spring of B.C. 83, in the Consulship
+of L. Scipio and C. Norbanus. During the preceding year he had written
+to the Senate, recounting the services he had rendered to the
+commonwealth, complaining of the ingratitude with which he had been
+treated, announcing his speedy return to Italy, and threatening to take
+vengeance upon his enemies and those of the Republic. The Senate, in
+alarm, sent an embassy to Sulla to endeavor to bring about a
+reconciliation between him and his enemies, and meantime ordered the
+Consuls Cinna and Carbo to desist from levying troops and making farther
+preparations for war. Cinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command; they
+knew that a reconciliation was impossible, and resolved to carry over an
+army to Dalmatia, in order to oppose Sulla in Greece; but, after one
+detachment of their troops had embarked, the rest of the soldiers rose
+in mutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had thus lost their
+chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make every preparation to
+resist Sulla, for they were well aware that he would never forgive them,
+and that their only choice lay between victory and destruction. Besides
+this the Italians were ready to support them, as these new citizens
+feared that Sulla would deprive them of the rights which they had lately
+obtained after so much bloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect of
+victory, for their troops far exceeded those of their opponent. They had
+200,000 men in arms, while Sulla landed at Brundusium with only 30,000,
+or at the most 40,000 men. But, on the other hand, the popular party had
+no one of sufficient influence and military reputation to take the
+supreme command in the war; their vast forces were scattered about
+Italy, in different armies, under different generals; the soldiers had
+no confidence in their commanders, and no enthusiasm in their cause; and
+the consequence was, that whole hosts of them deserted to Sulla on the
+first opportunity. Sulla's soldiers, on the contrary, were veterans, who
+had frequently fought by each other's sides, and had acquired that
+confidence in themselves and in their general which frequent victories
+always give. Still, if the Italians had remained faithful to the cause
+of the Marian party, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore
+one of his first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them
+from his enemies. For this purpose he would not allow his troops to do
+any injury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march from
+Brundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and he formed separate treaties
+with many of the Italian towns, by which he secured to them all the
+rights and privileges of Roman citizens which they then enjoyed. Among
+the Italians the Samnites continued to be the most formidable enemies of
+Sulla. They had joined the Marian party, not simply with the design of
+securing the supremacy for the latter, but with the hope of conquering
+Rome by their means, and then destroying forever their hated oppressor.
+Thus this Civil war became merely another phase of the Social war, and
+the struggle between Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of the peninsula
+was renewed after the subjection of the latter for more than two hundred
+years.
+
+Sulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting with any
+resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory over the Consul
+Norbanus, who was defeated with great loss, and obliged to take refuge
+in Capua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no great distance, willingly
+accepted a truce which Sulla offered him, although Sertorius, the ablest
+of the Marian generals, warned him against entering into any
+negotiations. His caution was justified by the event. By means of his
+emissaries Sulla seduced the troops of Scipio, who at length found
+himself deserted by all his soldiers, and was taken prisoner in his
+tent. Sulla, however, dismissed him uninjured. On hearing of this, Carbo
+is said to have observed "that he had to contend in Sulla both with a
+lion and a fox, but that the fox gave him more trouble." Many
+distinguished Romans meantime had taken up arms on behalf of Sulla. Cn.
+Pompey, the son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of
+age, levied three legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts; and
+Q. Metellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others, offered
+their services as legates. It was not, however, till the following year
+(B.C. 82) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. The Consuls
+of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger Marius, the former
+of whom was intrusted with the protection of Etruria and Umbria, while
+the latter had to guard Rome and Latium. Sulla appears to have passed
+the winter at Campania. At the commencement of spring he advanced
+against the younger Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at
+Sacriportus, and defeated him with great loss. Marius took refuge in
+Praeneste; and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a large
+force to blockade the town, marched with the main body of his army to
+Rome. Marius was resolved not to perish unavenged, and accordingly,
+before Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L. Damasippus, the
+Praetor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His orders were
+faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucius Scaevola, the Pontifex Maximus and jurist,
+P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other distinguished men, were
+butchered, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber. Sulla entered the
+city without opposition, and marched against Carbo, who had been
+previously opposed by Pompey and Metellus. The history of this part of
+the war is involved in great obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to
+relieve Praeneste, but failed in each; and, after fighting with various
+fortune against Pompey, Metellus, and Sulla, he at length embarked for
+Africa, despairing of farther success in Italy. Meantime Rome had nearly
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. The Samnites and Lucanians, under
+Pontius Telesinus and L. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve
+Praeneste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, which had been left
+without an army for its protection. Sulla arrived barely in time to save
+the city. The battle was fought before the Colline Gate; it was long and
+obstinately contested; the combat was not simply for the supremacy of a
+party; the very existence of Rome was at stake, for Pontius had declared
+that he would raze the city to the ground. The left wing, where Sulla
+commanded in person, was driven off the field by the vehemence of the
+enemy's charge; but the success of the right wing, which was commanded
+by Crassus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain a
+complete victory. Fifty thousand men were said to have fallen on each
+side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian party either
+perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners and put to death.
+Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius, whose head was cut off and
+carried under the walls of Praeneste, thereby announcing to the young
+Marius that his last hope of succour was gone. To the Samnite prisoners
+Sulla showed no mercy. He was resolved to root out of the peninsula
+those heroic enemies of Rome. On the third day after the battle he
+collected all the Samnite and Lucanian prisoners in the Campus Martius,
+and ordered his soldiers to cut them down. The dying shrieks of so many
+victims frightened the Senators, who had been assembled at the same time
+by Sulla in the temple of Bellona; but he bade them attend to what he
+was saying, and not mind what was taking place outside, as he was only
+chastising some rebels. Praeneste surrendered soon afterward. The Romans
+in the town were pardoned; but all the Samnites and Praenestines were
+massacred without mercy. The younger Marius put an end to his own life.
+The war in Italy was now virtually at an end, for the few towns which
+still held out had no prospect of offering any effectual opposition, and
+were reduced soon afterward. In other parts of the Roman world the war
+continued still longer, and Sulla did not live to see its completion.
+The armies of the Marian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued by
+Pompey in the course of the same year; but Sertorius in Spain continued
+to defy all the attempts of the Senate till B.C. 72.
+
+Sulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the Civil war, but
+had been driven to it by the mad ambition of Marius. His enemies had
+attempted to deprive him of the command in the Mithridatic war, which
+had been legally conferred upon him by the Senate; and while he was
+righting the battles of the Republic they had declared him a public
+enemy, confiscated his property, and murdered the most distinguished of
+his friends and adherents. For all these wrongs Sulla had threatened to
+take the most ample vengeance; and he more than redeemed his word. He
+resolved to extirpate the popular party root and branch. One of his
+first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who were to be put to
+death, which list was exhibited in the forum to public inspection, and
+called a _Proscriptio_. It was the first instance of the kind in Roman
+history. All persons in this list were outlaws who might be killed by
+any one with impunity; their property was confiscated to the state;
+their children and grandchildren lost their votes in the comitia, and
+were excluded from all public offices. Farther, all who killed a
+proscribed person, or indicated the place of his concealment, received
+two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered such a person was
+punished with death. Terror now reigned not only at Rome, but throughout
+Italy. Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly appeared. No one was
+safe; for Sulla gratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists
+their personal enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by his
+adherents. An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to many a
+man, who belonged to no political party, his death-warrant; for,
+although the confiscated property belonged to the state, and had to be
+sold by public auction, the friends and dependents of Sulla purchased it
+at a nominal price, as no one dared to bid against them. Oftentimes
+Sulla did not require the purchase-money to be paid at all, and in many
+cases he gave such property to his favorites without even the formality
+of a sale. The number of persons who perished by the proscriptions
+amounted to many thousands. At the commencement of these horrors Sulla
+had been appointed Dictator. As both the Consuls had perished, he caused
+the Senate to elect Valerius Flaccus interrex, and the latter brought
+before the people a rogatio, conferring the Dictatorship upon Sulla, for
+the purpose of restoring order to the Republic, and for as long a time
+as he judged to be necessary. Thus the Dictatorship was revived after
+being in abeyance for more than 120 years, and Sulla obtained absolute
+power over the lives and fortunes of all the citizens. This was toward
+the close of B.C. 81. Sulla's great object in being invested with the
+Dictatorship was to carry into execution in a legal manner the great
+reforms which he meditated in the constitution and the administration of
+justice, by which he hoped to place the government of the Republic on a
+firm and secure basis. He had no intention of abolishing the Republic,
+and consequently he caused Consuls to be elected for the following year,
+B.C. 81, and was elected to the office himself in B.C. 80, while he
+continued to hold the Dictatorship.
+
+At the beginning of B.C. 81 Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph on
+account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which he delivered
+to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony, he claimed for
+himself the surname of _Felix_, as he attributed his success in life to
+the favor of the gods. All ranks in Rome bowed in awe before their
+master; and among other marks of distinction which were voted to him by
+the obsequious Senate, a gilt equestrian statue was erected to his honor
+before the Rostra, bearing the inscription "Cornelio Sullae Imperatori
+Felici."
+
+During the years B.C. 80 and 79 Sulla carried into execution his various
+reforms in the constitution, of which an account is given at the end of
+this chapter. At the same time he established many military colonies
+throughout Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian towns which had fought
+against Sulla were deprived of the full Roman franchise which had been
+lately conferred upon them; their lands were confiscated and given to
+the soldiers who had fought under him. A great number of these colonies
+were settled in Etruria. They had the strongest interest in upholding
+the institutions of Sulla, since any attempt to invalidate the latter
+would have endangered their newly-acquired possessions. But, though they
+were a support to the power of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the
+commonwealth; an idle and licentious soldiery supplanted an industrious
+agricultural population; and Catiline found nowhere more adherents than
+among the military colonies of Sulla. While Sulla thus established
+throughout Italy a population devoted to his interests, he created at
+Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by giving the citizenship
+to a great number of slaves belonging to those who had been proscribed
+by him. The slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as many as
+10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as their patron.
+
+Sulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of B.C. 79; and as he
+longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures, he resigned his
+Dictatorship, and declared himself ready to render an account of his
+conduct while in office. This voluntary abdication by Sulla of the
+sovereignty of the Roman world has excited the astonishment and
+admiration of both ancient and modern writers. But it is evident that
+Sulla never contemplated, like Julius Caesar, the establishment of a
+monarchical form of government; and it must be recollected that he could
+retire into a private station without any fear that attempts would be
+made against his life or his institutions. The ten thousand Cornelii at
+Rome and his veterans stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole
+strength of the aristocratical party, secured him against all danger.
+Even in his retirement his will was law, and shortly before his death he
+ordered his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the towns in Italy
+because he was a public defaulter.
+
+After resigning his Dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at
+Puteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, he
+passed the remainder of his life in those literary and sensual
+enjoyments in which he had always taken so much pleasure. He died in
+B.C. 78, in the sixtieth year of his age. The immediate cause of his
+death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but some time before he had
+been suffering from the disgusting disease which is known in modern
+times by the name of Morbus Pediculosus. The Senate, faithful to the
+last, resolved to give him the honor of a public funeral. This was,
+however, opposed by the Consul Lepidus, who had resolved to attempt the
+repeal of Sulla's laws; but the Dictator's power continued unshaken
+even after his death. The veterans were summoned from their colonies,
+and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, and Cn. Pompey placed themselves at their
+head. Lepidus was obliged to give way, and allowed the funeral to take
+place without interruption. It was a gorgeous pageant. The Magistrates,
+the Senate, the Equites, the Priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as
+the veterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus Martius,
+where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of Sulla himself, who
+feared that his enemies might insult his remains, as he had done those
+of Marius, which had been taken out of the grave and thrown into the
+Anio at his command. It had been previously the custom of the Cornelia
+gens to bury and not burn their dead. A monument was erected to Sulla in
+the Campus Martius, the inscription on which he is said to have composed
+himself. It stated that none of his friends ever did him a kindness, and
+none of his enemies a wrong, without being fully repaid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All the reforms of Sulla were effected by means of _Leges_, which were
+proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and bore the general name of
+_Leges Corneliae_. They may be divided into four classes: laws relating
+to the constitution, to the ecclesiastical corporations, to the
+administration of justice, and to the improvement of public morals.
+Their general object and design was to restore, as far as possible, the
+ancient Roman Constitution, and to give again to the Senate and the
+Nobility that power of which they had been gradually deprived by the
+leaders of the popular party. His Constitution did not last, because the
+aristocracy were thoroughly selfish and corrupt, and exercised the power
+which Sulla had intrusted to them only for their own aggrandizement.
+Their shameless conduct soon disgusted the provinces as well as the
+capital; the people again regained their power, but the consequence was
+an anarchy and not a government; and as neither class was fit to rule,
+they were obliged to submit to the dominion of a single man. Thus the
+empire became a necessity to the exhausted Roman world.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. _Laws relating to the Constitution._--Sulla deprived the Comitia
+Tributa of their legislative and judicial powers; but he allowed them to
+elect the Tribunes, AEdiles, Quaestors, and other inferior magistrates.
+This seems to have been the only purpose for which they were called
+together. The Comitia Centuriata, on the other hand, were allowed to
+retain their right of legislation unimpaired. He restored, however, the
+ancient regulation, which had fallen into desuetude, that no matter
+should be brought before them without the previous sanction of a senatus
+consultum.
+
+The Senate had been so much reduced in numbers by the proscriptions of
+Sulla, that he was obliged to fill up the vacancies by the election of
+three hundred new members. But he made no alteration in their duties and
+functions, as the whole administration of the state was in their hands;
+and he gave them the initiative in legislation by requiring a previous
+senatus consultum respecting all measures that were to be submitted to
+the Comitia, as already stated.
+
+With respect to the magistrates, Sulla increased the number of Quaestors
+from eight to twenty, and of Praetors from six to eight. He renewed the
+old law that no one should hold the Praetorship before he had been
+Quaestor, nor the Consulship before he had been Praetor. He also renewed
+the law that no one should be elected to the same magistracy till after
+the expiration of ten years.
+
+One of the most important of Sulla's reforms related to the Tribunate,
+which he deprived of all real power. He took away from the Tribunes the
+right of proposing a rogation of any kind to the Tribes, or of
+impeaching any person before them; and he appears to have limited the
+right of intercession to their giving protection to private persons
+against the unjust decisions of magistrates, as, for instance, in the
+enlisting of soldiers. To degrade the Tribunate still lower, Sulla
+enacted that whoever had held this office forfeited thereby all right to
+become a candidate for any of the higher curule offices, in order that
+all persons of rank, talent, and wealth might be deterred from holding
+an office which would be a fatal impediment to rising any higher in the
+state. He also required persons to be Senators before they could become
+Tribunes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations._--Sulla repealed
+the Lex Domitia, which gave to the Comitia Tributa the right of electing
+the members of the great ecclesiastical corporations, and restored to
+the latter the right of co-optatio, or self-election. At the same time,
+he increased the number of Pontiffs and Augurs to fifteen respectively.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice._--Sulla
+established permanent courts for the trial of particular offenses, in
+each of which a Praetor presided. A precedent for this had been given by
+the Lex Calpurnia of the Tribune L. Calpurnius Piso, in B.C. 149, by
+which it was enacted that a Praetor should preside at all trials for
+Repetundae during his year of office. This was called a _Quaestio
+Perpetua_, and nine such _Quaestiones Perpetuae_ were established by
+Sulla, namely, De Repetundis, Majestatis, De Sicariis et Veneficis, De
+Parricidio, Peculatus, Ambitus, De Nummis Adulterinis, De Falsis or
+Testamentaria, and De Vi Publica. Jurisdiction in civil cases was left
+to the Praetor Peregrinus and the Praetor Urbanus as before, and the other
+six Praetors presided in the Quaestiones; but as the latter were more in
+number than the Praetors, some of the Praetors took more than one Quaestio,
+or a Judex Quaestionis was appointed. The Praetors, after their election,
+had to draw lots for their several jurisdictions. Sulla enacted that the
+Judices should be taken exclusively from the Senators, and not from the
+Equites, the latter of whom had possessed this privilege, with a few
+interruptions, from the law of C. Gracchus, in B.C. 123. This was a
+great gain for the aristocracy, since the offenses for which they were
+usually brought to trial, such as bribery, malversation, and the like,
+were so commonly practiced by the whole order, that they were, in most
+cases, nearly certain of acquittal from men who required similar
+indulgence themselves.
+
+Sulla's reform in the criminal law, the greatest and most enduring part
+of his legislation, belongs to a history of Roman law, and can not be
+given here.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IV. _Laws relating to the Improvement of Public Morals._--Of these we
+have very little information. One of them was a Lex Sumtuaria, which
+enacted that not more than a certain sum of money should be spent upon
+entertainments, and also restrained extravagance in funerals. There was
+likewise a law of Sulla respecting marriage, the provisions of which are
+quite unknown, as it was probably abrogated by the Julian law of
+Augustus.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Sulla.
+
+On the obverse is the head of Sulla; on the reverse that of Q. Pompeius
+Rufus, his colleague in his first Consulship.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Cn. Pompeius Magnus.]
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. B.C.
+78-70.
+
+
+Sulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to overthrow the
+aristocratic constitution which he had established. The Consul M.
+Lepidus had already, as we have seen, endeavored to prevent the burial
+of Sulla in the Campus Martius. He now proposed to repeal the Dictator's
+laws; but the other Consul, Q. Catulus, remained firm to the
+aristocracy, and offered the most strenuous opposition to the measures
+of his colleague. Shortly afterward the Senate ordered Lepidus to repair
+to Farther Gaul, which had been assigned to him as his Province; but he
+availed himself of the opportunity to collect an army in Etruria, and at
+the beginning of the following year marched straight upon Rome. The
+Senate assembled an army, which they placed under the command of Q.
+Catulus, with Pompey as his lieutenant. A battle was fought near the
+Mulvian bridge, in which Lepidus was defeated, and, finding it
+impossible to maintain his footing in Italy, he sailed with the
+remainder of his forces to Sardinia, where he died soon afterward.
+
+Meantime the remainder of the Marian party found refuge in Spain. Q.
+Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had received the
+government of this country in the year B.C. 82. He soon acquired an
+extraordinary ascendency over the minds of the natives, and flattered
+them with the hope of establishing an independent state which might bid
+defiance to Rome. His influence was enhanced by the superstition of the
+people. He was accompanied on all occasions by a tame fawn, which they
+believed to be a familiar spirit. So attached did they become to his
+person, that he found no difficulty in collecting a formidable army,
+which for some years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. After
+defeating several generals whom Sulla had sent against him, he had to
+encounter, in B.C. 79, Q. Metellus, who had been Consul the previous
+year with Sulla. But Metellus did not fare much better than his
+predecessors; and in B.C. 78 Sertorius was re-enforced by a considerable
+body of troops which Perperna carried with him into Spain after the
+defeat of Lepidus. The growing power of Sertorius led the Senate to send
+Pompey to the assistance of Metellus. Pompey, though only 30 years of
+age, was already regarded as the ablest general of the Republic; and as
+he played such a prominent part in the later history, we may here pause
+to give a brief account of his early career.
+
+POMPEY was born B.C. 106, and was, as we have already seen, the son of
+Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians in his Consulship,
+B.C. 89. The young Pompey served under his father in this war, when he
+was only 17 years of age, and continued with him till his death two
+years afterward. He was present at the battle of the Colline Gate in
+B.C. 87, and shortly afterward he saved the life of his father, and
+quelled an insurrection of the soldiers by his courage and activity. As
+soon as Sulla had finished the Mithridatic war, and was on his way to
+Italy, Pompey, instead of waiting, like the other leaders of the
+aristocracy, for the arrival of their chief, resolved to share with him
+the glory of crushing the Marian party. Accordingly, he proceeded to
+levy troops in Picenum without holding any public office; and such was
+his personal influence that he was able to raise an army of three
+legions. Before joining Sulla he gained a brilliant victory over the
+Marian generals, and was received by Sulla with the greatest
+distinction. Upon the conclusion of the war in Italy Pompey was sent
+first into Sicily, and afterward into Africa, where the Marian party
+still held out. His success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he
+reduced the whole of Numidia, and, unlike other Roman governors,
+abstained from plundering the province. His military achievements and
+his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown, and he returned
+to Rome covered with glory (B.C. 80). Numbers flocked out of the city to
+meet him; and the Dictator himself, who formed one of the crowd, greeted
+him with the surname of MAGNUS or the GREAT, which he bore ever
+afterward. Sulla at first refused to let him triumph. Hitherto no one
+but a Dictator, Consul, or Praetor had enjoyed this distinction; but as
+Pompey insisted upon the honor, Sulla gave way, and the young general
+entered Rome in triumph as a simple Eques, and before he had completed
+his 25th year.
+
+Pompey again exhibited his power in promoting, in B.C. 79, the election
+of M. AEmilius Lepidus to the Consulship, in opposition to the wishes of
+Sulla. The latter had now retired from public affairs, and contented
+himself with warning Pompey, as he met him returning from the comitia in
+triumph, "Young man, it is time for you not to slumber, for you have
+strengthened your rival against yourself." Lepidus seems to have
+reckoned upon the support of Pompey; but in this he was disappointed,
+for Pompey remained faithful to the aristocracy, and thus saved his
+party. He fought at the Mulvian bridge against Lepidus, as we have
+already related, and afterward marched into Cisalpine Gaul against the
+remains of his party. The Senate, who now began to dread Pompey, ordered
+him to disband his army; but he found various excuses for evading this
+command, as he was anxious to obtain the command of the war against
+Sertorius in Spain. They hesitated, however, to give him this
+opportunity for gaining fresh distinction and additional power; and it
+was only in consequence of the increasing power of Sertorius that they
+at length unwillingly determined to send Pompey to Spain, with the title
+of Proconsul, and with powers equal to Metellus.
+
+Pompey arrived in Spain in B.C. 76. He soon found that he had a more
+formidable enemy to deal with than any he had yet encountered. He
+suffered several defeats, and, though he gained some advantages, yet
+such were his losses that at the end of two years he was obliged to send
+to Rome for re-enforcements. The war continued three years longer; but
+Sertorius, who had lost some of his influence over the Spanish tribes,
+and who had become an object of jealousy to M. Perperna and his
+principal Roman officers, was unable to carry on operations with the
+same vigor as during the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly gained
+some advantages over him, but the war was still far from a close; and
+the genius of Sertorius would probably have soon given a very different
+aspect to affairs had he not been assassinated by Perperna in B.C. 72.
+Perperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to the power of
+Sertorius; but he soon found that he had murdered the only man who was
+able to save him from ruin. In his first battle with Pompey he was
+completely defeated, his principal officers slain, and himself taken
+prisoner. Anxious to save his life, he offered to deliver up to Pompey
+the papers of Sertorius, containing letters from many of the leading men
+at Rome. But Pompey refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be
+burnt. The war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder of the
+year was employed in subduing the towns which still held out against
+Pompey. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with Perperna,
+and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the war to a conclusion.
+The people longed for his return, that he might deliver Italy from
+Spartacus and his horde of gladiators, who had defeated the Consuls, and
+were in possession of a great part of the peninsula.
+
+A righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their love of the
+cruel sports of the amphitheatre. The gladiators were generally
+prisoners taken in war, and sold to persons who trained them in schools
+for the Roman games. There was such a school at Capua, and among the
+gladiators was a Thracian of the name of Spartacus, originally a chief
+of banditti, who had been taken prisoner by the Romans, and was now
+destined to be butchered for their amusement. Having prevailed upon
+about 70 of his comrades, he burst out of the school with them,
+succeeded in obtaining arms, and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius,
+at that time an extinct volcano (B.C. 73). Here he was soon joined by
+large numbers of slaves, who flocked to him from all quarters. He was
+soon at the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the Social and
+Civil Wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment of slave-labor
+furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of soldiers. In addition to
+this, the war with Sertorius was not yet finished, and that with
+Mithridates, of which we shall speak presently, had already commenced.
+For upward of two years Spartacus was master of Italy, which he laid
+waste from the foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the
+peninsula. In B.C. 72 he found himself at the head of 100,000 men, and
+defeated both Consuls. As the Consuls of the following year had no
+military reputation, the conduct of the war was intrusted to the Praetor,
+M. Licinius Crassus, who had greatly distinguished himself in the wars
+of Sulla. He had been rewarded by the Dictator with donations of
+confiscated property, and had accumulated an immense fortune. Six
+legions were now given him in addition to the remains of the Consular
+armies already in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened and
+disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by decimating
+the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme point of Bruttium.
+Crassus drew strong lines of circumvallation around Rhegium, and by his
+superior numbers prevented the escape of the slaves. Spartacus now
+attempted to pass over to Sicily, where he would have been welcomed by
+thousands of followers. He failed in the attempt to cross the straits,
+but at length succeeded in forcing his way through the lines of Crassus.
+The Roman general hastened in pursuit, and in Lucania fell in with the
+main body of the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which
+Spartacus perished, with the greater part of his followers. About 6000
+were taken prisoners, whom Crassus impaled on each side of the Appian
+road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 made their way northward,
+whom Pompey met as he was returning from Spain, and cut to pieces.
+Crassus had, in reality, brought the war to an end, but Pompey took the
+credit to himself, and wrote to the Senate, saying, "Crassus, indeed,
+has defeated the enemy, but I have extirpated them by the roots."
+
+Pompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of their armies,
+and each laid claim to the Consulship. Neither of them was qualified by
+the laws of Sulla. Pompey was only in his 35th year, and had not even
+held the office of Quaestor. Crassus was still Praetor, and two years
+ought to elapse before he could become Consul. Pompey, however, agreed
+to support the claims of Crassus, and the Senate dared not offer open
+opposition to two generals at the head of powerful armies. Pompey,
+moreover, declared himself the advocate of the popular rights, and
+promised to restore the Tribunitian power. Accordingly, they were
+elected Consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the city in
+triumph on the 31st of December, B.C. 71, and Crassus enjoyed the honor
+of an ovation.
+
+The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (B.C. 70) was memorable for the
+repeal of the most important portions of Sulla's constitutional reforms.
+One of Pompey's first acts was to redeem the pledge he had given to the
+people, by bringing forward a law for the restoration of the Tribunitian
+power. The law was passed with little opposition; for the Senate felt
+that it was worse than useless to contend against Pompey, supported as
+he was by the popular enthusiasm and by his troops, which were still in
+the immediate neighborhood of the city. He also struck another blow at
+the aristocracy. By one of Sulla's laws, the Judices, during the last
+ten years, had been chosen from the Senate. The corruption and venality
+of the latter in the administration of justice had excited such general
+indignation that some change was clamorously demanded by the people.
+Accordingly, the Praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, with the approbation of
+Pompey, proposed a law by which the Judices were to be taken in future
+from the Senate, Equites, and Tribuni AErarii, the latter probably
+representing the wealthier members of the third order in the state. This
+law was likewise carried; but it did not improve the purity of the
+administration of justice, since corruption was not confined to the
+Senators, but pervaded all classes of the community alike. Pompey had
+thus broken with the aristocracy, and had become the great popular hero.
+In carrying both these measures he was strongly supported by Caesar, who,
+though he was rapidly rising in popular favor, could as yet only hope to
+weaken the power of the aristocracy through Pompey's means.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Mithridates.]
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.
+
+
+When Sulla returned to Italy after the First Mithridatic War, he left L.
+Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in Asia. Murena, who was
+eager for some opportunity of earning the honor of a triumph, pretending
+that Mithridates had not yet evacuated the whole of Cappadocia, not only
+marched into that country, but even crossed the Halys, and laid waste
+the plains of Pontus itself (B.C. 83). To this flagrant breach of the
+treaty so lately concluded the Roman general was in great measure
+instigated by Archelaus, who, finding himself regarded with suspicion by
+Mithridates, had consulted his safety by flight, and was received with
+the utmost honors by the Romans. Mithridates, who was wholly unprepared
+to renew the contest with Rome, offered no opposition to the progress of
+Murena; but finding that general disregard his remonstrances, he sent to
+Rome to complain of his aggression. When, in the following spring (B.C.
+82), he saw Murena preparing to renew his hostile incursions, he at once
+determined to oppose him by force, and assembled a large army, with
+which he met the Roman general on the banks of the Halys. The action
+that ensued terminated in the complete victory of the king, and Murena,
+with difficultly, effected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia
+at the mercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province.
+Shortly afterward A. Gabinius arrived in Asia, bringing peremptory
+orders from Sulla to Murena to desist from hostilities, whereupon
+Mithridates once more consented to evacuate Cappadocia. Thus ended what
+is commonly called the Second Mithridatic War.
+
+Notwithstanding the interposition of Sulla, Mithridates was well aware
+that the peace between him and Rome was in fact only suspension of
+hostilities, and that the haughty Republic would never suffer the
+massacre of her citizens in Asia to remain ultimately unpunished. Hence
+all his efforts were directed toward the formation of an army capable of
+contending, not only in numbers, but in discipline, with those of Rome;
+and with this view he armed his barbarian troops after the Roman
+fashion, and endeavored to train them up in that discipline of which he
+had so strongly felt the effect in the preceding contest. In these
+attempts he was doubtless assisted by the refugees of the Marian party,
+who had accompanied Fimbria into Asia, and on the defeat of that general
+by Sulla had taken refuge with the King of Pontus. At their instigation,
+also, Mithridates sent an embassy to Sertorius, who was still
+maintaining his ground in Spain, and concluded an alliance with him
+against their common enemies. But it was the death of Nicomedes III.,
+king of Bithynia, at the beginning of B.C. 74, that brought matters to a
+crisis, and became the immediate occasion of the war which both parties
+had long felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his dominions by will
+to the Roman people, and Bithynia was accordingly declared a Roman
+province; but Mithridates asserted that the late king had left a
+legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he immediately
+prepared to support by his arms.
+
+The forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take the field
+were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable confidence of
+victory. He had assembled an army of 120,000 foot-soldiers, armed and
+disciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 horse, besides a hundred
+scythed chariots. His fleet, also, was so far superior to any that the
+Romans could oppose to him as to give him the almost undisputed command
+of the sea. These preparations, however, appear to have delayed him so
+long that the season was far advanced before he was able to take the
+field, and both the Roman Consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M. Aurelius
+Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however, was able to oppose
+his first irruption. He traversed almost the whole of Bithynia without
+encountering any resistance; and when at length Cotta ventured to give
+him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, his army and fleet were totally
+defeated. Mithridates now proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea
+and land. But Lucullus, who had advanced from Phrygia to the relief of
+Cotta, and followed Mithridates to Cyzicus, took possession of an
+advantageous position near the camp of the king, where he almost
+entirely cut him off from receiving supplies by land, while the storms
+of the winter prevented him from depending on those by sea. Hence it was
+not long before famine began to make itself felt in the camp of
+Mithridates, and all his assaults upon the city having been foiled by
+the courage and resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled
+(early in the year B.C. 73) to abandon the enterprise and raise the
+siege. In his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman general,
+and suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the AEsepus and Granicus.
+By the close of the year the great army with which he had commenced the
+war was annihilated, and he was not only compelled to retire within his
+own dominions, but was without the means of opposing the advance of
+Lucullus into the heart of Pontus itself. But he now again set to work
+with indefatigable activity to raise a fresh army; and while he left the
+whole of the sea-coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established
+himself in the interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by
+Lucullus; and despairing of opposing the farther progress of the Romans,
+he fled into Armenia to claim the protection and assistance of his
+son-in-law Tigranes.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Tigranes.]
+
+Tigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of Asia, but he
+appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in war with Rome; and on
+this account, while he received the fugitive monarch in a friendly
+manner, he refused to admit him to his presence, and showed no
+disposition to attempt his restoration. But the arrogance of the Romans
+brought about a change in his policy; and Tigranes, offended at the
+haughty conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had sent to demand the
+surrender of Mithridates, not only refused this request, but determined
+at once to prepare for war.
+
+While Lucullus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he devoted his
+attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia, which was suffering
+severely from the oppressions of the farmers of the public taxes. By
+various judicious regulations he put a stop to their exactions, and
+earned the gratitude of the cities of Asia; but at the same time he
+brought upon himself the enmity of the Equites, who were the farmers of
+the revenue. They were loud against him in their complaints at Rome,
+and by their continued clamors undoubtedly prepared the way for his
+ultimate recall.
+
+Meanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and Tigranes had
+led to a complete reconciliation between them, and the Pontic king, who
+had spent a year and eight months in the dominions of his son-in-law
+without being admitted to a personal interview, was now made to
+participate in all the councils of Tigranes, and appointed to levy an
+army to unite in the war. But it was in vain that in the ensuing
+campaign (B.C. 69) he urged upon his son-in-law the lessons of his own
+experience, and advised him to shun a regular action with Lucullus:
+Tigranes, confident in the multitude of his forces, gave battle at
+Tigranocerta, and was defeated, before Mithridates had been able to join
+him. But this disaster, so precisely in accordance with the warnings of
+Mithridates, served to raise the latter so high in the estimation of
+Tigranes, that from this time forward the whole conduct of the war was
+intrusted to the direction of the King of Pontus.
+
+In the following summer (B.C. 68) Lucullus crossed the Taurus,
+penetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the allied
+monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But the early severity of the
+season, and the discontent of his own troops, checked the farther
+advance of the Roman general, who turned aside into Mesopotamia. Here
+Mithridates left him to lay siege to the fortress of Nisibis, which was
+supposed to be impregnable, while he himself took advantage of his
+absence to invade Pontus at the head of a large army, and endeavor to
+regain possession of his former dominions. The defense of Pontus was
+confided to Fabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus; but the
+oppression of the Romans had excited a general spirit of disaffection,
+and the people crowded around the standard of Mithridates. Fabius was
+totally defeated, and compelled to shut himself up in the fortress of
+Cabira. In the following spring (B.C. 67), Triarius, another of the
+Roman generals, was also defeated with immense loss. The blow was one of
+the severest which the Roman arms had sustained for a long period: 7000
+of their troops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number of
+officers, and their camp itself was taken.
+
+The advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented Mithridates
+from following up his advantage, and he withdrew into Lesser Armenia,
+where he took up a strong position to await the approach of Tigranes.
+But the farther proceedings of Lucullus were paralyzed by the mutinous
+and disaffected spirit of his own soldiers. Their discontents were
+fostered by P. Clodius, whose turbulent and restless spirit already
+showed itself in its full force, and were encouraged by reports from
+Rome, where the demagogues who were favorable to Pompey, or had been
+gained over by the Equestrian party, were loud in their clamors against
+Lucullus. They accused him of protracting the war for his own personal
+objects, either of ambition or avarice; and the soldiery, whose appetite
+for plunder had been often checked by Lucullus, readily joined in the
+outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of Tigranes, the two monarchs found
+themselves able to overrun almost the whole of Pontus and Cappadocia
+without opposition.
+
+Such was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia to reduce
+Pontus to the form of a Roman province, and they had, in consequence, to
+report to the Senate that the country supposed to be conquered was again
+in the hands of the enemy. The adversaries of Lucullus naturally availed
+themselves of so favorable an occasion, and a decree was passed
+transferring to M. Acilius Glabrio, one of the Consuls for the year, the
+province of Bithynia, and the command against Mithridates. But Glabrio
+was wholly incompetent for the task assigned to him. On arriving in
+Bithynia he made no attempt to assume the command, but remained within
+the confines of his province, while he still farther embarrassed the
+position of Lucullus by issuing proclamations to his soldiers,
+announcing to them that their general was superseded, and releasing them
+from their obedience. Before the close of the year (B.C. 67) Lucullus
+had the mortification of seeing Mithridates established once more in the
+possession of his hereditary dominions. But it was still more galling to
+his feelings when, in the spring of the following year (B.C. 66), he was
+called upon to resign the command to Pompey, who had just brought to a
+successful termination the war against the pirates.
+
+The Mediterranean Sea had long been swarming with pirates. From the
+earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this sea, which,
+lying between three continents, and abounding with numerous creeks and
+islands, presents at the same time both the greatest temptations and the
+greatest facilities for piratical pursuits. Moreover, in consequence of
+the Social and Civil wars, and the absence of any fleet to preserve
+order upon the sea, piracy had reached an alarming height. The pirates
+possessed fleets in all parts of the Mediterranean, were in the habit of
+plundering the most wealthy cities on the coasts, and had at length
+carried their audacity so far as to make descents upon the Appian Road,
+and carry off Roman magistrates, with their lictors. All communication
+between Rome and the provinces was cut off, or at least rendered
+extremely dangerous; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which Rome to a
+great extent depended for its subsistence, could not reach the city, and
+the price of provisions in consequence rose enormously. Such a state of
+things had become intolerable, and all eyes were now directed to Pompey.
+At the beginning of B.C. 67 the Tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a
+bill which was intended to give Pompey almost absolute authority over
+the greater part of the Roman world. It proposed that the people should
+elect a man with consular rank, who should possess unlimited power for
+three years over the whole of the Mediterranean, a fleet of 200 ships,
+with as many soldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, and 6000
+Attic talents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was clear who was
+meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, and in the Senate Caesar
+was almost the only person who came forward in its support. Party spirit
+ran to such a height that the most serious riots ensued. Even Pompey
+himself was threatened by the Consul, "If you emulate Romulus, you will
+not escape the end of Romulus." Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius spoke
+against the bill with great eloquence, but with no effect. On the day
+that the bill was passed the price of provisions at Rome immediately
+fell, a fact which showed the immense confidence which all parties
+placed in the military abilities of Pompey.
+
+Pompey's plans were formed with great skill, and were crowned with
+complete success. He stationed his lieutenants with different squadrons
+in various parts of the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates from
+uniting, and to hunt them out of the various bays and creeks in which
+they concealed themselves; while, at the same time, he swept the middle
+of the sea with the main body of his fleet, and chased them eastward. In
+forty days he drove the pirates out of the western seas, and restored
+communication between Spain, Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a
+short time in Italy, he sailed from Brundusium, cleared the seas as he
+went along, and forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here the
+decisive action was fought; the pirates were defeated, and more than
+20,000 prisoners fell into his hands. Those on whom most reliance could
+be placed were distributed among the small and depopulated cities of
+Cilicia, and a large number were settled at Soli, which was henceforward
+called Pompeiopolis. The second part of this campaign occupied only
+forty-nine days, and the whole war was brought to a conclusion in the
+course of three months. Pompey remained in Cilicia during the remainder
+of this year and the beginning of the one following. Meantime the
+Tribune C. Manilius brought forward a bill (B.C. 66) giving to Pompey
+the command of the war against Mithridates, with unlimited power over
+the army and the fleet in the East, and with the rights of a Proconsul
+in the whole of Asia as far as Armenia. As his Proconsular power already
+extended over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean in virtue
+of the Gabinian law, this new measure virtually placed almost the whole
+of the Roman dominions in his hands. But there was no power, however
+excessive, which the people were not ready to intrust to their favorite
+hero; and the bill was accordingly passed, notwithstanding the
+opposition of Hortensius, Catulus, and the aristocratical party. Cicero
+advocated the measure in an oration which has come down to us (_Pro Lege
+Manilia_), and Caesar likewise supported it with his growing popularity
+and influence.
+
+On receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey immediately
+crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the army from Lucullus.
+
+The power of Mithridates had been broken by the previous victories of
+Lucullus, and the successes which the king had gained lately were only
+of a temporary nature, mainly owing to the disorganization of the Roman
+army. In the plan of the campaign Pompey displayed great military skill.
+One of his first measures was to secure the alliance of the Parthian
+king, which not only deprived Mithridates of all hopes of succor from
+that quarter, but likewise cut him off from all assistance from the
+Armenian king Tigranes, who was now obliged to look to the safety of his
+own dominions. Pompey next stationed his fleet in different squadrons
+along the coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive Mithridates of all
+communication from the sea, and he then proceeded in person at the head
+of his land-forces against the king. Thus thrown back upon his own
+resources, Mithridates sued for peace, but, as Pompey would hear of
+nothing but unqualified submission, the negotiation was broken off. The
+king was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 2000 horse; but he knew
+too well the strength of a Roman army to venture an engagement with
+these forces, and accordingly withdrew gradually to the frontiers of
+Armenia. For a long time he succeeded in avoiding a battle, but he was
+at length surprised by Pompey in Lesser Armenia, as he was marching
+through a narrow pass. The battle was soon decided; the king lost the
+greater number of his troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen to
+the fortress of Synorium, on the borders of the Greater Armenia. Here he
+again collected a considerable force; but as Tigranes refused to admit
+him into his dominions, because he suspected him of fomenting the
+intrigues of his son against him, Mithridates had no alternative but to
+take refuge in his own distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. To
+reach them he had to march through Colchis, and to fight his way through
+the wild and barbarous tribes that occupied the country between the
+Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeeded, however, in this arduous
+enterprise, and reached the Bosporus in safety in the course of next
+year. Pompey abandoned at present all thoughts of following the
+fugitive king, and resolved at once to attack Tigranes, who was now the
+more formidable of the two monarchs.
+
+On entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He was joined by the
+young Tigranes, who had revolted against his father, and all the cities
+submitted to them on their approach. When the Romans drew near to
+Artaxata, the king, deserted by his army and his court, went out to meet
+Pompey, and threw himself before him as a suppliant. Pompey received him
+with kindness, acknowledged him as King of Armenia, and demanded only
+the payment of 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria,
+Phoenicia, Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered
+by Lucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes, Sophene
+and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom; but as the young
+prince was discontented with this arrangement, and even ventured to
+utter threats, Pompey had him arrested, and kept him in chains to grace
+his triumph.
+
+After thus settling the affairs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded northward
+in pursuit of Mithridates. But the season was so far advanced that he
+took up his winter quarters on the banks of the River Cyrus. Early in
+the spring (B.C. 65) he resumed his march northward, and advanced as far
+as the River Phasis, but, obtaining here more certain information of the
+movements of Mithridates, and of the wild and inaccessible nature of the
+country through which he would have to march in order to reach the king,
+he retraced his steps, and led his troops into winter quarters at
+Amisus, on the Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman
+province.
+
+In B.C. 64 Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed Antiochus
+Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province. He likewise compelled
+the neighboring princes, who had established independent kingdoms on the
+ruins of the Syrian empire, to submit to the Roman dominion. The whole
+of this year was occupied with the settlement of Syria and the adjacent
+countries.
+
+Next year (B.C. 63) Pompey advanced farther south, in order to establish
+the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and Palestine. The
+latter country was at this time distracted by a civil war between
+Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the side of Hyrcanus, and
+Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey when the latter had advanced
+near to Jerusalem. But the Jews refused to follow the example of their
+king, and it was not till after a siege of three months that the city
+was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first time that any
+human being, except the high-priest, had penetrated into this sacred
+spot. He reinstated Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, but compelled him
+to pay an annual tribute to Rome; Aristobulus accompanied him as a
+prisoner. It was during this war in Palestine that Pompey received
+intelligence of the death of Mithridates.
+
+During the last two years Mithridates had been making the most extensive
+preparations for a renewal of the contest. He had conceived the daring
+project of marching round the north and west coasts of the Euxine, and
+penetrating even into Italy. With these views, he was busily engaged in
+assembling such a fleet and array as would be sufficient for an
+enterprise of this magnitude; but his proceedings were delayed by a long
+and painful illness, which incapacitated him for any personal exertion.
+At length, however, his preparations were completed, and he found
+himself at the head of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable fleet.
+But during his illness disaffection had made rapid progress among his
+followers. The full extent of his schemes was probably communicated to
+few; but enough had transpired to alarm the multitude, and a formidable
+conspiracy was organized by Pharnaces, the favorite son of Mithridates.
+He was quickly joined both by the whole army and the citizens of
+Panticapaeum, who unanimously proclaimed him king, and Mithridates saw
+that no choice remained to him but death or captivity. Hereupon he took
+poison, which he constantly carried with him; but his constitution had
+been so long inured to antidotes that it did not produce the desired
+effect, and he was compelled to call in the assistance of one of his
+Gaulish mercenaries to dispatch him with his sword.
+
+Pompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs in Asia.
+He confirmed Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, in the possession of the
+kingdom of Bosporus; Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, was rewarded with
+an extension of territory; and Ariobarzanes, king of Cappadocia, was
+restored to his kingdom. After an absence of seven years, Pompey arrived
+in Italy toward the end of B.C. 62. His arrival had been long looked for
+by all parties with various feelings of hope and fear. It was felt that
+at the head of his victorious troops he could easily play the part of
+Sulla, and become the ruler of the state. Important events had taken
+place at Rome during the absence of Pompey, of which it is necessary to
+give an account before following him to the city.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Cicero.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
+RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST.--THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. 69-61.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the restoration of the Tribunate and the alteration in
+the judicial power in Pompey's Consulship, the popular party had
+received such a severe blow during Sulla's supremacy, that the
+aristocracy still retained the chief political influence during Pompey's
+absence in the East. But meantime a new leader of the popular party had
+been rapidly rising into notice, who was destined not only to crush the
+aristocracy, but to overthrow the Republic and become the undisputed
+master of the Roman world.
+
+C. JULIUS CAESAR, who was descended from an old Patrician family, was six
+years younger than Pompey, having been born in B.C. 100. He was closely
+connected with the popular party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with
+the great Marius, and he himself married, at an early age, Cornelia, the
+daughter of Cinna, the most distinguished of the Marian leaders. Sulla
+commanded him to divorce his wife, and on his refusal he was included in
+the list of the proscription. The Vestal virgins and his friends with
+difficulty obtained his pardon from the Dictator, who observed, when
+they pleaded his youth and insignificance, "that that boy would some day
+or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that there were many
+Mariuses in him."
+
+This was the first proof which Caesar gave of the resolution and decision
+of character which distinguished him throughout life. He went to Asia in
+B.C. 81, where he served his first campaign under M. Minucius Thermus,
+and was rewarded, at the siege of Mitylene, with a civic crown for
+saving the life of a fellow-soldier. On his return to Rome he accused
+(B.C. 77) Cn. Dolabella of extortion in his province of Macedonia.
+Dolabella was acquitted by the senatorial judges; but Caesar gained great
+reputation by this prosecution, and showed that he possessed powers of
+oratory which bade fair to place him among the foremost speakers at
+Rome. To render himself still more perfect in oratory, he went to
+Rhodes, which was then celebrated for its school of rhetoric, but in his
+voyage thither he was captured by pirates, with whom the seas of the
+Mediterranean then swarmed. In this island he was detained by them till
+he could obtain fifty talents from the neighboring cities for his
+ransom. Immediately on obtaining his liberty, he manned some Milesian
+vessels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted them as prisoners to
+Pergamus, where he shortly afterward crucified them--a punishment he had
+frequently threatened them with in sport when he was their prisoner. He
+then repaired to Rhodes, where he studied under Apollonius for a short
+time, but soon afterward crossed over into Asia, on the outbreak of the
+Mithridatic war in B.C. 74. Here, although he held no public office, he
+collected troops on his own authority, and repulsed the commander of the
+king, and then returned to Rome in the same year, in consequence of
+having been elected Pontiff during his absence. His affable manners,
+and, still more, his unbounded liberality, won the hearts of the people.
+
+Caesar obtained the Quaestorship in B.C. 68. In this year he lost his aunt
+Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife Cornelia. He pronounced
+orations over both of them in the forum, in which he took the
+opportunity of passing a panegyric upon the former leaders of the
+popular party. At the funeral of his aunt he caused the images of Marius
+to be carried in the procession: they were welcomed with loud
+acclamations by the people, who were delighted to see their former
+favorite brought, as it were, into public again.
+
+Caesar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian Laws, which bestowed
+upon Pompey the command against the pirates and Mithridates. These
+measures, as we have already seen, were opposed by the aristocracy, and
+widened still farther the breach between them and Pompey. In B.C. 65
+Caesar was Curule AEdile along with M. Bibulus, and still farther
+increased his popularity by the splendid games which he exhibited. He
+now took a step which openly proclaimed him the leader of the Marian
+party. He caused the statues of Marius and the Cimbrian trophies, which
+had been all destroyed by Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at
+night in the Capitol. In the morning the city was in the highest state
+of excitement; the veterans of Marius cried with joy at beholding his
+countenance once more, and greeted Caesar with shouts of applause. Q.
+Catulus brought the conduct of Caesar before the notice of the Senate,
+but the popular excitement was so great that they thought it better to
+let the matter drop.
+
+In Caesar's AEdileship the first Catilinarian conspiracy occurred, and
+from this time his history forms a portion of that of the times. But
+before passing on, the early life of another distinguished man, the
+greatest of Roman orators, also claims our notice.
+
+M. TULLIUS CICERO was born at Arpinum in B.C. 106, and consequently in
+the same year as Pompey. His father was of the Equestrian order, and
+lived upon his hereditary estate near Arpinum, but none of his ancestors
+had ever held any of the offices of state. Cicero was therefore,
+according to the Roman phraseology, a New Man (see p. 128)(Fourth
+paragraph of Chapter XVIII.--Transcriber). He served his first and only
+campaign in the Social War (B.C. 89), and in the troubled times which
+followed he gave himself up with indefatigable perseverance to those
+studies which were essential to his success as a lawyer and orator. When
+tranquillity was restored by the final discomfiture of the Marian party,
+he came forward as a pleader at the age of twenty-five. The first of his
+extant speeches in a civil suit is that for P. Quintius (B.C. 81); the
+first delivered upon a criminal trial was that in defense of Sex.
+Roscius of Ameria, who was charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a
+freedman of Sulla, supported, as it was understood, by the influence of
+his patron. In consequence of the failure of his health, Cicero quitted
+Rome in B.C. 79, and spent two years in study in the philosophical and
+rhetorical schools of Athens and Asia Minor. On his return to the city
+he forthwith took his station in the foremost rank of judicial orators,
+and ere long stood alone in acknowledged pre-eminence; his most
+formidable rivals--Hortensius, eight years his senior, and C. Aurelius
+Cotta, who had long been kings of the bar--having been forced, after a
+short but sharp contest for supremacy, to yield.
+
+Cicero's reputation and popularity already stood so high that he was
+elected Quaestor (B.C. 76), although, comparatively speaking, a stranger,
+and certainly unsupported by any powerful family interest. He served in
+Sicily under Sex. Peducaeus, Praetor of Lilybaeum. In B.C. 70 he gained
+great renown by his impeachment of Verres for his oppression of the
+Sicilians, whom he had ruled as Praetor of Syracuse for the space of
+three years (B.C. 73-71). The most strenuous exertions were made by
+Verres, backed by some of the most powerful families, to wrest the case
+out of the hands of Cicero, who, however, defeated the attempt, and
+having demanded and been allowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting
+evidence, he instantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less
+than two months, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses.
+Another desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now Consul elect, who
+was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles which might have
+the effect of delaying the trial until the commencement of the following
+year; but here again he was defeated by the promptitude and decision of
+his opponent, who opened the case very briefly, proceeded at once to the
+examination of the witnesses and the production of the depositions and
+other papers, which, taken together, constituted a mass of testimony so
+decisive that Verres gave up the contest as hopeless, and retired at
+once into exile without attempting any defense. The full pleadings,
+however, which were to have been delivered had the trial been permitted
+to run its ordinary course, were subsequently published by Cicero.
+
+In B.C. 69 Cicero was AEdile, and in 66 Praetor. In the latter year he
+delivered his celebrated address to the people in favor of the Manilian
+Law. Having now the Consulship in view, and knowing that, as a new man,
+he must expect the most determined opposition from the Nobles, he
+resolved to throw himself into the arms of the popular party, and to
+secure the friendship of Pompey, now certainly the most important person
+in the Republic.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 65) the first conspiracy of Catiline
+occurred. The circumstances of the times were favorable to a bold and
+unprincipled adventurer. A widespread feeling of disaffection extended
+over the whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla had already squandered
+their ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a renewal of those scenes of
+blood which they had found so profitable. The multitudes whose estates
+had been confiscated and whose relations had been proscribed were
+eagerly watching for any movement which might give them a chance of
+becoming robbers and murderers in their turn. The younger nobility, as a
+class, were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bankrupts in
+fortune as well as in fame, and eager for any change which might
+relieve them from their embarrassments. The rabble were restless and
+discontented, filled with envy and hatred against the rich and powerful.
+Never was the executive weaker. The Senate and Magistrates were wasting
+their energies in petty disputes, indifferent to the interests of the
+Republic. Pompey, at the head of all the best troops of the Republic,
+was prosecuting a long-protracted war in the East; there was no army in
+Italy, where all was hushed in a treacherous calm.
+
+Of the profligate nobles at this time none was more profligate than L.
+SERGIUS CATILINA. He was the descendant of an ancient patrician family
+which had sunk into poverty, and he first appears in history as a
+zealous partisan of Sulla. During the horrors of the proscription he
+killed his brother-in-law, Q. Caecilius, and is said to have murdered
+even his own brother. His youth was spent in the open indulgence of
+every vice, and it was believed that he had made away with his first
+wife, and afterward with his son, in order that he might marry the
+profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who objected to the presence of a grown-up
+step-child. Notwithstanding these crimes, he acquired great popularity
+among the younger nobles by his agreeable address and his zeal in
+ministering to their pleasures. He possessed extraordinary powers of
+mind and body, and all who came in contact with him submitted more or
+less to the ascendency of his genius. He was Praetor in B.C. 68; was
+Governor of Africa during the following year; and returned to Rome in
+B.C. 66, in order to press his suit for the Consulship. The election for
+B.C. 65 was carried by P. Autronius Paetus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both
+of whom were soon after convicted of bribery, and their places supplied
+by their competitors and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius
+Torquatus. Catiline, who was desirous of becoming a candidate, had been
+disqualified in consequence of an impeachment for oppression in his
+province preferred by P. Clodius Pulcher. Exasperated by their
+disappointment, Autronius and Catiline formed a project, along with Cn.
+Calpurnius Piso, another profligate young nobleman, to murder the new
+Consuls upon the first of January, when offering up their vows in the
+Capitol, after which Autronius and Catiline were to seize the fasces,
+and Piso was to be dispatched with an army to occupy the Spains. This
+extraordinary design is said to have been frustrated solely by the
+impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal prematurely before the whole
+of the armed agents had assembled.
+
+Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure which had so nearly
+proved a triumph, Catiline was soon after left completely unfettered by
+his acquittal upon trial for extortion, a result secured by the liberal
+bribes administered to the accuser as well as to the jury. From this
+time he proceeded more systematically, and enlisted a more numerous body
+of supporters. In the course of B.C. 64 he had enrolled several Senators
+in his ranks, among others P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been
+Consul in B.C. 71, and C. Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout
+by his impetuosity and sanguinary violence. He proposed that all debts
+should be canceled, that the most wealthy citizens should be proscribed,
+and that all offices of honor and emolument should be divided among his
+associates. He confidently anticipated that he should be elected Consul
+for the next year along with C. Antonius, having formed a coalition with
+him for the purpose of excluding Cicero. The orator, however, was
+supported, not only by the Equites and Pompey's friends, but even by the
+Senate, who, though disliking a New Man, were compelled to give him
+their support in order to exclude Catiline. The consequence was that
+Cicero and Antonius were returned, the former nearly unanimously, the
+latter by a small majority over Catiline. As soon as Cicero entered upon
+his Consulship he renounced his connection with the popular party, and
+became a stanch supporter of the aristocracy. He successfully opposed an
+agrarian law proposed by the Tribune Rullus, and defended C. Rabirius,
+who was now accused by the Tribune Labienus of having been concerned in
+the death of Saturninus nearly forty years before. Caesar took an active
+part in both these proceedings. But the attention of Cicero was mainly
+directed to Catiline's conspiracy. He gained over his colleague Antonius
+by resigning to him the province of Macedonia. Meantime he became
+acquainted with every detail of the plot through Fulvia, the mistress of
+Q. Curius, one of Catiline's intimate associates. Thus informed, Cicero
+called a meeting of the Senate on the 21st of October, when he openly
+denounced Catiline, charged him broadly with treason, and asserted that
+the 28th was the period fixed for the murder of the leading men in the
+Republic. The Senate thereupon invested the Consuls with dictatorial
+power. The Comitia for the election of the Consuls was now held.
+Catiline, again a candidate, was again rejected. Driven to despair by
+this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once to bring matters to a
+crisis. On the night of the 6th of November he summoned a meeting of the
+ringleaders at the house of M. Porcius Laeca, and made arrangements for
+an immediate outbreak. Cicero, being immediately informed of what took
+place, summoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the Senate in the
+Temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the first of his
+celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon his entrance
+had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon a bench from which
+every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had scarcely commenced when
+his words were drowned by the shouts of "enemy" and "parricide" which
+burst from the whole assembly, and he rushed forth with threats and
+curses on his lips. He now resolved to strike some decisive blow before
+troops could be levied to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving the chief
+control of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus, he set
+forth in the dead of night, and proceeded to join Manlius at Faesulae.
+
+On the 9th, when the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered his
+second speech, which was addressed to the people in the forum. The
+Senate proceeded to declare Catiline and Manlius public enemies, and
+decreed that Antonius should go forth to the war, while Cicero should
+remain to guard the city. Cicero was now anxious to obtain other
+evidence, besides that of Fulvia, which would warrant him in
+apprehending the conspirators within the walls. This was fortunately
+supplied by the embassadors of the Allobroges, who were now at Rome,
+having been sent to seek relief from certain real or alleged grievances.
+Their suit, however, had not prospered, and Lentulus, conceiving that
+their discontent might be made available for his own purposes, opened a
+negotiation with them and disclosed to them the nature of the plot. But
+they thought it more prudent to reveal all to Q. Fabius Sanga, the
+patron of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the
+instructions of the latter the embassadors affected great zeal in the
+undertaking, and obtained a written agreement signed by Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and others. They quitted Rome soon after midnight on the 3d of
+December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was charged with
+dispatches for Catiline. The embassadors were seized, as they were
+crossing the Mulvian bridge, by two of the Praetors, who had been
+stationed in ambush to intercept them.
+
+Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other conspirators
+to his presence. Lentulus being Praetor, the Consul led him by the hand
+to the Temple of Concord, where the Senate was already met; the rest of
+the accused followed closely guarded. Volturcius, finding escape
+impossible, agreed, upon his own personal safety being insured, to make
+a full confession. His statements were confirmed by the Allobroges, and
+the testimony was rendered conclusive by the signatures of the
+ringleaders, which they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus,
+Cethegus, and seven others being thus established, Lentulus was forced
+to abdicate his office, and then, with the rest, was consigned to the
+charge of certain Senators, who became responsible for their appearance.
+
+These circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated by Cicero
+in his Third Oration, delivered in the forum. On the nones (5th) of
+December the Senate was again summoned to determine upon the fate of
+the conspirators. Caesar, in an elaborate speech, proposed that they
+should be kept in confinement in the different towns of Italy, but Cato
+and Cicero strongly advocated that they should be instantly put to
+death. Their views were adopted by a majority of the Senate, and a
+decree passed to that effect. On the same night Lentulus and his
+associates were strangled by the common executioner in the Tullianum, a
+loathsome dungeon on the slope of the Capitol.
+
+While these things were going on at Rome, Catiline had collected a force
+amounting to two legions, although not above one fourth part were fully
+equipped. When the news of the failure of the plot at Rome reached his
+camp many deserted. He thereupon attempted to cross the Apennines and
+take refuge in Cisalpine Gaul, but the passes were strictly guarded by
+Metellus Celer with three legions. Finding, therefore, that escape was
+cut off in front, while Antonius was pressing on his rear, Catiline
+determined, as a last resource, to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in
+consequence of real or pretended illness, resigned the command to M.
+Petreius, a skillful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The
+rebels fought with the fury of despair; and when Catiline saw that all
+was lost, he charged headlong into the thickest of the fight and fell
+sword in hand (B.C. 62).
+
+Cicero had rendered important services to the state, and enjoyed for a
+time unbounded popularity. Catulus in the Senate and Cato in the forum
+hailed him as the "Father of his Country;" thanksgivings in his name
+were voted to the gods; and all Italy joined in testifying enthusiastic
+admiration and gratitude. Cicero's elation knew no bounds; he fancied
+that his political influence was now supreme, and looked upon himself as
+a match even for Pompey. But his splendid achievement contained the germ
+of his humiliation and downfall. There could be no doubt that the
+punishment inflicted by the Senate upon Lentulus and his associates was
+a violation of the fundamental principles of the Roman Constitution,
+which declared that no citizen could be put to death until sentenced by
+the whole body of the people assembled in their Comitia, and for this
+act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was held responsible. It was in
+vain to urge that the Consuls had been armed with dictatorial power; the
+Senate, in the present instance, assuming to themselves judicial
+functions which they had no right to exercise, gave orders for the
+execution of a sentence which they had no right to pronounce. Nor were
+his enemies long in discovering this vulnerable point. On the last day
+of the year, when, according to established custom, he ascended the
+Rostra to give an account to the people of the events of his Consulship,
+Metellus Celer, one of the new Tribunes, forbade him to speak,
+exclaiming that the man who had put Roman citizens to death without
+granting them a hearing was himself unworthy to be heard. But this
+attack was premature. The audience had not yet forgotten their recent
+escape; so that, when Cicero swore with a loud voice that "he had saved
+the Republic and the city from ruin," the crowd with one voice responded
+that he had sworn truly.
+
+It was rumored that many other eminent men had been privy to Catiline's
+conspiracy. Among others, the names of Crassus and Caesar were most
+frequently mentioned; but the participation of either of these men in
+such an enterprise seems most improbable. The interests of Crassus were
+opposed to such an adventure; his vast wealth was employed in a variety
+of speculations which would have been ruined in a general overthrow,
+while he had not the energy or ability to seize and retain the helm in
+the confusion that would have ensued. Of Caesar's guilt there is no
+satisfactory evidence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a man
+would have leagued with such a desperate adventurer as Catiline. Cato,
+in his speech respecting the fate of the conspirators, hinted that Caesar
+wished to spare them because he was a partner of their guilt; and in the
+following year (B.C. 62), when Caesar was Praetor, L. Vettius, who had
+been one of Cicero's informers, openly charged him with being a party to
+the plot. Thereupon Caesar called upon Cicero to testify that he had of
+his own accord given the Consul evidence respecting the conspiracy; and
+so complete was his vindication that Vettius was thrown into prison.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Pompey.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julius Caesar.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXII.
+
+FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
+B.C. 62-57.
+
+
+Pompey, as we have already seen, reached Italy in B.C. 62. It was
+generally feared that he would seize the supreme power, but he soon
+calmed these apprehensions by disbanding his army immediately after
+landing at Brundusium. He did not, however, enter Rome in triumph till
+the 30th of September, B.C. 61. The triumph lasted two days, and
+surpassed in splendor every spectacle that Rome had yet seen. The
+tablets carried in the procession, on which his victories were
+emblazoned, declared that he had taken 1000 strong fortresses, 900
+towns, and 800 ships; that he had founded 39 cities; that he had raised
+the revenue of the Roman people from 59 millions to 85 millions; and
+that he had brought into the public treasury 20,000 talents. Before his
+triumphal car walked 324 captive princes.
+
+With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Pompey's life may
+be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed almost exclusively
+in war; but now he was called upon to play a prominent part in the civil
+commotions of the Republic--a part for which neither his natural talents
+nor his previous habits had in the least fitted him. From the death of
+Sulla to the present time, a period of nearly twenty years, he had been
+unquestionably the first man in the Roman world, but he did not retain
+much longer this proud position, and soon discovered that the genius of
+Caesar had reduced him to a second place in the state. It would seem as
+if Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew to which party to attach
+himself. He had been appointed to the command against the pirates and
+Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded
+him with jealousy and distrust. He could not, therefore, ally himself to
+them, especially too as some of their most influential leaders, such as
+M. Crassus and L. Lucullus, were his personal enemies. At the same time
+he seems to have been indisposed to unite himself to the popular party,
+which had risen into importance during his absence in the East, and over
+which Caesar possessed unbounded influence. But the object which engaged
+the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain from the Senate a
+ratification of his acts in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he
+had promised to his veterans. In order to secure this object, he had
+purchased the Consulship for one of his officers, L. Afranius, who was
+elected with Q. Metellus for B.C. 60. But L. Afranius was a man of
+slender ability; and the Senate, glad of an opportunity to put an
+affront upon a person whom they both feared and hated, resolutely
+refused to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia. This was the unwisest
+thing they could have done. If they had known their real interests, they
+would have yielded to all Pompey's wishes, and have sought by every
+means to win him over to their side, as a counterpoise to the growing
+and more dangerous influence of Caesar. But their short-sighted policy
+threw Pompey into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall of their
+party. Pompey was resolved to fulfill the promises he had made to his
+Asiatic clients and his veteran troops.
+
+Caesar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year. He had been in
+that province for one year as Propraetor, during which time he displayed
+that military ability which was soon to be exhibited on a still more
+conspicuous field. He subdued the mountainous tribes of Lusitania, took
+the town of Brigantium in the country of the Gallaeci, and gained many
+other advantages over the enemy. His troops saluted him as Imperator,
+and the Senate honored him by a public thanksgiving. He now laid claim
+to a triumph, and at the same time wished to become a candidate for the
+Consulship. For the latter purpose his presence in the city was
+necessary; but, as he could not enter the city without relinquishing his
+triumph, he applied to the Senate to be exempted from the usual law, and
+to become a candidate in his absence. As this was refused, he at once
+relinquished his triumph, entered the city, and became a candidate for
+the Consulship. He was elected without difficulty, but the aristocracy
+succeeded in associating with him in the Consulship M. Bibulus, who
+belonged to the opposite party, and who had likewise been his colleague
+in the AEdileship and Praetorship.
+
+Caesar now represented to Pompey the importance of detaching from the
+aristocracy M. Crassus, who, by his connections and immense wealth,
+possessed great political influence. Pompey and Crassus had for a long
+time past been deadly enemies, but they were now reconciled, and the
+three entered into an agreement to divide the power between themselves.
+This first Triumvirate, as it is called, was therefore merely a private
+arrangement between the three most powerful men at Rome, which remained
+a secret till the proceedings of Caesar in his Consulship showed that he
+was supported by a power against which it was in vain for his enemies to
+struggle.
+
+As soon as Caesar had entered upon his Consulship he proposed an agrarian
+law for the division of the rich Campanian land. The execution of the
+law was to be intrusted to a board of twenty commissioners. The
+opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain. Porapey and Crassus
+spoke in favor of the law; and the former declared that he would bring
+both sword and buckler against those who used the sword. On the day on
+which it was put to the vote, Bibulus and the other members of the
+aristocracy were driven out of the forum by force of arms: the law was
+carried, the commissioners appointed, and about 20,000 citizens,
+comprising, of course, a great number of Pompey's veterans, received
+allotments subsequently. Bibulus, despairing of being able to offer any
+farther resistance to Caesar, shut himself up in his own house, and did
+not appear again in public till the expiration of his Consulship.
+
+Caesar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey's acts in
+Asia, and, to cement their union more closely, gave his only daughter
+Julia in marriage to Pompey. His next step was to gain over the Equites,
+who had rendered efficient service to Cicero in his Consulship, and had
+hitherto supported the aristocratical party. An excellent opportunity
+now occurred for accomplishing this object. In their eagerness to obtain
+the farming of the public taxes in Asia, the Equites had agreed to pay
+too large a sum, and accordingly petitioned the Senate for more
+favorable terms. This, however, had been opposed by Metellus Celer,
+Cato, and others of the aristocracy; and Caesar, therefore, now carried a
+law to relieve the Equites from one third of the sum which they had
+agreed to pay. Having thus gratified the people, the Equites, and
+Pompey, he was easily able to obtain for himself the provinces which he
+wished.
+
+It is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to Caesar to suppose
+that he already saw that the struggle between the different parties at
+Rome must eventually be terminated by the sword. The same causes were
+still in operation which had led to the civil wars between Marius and
+Sulla; and he was well aware that the aristocracy would not hesitate to
+call in the assistance of force if they should ever succeed in detaching
+Pompey from his interests. It was therefore of the first importance for
+him to obtain an army which he might attach to himself by victories and
+rewards. Accordingly, he induced the Tribune Vatinius to propose a bill
+to the people granting him the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum
+for five years (B.C. 58-54). Transalpine Gaul was shortly afterward
+added. Caesar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would thus be able to
+pass the winter in Italy and keep up his communication with the city,
+while the disturbed state of Farther Gaul promised him sufficient
+materials for engaging in a series of wars in which he might employ an
+army that would afterward be devoted to his purposes. In addition to
+these considerations, Caesar was also actuated by the ambition of
+subduing forever that nation which had once sacked Rome, and which had
+been, from the earliest times, more or less an object of dread to the
+Roman state.
+
+The Consuls of the following year (B.C. 58) were L. Calpurnius Piso and
+A. Gabinius. Piso was Caesar's father-in-law, and Gabinius in his
+Tribunate had proposed the law conferring upon Pompey the command
+against the pirates. Caesar saw that it was evident they would support
+whatever the Triumvirs might wish. Cicero was now threatened with
+destruction.
+
+In B.C. 62, while the wife of Caesar was celebrating in the house of her
+husband, then Praetor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of the Bona Dea,
+from which all male creatures were excluded, it was discovered that P.
+Clodius Pulcher, a profligate noble, whom we have seen inciting the army
+of Lucullus to insurrection, had found his way into the mansion
+disguised in woman's apparel, and, having been detected, had made his
+escape by the help of a female slave. The matter was laid before the
+Senate, and by them referred to the members of the Pontifical College,
+who passed a resolution that sacrilege had been committed. Caesar
+forthwith divorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to trial.
+In defense he pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that he was at
+Interamna at the very time when the crime was said to have been
+committed; but Cicero came forward as a witness, and swore that he had
+met and spoken to Clodius in Rome on the day in question. In spite of
+this decisive testimony, and the evident guilt of the accused, the
+Judices pronounced him innocent by a majority of voices (B.C. 61).
+Clodius now vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To accomplish his
+purpose more readily, he determined to become a candidate for the
+Tribunate, but for this it was necessary, in the first place, that he
+should be adopted into a plebeian family by means of a special law.
+This, after protracted opposition, was at length accomplished through
+the interference of the Triumvirs, and he was elected Tribune for B.C.
+58.
+
+One of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was to
+propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who should be
+found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. Cicero changed his
+attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused, went round the Forum
+soliciting the compassion of all whom he met. For a brief period public
+sympathy was awakened. A large number of the Senate and the Equites
+appeared also in mourning, and the better portion of the citizens seemed
+resolved to espouse his cause. But all demonstrations of such feelings
+were promptly repressed by Piso and Gabinius. Caesar had previously made
+overtures to Cicero, which the orator, overrating his influence and
+relying upon the support of Pompey, had rejected. The Triumvirs now left
+him to his fate, and Cicero, giving way to despair, quitted Rome at the
+beginning of April (B.C. 68), and reached Brundusium about the middle of
+the month. From thence he crossed over to Greece. The instant that the
+departure of Cicero became known, a law was passed pronouncing his
+banishment, forbidding any one to entertain or harbor him, and
+denouncing as a public enemy whosoever should take any steps toward
+procuring his recall. His mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at
+Tusculum and Formiae, were at the same time given over to plunder and
+destruction. Clodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to
+consult any longer the views of the Triumvirs. He restored Tigranes to
+liberty, whom Pompey had kept in confinement, ridiculed the great
+Imperator before the people, and was accused of making an attempt upon
+his life. Pompey, in revenge, resolved to procure the recall of Cicero
+from banishment, and was thus brought again into some friendly
+connections with the aristocratical party. The new Consuls (B.C. 57)
+were favorable to Cicero; but, though Clodius was no longer in office,
+he had several partisans among the Tribunes who offered the most
+vehement opposition to the restoration of his great enemy. One of the
+chief supporters of Cicero was the Tribune T. Annius Milo, a man as
+unprincipled and violent as Clodius himself. He opposed force to force,
+and at the head of a band of gladiators attacked the hired ruffians of
+Clodius. The streets of Rome were the scenes of almost daily conflicts
+between the leaders of these assassins. At length the Senate, with the
+full approbation of Pompey, determined to invite the voters from the
+different parts of Italy to repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law
+for the recall of Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the bill
+was passed by an overwhelming majority. On the same day Cicero quitted
+Dyrrhachium, and crossed over to Brundusium. He received deputations and
+congratulatory addresses from all the towns on the line of the Appian
+Way; and having arrived at Rome on the 4th of September, a vast
+multitude poured forth to meet him, while the crowd rent the air with
+acclamations as he passed through the Forum and ascended the Capitol to
+render thanks to Jupiter (B.C. 57).
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Hercules at Rome.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison
+Carree_.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-50.
+
+
+Caesar set out for his province immediately after Cicero had gone into
+exile (B.C. 58). During the next nine years he was occupied with the
+subjugation of Gaul. In this time he conquered the whole of Transalpine
+Gaul, which had hitherto been independent of the Romans, with the
+exception of the part called Provincia. Twice he crossed the Rhine, and
+carried the terror of the Roman arms beyond that river. Twice he landed
+in Britain, which had been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can only
+offer a very brief sketch of the principal events of each year.
+
+_First Campaign_, B.C. 58.--Caesar left Rome toward the latter end of
+April, and arrived in Geneva in eight days. His first campaign was
+against the Helvetii, a Gallic people situated to the north of the Lake
+of Geneva, and between the Rhine and Mount Jura. This people, quitting
+their homes, had passed through the country of the Sequani, and were
+plundering the territories of the AEdui. Three out of their four clans
+had already crossed the Arar (_Saone_); but the fourth, which was still
+on the other side of the river, was surprised by Caesar and cut to
+pieces. He then threw a bridge across the Arar, followed them cautiously
+for some days, and at length fought a pitched battle with them near the
+town of Bibracte (_Autun_). The Helvetii were defeated with great
+slaughter, and the remnant compelled to return to their former homes.
+
+This great victory raised Caesar's fame among the various tribes of
+Gauls, and the AEdui solicited his assistance against Ariovistus, a
+German king who had invaded Gaul, and was constantly bringing over the
+Rhine fresh swarms of Germans. Caesar commanded Ariovistus to abstain
+from introducing any more Germans into Gaul, to restore the hostages to
+the AEdui, and not to attack the latter or their allies. A haughty answer
+was returned to these commands, and both parties prepared for war. Caesar
+advanced northward through the country of the Sequani, took possession
+of Vesontio (_Besancon_), an important town on the Dubis (_Doubs_), and
+some days afterward fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who
+suffered a total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the
+Rhine, a distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and, among the rest,
+Ariovistus himself, crossed the river; the rest were cut to pieces by
+the Roman cavalry.
+
+_Second Campaign_, B.C. 57.--The following year was occupied with the
+Belgic war. Alarmed at Caesar's success, the various Belgic tribes which
+dwelt between the Sequana (_Seine_) and the Rhine, and were the most
+warlike of all the Gauls, had entered into a confederacy to oppose him,
+and had raised an army of 300,000 men. Caesar opened the campaign by
+marching into the country of the Remi, who submitted at his approach. He
+then crossed the Axona (_Aisne_), and pitched his camp in a strong
+position on the right bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of
+provisions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their vast
+army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto Caesar had remained
+in his intrenchments, but he now broke up from his quarters and resumed
+the offensive. The Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and Ambiani were subdued
+in succession, or surrendered of their own accord; but a more formidable
+task awaited him when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of all the
+Belgic tribes. In their country, near the River Sabis (_Sambre_), the
+Roman army was surprised by the enemy while engaged in fortifying the
+camp. The attack of the Nervii was so unexpected, that before the Romans
+could form in rank the enemy was in their midst: the Roman soldiers
+began to give way, and the battle seemed entirely lost. Caesar freely
+exposed his own person in the first line of the battle, and discharged
+alike the duties of a brave soldier and an able general. His exertions
+and the discipline of the Roman troops at length triumphed, and the
+Nervii were defeated with such immense slaughter, that out of 60,000
+fighting men only 500 remained in the state. When the Senate received
+the dispatches of Caesar announcing this victory, they decreed a public
+thanksgiving of fifteen days--a distinction which had never yet been
+granted to any one.
+
+_Third Campaign_, B.C. 56.--In the third campaign Caesar completed the
+subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval war against the
+Veneti, the inhabitants of the modern Brittany, and, by means of his
+lieutenants, conquered the remaining tribes who still held out. In the
+later part of the summer Caesar marched against the Morini and Menapii
+(in the neighborhood of Calais and Boulogne). Thus all Gaul had been
+apparently reduced to subjection in three years; but the spirit of the
+people was yet unbroken, and they only waited for an opportunity to rise
+against their conquerors.
+
+_Fourth Campaign_, B.C. 55.--In the following year Caesar determined to
+attack the Germans. The Gauls had suffered too much in the last three
+campaigns to make any farther attempt against the Romans at present; but
+Caesar's ambition would not allow him to be idle. Fresh wars must be
+undertaken to employ his troops in active service. Two German tribes,
+the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, had been driven out of their own
+country by the Suevi, and had crossed the Rhine with the intention of
+settling in Gaul. This, however, Caesar was resolved to prevent, and
+accordingly prepared to attack them. The Germans opened negotiations
+with him, but, while these were going on, a body of their cavalry
+defeated Caesar's Gallic horse. On the next day all the German chiefs
+came into Caesar's camp to apologize for what they had done; but Caesar
+detained them, and straightway led his troops to attack the enemy.
+Deprived of their leaders and taken by surprise, the Germans, after a
+feeble resistance, took to flight, and were almost all destroyed by the
+Roman cavalry. After this victory Caesar resolved to cross the Rhine, in
+order to strike terror into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge
+of boats across the river, probably in the neighborhood of Cologne; and
+after spending eighteen days on the eastern side of the Rhine, and
+ravaging the country of the Sigambri, he returned to Gaul and broke down
+the bridge.
+
+Although the greater part of the summer was now gone, Caesar resolved to
+invade Britain. His object in undertaking this expedition at such a late
+period of the year was more to obtain some knowledge of the island from
+personal observation than with any view to permanent conquest at
+present. He accordingly took with him only two legions, with which he
+sailed from the port Itius (probably Witsand, between Calais and
+Boulogne), and effected a landing somewhere near the South Foreland,
+after a severe struggle with the natives. Several of the British tribes
+hereupon sent offers of submission to Caesar; but, in consequence of the
+loss of a great part of the Roman fleet a few days afterward, they took
+up arms again. Being, however, defeated, they again sent offers of
+submission to Caesar, who simply demanded double the number of hostages
+he had originally required, as he was anxious to return to Gaul before
+the autumnal equinox.
+
+The news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant Britons was
+received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm. The Senate voted a public
+thanksgiving of twenty days, notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, who
+declared that Caesar ought to be delivered up to the Usipetes and
+Tenchtheri, to atone for his treachery in seizing the sacred persons of
+embassadors.
+
+_Fifth Campaign_, B.C. 54.--The greater part of Caesar's fifth campaign
+was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He sailed from the
+port Itius with an army of five legions, and landed, without opposition,
+at the same place as in the former year. The British states had
+intrusted the supreme command to Cassivellaunus, a chief whose
+territories were divided from the maritime states by the River Tamesis
+(Thames). The Britons bravely opposed the progress of the invaders, but
+were defeated in a series of engagements. Caesar crossed the Thames above
+London, probably in the neighborhood of Kingston, took the town of
+Cassivellaunus, and conquered great part of the counties of Essex and
+Middlesex. In consequence of these disasters, Cassivellaunus sued for
+peace; and after demanding hostages, and settling the tribute which
+Britain should pay yearly to the Roman people, Caesar returned to Gaul
+toward the latter part of the summer. He gained no more by his second
+invasion of Britain than by his first. He had penetrated, it is true,
+farther into the country, but had left no garrisons or military
+establishments behind him, and the people obeyed the Romans as little
+afterward as they had done before.
+
+In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, Caesar was obliged
+to divide his forces, and station his legions for the winter in
+different parts. This seemed to the Gauls a favorable opportunity for
+recovering their lost independence and destroying their conquerors. The
+Eburones, a Gallic people between the Meuse and the Rhine, near the
+modern _Tongres_, destroyed the detachment under the command of T.
+Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta. They next attacked the camp
+of Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was stationed among the
+Nervii. Cicero repulsed the enemy in all their attempts, till he was at
+length relieved by Caesar in person, who came to his assistance with two
+legions as soon as he heard of the dangerous position of his legate. The
+forces of the enemy, which amounted to 60,000, were defeated by Caesar,
+who then joined Cicero, and praised him and his men for the bravery they
+had shown.
+
+_Sixth Campaign_, B.C. 63.--In the next year the Gauls again took up
+arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to recover their
+independence. The destruction of the Roman troops under Sabinus and
+Cotta, and the unsettled state of Gaul during the winter, had led Caesar
+to apprehend a general rising of the natives; and he had accordingly
+levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and obtained one from Pompey,
+who was remaining in the neighborhood of Rome as Proconsul with the
+imperium. Being thus at the head of a powerful army, he was able to
+subdue the tribes that revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones,
+Carnutes, Menapii, and Treviri to return to obedience. But as the
+Treviri had been supported by the Germans, he crossed the Rhine again a
+little above the spot where he had passed over two years before, and,
+after receiving the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country of the
+Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid waste the country of the Eburones
+with fire and sword. At the conclusion of the campaign he prosecuted a
+strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and Carautes, and caused
+Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in the conspiracy, to be put to
+death.
+
+_Seventh Campaign_, B.C. 52.--The unsuccessful issue of last year's
+revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The execution of
+Acco had frightened all the chiefs, as every one feared that his turn
+might come next; the hatred of the Roman yoke was intense; and thus all
+the materials were ready for a general conflagration. It was first
+kindled by the Carnutes, and in a short time it spread from district to
+district till almost the whole of Gaul was in flames. Even the AEdui, who
+had been hitherto the faithful allies of the Romans, and had assisted
+them in all their wars, subsequently joined the general revolt. At the
+head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, a young man of noble family
+belonging to the Arverni, and by far the ablest general that Caesar had
+yet encountered. Never before had the Gauls been so united: Caesar's
+conquests of the last six years seemed to be now entirely lost. The
+campaign of this year, therefore, was by far the most arduous that Caesar
+had yet carried on; but his genius triumphed over every obstacle, and
+rendered it the most brilliant of all. He concentrated his forces with
+incredible rapidity, and lost no time in attacking the chief towns in
+the hands of the enemy. Vellaunodunum (in the country of
+_Chateau-Landon_), Genabum (_Orleans_), and Noviodunum (_Nouan_, between
+Orleans and Bourges), fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed at
+his rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded his countrymen to lay waste
+their country and destroy their towns. This plan was accordingly carried
+into effect; but, contrary to the wishes of Vercingetorix, Avaricum
+(_Bourges_), the chief town of the Bituriges, and a strongly-fortified
+place, was spared from the general destruction. This town Caesar
+accordingly besieged, and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the
+Gauls, it was at length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, were indiscriminately butchered.
+
+Caesar now divided his army into two parts: one division, consisting of
+four legions, he sent, under the command of T. Labienus, against the
+Senones and Parisii; the other, comprising six legions, he led in person
+into the country of the Arverni, and with them laid siege to Gergovia
+(near _Clermont_). The revolt of the AEdui shortly afterward compelled
+him to raise the siege, and inspired the Gauls with fresh courage.
+Vercingetorix retired to Alesia (_Alise_, in Burgundy), which was
+considered impregnable, and resolved to wait for succors from his
+countrymen. Caesar immediately laid siege to the place, and drew lines of
+circumvallation around it. The Romans, however, were in their turn soon
+surrounded by a vast Gallic army which had assembled to raise the siege.
+Caesar's army was thus placed in imminent peril, and on no occasion in
+his whole life was his military genius so conspicuous. He was between
+two great armies. Vercingetorix had 70,000 men in Alesia, and the Gallic
+army without consisted of between 250,000 and 300,000 men. Still he
+would not raise the siege. He prevented Vercingetorix from breaking
+through the lines, entirely routed the Gallic army without, and finally
+compelled Alesia to surrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his
+hands. The fall of Alesia was followed by the submission of the AEdui and
+Arvemi. Caesar then led his troops into winter quarters. After receiving
+his dispatches, the Senate voted him a public thanksgiving of twenty
+days, as in the year B.C. 55.
+
+_Eighth Campaign_, B.C. 51.--The victories of the preceding year had
+determined the fate of Gaul; but many states still remained in arms, and
+entered into fresh conspiracies during the winter. This year was
+occupied in the reduction of these states, into the particulars of which
+we need not enter. During the winter Caesar employed himself in the
+pacification of Gaul, and, as he already saw that his presence would
+soon be necessary in Italy, he was anxious to remove all causes for
+future wars. He accordingly imposed no new taxes, treated the states
+with honor and respect, and bestowed great presents upon the chiefs. The
+experience of the last two years had taught the Gauls that they had no
+hope of contending successfully against Caesar, and, as he now treated
+them with mildness, they were the more readily induced to submit
+patiently to the Roman yoke.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Ruins on the Esquiline.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV.
+
+INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
+COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR.--EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. B.C.
+57-50.
+
+
+Cicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though his return had
+been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely changed, and he was
+forced to yield to a power which he no longer dared to resist. He even
+lent his support to the Triumvirs, and praised in public those
+proceedings which he had once openly and loudly condemned. Meantime the
+power of Pompey had been shaken at Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung
+up between him and Crassus, and Cato and the other leaders of the
+aristocracy attacked him with the utmost vehemence. The Senate began to
+entertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined to support L.
+Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in B.C. 56, had become a candidate for the
+Consulship for the following year, and who threatened to deprive Caesar
+of his provinces and armies. Under these circumstances Caesar invited
+Pompey and Crassus to meet him at Luca (_Lucca_) in the spring of B.C.
+56. He reconciled them to each other, and arranged that they were to be
+Consuls for the next year, and obtain provinces and armies, while he
+himself was to have his government prolonged for another five years, and
+to receive pay for his troops. On their return to Rome, Pompey and
+Crassus became candidates for the Consulship; but Domitius Ahenobarbus,
+supported by Cato and the aristocracy, offered a most determined
+opposition. The Consul Lentulus Marcellinus likewise was resolved to use
+every means to prevent their election; and, finding it impossible to
+carry their election while Marcellinus was in office, they availed
+themselves of the veto of two of the Tribunes to prevent the Consular
+Comitia from being held this year. The elections, therefore, did not
+take place till the beginning of B.C. 55, under the presidency of an
+interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus and Cato did not relax in their
+opposition; and it was not till the armed bands of Pompey and Crassus
+had cleared the Campus Martius of their adversaries that they were
+declared Consuls for the second time (B.C. 55).
+
+They forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact that had been
+made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C. Trebonius to bring forward two
+bills, one of which gave the province of the two Spains to Pompey, and
+that of Syria to Crassus; the other prolonged Caesar's government for
+five years more, namely, from the 1st of January, B.C. 53, to the end of
+the year 49. Pompey was now at the head of the state; and at the
+expiration of his year of office would no longer be a private man, but
+with the command of an army and in possession of the imperium. With an
+army he felt sure of regaining his former influence. He had now
+completed the theatre which he had been some time building, and, as a
+means of regaining the popular favor, he resolved to open it with an
+exhibition of games of unparalleled splendor and magnificence. The
+building itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was the
+first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was sufficiently
+large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games exhibited lasted many
+days. Five hundred African lions and eighteen elephants were killed. A
+rhinoceros was likewise exhibited on this occasion for the first time.
+Pompey sent an army into Spain under the command of his lieutenants, L.
+Afranius and M. Petreius, while he himself remained in the neighborhood
+of Rome as Proconsul.
+
+Before the end of the year Crassus set out for Syria, with the intention
+of attacking the Parthians. He was anxious to distinguish himself in
+war, like Pompey and Caesar, and, though upward of sixty years of age, he
+chose rather to enter upon an undertaking for which he had no genius
+than to continue the pursuit of wealth and influence at home. He crossed
+the Euphrates in B.C. 54, but, hesitating to proceed at once against
+Parthia, he gave the enemy time to assemble his forces, and returned to
+Syria without accomplishing any thing of importance. He spent the winter
+in Syria, where, instead of exercising his troops and preparing for the
+ensuing campaign, he plundered the temples, and employed his time in
+collecting money from every quarter. In the following spring (B.C. 53)
+he again crossed the Euphrates, and plunged into the sandy deserts of
+Mesopotamia. He trusted to the guidance of an Arabian chieftain, who
+promised to lead him by the shortest way to the enemy. But this man was
+in the pay of Surenas, the Parthian general; and when he had brought the
+Romans into the open plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous
+pretext, and rode off to inform Surenas that the Roman army was
+delivered into his hands. The Parthians soon appeared. They worried the
+densely-marshaled Romans with showers of arrows; and by feigned
+retreats, during which they continued to discharge their arrows, they
+led the Romans into disadvantageous positions. The son of Crassus, who
+had distinguished himself as one of Caesar's lieutenants in Gaul, was
+slain, and the Romans, after suffering great loss, retreated to Carrhae,
+the Haran of Scripture. On the following day they continued their
+retreat; and Surenas, fearing that Crassus might after all make his
+escape, invited him to an interview. He was treacherously seized, and,
+in the scuffle which ensued, was slain by some unknown hand. His head
+was carried to the Parthian king Orodes, who caused melted gold to be
+poured into the mouth, saying, "Sate thyself now with that metal of
+which in life thou wert so greedy." Twenty thousand Roman troops were
+slain, and ten thousand taken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the
+most disastrous in which the Romans were ever engaged. Only a small
+portion of the Roman army escaped to Syria under the command of L.
+Cassius Longinus, afterward one of Caesar's assassins, who had displayed
+considerable ability during the war, but whose advice Crassus had
+constantly refused to follow.
+
+The death of Crassus left Pompey and Caesar alone at the head of the
+state, and it became evident that sooner or later a struggle would take
+place between them for the supremacy. The death of Julia, in B.C. 54, to
+whom both her father and husband were strongly attached, broke a link
+which might have united them much longer. Pompey considered that he had
+been the chief means of raising Caesar to power, and he appeared long to
+have deemed it impossible that the conqueror of Mithridates could be
+thrown into the shade by any popular leader. Such a result, however, was
+now imminent. Caesar's brilliant victories in Gaul were in every body's
+mouth, and Pompey saw with ill-disguised mortification that he was
+becoming the second person in the state. Though this did not lead him to
+break with Caesar at once, it made him anxious to increase his power and
+influence, and he therefore now resolved, if possible, to obtain the
+Dictatorship. He accordingly used no effort to put an end to the
+disturbances at Rome between Milo and Clodius in this year, in hopes
+that all parties would be willing to accede to his wishes in order to
+restore peace to the city. Milo was a candidate for the Consulship and
+Clodius for the Praetorship. Each was attended by a band of hired
+ruffians; battles took place between them daily in the Forum and the
+streets; all order and government were at an end. In such a state of
+things no elections could be held, and the confusion at length became
+downright anarchy, when Milo murdered Clodius on the 20th of January in
+the following year (B.C. 52). The two rivals had met near Bovillae,
+accompanied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued. The
+party of Milo proved the stronger, and Clodius took refuge in a house.
+But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius, and having dispatched
+him, left him dead upon the road. His body was found by a Senator,
+carried to Rome, and exposed naked to the people. They were violently
+excited at the sight, and their feelings were still farther inflamed by
+the harangues of the Tribunes. The benches and tables of the
+Senate-house were seized to make a funeral pile for their favorite; and
+not only the Senate-house, but several other public buildings, were
+reduced to ashes. As the riots still continued, the Senate had no longer
+any choice but to call in the assistance of Pompey. They therefore
+commissioned him to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances.
+Pompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires, obeyed with
+alacrity; he was invested with the supreme power of the state by being
+elected sole Consul on the 25th of February; and, in order to deliver
+the city from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought forward laws against
+violence and bribery at elections. Milo was put upon his trial; the
+court was surrounded with soldiers; Cicero, who defended him, was
+intimidated, and Milo was condemned, and went into exile at
+Massilia.[67] Others shared the same fate, and peace was once more
+restored to the state.
+
+Pompey's jealousy of Caesar brought him into connection with the
+aristocratical party. After Julia's death he had married Cornelia, the
+daughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his colleague on the first of
+August. His next step was to strike a blow at Caesar. He brought forward
+an old law that no one should become a candidate for a public office
+while absent, in order that Caesar might be obliged to resign his
+command, and to place himself in the power of his enemies at Rome, if he
+wished to obtain the Consulship a second time.[68] But the renewal of
+this enactment was so manifestly aimed at Caesar that his friends
+insisted he should be specially exempted from it; and as Pompey was not
+yet prepared to break openly with him, he thought it more expedient to
+yield. At the same time, Pompey provided that he himself should remain
+in command of an army after his rival had ceased to have one, by
+obtaining a senatus consultum, by which his government of the Spains was
+prolonged for another five years. And, in case Caesar should obtain the
+Consulship, he caused a law to be enacted, in virtue of which no one
+could have a province till five years had elapsed from the time of his
+holding a public office. Such were the precautions adopted against
+Caesar, the uselessness of which time soon showed.
+
+In the following year (B.C. 51) Pompey declared himself still more
+openly on the side of the Senate; but still he shrank from supporting
+all the violent measures of the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, who
+proposed to send a successor to Caesar, on the plea that the war in Gaul
+was finished, and to deprive him of the privilege of becoming a
+candidate for the Consulship in his absence. The Consuls for the next
+year (B.C. 50), L. AEmilius Paullus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the
+powerful Tribune C. Curio, were all reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey
+and the Senate. Caesar, however, gained over Paullus and Curio by large
+bribes, and with a lavish hand distributed immense sums of money among
+the leading men of Rome. It was proposed in the Senate by the Consul C.
+Marcellus that Caesar should lay down his command by the 13th of
+November. But this was an unreasonable demand; Caesar's government had
+upward of another year to run; and if he had come to Rome as a private
+man to sue for the Consulship, there can be no doubt that his life would
+have been sacrificed. Cato had declared that he would bring Caesar to
+trial as soon as he laid down his command; but the trial would have been
+only a mockery, for Pompey was in the neighborhood of the city at the
+head of an army, and would have overawed the judges by his soldiery as
+at Milo's trial. The Tribune Curio consequently interposed his veto
+upon the proposition of Marcellus. The Senate, anxious to diminish the
+number of his troops, had, under pretext of a war with the Parthians,
+ordered that Pompey and Caesar should each furnish a legion to be sent
+into the East. The legion which Pompey intended to devote to this
+service was one he had lent to Caesar in B.C. 53, and which he now
+accordingly demanded back; and, although Caesar saw that he should thus
+be deprived of two legions, which would probably be employed against
+himself, he complied with the request. Upon their arrival in Italy, they
+were not sent to the East, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua.
+Caesar took up his quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province
+bordering upon Italy.
+
+Though war seemed inevitable, Caesar still showed himself willing to
+enter into negotiations with the aristocracy, and accordingly sent Curio
+with a letter addressed to the Senate, in which he expressed his
+readiness to resign his command if Pompey would do the same. Curio
+arrived at Rome on the 1st of January, B.C. 49, the day on which the new
+Consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus and C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon
+their office. It was with great difficulty that the Tribunes, M.
+Antonius, afterward the well-known Triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus,
+forced the Senate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent
+debate, the motion of Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, "that
+Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not
+do so he should be regarded as an enemy of the state." On the 6th of
+January the Senate passed the decree investing the Consuls with
+dictatorial power. Antonius and Cassius, considering their lives no
+longer safe, fled from the city in disguise to Caesar's army, and called
+upon him to protect the inviolable persons of the Tribunes. This was the
+crisis. The Senate intrusted the management of the war to Pompey,
+determined that fresh levies of troops should be held, and voted a sum
+of money from the public treasury to Pompey. Pompey all along had no
+apprehensions as to the war; he thought it impossible that Caesar should
+ever march against him; he was convinced that his great fame would cause
+a multitude of troops to flock around him whenever he wished. In
+addition to this, he had been deceived as to the disposition of Caesar's
+troops: he had been led to believe that they were ready to desert their
+general at the first opportunity. Consequently, when the war broke out,
+Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two legions which he had
+obtained from Caesar, and on the fidelity of which he could by no means
+rely.
+
+[Footnote 67: Cicero sent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant
+to have delivered, the one which we still have. Milo, after reading it,
+remarked, "I am glad it was not delivered, for I should then have been
+acquitted, and never have known the delicate flavor of these Massilian
+mullets."]
+
+[Footnote 68: Caesar's government would expire at the end of B.C. 49, and
+he had therefore determined to obtain the Consulship for B.C. 48, since
+otherwise he would become a private person.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Marcus Brutus.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXV.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CAESAR'S DEATH. B.C. 49-44.
+
+
+As soon as Caesar learned at Ravenna the last resolution of the Senate,
+he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs he had sustained,
+and called upon them to support him. Finding them quite willing to
+support him, he crossed the Rubicon,[69] which separated his province
+from Italy, and occupied Ariminum, where he met with the Tribunes. He
+commenced his enterprise with only one legion, consisting of 5000
+foot-soldiers and 300 horse; but others had orders to follow him from
+Transalpine Gaul, and he was well aware of the importance of expedition,
+that the enemy might have no time to complete their preparations. Though
+it was the middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost rapidity, and
+such was the popularity of his cause in Italy, that city after city
+opened its gates to him, and his march was like a triumphal progress.
+Arretium, Pisaurum, Fanum, Ancona, Iguvium, and Auximum fell into his
+hands. These successes caused the utmost consternation at Rome; it was
+reported that Caesar's cavalry were already at the gates; a general panic
+seized the Senate, and they fled from the city without even taking with
+them the money from the public treasury. Caesar continued his victorious
+march through Picenum till he came to Corfinium, which M. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus held with a strong force; but, as Pompey did not march to
+his assistance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place, and fell
+himself into Caesar's hands, together with several other Senators and
+distinguished men. Caesar, with the same clemency which he displayed
+throughout the whole of the Civil War, dismissed them all uninjured. He
+then hastened southward in pursuit of Pompey, who had now resolved to
+abandon Italy. He reached Brundusium before Caesar, but had not sailed
+when the latter arrived before the town. Caesar straightway laid siege to
+the place, but Pompey abandoned it on the 17th of March, and embarked
+for Greece. Caesar was unable to follow him for want of ships. He
+accordingly marched back from Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having
+thus in three months become the master of the whole of Italy.
+
+The only opposition which Caesar met with in Rome was from L. Metellus
+the Tribune, who attempted to prevent him from entering the public
+treasury, though the people had given him permission to take from it as
+much money as he pleased. "Stand aside, young man," said Caesar; "it is
+easier for me to do than to say." After remaining in the neighborhood of
+Rome for a short time, he set out for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in
+charge of the city, and M. Antonius in command of the troops in Italy.
+He sent Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to take
+possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to occupy Illyricum. Curio and
+Valerius obtained possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposition;
+and the former then passed over into Africa, which was in possession of
+the Pompeian party. Here, however, he encountered strong opposition, and
+at length was defeated, and lost his life in a battle with Juba, king of
+Mauretania, who supported P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
+Antonius also met with ill success in Illyricum, for his army was
+defeated, and he himself taken prisoner. These disasters were more than
+counterbalanced by Caesar's victories in the mean time in Spain. Leaving
+Rome about the middle of April, he found, on his arrival in Gaul, that
+Massilia refused to submit to him. He besieged the place forthwith, but,
+unable to take it immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D. Brutus, with
+part of his troops, to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to
+Spain. On the approach of Caesar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, the
+lieutenants of Pompey in Spain, united their forces, and took up a
+strong position near the town of Ilerda (_Lerida_, in Catalonia), on the
+right bank of the Sicoris (_Segre_). After experiencing great
+difficulties at first and some reverses, Caesar at length reduced
+Afranius and Petreius to such straits that they were obliged to
+surrender. They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their
+troops disbanded, and the remainder incorporated among Caesar's troops.
+The conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, who commanded two
+legions in the Farther Province; but, after the victory over Afranius
+and Petreius, there was no army in Spain capable of offering resistance,
+and Varro accordingly surrendered to Caesar on his arrival at Corduba
+(_Cordova_). Having thus subdued all Spain in forty days, he returned to
+Gaul. Massilia had not yet yielded; but the siege had been prosecuted
+with so much vigor, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender the
+town soon after he appeared before the walls.
+
+During his absence in Spain Caesar was appointed Dictator by the Praetor
+M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so by a law passed for the
+purpose. On his return to Rome Caesar assumed the new dignity, but laid
+it down again at the end of eleven days, after holding the Consular
+Comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia were elected Consuls
+for the next year. But during these eleven days he caused some very
+important laws to be passed. The first was intended to relieve debtors,
+but at the same time to protect, to a great extent, the rights of
+creditors. He next restored all exiles; and, finally, he conferred the
+full citizenship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held only the
+Latin franchise.
+
+After laying down the Dictatorship, Caesar went in December to
+Brundusium, where he had previously ordered his troops to assemble. He
+had lost many men in the long march from Spain, and also from sickness
+arising from their passing the autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey
+during the summer had raised a large force in Greece, Egypt, and the
+East, the scene of his former glory. He had collected an army consisting
+of nine legions of Roman citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
+infantry; and his forces far surpassed in number those which Caesar had
+assembled at Brundusium. Moreover, Pompey's fleet, under the command of
+Bibulus, Caesar's colleague in his first Consulship, completely commanded
+the sea. Still Caesar ventured to set sail from Brundusium on the 4th of
+January, and he arrived the next day in safety on the coast of Epirus.
+In consequence, however, of the small number of his ships, he was able
+to carry over only seven legions, which, from the causes previously
+mentioned, had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot and 500
+horse. After landing this force he sent back his ships to bring over
+the remainder; but part of the fleet was intercepted in its return by M.
+Bibulus, who kept up such a strict watch along the coast that the rest
+of Caesar's army was obliged for the present to remain at Brundusium.
+Caesar was thus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy's
+country, and cut off from the rest of his army; but he knew that he
+could thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
+acting on the offensive. After gaining possession of Oricum and
+Apollonia, he hastened northward, in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium,
+where all Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by rapid marches,
+reached this town before him, and both armies then encamped opposite to
+each other, Pompey on the right, and Caesar on the left bank of the River
+Apsus. Caesar was now greatly in want of re-enforcements, and such was
+his impatience that he attempted to sail across the Adriatic in a small
+boat. The waves ran so high that the sailors wanted to turn back, till
+Caesar discovered himself, telling them that they earned Caesar and his
+fortunes. They then toiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to
+return, and with difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece.
+Shortly afterward M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the remainder
+of the army. Pompey meantime had retired to some high ground near
+Dyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a battle with Caesar's
+veterans, Caesar began to blockade him in his position, and to draw lines
+of circumvallation of an extraordinary extent. They were nearly
+completed when Pompey forced a passage through them, and drove back
+Caesar's legions with considerable loss. Caesar thus found himself
+compelled to retreat from his present position, and accordingly
+commenced his march for Thessaly. Pompey's policy of avoiding a general
+engagement with Caesar's veterans till he could place more reliance upon
+his own troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto crowned
+with success; but he was prevented from carrying out the prudent plan
+which he had formed for conducting the campaign. His camp was filled
+with a multitude of Roman nobles, unacquainted with war, and anxious to
+return to their estates in Italy and to the luxuries of the capital. His
+unwillingness to fight was set down to love of power and anxiety to keep
+the Senate in subjection. Stung with the reproaches with which he was
+assailed, and elated in some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he
+resolved to bring the contest to an issue. Accordingly, he offered
+battle to Caesar in the plain of Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly.
+The numbers on either side were very unequal: Pompey had 45,000
+foot-soldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse.
+The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August, B.C. 48, according
+to the old calendar,[70] ended in the total defeat of Pompey's army.
+
+The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of Pompey and the Republic.
+Pompey was at once driven to despair. He made no attempt to rally his
+forces, though he might still have collected a considerable army; but,
+regarding every thing as lost, he hurried to the sea-coast with a few
+friends. He embarked on board a merchant-ship at the mouth of the River
+Peneus, and first sailed to Lesbos, where he took on board his wife
+Cornelia, and from thence made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek
+refuge in Egypt, as he had been the means of restoring to his kingdom
+Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian monarch. On his death
+in B.C. 51 Ptolemy Auletes had left directions that his son should reign
+jointly with his elder sister Cleopatra. But their joint reign did not
+last long, for Ptolemy, or, rather, Pothinus and Achillas, his chief
+advisers, expelled his sister from the throne. Cleopatra collected a
+force in Syria, with which she invaded Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy
+were encamped opposite her, near Alexandria, when Pompey arrived off the
+coast and craved the protection of the young king. This request threw
+Pothinus and Achillas into great difficulty, for there were many of
+Pompey's old soldiers in the Egyptian army, and they feared he would
+become master of Egypt. They therefore determined to put him to death.
+Accordingly, they sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three
+or four attendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends
+watched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he would be
+received by the king, who was standing on the edge of the sea with his
+troops. Just as the boat reached the shore, and Pompey was in the act of
+rising from his seat in order to step on land, he was stabbed in the
+back by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his centurions. Achillas
+and the rest then drew their swords; whereupon Pompey, without uttering
+a word, covered his face with his toga, and calmly submitted to his
+fate. He had just completed his 58th year. His head was cut off, and his
+body, which was cast naked upon the shore, was buried by his freedman
+Philippus, who had accompanied him from the ship. The head was brought
+to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt soon afterward, but he turned away
+from the sight, shed tears at the untimely end of his rival, and put his
+murderers to death.
+
+When news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various laws were
+passed which conferred supreme power upon Caesar. Though absent, he was
+nominated Dictator a second time, and for a whole year. He appointed M.
+Antonius his master of the Horse; and entered upon the office in
+September of this year (B.C. 48). He was also nominated to the
+Consulship for the next five years, though he did not avail himself of
+this privilege; and he was invested with the tribunicial power for life.
+
+Caesar went to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival there he
+became involved in a war, which detained him several months, and gave
+the remains of the Pompeian party time to rally and to make fresh
+preparations for continuing the struggle. The war in Egypt, usually
+called the Alexandrine War, arose from Caesar's resolving to settle the
+disputes respecting the succession to the kingdom. He determined that
+Cleopatra, whose fascinations completely won his heart, and her brother
+Ptolemy, should reign in common, according to the provisions of their
+father's will; but as this decision was opposed by the guardians of the
+young king, a war broke out between them and Caesar, in which he was for
+some time exposed to great danger on account of the small number of his
+troops. But, having received re-enforcements, he finally prevailed, and
+placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne, the elder having
+perished in the course of the contest. Cleopatra afterward joined Caesar
+at Rome, and bore him a son named Caesarion.
+
+After bringing the Alexandrine War to a close, toward the end of March,
+B.C. 47, Caesar marched through Syria into Pontus in order to attack
+Pharnaces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who had defeated Cn.
+Domitius Calvinus, one of Caesar's lieutenants. This war, however, did
+not detain him long; for Pharnaces, venturing to come to an open battle
+with the Dictator, was utterly defeated on the 2d of August near Zela.
+It was in reference to this victory that Caesar sent the celebrated
+laconic dispatch to the Senate, _Veni, vidi, vici_, "I came, I saw, I
+conquered." He then proceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed
+Dictator for another year, and nominated M. AEmilius Lepidus his Master
+of the Horse. At the same time he quelled a formidable mutiny of his
+troops which had broken out in Campania.
+
+Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two or three months. With his
+usual activity and energy he set out to Africa before the end of the
+year (B.C. 47), in order to carry on the war against Scipio and Cato,
+who had collected a large army in that country. Their forces were far
+greater than those which Caesar could bring against them; but he had too
+much reliance on his own genius to be alarmed by mere disparity of
+numbers. At first he was in considerable difficulties; but, having been
+joined by some of his other legions, he was able to prosecute the
+campaign with more vigor, and finally brought it to a close by the
+battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, B.C. 46, in which the Pompeian
+army was completely defeated. All Africa now submitted to Caesar with the
+exception of Utica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that
+resistance was hopeless; and Cato, who was a sincere Republican,
+resolved to die rather than submit to Caesar's despotism. After spending
+the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's _Phaedo_, a dialogue on
+the immortality of the soul, he stabbed himself. His friends, hearing
+him fall, ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, while he was fainting,
+dressed his wounds. When, however, he recovered feeling, he tore off the
+bandages, and so died.
+
+Caesar returned to Rome by the end of July. He was now undisputed master
+of the Roman world. Great apprehensions were entertained by his enemies
+lest, notwithstanding his former clemency, he should imitate Marius and
+Sulla, and proscribe all his opponents. But these fears were perfectly
+groundless. A love of cruelty was no part of Caesar's nature; and, with a
+magnanimity which victors rarely show, and least of all those in civil
+wars, he freely forgave all who had borne arms against him, and declared
+that he should make no difference between Pompeians and Caesarians. His
+object was now to allay animosities, and to secure the lives and
+property of all the citizens of his empire. As soon as the news of his
+African victory reached Rome a public thanksgiving of forty days was
+decreed in his honor; the Dictatorship was bestowed upon him for ten
+years; and the Censorship, under the new title of "Praefectus Morum," for
+three years. Caesar had never yet enjoyed a triumph; and, as he had now
+no farther enemies to meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of
+celebrating his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four
+magnificent triumphs. None of these, however, were in honor of his
+successes in the civil war; and consequently his African triumph was to
+commemorate his victory over Juba, and not over Scipio and Cato. These
+triumphs were followed by largesses of corn and money to the people and
+the soldiers, by public banquets, and all sorts of entertainments.
+
+Caesar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had crept into
+the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws suitable to the
+altered condition of the commonwealth. He attempted, by severe sumptuary
+laws, to restrain the extravagance which pervaded all classes of
+society. But the most important of his changes this year (B.C. 40) was
+the reformation of the Calendar, which was a real benefit to his country
+and the civilized world, and which he accomplished in his character as
+Pontifex Maximus. The regulation of the Roman calendar had always been
+intrusted to the College of Pontiffs, who had been accustomed to
+lengthen or shorten the year at their pleasure for political purposes;
+and the confusion had at length become so great that the Roman year was
+three months behind the real time. To remedy this serious evil, Caesar
+added 90 days to the current year, and thus made it consist of 445 days;
+and he guarded against a repetition of similar errors for the future by
+adapting the year to the sun's course.
+
+In the midst of these labors Caesar was interrupted by intelligence of a
+formidable insurrection which had broken out in Spain, where the remains
+of the Pompeian party had again collected a large army under the command
+of Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus. Caesar set out for Spain at the end
+of B.C. 46. With his usual activity he arrived at Obulco, near Corduba,
+in 27 days from the time of his leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to
+offer stronger opposition than he had anticipated; but he brought the
+war to a close by the battle of Munda, on the 17th of March, B.C. 46, in
+which he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, a hard-fought
+battle: Caesar's troops were at first driven back, and were only rallied
+by their general's exposing his own person, like a common soldier, in
+the front line of the battle. Cn. Pompeius was killed shortly afterward,
+but Sextus made good his escape. The settlement of the affairs in Spain
+detained Caesar in the province some months longer, and he consequently
+did not reach Rome till September. At the beginning of October he
+entered the city in triumph on account of his victories in Spain,
+although the victory had been gained over Roman citizens. The Senate
+received him with the most servile flattery. They had in his absence
+voted a public thanksgiving of fifty days, and they now vied with each
+other in paying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was to wear,
+on all public occasions, the triumphal robe; he was to receive the title
+of "Father of his Country;" statues of him were to be placed in all the
+temples; his portrait was to be struck on coins; the month of Quintilis
+was to receive the name of Julius in his honor, and he was to be raised
+to a rank among the gods. But there were still more important decrees
+than these, which were intended to legalize his power, and confer upon
+him the whole government of the Roman world. He received the title of
+Imperator for life; he was nominated Consul for the next ten years, and
+both Dictator and Praefectus Morum for life; his person was declared
+sacred; a guard of Senators and Knights was appointed to protect him,
+and the whole Senate took an oath to watch over his safety.
+
+If we now look at the way in which Caesar exerted his sovereign power, it
+can not be denied that he used it in the main for the good of his
+country. He still pursued his former merciful course: no proscriptions
+or executions took place; and he began to revolve vast schemes for the
+benefit of the Roman world. At the same time he was obliged to reward
+his followers, and for that reason he greatly increased the number of
+senators and magistrates, so that there were 16 Praetors, 40 Quaestors,
+and 6 AEdiles, and new members were added to the priestly colleges. Among
+other plans of internal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest of
+all the Roman laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine
+marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia and to dig a canal through the
+isthmus of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman Empire, he
+meditated expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous tribes on
+the Danube, and had already begun to make preparations for his departure
+to the East. In the midst of these vast projects he entered upon the
+last year of his life, B.C. 44, and his fifth Consulship and
+Dictatorship. He had made M. Antonius his colleague in the Consulship,
+and M. Lepidus the Master of the Horse. He had for some time past
+resolved to preserve the supreme power in his family; and, as he had no
+legitimate children, he had fixed upon his great-nephew Octavius
+(afterward the Emperor Augustus) as his successor. Possessing royal
+power, he now wished to obtain the title of king, and accordingly
+prevailed upon his colleague Antonius to offer him the diadem in public
+on the festival of the Lupercalia (the 15th of February). But the very
+name of king had long been hateful at Rome; and the people displayed
+such an evident dislike to the proposal that it was dropped for the
+present.
+
+The conspiracy against Caesar's life had been formed as early as the
+beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by C. Cassius Longinus, a
+personal enemy of Caesar's, and more than sixty persons were privy to it.
+Private hatred alone seems to have been the motive of Cassius, and
+probably of several others. Many of them had taken an active part in the
+war against Caesar, and had not only been forgiven by him, but raised to
+offices of rank and honor. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, who had
+been pardoned by Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and had since been
+treated almost as his son. In this very year Caesar had made him Praetor,
+and held out to him the prospect of the Consulship. Brutus, like Cato,
+seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cassius persuaded him to
+join the conspiracy, and imitate his great ancestor who freed them from
+the Tarquins. It was now arranged to assassinate the Dictator in the
+Senate-house on the Ides or 15th of March. Rumors of the plot got
+abroad, and Caesar was strongly urged not to attend the Senate. But he
+disregarded the warnings which were given him. As he entered, the Senate
+rose to do him honor; and when he had taken his seat, the conspirators
+pressed around him as if to support the prayer of Tillius Cimber, who
+entreated the Dictator to recall his brother from banishment. When Caesar
+began to show displeasure at their importunity, Tillius seized him by
+his toga, which was the signal for attack. Casca struck the first blow,
+and the other conspirators bared their weapons. Caesar defended himself
+till he saw Brutus had drawn his sword, and then exclaiming, "And thou,
+too, Brutus!" he drew his toga over his head, and fell pierced with
+three-and-twenty wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Julius Caesar.]
+
+Caesar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only to the Roman people, but
+the whole civilized world. The Republic was utterly lost. The Roman
+world was now called to go through many years of disorder and bloodshed,
+till it rested again under the supremacy of Augustus. The last days of
+the Republic had come, and its only hope of peace and security was under
+the strong hand of military power.
+
+Caesar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. His personal
+appearance was noble and commanding; he was tall in stature, of a fair
+complexion, and with black eyes full of expression. He never wore a
+beard, and in the latter part of his life his head was bald. His
+constitution was originally delicate, and he was twice attacked by
+epilepsy while transacting public business; but, by constant exercise
+and abstemious living, he had acquired strong and vigorous health, and
+could endure almost any amount of exertion. He took pains with his
+person, and was considered to be effeminate in his dress.
+
+Caesar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at one and the
+same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, a
+poet, a historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an architect. He
+was equally fitted to excel in every thing, and has given proofs that he
+would have surpassed almost all other men in any subject to which he
+devoted the energies of his extraordinary mind. One fact places his
+genius for war in a most striking light. Till his 40th year, when he
+went as Propraetor into Spain, he had been almost entirely engaged in
+civil life and his military experience must have been of the most
+limited kind. Most of the greatest generals in the history of the world
+have been distinguished at an early age: Alexander the Great, Hannibal,
+Frederick of Prussia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some of their most
+brilliant victories under the age of 30; but Caesar, from the age of 23
+to 40, had seen nothing of war, and, notwithstanding, appears all at
+once as one of the greatest generals that the world has ever seen.
+
+[Illustration: Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The crossing of this stream was in reality a declaration
+of war against the Republic, and later writers relate that upon arriving
+at the Rubicon Caesar long hesitated whether he should take this
+irrevocable step, and that, after pondering many hours, he at length
+exclaimed, "The die is cast," and plunged into the river. But there is
+not a word of this in Caesar's own narrative.]
+
+[Footnote 70: In reality on the 6th of June.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: M. Antonius.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CAESAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.
+
+
+When the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and the other
+conspirators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had killed the
+Tyrant, and calling the people to join them; but they met with no
+response, and, finding alone averted looks, they retired to the Capitol.
+Here they were joined by Cicero, who had not been privy to the
+conspiracy, but was now one of the first to justify the murder. Meantime
+the friends of Caesar were not idle. M. Lepidus, the Master of the Horse,
+who was in the neighborhood of the city, marched into the Campus Martius
+in the night; and M. Antony hastened to the house of the Dictator, and
+took possession of his papers and treasures. But both parties feared to
+come to blows. A compromise was agreed to; and at a meeting of the
+Senate it was determined that Caesar's murderers should not be punished,
+but, on the other hand, that all his regulations should remain in force,
+that the provisions of his will should be carried into effect, and that
+he should be honored with a public funeral. The conspirators descended
+from the Capitol; and, as a proof of reconciliation, Cassius supped with
+Antony and Brutus with Lepidus.
+
+This reconciliation was only a pretense. Antony aspired to succeed to
+the power of the Dictator; and, to rouse the popular fury against the
+conspirators, Caesar's will was immediately made public. He left as his
+heir his great-nephew Octavius, a youth of 18, the son of Atia, the
+daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed considerable legacies to his
+murderers. He gave his magnificent gardens beyond the Tiber to the
+public, and to every Roman citizen he bequeathed the sum of 300
+sesterces (between L2 and L8 sterling). When this became known a deep
+feeling of sorrow for the untimely fate of their benefactor seized the
+minds of the people. Their feelings were raised to the highest point two
+or three days afterward, when the funeral took place. The body was to be
+burned in the Campus Martius, but it was previously carried to the
+forum, where Antony, according to custom, pronounced the funeral oration
+over it. After relating the exploits of the great Dictator, reciting his
+will, and describing his terrible death, he lifted up the blood-stained
+robe which Caesar had worn in the Senate-house, and which had hitherto
+covered the corpse, and pointed out the numerous wounds which disfigured
+the body. At this sight a yell of indignation was raised, and the mob
+rushed in every direction to tear the murderers to pieces. The
+conspirators fled for their lives from the city. The poet Helvius Cinna,
+being mistaken for the Praetor Cinna, one of the assassins, was
+sacrificed on the spot before the mistake could be explained.
+
+Antony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of Caesar's papers, he
+was able to plead the authority of the Dictator for every thing which he
+pleased. The conspirators hastened to take possession of the provinces
+which Caesar had assigned to them. Dec. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine
+Gaul, M. Brutus to Macedonia, and Cassius to Syria. Antony now made a
+disposition of the provinces, taking Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and
+giving Macedonia to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to Dolabella.
+
+Meantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius was at Apollonia,
+a town on the coast of Illyricum, at the time of his uncle's death.
+Caesar had determined to take his nephew with him in his expedition
+against the Parthians, and had accordingly sent him to Apollonia, where
+a camp had been formed, that he might pursue his military studies. The
+soldiers now offered to follow him to Italy and avenge their leader's
+death, but he did not yet venture to take this decisive step. He
+determined, however, to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few
+friends. Upon arriving at Brundusium he heard of the will of the
+Dictator, and was saluted by the soldiers as Caesar. As the adopted heir
+of his uncle his proper name was now C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and by
+the last of these names we shall henceforth call him. He now made up his
+mind to proceed to Rome and claim his uncle's inheritance, in opposition
+to the advice of his mother, who dreaded this dangerous honor for her
+son. Upon arriving at Rome he declared before the Praetor, in the usual
+manner, that he accepted the inheritance, and he then promised the
+people to pay the money bequeathed to them. He even ventured to claim of
+Antony the treasures of his uncle; but, as the latter refused to give
+them up, he sold the other property, and even his own estates, to
+discharge all the legacies. Antony threw every obstacle in his way; but
+the very name of Caesar worked wonders, and the liberality of the young
+man gained the hearts of the people. He had, indeed, a difficult part to
+play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle; and yet Antony,
+their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous foe. In these
+difficult circumstances the youth displayed a prudence and a wisdom
+which baffled the most experienced politicians. Without committing
+himself to any party, he professed a warm attachment to the Senate.
+Cicero had once more taken an active part in public affairs; and
+Octavian, with that dissimulation which he practiced throughout his
+life, completely deceived the veteran orator. On the 2d of September
+Cicero delivered in the Senate the first of his orations against Antony,
+which, in imitation of those of Demosthenes against Philip, are known by
+the name of the _Philippics_. Antony was absent at the time, but shortly
+afterward attacked the orator in unmeasured terms. Cicero replied in the
+Second Philippic, one of the most violent invectives ever written. It
+was not spoken, but was published soon after Antony had quitted Rome.
+
+Meantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the disposition of
+the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a considerable number of
+troops in various parts of Italy. Antony saw that the power was slipping
+from under his feet. Two of the legions which he had sent from Epirus
+passed over to Octavian; and, in order to keep the remainder under his
+standard, and to secure the north of Italy to his interests, Antony now
+proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, which had been previously granted to him by
+the Senate. Upon entering the province toward the end of November, Dec.
+Brutus threw himself into Mutina (_Modena_), to which Antony laid siege.
+
+Soon after Antony's departure Cicero prevailed upon the Senate to
+declare Antony a public enemy, and to intrust to the young Octavian the
+conduct of the war against him. Cicero was now at the height of his
+glory. His activity was unceasing, and in the twelve remaining
+"Philippics" he encouraged the Senate and the people to prosecute the
+war with vigor. The two new Consuls (B.C. 48) were A. Hirtius and C.
+Vibius Pansa, both of whom had been designated by the late Dictator. As
+soon as they had entered upon their office, Hirtius, accompanied by
+Octavian, marched into Cisalpine Gaul, while Pansa remained in the city
+to levy troops. For some weeks no movement of importance took place in
+either army; but when Pansa set out to join his colleague and Octavian,
+Antony marched southward, attacked him at Forum Gallorum, near Bononia
+(_Bologna_), and gained a victory over him (April 14). Pansa was
+mortally wounded; but Hirtius retrieved this disaster by suddenly
+attacking Antony the same evening on his return to the camp at Mutina. A
+few days afterward (April 27th) a more decisive battle took place before
+Mutina. Antony was defeated with great loss, but Hirtius fell in leading
+an assault on the besiegers' camp. The death of the two Consuls left
+Octavian the sole command; and so timely was their removal that he was
+accused by many of murdering them.
+
+Antony now found it impossible to continue the siege of Mutina, but he
+retreated in good order northward, crossed the Alps, and was well
+received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, who had promised him support.
+Meantime the good understanding between Octavian and the Senate had come
+to an end. The latter, being resolved to prevent him from obtaining any
+farther power, gave the command of the Consular armies to D. Brutus; and
+Cicero talked of removing the boy. But the "boy" soon showed the Senate
+that he was their master. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who
+gladly followed the heir of Caesar to Rome. Though only 20 years of age,
+he demanded of the Senate the Consulship. At first they attempted to
+evade his demand; but his soldiers were encamped in the Campus Martius,
+and in the month of August he was elected Consul with his cousin Q.
+Pedius. The first act of his Consulship showed that he had completely
+broken with the Senate. His colleague proposed a law declaring all the
+murderers of Caesar to be outlaws. Octavian then quitted Rome to march
+professedly against Antony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city; but it
+soon appeared that he had come to an understanding with Antony, for he
+had hardly entered Etruria before the unwilling Senate were compelled,
+upon the proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of outlawry against
+Antony and Lepidus. These two were now descending the Alps at the head
+of 17 legions. Octavian was advancing northward with a formidable army.
+Between two such forces the situation of D. Brutus was hopeless. He was
+deserted by his own troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending to cross
+over to Macedonia, but was put to death in the former place by order of
+Antony.
+
+Lepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian, now arranged
+a meeting between them on a small island near Bononia, formed by the
+waters of the River Rhenus, a tributary of the Po. The interview took
+place near the end of November. It was arranged that the government of
+the Roman world should be divided between the three for a period of five
+years, under the title of "Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the
+Republic."[71] Octavian received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa; Antony
+the two Gauls, with the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with
+Spain, was assigned to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to prosecute
+the war against Brutus and Cassius, who were in possession of the
+eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive the Consulship for the
+following year, with the charge of Italy.
+
+The Triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla by drawing
+up a Proscription--a list of persons whose lives were to be sacrificed
+and property confiscated. But they had not Sulla's excuse. He returned
+to Italy exasperated to the highest degree by the murder of his friends
+and the personal insults he had received. The Triumvirs, out of a
+cold-blooded policy, resolved to remove every one whose opposition they
+feared or whose property they coveted. In drawing up the fatal list,
+they sacrificed without scruple their nearest relatives and friends. To
+please Antony, Octavian gave up Cicero; Antony, in return, surrendered
+his own uncle, L. Caesar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus.
+As many as 300 Senators and 2000 Equites were entered on the lists.
+
+As soon as the Triumvirs had made their secret arrangements they marched
+toward Rome. Hitherto they had published the names of only 17 of the
+Proscribed; but the city was in a state of the utmost alarm, and it was
+with difficulty that Pedius could preserve the peace. So great were his
+anxiety and fatigue that he died the night before the entry of the
+Triumvirs into the city. They marched into Rome at the head of their
+legions, and filled all the public places with their soldiery. No
+attempt at resistance was made. A law was proposed and carried
+conferring upon the Triumvirs the title and powers they had assumed. The
+work of butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of the Proscribed
+were then published, each more numerous than the former. The soldiers
+hunted after the victims, cut off their heads, and brought them to the
+authorities to prove their claims to the blood-money. Slaves were
+rewarded for betraying their masters, and whoever harbored any of the
+Proscribed was punished with death. Terror reigned throughout Italy. No
+one knew whose turn would come next.
+
+Cicero was included in the first 17 victims of the Proscription. He was
+residing in his Tusculan villa with his brother Quintus, who urged him
+to escape to Brutus in Macedonia. They reached Astura, a small island
+off Antium, when Quintus ventured to Rome to obtain a supply of money,
+of which they were in need. Here he was apprehended, together with his
+son, and both were put to death. The orator again embarked, and coasted
+along to Formiae, where he landed at his villa, resolving no longer to
+fly from his fate. After spending a night in his own house, his
+attendants, hearing that the soldiers were close at hand, forced him to
+enter a litter, and hurried him through the woods toward the shore,
+distant a mile from his house. As they were passing onward they were
+overtaken by their pursuers, and were preparing to defend their master
+with their lives; but Cicero commanded them to desist, and, stretching
+his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to strike. They
+instantly cut off his head and hands, which were carried to Rome.
+Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the wife of Antony, gloated her
+eyes with the sight, and even thrust a hair-pin through his tongue.
+Antony ordered the head to be nailed to the Rostra, which had so often
+witnessed the triumphs of the orator. Thus died Cicero, in the 64th year
+of his age. He had not sufficient firmness of character to cope with the
+turbulent times in which his lot was cast, but as a man he deserves our
+admiration and love. In the midst of almost universal corruption he
+remained uncontaminated. He was an affectionate father, a faithful
+friend, and a kind master.
+
+Many of the Proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge with Sextus
+Pompey in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in the East. After the
+death of Caesar, the Senate appointed Sextus Pompey to the command of the
+Republican fleet. He had become master of Sicily; his fleet commanded
+the Mediterranean; and Rome began to suffer from want of its usual
+supplies of corn. It was arranged that Octavian should attempt the
+conquest of Sicily, while Antony was preparing for the campaign in the
+East. A fleet under Salvidienus Rufus was sent against Pompey, but was
+defeated by the latter in the Straits of Sicily, in sight of Octavian.
+But the war against Brutus and Cassius was more urgent, and accordingly
+Octavian and Antony sailed shortly afterward to the East, leaving Pompey
+undisputed master of the sea.
+
+On quitting Italy, Brutus had first gone to Athens. The remains of the
+Pompeian legions, which continued in Greece after the battle of
+Pharsalia, gathered round him; Hortensius, the governor of Macedonia,
+acknowledged him as his successor; and C. Antonius, whom his brother had
+sent over to take the command of the province, was obliged to surrender
+to Brutus.
+
+His colleague had been equally fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, to whom
+Antony had given this province, was besieged in Laodicea by Cassius, and
+put an end to his own life.
+
+These events took place in B.C. 43. Brutus and Cassius were now masters
+of the Roman world east of the Adriatic. It was evident that their
+enemies before long would cross over into Greece; but, instead of
+concentrating their forces in that country, they began to plunder the
+cities of Asia Minor, in order to obtain money for their troops. Brutus
+pillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The inhabitants of the Lycian town
+of Xanthus refused to submit to the exactions of Brutus, made an heroic
+defense when they were attacked, and preferred to perish in the flames
+of their city rather than to yield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged
+when the news of the Triumvirate and the Proscription reached them; but
+they continued some time longer plundering in the East, and it was not
+till the spring of B.C. 42 that the Republican chiefs at length
+assembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march into Europe. So
+much time, however, had now been lost, that Antony and Octavian landed
+upon the coast of Greece, and had already commenced their march toward
+Macedonia before Brutus and Cassius had quitted Asia.
+
+Brutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching struggle.
+He continued his studious habits during the campaign, and limited his
+sleep to a very short time. On the night before his army crossed over
+into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the lamp burning dim, and the
+whole camp in deep silence, when he saw a gigantic and terrible figure
+standing by him. He had the courage to ask, "Who art thou, and for what
+purpose dost thou come?" The phantom replied, "I am thy evil genius,
+Brutus; we shall meet again at Philippi!" and vanished.
+
+[Illustration: Philippi.]
+
+Brutus and Cassius marched through Thrace and Macedonia to Philippi,
+where they met the army of the Triumvirs. The Republican leaders took up
+their positions on two heights distant a mile from each other, Brutus
+pitching his camp on the northern, and Cassius on the southern, near the
+sea. The camps, though separate, were inclosed with a common
+intrenchment, and midway between them was the pass which led like a gate
+from Europe to Asia. The Triumvirs were on the lower ground, in a less
+favorable position--Octavian opposite Brutus, and Antony opposite
+Cassius. Their troops began to suffer from want of provisions, and they
+endeavored to force the Republican leaders to an engagement. Cassius
+was unwilling to quit his strong position, and recommended that they
+should wait for their fleet; but Brutus was anxious to put an end to
+this state of suspense, and persuaded the council to risk an immediate
+battle. Brutus himself defeated the army opposite to him, and penetrated
+into the camp of Octavian, who was lying ill, unable to take part in the
+battle. His litter was seized, and brought forth covered with blood, and
+a report spread that he had been killed. Meantime, on the other side of
+the field, Antony had driven back Cassius, and taken his camp. Cassius
+had retired to a neighboring hill with some of his men, when he saw a
+large body of cavalry approaching. Thinking that they belonged to the
+enemy and that every thing was lost, he ordered one of his freedmen to
+put an end to his life. But the cavalry had been sent by Brutus to
+obtain news of Cassius; and when he heard of the death of his colleague,
+he wept over him as "the last of the Romans," a eulogy which Cassius had
+done nothing to deserve.
+
+Twenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his forces; but
+this time he was completely defeated, and with difficulty escaped from
+the field. He withdrew into a wood, and in the night-time fell upon his
+sword, which Strato, who had been his teacher in rhetoric, held for him.
+His wife Porcia, the daughter of Cato, resolved not to survive her
+husband; and, being closely watched by her relations, she put an end to
+her life by thrusting burning charcoal into her mouth. Brutus was
+doubtless a sincere Republican, but he was a man of weak judgment,
+deficient in knowledge of mankind, and more fitted for a life of study
+than the command of armies and the government of men.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antony and Cleopatra.]
+
+[Footnote 71: _Triumviri Reipulicae constituendae._]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: M. Agrippa.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII.
+
+FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.
+
+
+The battle of Philippi scaled the fate of the Republic. Antony remained
+in the East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, who was in ill
+health, returned to Italy to give the veterans the lands which had been
+promised them. Antony traversed Asia Minor, plundering the unfortunate
+inhabitants, who had already suffered so severely from the exactions of
+Brutus and Cassias. In the voluptuous cities of Asia he surrendered
+himself to every kind of sensual enjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the
+character of Bacchus, accompanied by a wild procession of women dressed
+like Bacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Pans. At
+Tarsus, in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the war against
+the Parthians, he was visited by Cleopatra. He had summoned her to his
+presence to answer for her conduct in supplying Cassius with money and
+provisions. She was now in her 28th year, and in the full maturity of
+her charms. In her 15th year her beauty had made an impression on the
+heart of Antony, when he was at Alexandria with Gabinius, and she now
+trusted to make him her willing slave. She sailed up the Cydnus to
+Tarsus in a magnificent vessel with purple sails, propelled by silver
+oars to the sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined under an
+awning spangled with gold, attired as Venus and fanned by Cupids. The
+most beautiful of her female slaves held the rudder and the ropes. The
+perfumes burnt upon the vessel filled the banks of the river with their
+fragrance. The inhabitants cried that Venus had come to revel with
+Bacchus. Antony accepted her invitation to sup on board her galley, and
+was completely subjugated. Her wit and vivacity surpassed even her
+beauty. He followed her to Alexandria, where he forgot every thing in
+luxurious dalliance and the charms of her society.
+
+Meantime important events had been taking place in Italy. Octavian found
+immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of the veterans. All
+Italy was thrown into confusion. Though he expelled thousands from their
+homes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to give their farms to his soldiers,
+they still clamored for more. Those who had obtained assignments of land
+seized upon the property of their neighbors, and those who had not were
+ready to rise in mutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to
+yield their property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their
+complaints, and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of
+Octavian. Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to control his
+soldiers. Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in Italy,
+resolved to avail herself of those elements of confusion, and crush
+Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious woman; she saw that, sooner or
+later, the struggle must come between her husband and Octavian; and, by
+precipitating the war, she hoped to bring her husband to Italy, and thus
+withdraw him from the influence of Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother
+of the Triumvir, who was Consul this year (B.C. 41), entered into her
+views. They proclaimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate
+Italians, and also promised to the discontented soldiery that the
+Triumvir would recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these means
+they soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable force. They even
+obtained possession of Rome. But Agrippa, the ablest general of
+Octavian, forced them to quit the city, and pressed them so hard that
+they were obliged to take refuge in Perusia (_Perugia_), one of the most
+powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were besieged during the winter,
+and suffered so dreadfully from famine that they found themselves
+compelled to capitulate in the following spring. The lives of L.
+Antonius and Fulvia were spared, but the chief citizens of Perusia
+itself were put to death, and the town burnt to the ground.
+
+While Antony's friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his own forces
+experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q. Labienus, the son
+of Caesar's old lieutenant in Gaul, had been sent by Brutus and Cassius
+to seek aid from Orodes, the king of Parthia. He was in that country
+when the news arrived of the battle of Philippi, and had remained there
+up to the present time. The war in Italy, and Antony's indolence at
+Alexandria, held out a favorable opportunity for the invasion of the
+Roman provinces. Orodes placed a large army under the command of
+Labienus and his own son Pacorus. They crossed the Euphrates in B.C. 40,
+and carried every thing before them. Antony's troops were defeated; the
+two powerful cities of Antioch and Apamea were taken, and the whole of
+Syria overrun by the Parthians. Pacorus penetrated as far south as
+Palestine, and Labienus invaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, both from
+Italy and the East, at length aroused Antony from his voluptuous dreams.
+Leaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria to conduct the war against the
+Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where he met his brother and wife.
+He now formed an alliance with Sextus Pompey, sailed to Italy, and laid
+siege to Brundusium. Another civil war seemed inevitable; but the
+soldiers on both sides were eager for peace, and mutual friends
+persuaded the chiefs to be reconciled, which was the more easily
+effected in consequence of the death of Fulvia at Sicyon. A new division
+of the Roman world was now made. Antony was to have all the eastern
+provinces and Octavian the western, the town of Scodra, in Illyricum,
+forming the boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them in
+common. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa, which he had
+received after the battle of Philippi, but he had ceased to be of any
+political importance. It was agreed that Antony should carry on the war
+against the Parthians, and that Octavian should subdue Pompey, whom
+Antony readily sacrificed. The Consuls were to be selected alternately
+from the friends of each. To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry
+Octavia, the sister of Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one of the
+noblest women of her age. The two Triumvirs then repaired to Rome to
+celebrate the marriage. These events took place toward the end of B.C.
+40.
+
+Discontent, however, prevailed at Rome. Sextus Pompey, who had been
+excluded from the peace, still continued master of the sea, and
+intercepted the ships which supplied the city with corn. The people were
+in want of bread, and became so exasperated that Octavian and Antony
+found it necessary to enter into negotiations with Pompey. An interview
+took place between the chiefs at Cape Misenum. It was agreed that
+Pompey should receive Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he
+should send to Rome an immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted
+one another, and Pompey entertained Octavian and Antony on board his own
+galley. When the banquet was at its height, a Greek named Menas, or
+Menodorus, one of Pompey's captains, whispered to him, "Shall I cut off
+the anchors of the ship, and make you master of the Roman world?" To
+which Pompey made the well-known reply, "You ought to have done it
+without asking me." The two Triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were
+received with shouts of applause. The civil wars seemed to have come to
+an end (B.C. 39).
+
+Antony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found that his
+legate Ventidius had gained the most brilliant success over the
+Parthians. This man was a native of Picenum, and originally a
+mule-driver. He was taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked in
+chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius Strato. He was made
+Tribune of the Plebs by Julius Caesar, and was raised to the Consulship
+in B.C. 43. In the Parthian War he displayed military abilities of no
+ordinary kind. He first defeated Labienus, took him prisoner in Cilicia,
+and put him to death. He then entered Syria, and drove Pacorus beyond
+the Euphrates. In the following year (B.C. 38) the Parthians again
+entered Syria, but Ventidius gained a signal victory over them, and
+Pacorus himself fell in the battle.
+
+The treaty between Sextus Pompey and the Triumvirs did not last long.
+Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompey therefore recommenced his
+piratical excursions. The price of provisions at Rome immediately rose,
+and Octavian found it necessary to commence war immediately; but his
+fleet was twice defeated by Pompey, and was at last completely destroyed
+by a storm (B.C. 38). This failure only proved the necessity of making
+still more extensive preparations to carry on the war with success. The
+power of Octavian was insecure as long as Pompey was master of the sea,
+and could deprive Rome of her supplies of corn. Nearly two years were
+spent in building a new fleet, and exercising the newly-raised crews and
+rowers. The command of the fleet and the superintendence of all the
+necessary preparations for the war were intrusted to Agrippa. In order
+to obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin for his fleet, and
+thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he constructed the
+celebrated Julius Portus on the coast of Campania, near Baiae, by
+connecting the inland Lake Avernus, by means of a canal, with the Lake
+Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter lake against the sea, by an
+artificial dike or dam. While he was engaged in these great works,
+Antony sailed to Taventum, in B.C. 37, with 300 ships. Maecenas hastened
+thither from Rome, and succeeded once more in concluding an amicable
+arrangement. He was accompanied on this occasion by Horace, who has
+immortalized, in a well-known satire, his journey from Rome to
+Brundusium. Octavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Metapontum; the
+Triumvirate was renewed for another period of five years; Antony agreed
+to leave 120 ships to assist in the war against Pompey, and Octavian
+promised to send a land force to the East for the campaign against the
+Parthians.
+
+Octavian, now relieved of all anxiety on the part of Antony, urged on
+his preparations with redoubled vigor. By the summer of B.C. 36 he was
+ready to commence operations. He had three large fleets at his disposal:
+his own, stationed in the Julian harbor; that of Antony, under the
+command of Statilius Taurus, in the harbor of Tarentum; and that of
+Lepidus, off the coast of Africa. His plan was for all three fleets to
+set sail on the same day, and make a descent upon three different parts
+of Sicily; but a fearful storm marred this project. Lepidus alone
+reached the coast of Sicily, and landed at Lilybaeum; Statilius Taurus
+was able to put back to Tarentum; but Octavian, who was surprised by the
+storm off the Lucanian promontory of Palinurus, lost a great number of
+his ships, and was obliged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered
+fleet. As soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail
+for Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompey's fleet off Mylae, destroying 30 of
+his ships; but the decisive battle was fought on the 3d of September
+(B.C. 36), off Naulochus, a sea-port between Mylae and the promontory of
+Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory; most of the Pompeian
+vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompey himself fled to Lesbos with a
+squadron of 17 ships. Octavian did not pursue him, as Lepidus, who was
+at the head of a considerable force, now claimed Sicily for himself, and
+an equal share as Triumvir in the government of the Roman world; but
+Octavian found means to seduce his soldiers from their allegiance; and
+Lepidus was at last obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to throw
+himself upon his mercy. His life was granted, but he was deprived of his
+Triumvirate, his army, and his provinces, and was compelled to retire to
+Italy as a private person. He was allowed, however, to retain his
+property and the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. He lived till B.C. 13.
+
+In B.C. 35 Pompey crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the view of
+seizing that province; but he was easily crushed by the lieutenants of
+Antony, was taken prisoner as he attempted to escape to Armenia, and was
+put to death at Miletus. By the death of Pompey and the deposition of
+Lepidus, Antony and Octavian were now left without a rival, and Antony's
+mad love for Cleopatra soon made Octavian the undisputed master of the
+Roman world.
+
+After Antony's marriage with Octavia in B.C. 40, he seems for a time to
+have forgotten, or, at least, conquered the fascinations of the Egyptian
+queen. For the next three years he resided in Athens with his wife; but
+after his visit to Italy, and the renewal of the Triumvirate in B.C. 37,
+he left Octavia behind at Tarentum, and determined to carry out his
+long-projected campaign against the Parthians. As he approached Syria,
+"that great evil," as Plutarch calls it, his passion for Cleopatra,
+burst forth with more vehemence than ever. From this time she appears as
+his evil genius. He summoned her to him at Laodicea, and loaded her with
+honors and favors. He added to her dominions Phoenicia, Coele-Syria,
+Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Palestine, and Arabia, and publicly
+recognized the children she had borne him. Although he had collected a
+large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was unable to tear himself
+away from the enchantress, and did not commence his march till late in
+the year. The expedition proved most disastrous; the army suffered from
+want of provisions, and Antony found himself compelled to retreat. He
+narrowly escaped the fate of Crassus, and it was with the utmost
+difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the Armenian mountains, after
+losing the best part of his troops.
+
+Antony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself entirely to
+Cleopatra. In B.C. 34 he made a short campaign into Armenia, and
+succeeded in obtaining possession of Artavasdas, the Armenian king. He
+carried him to Alexandria, and, to the great scandal of all the Romans,
+entered the city in triumph, with all the pomp and ceremonial of the
+Roman pageant. He now laid aside entirely the character of a Roman
+citizen, and assumed the state and dress of an Eastern monarch. Instead
+of the toga he wore a robe of purple, and his head was crowned with a
+diadem. Sometimes he assumed the character of Osiris, while Cleopatra
+appeared at his side as Isis. He gave the title of kings to Alexander
+and Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The Egyptian queen already dreamed
+of reigning over the Roman world.
+
+While Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his friends and
+supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had been restoring order
+to Italy, and, by his wise and energetic administration, was slowly
+repairing the evils of the civil wars. In order to give security to the
+frontiers and employment to the troops, he attacked the barbarians on
+the north of Italy and Greece, and subdued the Iapydes, Pannonians, and
+Dalmatians. He carried on these wars in person, and won the affection of
+the soldiers by sharing their dangers and hardships.
+
+The contrast between the two Triumvirs was sufficiently striking, but
+Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony. Letters passed
+between them full of mutual recriminations, and both parties began to
+prepare for the inevitable struggle. Toward the end of B.C. 32 the
+Senate declared war against Cleopatra, for Antony was regarded as her
+slave.[72] The five years of the Triumvirate had expired on the last day
+of this year; and on the 1st of January, B.C. 31, Octavian, as Consul of
+the Republic, proceeded to carry on the war against the Egyptian queen.
+The hostile fleets and armies assembled on the western coasts of Greece.
+Antony's fleet was superior both in number and size of the ships, but
+they were clumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the Ambraciot
+Gulf, in the modern _Bay of Prevesa_. (See Plan, P.) The army was
+encamped on the promontory of Actium (Plan, 3), which has given its name
+to the battle. The fleet of Octavian consisted of light Liburnian
+vessels, manned by crews which had gained experience in the wars against
+Sextus Pompey. It was under the command of the able Agrippa, who took up
+his station at Corcyra, and swept the Adriatic Sea. Octavian in person
+took the command of the land forces, which were encamped on the coast of
+Epirus opposite Actium, on the spot where Nicopolis afterward stood.
+(Plan, 1.) The generals of Antony strongly urged him to fight on land;
+but the desertions among his troops were numerous; Cleopatra became
+alarmed for her safety; and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the
+army, and retire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the watch,
+and Antony had no sooner sailed outside the strait than he was compelled
+to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally favorable to both
+parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were at anchor in the rear,
+taking advantage of a favorable breeze which sprang up, sailed through
+the midst of the combatants with her squadron of 60 ships, and made for
+the coast of Peloponnesus. When Antony saw her flight, he hastily
+followed her, forgetting every thing else, and shamefully deserting
+those who were fighting and dying in his cause. The remainder of the
+fleet was destroyed before night-time. The army, after a few days'
+hesitation, surrendered, and Octavian pardoned all the officers who sued
+for his favor. The battle of Actium was fought on the 2d of September,
+B.C. 31, from which day the reign of Octavian is to be dated.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Actium.
+
+1. Nicopolis              3. Prom. Actium.
+2. _C. La Scara_.         5. Temple of Apollo.
+             P. _Bay of Prevesa_.
+]
+
+Octavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly twelve months
+after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to Italy with his veteran
+troops, and himself passed the winter at Samos; but he could not satisfy
+the demands of the soldiers, who broke out into open mutiny. Octavian
+hastened to Brundusium, and with difficulty raised a sufficient sum of
+money to calm their discontent.
+
+This respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra. They knew that
+resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent embassadors to Octavian to
+solicit his favor. To Antony no answer was given, but to Cleopatra hopes
+were held out if she would betray her lover. She began to flatter
+herself that her charms, which had fascinated both Caesar and Antony,
+might conquer Octavian, who was younger than either. Octavian at length
+appeared before Pelusium, which surrendered to him without resistance.
+He then marched upon Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight
+success in an action with the cavalry, prepared to resist Octavian both
+by sea and land; but as soon as the Egyptian ships approached those of
+Octavian, the crews saluted them with their oars and passed over to
+their side. Antony's cavalry also deserted him, his infantry was easily
+repulsed, and he fled to Alexandria, crying out that he was betrayed by
+Cleopatra.
+
+The queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she had built to
+receive her body after death, and where she had collected her most
+valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony's defeat, she sent persons to
+inform him that she was dead. He fell into the snare; they had promised
+not to survive one another, and Antony stabbed himself. He was drawn up
+into the mausoleum, and died in her arms. She was apprehended by the
+officers of Octavian, and a few days afterward had an interview with the
+conqueror. Her charms, however, failed in softening the colder heart of
+Octavian. He only "bade her be of good cheer and fear no violence." Soon
+afterward she learned that she was to be sent to Rome in three days'
+time. This news decided her. On the following day she was found lying
+dead on a golden couch in royal attire, with her two women lifeless at
+her feet. The manner of her death was unknown. It was generally believed
+that she had died by the bite of an asp, which a peasant had brought to
+her in a basket full of figs. She was 39 years of age at the time of her
+death. Egypt was made a Roman province. Octavian did not return to Rome
+till B.C. 29, when he celebrated a threefold triumph over the
+Pannonians, Dalmatians, and Egypt. The Temple of Janus was closed for
+the third time in Roman history. The exhausted Roman world, longing for
+repose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian. The Senate
+conferred upon him numerous honors and distinctions, with the title of
+Imperator for life.
+
+Thus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been tending for
+the last hundred years. The corruption and demoralization of all classes
+had rendered a Republic almost an impossibility; and the civil
+dissensions of the state had again and again invested one or more
+persons with despotic authority. The means which Augustus employed to
+strengthen and maintain his power belong to a history of the Empire. He
+proceeded with the caution which was his greatest characteristic. He
+refused the names of King and Dictator, and was contented with the
+simple appellation of _Princeps_, which had always been given to one of
+the most distinguished members of the Senate. He received, however, in
+B.C. 27, the novel title of _Augustus_, that is, "the sacred," or "the
+venerable," which was afterward assumed by all the Roman emperors as a
+surname. As Imperator he had the command of the Roman armies; and the
+tribunitian and proconsular powers which the Senate conferred upon him
+made him absolute master of the state. He made a new division of the
+provinces, allowing the Senate to appoint the governors of those which
+were quiet and long-settled, like Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but
+retaining for himself such as required the presence of an army, which
+were governed by means of his Legati. On the death of Lepidus in B.C.
+13, he succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus, and thus became the head of
+the Roman religion. While he thus united in his own person all the great
+offices of state, he still allowed the Consuls, Praetors, and other
+magistrates of the Republic to be annually elected. "In a few words, the
+system of Imperial government, as it was instituted by Octavian, and
+maintained by those princes who understood their own interest and that
+of the people, may be defined as an absolute government, disguised by
+the form of a commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded
+their throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength; and
+humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of the Senate,
+whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed."[73]
+
+[Footnote 72: Antony retaliated by sending Octavia a bill of divorce.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Gibbon.]
+
+[Illustration: Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Horace.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII.
+
+SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO
+THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.
+
+
+For many centuries after the foundation of the city the Romans can
+hardly be said to have had any literature at all. There may have
+existed, at an early period, some songs or ballads, recounting, in rude
+strains,[74] the exploits of the heroes of Roman story, but all trace of
+these has disappeared. It was not till the conquest of the Greek cities
+in Southern Italy, shortly before the First Punic War, that we can date
+the commencement of the Roman literature. It began with the Drama.
+Dramatic exhibitions were first introduced at Rome from Etruria in B.C.
+363, on the occasion of a severe pestilence, in order to avert the anger
+of the gods. But these exhibitions were only pantomimic scenes to the
+music of the flute, without any song or dialogue. It was not till B.C.
+240 that a drama with a regular plot was performed at Rome. Its author
+was M. LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, a native of Magna Graecia, who was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum, and carried to Rome, where he
+became the slave of M. Livius Salinator. He was afterward set free, and,
+according to Roman practice, took the gentilic name of his master. He
+acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge of the Latin language, and wrote
+both tragedies and comedies, which were borrowed, or, rather, translated
+from the Greek. He also wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and
+some hymns. He may be regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were
+read in schools in the time of Horace.
+
+CN. NAEVIUS, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by birth. He served
+in the First Punic War, and, like Livius, wrote dramas borrowed from the
+Greek. His first play was performed in B.C. 235. He was attached to the
+Plebeian party; and, with the license of the old Attic comedy, he made
+the stage a vehicle for assailing the aristocracy. In consequence of his
+attacks upon the Metelli he was thrown into prison. He obtained his
+release through the Tribunes, but was soon compelled to expiate a new
+offense by exile. He retired to Utica, where he died about B.C. 202. In
+his exile he wrote, in the Saturnian metre, an epic poem on the First
+Punic War, in which he introduced the celebrated legends connected with
+the foundation of Rome. This poem was extensively copied both by Ennius
+and Virgil.
+
+Q. ENNIUS, however, may be regarded as the real founder of Roman
+literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna Graecia. He was born at
+Rudiae, in Calabria, B.C. 239. Cato found him in Sardinia in B.C. 204,
+and brought him in his train to Rome. He dwelt in a humble house on the
+Aventine, and maintained himself by acting as preceptor to the youths of
+the Roman nobles. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the
+elder Scipio Africanus. He died B.C. 169, at the age of 70. He was
+buried in the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place
+among the effigies of that noble house. His most important work was an
+epic poem, entitled the "Annals of Rome," in 18 books, written in
+dactylic hexameters, which, through his example, supplanted the old
+Saturnian metre. This poem commenced with the loves of Mars and Rhea,
+and came down to the age of Ennius. Virgil borrowed largely from it;
+and, down to his time, it was regarded as the great epic poem of the
+Latin language. He also wrote numerous tragedies, a few comedies, and
+several other works, such as _Satirae_, composed in a great variety of
+metres, from which circumstance they probably received their name.
+
+The comic drama of Rome, though it continued to be more or less a
+translation or an imitation of the Greek, was cultivated with
+distinguished success by two writers of genius, several of whose plays
+are still extant.
+
+T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS was a native of Sarsina, a small village in Umbria,
+and was born about B.C. 254. He probably came to Rome at an early age,
+and was first employed in the service of the actors. With the money he
+had saved in this inferior station he left Rome, and set up in business;
+but his speculations failed: he returned to Rome, and his necessities
+obliged him to enter the service of a baker, who employed him in
+turning a hand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three
+plays, the sale of which to the managers of the public games enabled him
+to quit his drudgery, and begin his literary career. He was then about
+30 years of age (B.C. 224), and continued to write for the stage for
+about 40 years. He died in B.C. 184, when he was 70 years of age. The
+comedies of Plautus enjoyed unrivaled popularity among the Romans, and
+continued to be represented down to the time of Diocletian. Though they
+were founded upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak, and
+joke like genuine Romans, and the poet thereby secured the sympathy of
+his audience more completely than Terence. It was not only with the
+common people that Plautus was a favorite; educated Romans read and
+admired his works down to the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a
+level with that of the old Attic comedy; and St. Jerome used to console
+himself with the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in
+tears on account of his past sins. The favorable impression which the
+ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by the
+judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several of his plays
+have been imitated by many of the best modern poets. Twenty of his
+comedies are extant.
+
+P. TERENTIUS AFER, usually called TERENCE, was born at Carthage, B.C.
+195. By birth or purchase he became the slave of P. Terentius, a Roman
+senator, who afforded him the best education of the age, and finally
+gave him his freedom. The _Andria_, which was the first play of Terence
+acted (B.C. 166), was the means of introducing him to the most refined
+and intellectual circles of Rome. His chief patrons were Laelius and the
+younger Scipio, both of whom treated him as an equal, and are said even
+to have assisted him in the composition of his plays. He died in the
+36th year of his age, in B.C. 159. Six comedies are all that remain to
+us. The ancient critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence immaculate
+purity and elegance of language. Although a foreigner and a freedman, he
+divides with Cicero and Caesar the palm of pure Latinity.
+
+There were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but who enjoyed
+a great reputation among the Romans. Q. CAECILIUS was a native of Milan,
+and, like Terence, came to Rome as a slave. He was the immediate
+predecessor of Terence, and died B.C. 108, two years before the
+representation of the _Andria_. L. AFRANIUS flourished B.C. 100, and
+wrote comedies describing Roman scenes and manners, called _Comoediae
+Togatae_, to distinguish them from those depicting Grecian life, which
+were termed _Palliatae_, from _pallium_, the national dress of the
+Greeks.
+
+There were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who also enjoyed
+great celebrity, though their works have likewise perished. M. PACUVIUS,
+son of the sister of Ennius, was born about B.C. 220, and died in the
+90th year of his age. He is praised by the Latin writers for the
+loftiness of his thoughts, the vigor of his language, and the extent of
+his knowledge. Hence we find the epithet _doctus_ frequently applied to
+him. Most of his tragedies were taken from the Greek writers; but some
+belonged to the class called _Praetextatae_, in which the subjects were
+taken from Roman story. One of these, entitled _Paullus_, had as its
+hero L. AEmilius Paullus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia. L.
+ACCIUS, a younger contemporary of Pacuvius, was born B.C. 170, and lived
+to a great age. Cicero, when a young man, frequently conversed with him.
+His tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of the
+Greek; but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of which was
+entitled _Brutus_.
+
+Though the Roman Drama, properly so called, was derived from the Greeks,
+there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions which were of Italian
+origin. The first of these were the _Atellanae Fabulae_, or Atellane
+Plays, which took their name from Atella, a town in Campania. They were
+composed in the Oscan dialect, and were at first rude extemporaneous
+farces, but were afterward divided into acts like a regular drama. They
+seem to have been the origin of the Policinello of modern Italy. The
+Oscan dialect was preserved even when they were introduced at Rome. The
+_Mimes_ were another species of comedy, of which only the name seems to
+have been derived from the Greek. They were a species of low comedy of
+an indecent description, in which the dialogue was subordinate to
+mimicry and gesture. The Dictator Sulla was very fond of these
+performances. The two most distinguished writers of Mimes were DEC.
+LABERIUS, a knight, and P. SYRUS, a freedman, and originally a Syrian
+slave, both of whom were contemporaries of Julius Caesar. At Caesar's
+triumphal games in October, B.C. 45, P. Syrus challenged all his craft
+to a trial of wit in extemporaneous farce, and Caesar offered Laberius
+500,000 sesterces to appear on the stage. Laberius was 60 years old, and
+the profession of a mimus was infamous, but the wish of the Dictator was
+equivalent to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had, however,
+revenge in his power, and took it. His prologue awakened compassion, and
+perhaps indignation; and during the performance he adroitly availed
+himself of his various characters to point his wit at Caesar. In the
+person of a beaten Syrian slave he cried out, "Marry! Quirites, but we
+lose our freedom," and all eyes were turned upon the Dictator; and in
+another mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, "Needs must he fear who
+makes all else adread." Caesar, impartially or vindictively, awarded the
+prize to Syrus.
+
+The _Fescennine Songs_ were the origin of the _Satire_, the only
+important species of literature not derived from the Greeks, and
+altogether peculiar to Italy. These Fescennine Songs were rude
+dialogues, in which the country people assailed and ridiculed one
+another in extempore verses, and which were introduced as an amusement
+in various festivals. They were formed into the _Satire_[75] by C.
+LUCILIUS, who wrote in hexameter verse, and attacked the follies and
+vices both of distinguished persons and of mankind in general. He was
+born B.C. 148, at Suessa Aurunca, and died at Naples in B.C. 103. He
+lived upon terms of intimacy with the younger Scipio and Laelius, and was
+the maternal ancestor of Pompey the Great. Lucilius continued to be
+admired in the Augustan age; and Horace, while he censures the harsh
+versification and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his
+compositions, acknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness
+of his attacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries.
+
+Between Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived Lucretius and
+Catullus, two of the greatest--perhaps the greatest--of all the Roman
+poets.
+
+T. LUCRETIUS CARUS was born B.C. 95, and died about B.C. 51. He is said
+to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to have perished by his
+own hand. The work which has immortalized his name is a philosophical
+didactic poem, in heroic hexameters, entitled _De Rerum Natura_, divided
+into six books, and addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who was praetor in
+B.C. 58. Its object is to state clearly the leading principles of the
+Epicurean philosophy in such a form as might render the study attractive
+to his countrymen. He attempts to show that there is nothing in the
+history or actual condition of the world which does not admit of
+explanation without having recourse to the active interposition of
+divine beings. The work has been admitted by all modern critics to be
+the greatest of didactic poems. The most abstruse speculations are
+clearly explained in majestic verse, while the subject, which in itself
+is dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and
+beauty.
+
+VALERIUS CATULLUS was born at Verona or in its immediate vicinity, B.C.
+87. He inherited considerable property from his father, who was the
+friend of Julius Caesar; but he squandered a great part of it by
+indulging freely in the pleasures of the metropolis. In order to better
+his fortunes, he went to Bithynia in the train of the Praetor Memmius,
+but it appears that the speculation was attended with little success. It
+was probably during this expedition that his brother died in the Troad,
+a loss which he deplores in the affecting elegy to Hortalus. On his
+return he continued to reside at Rome, or at his country seats on the
+promontory of Sirmio and at Tibur. He died about B.C. 47. His poems are
+on a variety of topics, and composed in different styles and metres.
+Some are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams; while the Nuptials of
+Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus adorned all he touched,
+and his shorter poems are characterized by original invention and
+felicity of expression. His _Atys_ is one of the most remarkable poems
+in the whole range of Latin literature, distinguished by wild passion
+and the noblest diction.
+
+Among the poets of the Augustan age Virgil and Horace stand forth
+pre-eminent.
+
+P. VIRGILIUS (more properly VERGILIUS) MARO was born B.C. 70, at Andes,
+a small village near Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul. His father left him a
+small estate, which he cultivated. After the battle of Philippi (B.C.
+42) his property was among the lands assigned by Octavian to the
+soldiers. Through the advice of Asinius Pollio, who was then governor of
+Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a poet, Virgil applied to Octavian at
+Rome for the restitution of his land, and obtained his request. The
+first Eclogue commemorates his gratitude. Virgil lived on intimate terms
+with Maecenas, whom he accompanied in the journey from Rome to
+Brundusium, which forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His
+most finished work, the _Georgics_, was undertaken at the suggestion of
+Maecenas.[76] The poem was completed after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31,
+while Octavian was in the East.[77] The _AEneid_ was the occupation of
+his latter years. His health was always feeble, and he died at
+Brundusium in B.C. 19, in his 51st year. His remains were transferred to
+Naples, which had been his favorite residence, and placed on the road
+from Naples to Puteoli (_Pozzuoli_), where a monument is still shown,
+supposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said that in his last illness
+he wished to burn the AEneid, to which he had not given the finishing
+touches, but his friends would not allow him. He was an amiable,
+good-tempered man, free from the mean passions of envy and jealousy. His
+fame, which was established in his lifetime, was cherished after his
+death as an inheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works
+became school-books even before the death of Augustus, and continued
+such for centuries after. He was also the great poet of the Middle Ages.
+To him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and owned him for
+his master and model. The ten short poems called Bucolics, or Eclogues,
+were the earliest works of Virgil, and probably all written between B.C.
+41 and B.C. 37. They have all a Bucolic form and coloring, but some of
+them have nothing more. Their merit consists in their versification, and
+in many natural and simple touches. The Georgics is an "Agricultural
+Poem" in four books. Virgil treats of the cultivation of the soil in the
+first book, of fruit-trees in the second, of horses and other cattle in
+the third, and of bees in the fourth. This poem shows a great
+improvement both in his taste and in his versification. Neither in the
+Georgics nor elsewhere has he the merit of striking originality; his
+chief excellence consists in the skillful handling of borrowed
+materials. The AEneid, or adventures of AEneas after the fall of Troy, is
+an epic formed on the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded upon an
+old Roman tradition that AEneas and his Trojans settled in Italy, and
+were the founders of the Roman name. In the first six books the
+adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these books
+contain more variety of incident and situation than those which follow.
+The last six books, the history of the struggles of AEneas in Italy, are
+based on the plan of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the
+Latini, offers in marriage to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who
+had been betrothed to Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. The
+contest is ended by the death of Turnus, who falls by the hand of AEneas.
+The fortunes of AEneas and his final settlement in Italy are the subjects
+of the AEneid, but the glories of Rome and the Julian house, to which
+Augustus belonged, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the first book
+the foundation of Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus, and the
+transfer of empire from Alba to Rome; from the line of AEneas will
+descend the "Trojan Caesar," whose empire will only be limited by the
+ocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate triumphs of Rome are
+predicted.
+
+Q. HORATIUS FLACCUS, usually called HORACE, was born at Venusia, in
+Apulia, B.C. 65. His father was a freedman. He had received his
+manumission before the birth of the poet, who was of ingenuous birth,
+but who did not altogether escape the taunt which adhered to persons
+even of remote servile origin. His father's occupation was that of a
+collector (_coactor_) of taxes. With the profits of his office he had
+purchased a small farm in the neighborhood of Venusia. Though by no
+means rich, he declined to send the young Horace to the common school,
+kept in Venusia by one Flavius, to which the children of the rural
+aristocracy resorted. Probably about his twelfth year his father carried
+him to Rome to receive the usual education of a knight's or senator's
+son. He frequented the best schools in the capital. One of these was
+kept by Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging propensities
+have been immortalized by his pupil. The names of his other teachers are
+not recorded by the poet. He was instructed in the Greek and Latin
+languages: the poets were the usual school-books--Homer in the Greek,
+and the old tragic writer, Livius Andronicus, in the Latin. In his
+eighteenth year Horace proceeded to Athens, in order to continue his
+studies at that seat of learning. When Brutus came to Athens after the
+death of Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received at once the rank of
+a military tribune and the command of a legion. He was present at the
+battle of Philippi, and shared in the flight of the republican army. In
+one of his poems he playfully alludes to his flight, and throwing away
+his shield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits;
+and, having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to return to Rome.
+He had lost all his hopes in life; his paternal estate had been swept
+away in the general forfeiture; but he was enabled to obtain sufficient
+money to purchase a clerkship in the Quaestor's office, and on the
+profits of that place he managed, with the utmost frugality, to live.
+Meantime some of his poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil,
+who introduced him to Maecenas (B.C. 39). Horace soon became the friend
+of Maecenas, and this friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a year
+or two after the commencement of their friendship (B.C. 37) Horace
+accompanied his patron on the journey to Brundusium already alluded to.
+About the year B.C. 34 Maecenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm,
+sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in content, during
+the rest of his life. The situation of this farm was in the valley of
+Ustica, within view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the Digentia,
+about 15 miles from Tibur (_Tivoli_). A site exactly answering to the
+villa of Horace, and on which were found ruins of buildings, has been
+discovered in modern times. Besides this estate, his admiration of the
+beautiful scenery in the neighborhood of Tibur inclined him either to
+hire or to purchase a small cottage in that romantic town; and all the
+later years of his life were passed between the metropolis and these two
+country residences. He died, B.C. 8, in his 57th year. He was buried on
+the slope of the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron Maecenas,
+who had died before him in the same year. Horace has described his own
+person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark hair, but early
+tinged with gray. In his youth he was tolerably robust, but suffered
+from a complaint in his eyes. In more advanced life he grew fat, and
+Augustus jested about his protuberant belly. His health was not always
+good, and he seems to have inclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he
+was rather careless. His habits, even after he became richer, were
+generally frugal and abstemious; though on occasions, both in youth and
+maturer age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked choice
+wine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the luxuries
+of his time. He was never married. The _Odes_ of Horace want the higher
+inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory verses are exquisitely
+graceful, but they have no strong ardor, no deep tenderness, nor even
+much light and joyous gayety; but as works of refined art, of the most
+skillful felicities of language and of measure, of translucent
+expression, and of agreeable images embodied in words which imprint
+themselves indelibly on the memory, they are unrivaled. In the _Satires_
+of Horace there is none of the lofty moral indignation, the fierce
+vehemence of invective, which characterized the later satirists. It is
+the folly rather than the wickedness of vice which he touches with such
+playful skill. In the _Epodes_ there is bitterness provoked, it should
+seem, by some personal hatred or sense of injury; but the _Epistles_ are
+the most perfect of the Horatian poetry, the poetry of manners and
+society, the beauty of which consists in its common sense and practical
+wisdom. The Epistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the
+Georgics of Virgil, and, perhaps, the Satires of Juvenal, the most
+perfect and the most original form of Roman verse. The _Art of Poetry_
+was probably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from devoting
+himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or, at least, to
+suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection.
+
+Three celebrated Elegiac poets--Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid--also
+belong to the Augustan age.
+
+ALBIUS TIBULLUS was of equestrian family, and possessed an hereditary
+estate between Tibur and Praeneste. His great patron was Messala, whom he
+accompanied in B.C. 31 into Aquitania, whither Messala had been sent by
+Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which had broken out in
+this province. In the following year (B.C. 30) Messala, having pacified
+Gaul, was sent into the East. Tibullus set out in his company, but was
+taken ill, and obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he returned to
+Rome. So ceased the active life of Tibullus. He died at an early age
+soon after Virgil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a
+gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he was an object
+of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are exquisite small poems,
+celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses.
+
+SEXTUS AURELIUS PROPERTIUS was a native of Umbria, and was born about
+B.C. 51. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an agrarian division,
+probably that in B.C. 33, after the Sicilian War. He began to write
+poetry at a very early age, and the merit of his productions soon
+attracted the attention and patronage of Maecenas. The year of his death
+is altogether unknown. As an elegiac poet a high rank must be awarded to
+Propertius, and among the ancients it was a disputed point whether the
+preference should be given to him or to Tibullus. To the modern reader,
+however, the elegies of Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those
+of Tibullus. This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great
+measure, also, from a certain want of nature in them. The fault of
+Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His whole
+ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom he made his model. He
+abounds with obscure Greek myths, as well as Greek forms of expression,
+and the same pedantry infects even his versification.
+
+P. OVIDIUS NASO, usually culled OVID, was born at Sulmo, in the country
+of the Peligni, on the 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an
+ancient equestrian family, and was destined to be a pleader; but the
+bent of his genius showed itself very early. The hours which should have
+been spent in the study of jurisprudence were employed in cultivating
+his poetical talent. It is a disputed point whether he ever actually
+practiced as an advocate after his return to Rome. The picture Ovid
+himself draws of his weak constitution and indolent temper prevents us
+from thinking that he ever followed his profession with perseverance,
+if, indeed, at all. He became, however, one of the _Triumviri
+Capitules_; and he was subsequently made one of the _Centumviri_, or
+judges who tried testamentary, and even criminal causes. Till his 50th
+year he continued to reside at Rome, where he had a house near the
+Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignian farm. He not only
+enjoyed the friendship of a large circle of distinguished men, but the
+regard and favor of Augustus and the imperial family; notwithstanding,
+in A.D. 9, he was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict to transport
+himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the Danube, on
+the very border of the empire. He underwent no trial, and the sole
+reason for his banishment stated in the edict was his having published
+his poem on the Art of Love (_Ars Amatoria_). The real cause of his
+banishment is unknown, for the publication of the Art of Love was
+certainly a mere pretext. Ovid draws an affecting picture of the
+miseries to which he was exposed in his place of exile. He complains of
+the inhospitable soil, of the severity of the climate, and of the perils
+to which he was exposed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding
+country, and insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all his
+misfortunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical
+talents. He died at Tomi in the 60th year of his age, A.D. 18. Besides
+his amatory poems, Ovid wrote the _Metamorphoses_ in 15 books, which
+consist of such legends or fables as involved a transformation, from the
+Creation to the time of Julius Caesar, the last being that emperor's
+change into a star; the _Fasti_ in 12 books, of which only the first six
+are extant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appropriate
+festivals and mythology; and the _Elegies_, written during his
+banishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical genius, which
+makes it the more to be regretted that it was not always under the
+control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great vigor of fancy and warmth
+of coloring, but he was the first to depart from that pure and correct
+taste which characterizes the Greek poets and their earlier Latin
+imitators.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now turn to the history of prose literature among the Romans. The
+earliest prose works were Annals, containing a meagre account of the
+principal events in Roman history, arranged under their respective
+years. The earliest Annalists who obtained reputation were Q. FABIUS
+PICTOR and L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, both of whom served in the Second Punic
+War, and drew up an account of it, but they wrote in the Greek language.
+The first prose writer in the Latin language, of whom any considerable
+fragments have been preserved, is the celebrated Censor, M. Porcius
+Cato, who died B.C. 149, and of whose life an account has been already
+given. He wrote an important historical work entitled _Origines_. The
+first book contained the history of the Roman kings; the second and
+third treated of the origin of the Italian towns, and from these two
+books the whole work derived its title; the fourth book treated of the
+First Punic War, the fifth book of the Second Punic War, and the sixth
+and seventh continued the narrative to the year of Cato's death. There
+is still extant a work on agriculture (_De Re Rustica_) bearing the name
+of Cato, which is probably substantially his, though it is certainly not
+exactly in the form in which it proceeded from his pen. There were many
+other annalists, of whom we know little more than the names, and whose
+works were used by Livy in compiling his Roman history.
+
+Oratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the chief avenues
+to political distinction. Cicero, in his work entitled _Brutus_, has
+given a long list of distinguished Orators whose speeches he had read,
+but he himself surpassed all his predecessors and contemporaries. In his
+works the Latin language appears in the highest perfection. Besides his
+numerous orations he also wrote several treatises on _Rhetoric_, of
+which the most perfect is a systematic treatise on the art of Oratory
+(_De Oratore_), in three books. His works on _Philosophy_ were almost
+the first specimens of this kind of literature ever presented to the
+Romans in their own language. He does not aim at any original
+investigation or research. His object was to present, in a familiar and
+attractive form, the results at which the Greek philosophers had
+arrived, not to expound any new theories. His Epistles, of which more
+than eight hundred have come down to us, are among the most valuable
+remains of antiquity. Cicero, during the most important period of his
+life, maintained a close correspondence with Atticus, and with a wide
+circle of political friends and connections. These letters supply the
+most ample materials for a history of the Roman Republic during its last
+struggles, and afford a clear insight into the personal dispositions and
+motives of its chief leaders.
+
+The most learned Roman under the Republic was M. TERENTIUS VARRO, a
+contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served as Pompey's lieutenant in
+Spain in the Civil Wars, but was pardoned by Caesar after the battle of
+Pharsalia, and was employed by him in superintending the collection and
+arrangement of the great library designed for public use. Upon the
+formation of the second Triumvirate, Varro's name appeared upon the list
+of the proscribed; but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after
+having remained for some time in concealment, he obtained the protection
+of Octavian. His death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his 80th year.
+Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he was
+likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We have his own authority
+for the assertion that he had composed no less than 490 books, but of
+these only two have come down to us, and one of them in a mutilated
+form: 1. _De Re Rustica_, a work on Agriculture, in three books, written
+when the author was 80 years old; 2. _De Lingua Latina_, a grammatical
+treatise which extended to 24 books, but six only have been preserved,
+and these are in a mutilated condition. The remains of this treatise are
+particularly valuable. They have preserved many terms and forms which
+would otherwise have been altogether lost, and much curious information
+connected with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, of the
+Romans.
+
+C. JULIUS CAESAR, the great Dictator, was also distinguished as an
+author, and wrote several works, of which the _Commentaries_ alone have
+come down to us. They relate the history of the first seven years of the
+Gallic War in seven books, and the history of the Civil War down to the
+commencement of the Alexandrine in three books. Neither of these works
+completes the history of the Gallic and Civil Wars. The history of the
+former was completed in an 8th book, which is usually ascribed to
+Hirtius. The history of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish Wars was
+written in three separate books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but
+their authorship is uncertain. The purity of Caesar's Latin and the
+clearness of his style have deservedly obtained the highest praise.
+
+C. SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, a contemporary of Caesar, and one of his
+supporters, was also distinguished as a historian. He was born B.C. 86
+at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines, and died in B.C. 34. After
+the African War (B.C. 46) he was left by Caesar as governor of Numidia,
+where he acquired great riches by his oppression of the people. Two of
+his works have come down to us, the _Catilina_, the history of the
+suppression of Catiline's conspiracy, and the _Jugurtha_, the history of
+the war against Jugurtha. Sallust made Thucydides his model, and took
+great pains with his style.
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS, the contemporary and friend of Cicero and Atticus, was
+the author of numerous works, all of which are lost, with the exception
+of the well-known Lives of Distinguished Commanders (_Vitae Excellentium
+Imperatorum_). But even these Lives, with the exception of that of
+Atticus, are probably an abridgment of the original work of Nepos, made
+in the fourth century of the Christian era.
+
+Of the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished was the
+historian TITUS LIVIUS, usually called LIVY. He was born at Patavium
+(_Padua_), B.C. 59. The greater part of his life appears to have been
+spent in Rome, but he returned to his native town before his death,
+which happened at the age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius, A.D.
+17. His literary talents secured the patronage and friendship of
+Augustus; and his reputation became so widely diffused, that a Spaniard
+traveled from Cadiz to Rome solely for the purpose of beholding him;
+and, having gratified his curiosity in this one particular, he
+immediately returned home. Livy's "History of Rome" extended from the
+foundation of the city to the death of Drusus, B.C. 9, and was comprised
+in 142 books. Of these 35 have descended to us. The whole work has been
+divided into _decades_, containing 10 books each. The First decade (bks.
+i.-x.) is entire. It embraces the period from the foundation of the city
+to the year B.C. 294, when the subjugation of the Samnites may be said
+to have been completed. The Second decade (bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether
+lost. It included the period from B.C. 294 to B.C. 219, comprising an
+account, among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the
+First Punic War. The Third decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It
+embraces the period from B.C. 219 to B.C. 201, comprehending the whole
+of the Second Punic War. The Fourth decade (bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire,
+and also one half of the Fifth (bks. xli.-xlv.). These 15 books continue
+the history from B.C. 201 to B.C. 167, and develop the progress of the
+Roman arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending
+with the triumph of AEmilius Paullus. Of the remaining books nothing is
+extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style of Livy may be
+pronounced almost faultless. In judging of his merits as a historian, we
+are bound to ascertain, if possible, the end which he proposed to
+himself. No one who reads his work with attention can suppose that he
+ever conceived the project of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His
+aim was to offer to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative,
+which, while it gratified their vanity, should contain no startling
+improbabilities or gross amplifications. To effect this purpose, he
+studied with care the writings of some of his more celebrated
+predecessors in the same field; but in no case did he ever dream of
+ascending to the fountain-head, and never attempted to test the accuracy
+of his authorities by examining monuments of remote antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: Maecenas.]
+
+[Footnote 74: These were probably composed in the Saturnian metre, the
+oldest species of versification among the Romans, in which much greater
+license was allowed in the laws of quantity than in the metres which
+were borrowed from the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 75: The name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a _lex per
+saturam lata_ is a law which contained several distinct regulations at
+once.]
+
+[Footnote 76: _Georg._, iii., 41.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Comp. _Georg._, iv., 560, and ii., 171.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Aureus of Augustus Caesar.]
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX.
+
+THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CAESAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.
+
+
+Augustus, being now the emperor of Rome, sought to win the affections of
+his people. He lived with republican simplicity in a plain house on the
+Palatine Hill, and educated his family with great strictness and
+frugality. His public conduct was designed to conceal his unbounded
+power. He rejected all unworthy members from the Senate, and limited the
+number of the Senators to six hundred. The Comitia of the Centuries was
+still allowed to pass laws and elect magistrates, but gradually these
+powers were taken away, until, in the reign of Tiberius, they are
+mentioned no more. The emperor's chief counselors in public affairs were
+his four friends, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, C. Cilnius Maecenas, M. Valerius
+Messala, and Asinius Pollio, all persons of excellent talents, and
+devoted to their master. Agrippa aided him greatly in embellishing the
+city of Rome with new buildings, and the Pantheon, which was built in
+the Campus Martins, still bears the inscription, _M. Vipsanius Agrippa,
+consul tertium_. Augustus was accustomed to say that he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble.
+
+To secure the peace of the capital, and to extirpate the robbers who
+filled its streets, Augustus divided Rome into fourteen regions, and
+each region into several smaller divisions called _Vici_: a magistrate
+was placed over each _Vicus_, and all these officers were under the
+command of the city prefect. A police force, _Vigiles_, seven hundred in
+number, was also provided, who succeeded in restoring the public peace.
+Italy, in a similar manner, was divided into regions, and local
+magistrates were appointed, who made life and property every where
+secure.
+
+We must notice briefly the extent and condition of that vast empire,
+over which Augustus ruled--too vast, in fact, to be subjected to the
+control of a single intellect. Italy, the peculiar province of the
+emperor, had lost a large part of its free population, whose place was
+supplied by slaves; military colonies were numerous, a kind of
+settlement which never tended to advance the prosperity of the country;
+the cities were declining, and many of them almost abandoned. The north
+of Italy, however, still retained a portion of its former prosperity;
+its great droves of swine supplied the people of Rome with a large part
+of their food; vineyards also abounded there, and the wine-vats of upper
+Italy were said to be often larger than houses. Coarse woolen cloths
+were manufactured in Liguria, and a finer wool was produced near Mutina.
+But Italy, once so fertile, could no longer produce its own corn, for
+which it depended chiefly upon Sicily, Africa, and Egypt.
+
+The island of Sicily, too, had suffered greatly during the civil wars.
+Its cities were fallen into ruin, and the woods and mountains were
+filled with fugitive slaves, who, when captured, were taken to Rome and
+exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatres. A Roman colony was planted
+by Augustus in the almost deserted city of Syracuse.
+
+The condition of the extensive province of Gaul was more promising, its
+savage tribes having begun to adopt the arts of civilization. The Gauls
+purchased from southern traders such articles as they were unable to
+produce at home, and supplied Italy, in return, with coarse wool and
+cargoes of bacon. Several Roman colonies established in Gaul enjoyed
+various political privileges, but the people in general were oppressed
+with taxes and burdened with debts. The religion of the Druids was
+discouraged by laws which forbade human sacrifices, and, indeed, all
+rites opposed to the Roman faith. In Southern Gaul the city of Massilia
+(Marseilles) had imparted civilization to the neighboring tribes: they
+learned to use the Greek characters in writing, while many of the Gallic
+cities invited Greek teachers to open schools in their midst.
+
+Spain, rich in gold and silver, in fine wool, and a prolific soil,
+traded largely with Rome. The valley of the Baetis, or Guadalquiver, was
+renowned for its uncommon fertility. Many of the Spaniards had already
+adopted the language and manners of their conquerors. Spain was divided
+into three provinces, Baetica, Lusitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis.
+Gades, or Cadiz, was one of the richest cities of the empire, and,
+according to Dion Cassius, had received the privilege of Roman
+citizenship from Julius Caesar, whom its people had aided against
+Pompey's officers. The tribes in the northwest of Spain, however, were
+savage and unquiet, and their language, the Basque, which still exists,
+shows that they were never perfectly conquered by the Romans.
+
+The northern coast of Africa, opposite to Spain, was held by Juba, a
+native prince, while the Roman province of Africa embraced ancient
+Carthage, together with a considerable territory around it. This
+province possessed a large trade. Cyrenaica, to the eastward, included
+the island of Crete, and was termed a praetorian province.
+
+Egypt was ruled by a governor, who was always taken from the equestrian
+order. Two legions only were stationed in that province. Being the
+centre of the trade between Italy and the Indies, Egypt accumulated
+great wealth, and was renowned for its extensive commerce. It exported
+large quantities of corn to Italy, and also papyrus, the best writing
+material then known. The two finest kinds of papyrus were named the
+Augustan and the Livian. Alexandria, the sea-port of Egypt, was the
+second city of the empire. Its commerce was immense; and its museum,
+colleges, library, and literary men made it also the centre of Greek
+literature. Alexandria, too, was famous for its superstition and its
+licentiousness: the festivals and rites of Serapis had long excited the
+contempt of the wiser Romans.
+
+The trade between Alexandria and the Indies was carried on through two
+routes: one was the famous canal which, begun by Pharaoh Necho, was
+completed under the government of the Ptolemies. Leaving the Nile near
+the southern point of the Delta, the canal, after a somewhat circuitous
+course, joined the Red Sea at the town of Arsinoe, near the modern town
+of Suez. Another route was overland from Coptos, on the Nile, across the
+desert, to Berenice and Myos Hormos. Along this road wells were dug or
+reservoirs of water provided, and thus an easy communication was kept up
+with the East. Heavy duties, however, were laid upon all goods entering
+or leaving Alexandria, and its extensive trade afforded a great revenue
+to the government.
+
+From Egypt to the AEgean Sea, various provinces were created in Syria and
+Asia Minor. The most extensive of these were the two provinces of Syria
+and Asia, which were governed by lieutenants of the emperor. Judea
+retained a nominal independence, under the government of Herod;
+Jerusalem was adorned by Herod with magnificent buildings; and Antioch,
+Tyre, and several other eastern cities were still prosperous and
+luxurious. They were, however, heavily taxed, and suffered from the
+tyranny and exactions of their Roman rulers.
+
+Greece, in the age of Augustus, seems to have been a scene of
+desolation. It was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia,
+both belonging to the jurisdiction of the Senate and the people. Greece
+had suffered greatly during the civil wars, and had never recovered its
+ancient prosperity. The peninsula was partly depopulated. Laconia had
+long lost its importance, and Messenia and Arcadia were almost
+deserted. Corinth and Patrae, however, were flourishing Roman colonies;
+Thebes was a mere village; Athens still retained its literary renown,
+and was always a favorite resort for cultivated Romans; but its harbor
+was deserted, its walls thrown down, and the energy of its people
+forever gone.
+
+Macedonia had suffered equally with Greece, and no trace remained of its
+former power. Thus we find that the civilized world, at the accession of
+Augustus, was every where marked by desolation and decay.
+
+The Roman empire, at this period, was bounded on the north by the
+Euxine, the Danube, the Rhine, and the British Channel; westward it
+reached to the Atlantic; on the south it was confined by the deserts of
+Africa, and on the east by Assyria and Mesopotamia. The Mediterranean
+Sea was wholly within the empire, and afforded an easy mode of
+communication with the different provinces.
+
+The government which Augustus now established was designed to preserve
+the memory of the republic, while the real power remained with the
+emperor alone. The people were deprived of all their former importance;
+the Comitia were only suffered to pass upon laws proposed by the Senate,
+which was now wholly under the control of the emperor. Consuls and other
+magistrates were still chosen annually, and Augustus, in the earlier
+years of his reign, was accustomed to solicit votes for his favorite
+candidates, who, however, were always elected; later he contented
+himself with furnishing them with a written recommendation. The Senate
+met twice in every month, instead of three times, as was the former
+custom, except during September and October, when no meetings were held.
+The provinces were governed by proconsuls, several of whom were
+appointed by the Senate and the people; but all of them were carefully
+observed by the emperor. Rome itself was governed by a prefect, whose
+duty it was to preserve the public peace.
+
+In this manner Augustus, by the aid of his proconsuls, held a despotic
+rule over all his dominions. He controlled the Senate, too, through his
+authority as censor, and appointed or deposed its members; and he raised
+the property qualification of each Senator to about $50,000. A large
+part of the people of the capital were maintained by the free
+distribution of corn; but Augustus reduced the number from 320,000 to
+200,000, providing for the poorer citizens by settling them in new
+colonies, and his measures seem to have produced general contentment.
+
+He was also sincerely desirous to reform the morals of the nation.
+Several laws were passed encouraging marriage, and in B.C. 18 he obliged
+the Senate to decree that marriage should be imperative upon every
+citizen of suitable age. Celibacy was punished by an incapacity to
+receive bequests, and even the childless married man was deprived of
+half his legacy; these efforts, however, failed, and a general license
+prevailed. As censor, he sought to restrain extravagance, and limited
+the sum to be expended upon entertainments. He insisted that the _toga_,
+the national dress, be worn at least at the public spectacles; he
+endeavored to preserve the distinctions of rank by providing each of the
+three orders with its own seats in the circus; and he plainly sought to
+elevate the aristocracy, and to withdraw all political power from the
+people. It is said, however, that he once entertained the design of
+resigning his authority, but was prevented from doing so by the advice
+of his friends, who represented to him that the Romans were no longer
+capable of governing themselves.
+
+The Praetorian guard, which Augustus provided for his own protection,
+consisted of ten cohorts, each containing 800 or 1000 men, both cavalry
+and foot: of these only three cohorts were kept in the city, the others
+being distributed through the Italian towns. These soldiers received
+double pay, and were commanded by the _praefectus praetorii_: at a later
+period they became the masters of the empire.
+
+The whole army, amounting to about 350,000 men, was encamped in various
+portions of his dominions. His fleet, which numbered 500 ships, was
+stationed chiefly at Misenum and Ravenna. His revenues arose from the
+contributions of the provinces, from various taxes, and from the rent of
+the public domain. An excise was imposed upon all goods exposed for
+sale, and there was also a tax upon all bachelors.
+
+Augustus encouraged commerce and industry, built new roads, and provided
+the capital with an abundance of food. Games and public spectacles were
+exhibited to amuse the people, a free distribution of corn relieved the
+indigent, literature was encouraged, the arts flourished with new vigor,
+and the people and the Senate, pleased with present tranquillity,
+bestowed upon Augustus the title of the Father of his Country.
+
+Several conspiracies, however, alarmed the emperor. In B.C. 30, Lepidus,
+a son of the former triumvir, had formed a plot for his destruction,
+which was detected by Maecenas, and its author put to death. Another, in
+B.C. 22, was also unsuccessful. In A.D. 4, Cinna, a grandson of Pompey,
+was discovered in a similar attempt, and was pardoned at the request of
+Livia; he was afterward even raised to the consulship. But so
+intimidated was Augustus by the fear of assassination, that, toward the
+close of his life, he never went to a meeting of the Senate without
+wearing a breastplate under his robe.
+
+The military enterprises of Augustus were in general successful. He led
+an army into Spain, and subdued the Cantabri and Astures, returning to
+Rome B.C. 24. While in Spain he founded several cities, among others
+Augusta Emerita (Merida), and Caesar Augusta (Saragossa). Phraates, king
+of the Parthians, fearful of the Roman arms, gave up the Roman standards
+taken from Crassus and Antony, B.C. 20, and this event was celebrated by
+striking medals and by the verses of the Augustan poets. The emperor
+hung up the standards in a temple which he had built at Rome to Mars,
+the Avenger.
+
+Tiberius and Drusus, the two sons of Livia by her former husband, were
+distinguished commanders, and gained many victories over the Germans;
+but, in B.C. 9, Drusus died from a fall from his horse. Tiberius then
+took the command of the army, and gained a great victory over the
+Sigambri. He returned to Rome B.C. 6, and triumphed; was saluted
+Imperator, and received the tribunitian power for five years.
+
+Soon after, indignant at the dissolute conduct of his wife Julia, and
+the honors bestowed upon her sons by Agrippa, he withdrew to Rhodes,
+where he remained for seven years, a discontented exile. He returned to
+Rome in A.D. 2, and, two years after, was adopted by Augustus as his
+son. He next conquered a large part of Germany, and defeated several
+large bodies of the Marcomanni in what is now the territory of Bohemia.
+
+But, while he was employed upon this expedition, Arminius, the German
+hero, excited an insurrection of his countrymen against the cruel
+Romans, cut off Varus, their leader, with his army, and filled Rome with
+alarm. Germany seemed lost. Augustus, when he heard of the disaster,
+exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! give me back my legions!"
+
+Tiberius, however, together with Germanicus, the brave son of Drusus,
+returned to the defense of the frontier, but did not venture to
+penetrate into the forests beyond the Rhine.
+
+In his domestic life Augustus was singularly unfortunate. Livia, his
+wife, for whom he entertained a sincere affection, was a person of
+strong intellect and various accomplishments; but she was descended from
+the Claudian family, and inherited all the pride, ambition, and love of
+political intrigue which marked the descendants of Appius Claudius. She
+was also married to a Claudius, and thus her two sons by her first
+husband, Tiberius and Drusus, were even more than herself Claudians. On
+them all Livia's affections were fixed; to secure their aggrandizement
+she hesitated at no effort and no crime; and when Drusus died, her son
+Tiberius, who resembled his mother in disposition, became the chief
+object of her regard. Her husband and his family wore looked upon with
+jealousy and dislike, and the darkest suspicions were aroused at Rome
+by the death, one by one, of every person who stood between Tiberius and
+the throne.
+
+Livia had no child by her second marriage, and the only heir of Augustus
+was Julia, the daughter of his former wife, Scribonia. Julia was
+beautiful, intelligent, and highly educated; and Augustus, who was
+strongly attached to his own family, looked upon his daughter with
+singular affection and pride. He hoped to see her grow up pure, wise,
+and discreet--a new Lucretia, the representative of the ideal Roman
+matron; and he early accustomed Julia to practice moderation in dress,
+to spend hours at the spinning-wheel, and to look upon herself as
+destined to become the model and example of Roman women.
+
+Julia was first married to her cousin Marcellus, the son of Octavia, a
+young man of excellent character, whom Augustus adopted, and probably
+destined as his successor; but, in B.C. 23, Marcellus died, amid the
+sincere grief of all the Romans. Marcellus has been made immortal by a
+few touching lines of Virgil.
+
+[Illustration: Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus.]
+
+Not long after, Augustus married Julia to his friend Agrippa, and they
+had five children--three sons, Caius, Lucius, and Agrippa Postumus, the
+latter being born after the death of his father, and two daughters,
+Julia and Agrippina. These children were now the hope of the people and
+the emperor, and objects of jealousy and dislike to Livia and Tiberius.
+
+In B.C. 12 Agrippa died. Augustus then prevailed upon Tiberius to
+divorce his own wife, to whom he was sincerely attached, in order to
+marry Julia. Their union was an unhappy one, and, after living together
+for about a year, they separated forever.
+
+The conduct of Julia, in fact, had long been marked by gross
+immoralities, and Augustus alone was unconscious of her unworthiness. He
+refused to believe that his daughter, whom he had destined to become an
+example of purity, had so deceived and dishonored him. At length,
+however, he became convinced of her guilt, and banished her (B.C. 2) to
+the island Pandataria (Santa Maria), off the coast of Campania, where
+she was treated with just severity. Her daughter Julia, who had shared
+in her excesses, was also sent into exile.
+
+Meanwhile Caius and Lucius Caesar both died suddenly. Caius was sent to
+the East in B.C. 1, to improve himself in military affairs, and there
+died, A.D. 3, from the effects of a wound given him by an assassin.
+Lucius, the younger, having gone on a mission to Spain in A.D. 2, fell
+sick and died at Massilia. About this time Tiberius had been recalled
+from Rhodes and intrusted with the chief care of public affairs. It was
+believed at Rome that Livia and her son had removed the two Caesars by
+poison and assassination.
+
+All happiness must now have fled from the breast of the emperor. He
+still, however, attended carefully to the duties of his station. In A.D.
+4 he adopted Tiberius, together with Agrippa Postumus; Tiberius was
+obliged at the same time to adopt Germanicus, the eldest son of his
+brother Drusus. In A.D. 7 Augustus was induced to banish Agrippa
+Postumus, who proved unworthy of his favor, to the island of Planasia,
+and this act was ratified by a decree of the Senate; it was thought,
+however, that Livia was again the cause of this unnatural act. In A.D. 8
+the poet Ovid was banished for some unknown crime.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentum, or chariot, in
+which the Roman ladies were accustomed to ride.]
+
+It was in the year 5 or 7 B.C., for the true date is unknown, that Jesus
+Christ, the Savior of the world, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea.
+
+In A.D. 14, Augustus, aided by Tiberius, took a census--the third during
+his reign. His health, which had always been delicate, now rapidly
+declined. He had long borne with patience the infirmities of old age,
+and he now retired to Nola, where he died, August 19, A.D. 14, in the
+same room where his father had died before him. It is said that as he
+was dying he exclaimed to those around him, "Have I not acted my part
+well? It is time for the applause."
+
+He was seventy-six years old. His subjects lamented his death with
+sincere grief, since they had felt the happy effects of his care. His
+funeral rites were performed in great solemnity; his body was burned on
+the Campus Martius, and his ashes were placed in the splendid mausoleum
+which he had built for himself and his family. The Senate ordered him to
+be numbered among the gods of Rome.
+
+In appearance Augustus was of middle stature, his features regular, and
+his eyes of uncommon brilliancy. He was a tolerable writer, and capable
+of distinguishing literary merit; his chosen friends were all men of
+letters; and his fame with posterity rests, in a great degree, upon that
+circle of poets, historians, and eminent scholars by whom he was
+surrounded. The Augustan Age, indeed, forms one of the most remarkable
+periods in the history of the human intellect.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Augustus, showing the myrtle crown, or Corona
+ovalis.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Nero, showing an Organ and a sprig of Laurel,
+probably designed as a prize medal for a musician.]
+
+CHAPTER XL.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.
+
+
+A feeling resembling loyalty had grown up at Rome toward the family of
+Augustus, and no one ventured to dispute the claim of Tiberius to the
+throne. Livia, however, who had attended the death-bed of the emperor,
+concealed his death until her son arrived, and then proclaimed, at the
+same moment, the death of Augustus and the accession of his successor.
+The first event of the new reign was the assassination of Agrippa
+Postumus, grandson of Augustus, and, according to the modern rule of
+descent, the proper heir to the throne. The guilt of this act was shared
+between Tiberius and his mother, who were also accused of having
+hastened the death of Augustus.
+
+Tiberius summoned the Senate to assemble, announced the death of the
+emperor, and pretended a wish to be relieved from the cares of empire;
+the Senate, however, refused to accept his feigned resignation, and he
+yielded to their wishes. This body now became the chief source of
+legislation. Tiberius took away from the people the power of making laws
+and of electing magistrates. The _senatus consulta_, or decrees of the
+Senate, were made the source of law, without any authority from the
+Comitia. The Senate selected the Consuls from four candidates presented
+to them by the emperor, and thus the last trace of the popular power
+passed away.
+
+Meanwhile two mutinies occurred among the soldiers, which seemed at
+first to threaten a change in the government. The legions of Pannonia,
+complaining of long service and indifferent pay, rose against their
+commander Blaesus, but were induced to return to their duty by Drusus,
+the son of Tiberius. A more important insurrection broke out among the
+legions of the Rhine, who sought to prevail upon Germanicus, the son of
+Drusus, to accept the imperial crown. Germanicus, however, who was
+adorned with many noble qualities, refused to yield either to their
+entreaties or their threats. Agrippina, his wife, with the infant Caius,
+joined Germanicus in imploring the soldiers not to forget their duty;
+and they at length relented, and even gave up their leaders.
+
+Germanicus had now deserved the hatred of the jealous and treacherous
+Tiberius. He was beloved by the people and the army, was frank,
+generous, and brave; he had married Agrippina, the daughter of Julia and
+Agrippa, and was the adopted son of the emperor himself. His mind had
+been highly cultivated, and he excelled in all elegant exercises. He
+seems, in fact, to have been one of the noblest of the Romans.
+
+In A.D. 14 he led an army across the Rhine, but the next year planned a
+more important expedition, in which he defeated the Germans under
+Arminius, and buried the remains of the army of the unfortunate Varus
+under an earthen mound. His third campaign was still more successful. In
+A.D. 16 he gained an important battle in the valley of the Weser, and
+recovered the last of the eagles lost by Varus.
+
+Tiberius, jealous of his fame, now recalled him, and resolved that the
+limits of the empire should not be enlarged. In A.D. 17 Germanicus
+triumphed, surrounded in his chariot by his five sons. The same year he
+was sent to the East to settle the affairs of the Eastern provinces.
+Meanwhile a war broke out in Germany between Arminius and Marboduus.
+Drusus was sent thither to contrive the destruction of both leaders,
+which he seems to have effected, since Marboduus was driven to seek
+protection from the Romans, while the brave Arminius was soon after
+slain by the hands of his fellow-Germans.
+
+Germanicus, in A.D. 18, visited Athens, sailed up the Nile the same
+year, and then, having returned to Syria, died of poison administered to
+him by Cn. Piso, a friend of the Empress Livia. His death excited great
+grief at Rome, where he was buried with solemnity in A.D. 20. Piso,
+meanwhile, being tried before the Senate, and finding himself about to
+be condemned, sought a voluntary death.
+
+Tiberius was cold and unpopular in his manners, awkward and even timid
+in his carriage, but a master of dissimulation. The only person of whom
+he stood in awe was his mother Livia; but he lived in constant fear of
+insurrection. The Lex Majestas, which he enlarged and enforced with
+unusual severity, was now the source of great evil to his country. This
+law defined treason against the emperor. Tiberius made it include words
+as well as acts, and thus he who spoke lightly of the emperor's person
+or authority might be punished with death.
+
+From this law grew up the Delatores, or informers, persons who made it
+their chief occupation to denounce those who were obnoxious to the
+emperor. The informers soon grew numerous: some of them were persons of
+high rank, who sought to display their eloquence, and to win the favor
+of the emperor, by denouncing his opponents in envenomed rhetoric, while
+others were common spies. No man's life was safe at Rome from this
+moment, and the purest and wisest citizens were exposed to the attacks
+of an infinite number of delators. Tiberius encouraged the informers.
+AElius Saturninus was flung from the Tarpeian Rock for a libel upon the
+emperor. Silanus was banished for "disparaging the majesty of Tiberius."
+
+Tiberius, who professed to imitate the policy of Augustus in every
+particular, seems to have governed with firmness and ability. He
+improved the condition of the provinces, restrained the avarice of the
+provincial governors, maintained good order in the capital, and strove
+to check the growth of luxury; but the morals of the capital were now
+hopelessly depraved, and the vice and corruption of the whole world
+flowed into the streets of Rome.
+
+AElius Sejanus, the Praefect of the Praetorians, had long been the friend
+and chief adviser of the emperor. He was cruel, unscrupulous, and
+ambitious--the proper instrument of a tyrant. In A.D. 21 an insurrection
+broke out in Gaul, which was scarcely subdued when the Germans rose
+against the Romans. The Gauls, too, led by Sacrovir, a Druid, who
+exercised a superstitious influence over his countrymen, once more
+rebelled. Drusus, who had been made Consul with his father, was sent
+against them, and reduced them to subjection. The Druid Sacrovir burned
+himself in a house to which he had fled. In A.D. 22 Drusus received the
+tribunitian power. He was the only son of Tiberius, and was married to
+Livia, or Livilla, as she was sometimes called.
+
+Sejanus had now conceived a design which led him to resolve upon the
+destruction of all the imperial family, since he himself began to aspire
+to the throne; and the elevation of Drusus filled him with disgust. In
+A.D. 23 he prevailed upon Tiberius to remove all the Praetorian Guards,
+about nine or ten thousand in number, to a camp near the city. He
+appointed their officers, won the soldiers with bribes and flatteries,
+and thus believed he had gained a sure support.
+
+Drusus stood in his path, and he resolved to destroy him. He won the
+affections of Livilla, and prevailed upon her to poison her husband. The
+unhappy prince died in 23. Tiberius received the news of his son's death
+with a composure almost incredible. He told the Senate, who put on
+mourning robes, that he had given himself to his country. A splendid
+funeral procession was prepared for Drusus, in which the statues of
+Attus Clausus, the Sabine chief, the founder of the Claudian Gens, and
+of AEneas, and the Alban kings, were carried side by side, thus recalling
+the memories of the early regal dynasty, as well as of the severe
+founders of the Republic.
+
+Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, together with her numerous family,
+next aroused the hostility of Sejanus, and he resolved upon their
+destruction. In A.D. 25 he proposed for the hand of Livilla, but
+Tiberius refused to sanction the connection. In A.D. 26 eleven cities
+contended for the privilege of making Tiberius their tutelar deity, but
+he declined this honor. Soon after, the emperor, as if anxious to escape
+from the sarcasms and the scandal of Rome, retired from the city,
+accompanied by a single Senator, Cocceius Nerva, and at length, in A.D.
+27, hid himself in the island of Capreae, on the coast of Campania. Here
+he built twelve villas in different parts of the island, and lived with
+a few companions, shut out from mankind. No one was allowed to land upon
+the shores of Capreae, and even fishermen who broke this rule through
+ignorance were severely punished. Every day, however, dispatches were
+brought from the continent, and he still continued to direct the affairs
+of his vast empire.
+
+Sejanus was left to govern Rome, but frequently visited the Emperor at
+his island. In A.D. 29, Livia, the widow of Augustus, died, at the age
+of eighty-six years, having retained her powerful intellect and her love
+of political intrigue to the close of her life. It is said that her
+private charities were great, and that she remained faithful to the
+memory of her imperial husband. The family of Germanicus, meanwhile,
+were crushed by the arts of Sejanus. In A.D. 29 Tiberius directed the
+Senate to banish Agrippina and her son Nero, and they were confined
+separately upon two barren islands. Drusus, the second son, was soon
+after imprisoned; while Caius, the youngest, by his flatteries and
+caresses, preserved the favor of Tiberius, and was admitted into Capreae.
+The emperor now began to doubt the fidelity of his chosen friend
+Sejanus, although their statues had been placed together in the Temple
+of Friendship on the island; and he sent a letter to the Senate in which
+he denounced him as a traitor. Such was the end of a guilty friendship.
+Sejanus was flung into the Mamertine Prison, and there strangled. The
+people threw his body into the Tiber, A.D. 31. Great numbers of his
+friends or relatives perished with him, and a general massacre filled
+Rome with terror. He was succeeded in his power by Sertorius Macro, who
+had aided in his destruction.
+
+Tiberius, meanwhile, seems to have become a raging madman. He put to
+death his niece Agrippina, with her two children, and ruled over the
+Senate with pitiless cruelty. His companion, Cocceius Nerva, filled with
+melancholy at the misfortunes of his country, resolved upon suicide; nor
+could all the entreaties or commands of Tiberius prevail upon him to
+live. In A.D. 35 Tiberius made his will, dividing his estate between
+Caius, the youngest son of Germanicus, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of
+the second Drusus. Macro, probably fearing the fate of Sejanus, had
+formed a close intimacy with Caius, and they now planned the death of
+the emperor, whose feeble health, however, since he was near
+seventy-seven years of age, promised Rome a speedy deliverance. Tiberius
+died March 16, A.D. 37, Macro, it is said, having smothered him with a
+pillow.
+
+If we may trust the account of the Jew Philo, he left the empire in a
+prosperous condition. His cruelty, in fact, seems to have been exercised
+upon the great and the rich, while the people lived in security. His
+administration may be said to have been a fortunate one. His character
+and his crimes disgrace human nature.
+
+[Illustration: Reverses of Roman brass Coins, showing Galleys.]
+
+REIGN OF CAIUS CALIGULA, A.D. 37-41.--Caius Caesar, known as Caligula,
+was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and men fondly hoped that he
+had inherited the virtues of his father, whom he resembled in his
+personal appearance. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor, and the Senate
+and the people acknowledged him with unfeigned joy. He was now
+twenty-five years of age, and his first acts were generous and humane.
+He recalled many exiles, abolished various taxes, and gratified the
+people with spectacles and gifts. He also buried the remains of his
+mother and brother, who had died in exile, with decent solemnity.
+
+But, having been seized with a severe illness after he had reigned eight
+months, upon his recovery his mind seemed to have been fatally injured.
+He abandoned himself to cruelty and lust; he surpassed the vices of
+Tiberius; and at length, declaring himself to be a god, would often go
+through the streets of Rome dressed as Bacchus, Venus, or Apollo: he
+compelled the people to worship him, and made the wealthiest citizens
+his priests. He even conferred the consulship on his favorite horse.
+
+His boundless wastefulness soon consumed the public treasures, and he
+was forced to resort to every kind of extortion to obtain money. Having
+exhausted Rome and Italy, in A.D. 39 he led a large army across the Alps
+for the purpose of plundering Gaul, where the richest citizens were put
+to death and their property confiscated. He was assassinated in his
+palace January 24, A.D. 41.
+
+REIGN OF TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO, A.D. 41-54.--The Emperor
+Claudius was the son of Drusus and Antonia, and the brother of
+Germanicus. He was fifty-one years old when, after the murder of
+Caligula, the Praetorian Guard raised him to the throne. His health had
+always been delicate, his mind feeble, and he had never taken any part
+in public affairs. His first acts were popular and mild, but, having
+fallen under the control of his wife Messalina, who was a monster of
+wickedness, he put to death many of the best of the Romans. When,
+however, Messalina ventured to marry C. Silius, a young Roman knight,
+Claudius directed her execution. He then married his niece Agrippina,
+who prevailed upon him to set aside his son Britannicus, and to adopt
+her own son Nero, who was now destined for the throne. Nero was educated
+by the philosopher Seneca, together with Burrus Afranius, praefect of the
+Praetorians. Claudius, however, becoming suspicious of the designs of his
+wife, she resolved upon his death. Locusta, a noted poisoner, was hired
+to prepare a dish of poisoned mushrooms, of which Claudius ate: but the
+poison not proving fatal, the physician Xenophon forced a larger
+quantity into his throat, and he died October 13, A.D. 54.
+
+Claudius was fond of letters, and wrote memoirs of his own time and
+histories in Greek of Etruria and of Carthage. He also made various
+useful laws, and carried out several public works of importance. He
+completed the Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula, and built a fort and
+light-house at Ostia, and a tunnel from Lake Lucinus to the River Liris.
+_Colonia Agrippina_ (Cologne) was raised by his orders to the most
+important military station in Lower Germany.
+
+In A.D. 43 a Roman army invaded Britain. Claudius himself entered that
+country soon after, and returned to Rome to triumph. But Vespasian,
+afterward emperor, together with his son Titus, overran Britain,
+defeated Caractacus, the brave British chieftain, and sent him and his
+family prisoners to Rome. Claudius, pleased with his manly conduct, gave
+him his liberty.
+
+NERO, A.D. 54-68.--The first five years of the reign of Nero were marked
+by the mildness and equity of his government. He discouraged luxury,
+reduced the taxes, and increased the authority of the Senate. His two
+preceptors, Seneca and Burrus, controlled his mind, and restrained for a
+time the constitutional insanity of the Claudian race. At length,
+however, he sank into licentiousness, and from licentiousness to its
+necessary attendants, cruelty and crime. From a modest and philosophic
+youth, Nero became the most cruel and dissolute of tyrants. He quarreled
+with his mother Agrippina, who for his sake had murdered the feeble
+Claudius; and when she threatened to restore Britannicus to the throne,
+he ordered that young prince to be poisoned at an entertainment. In
+order to marry Poppaea Sabina, a beautiful and dissolute woman, wife of
+Salvius Otho, he resolved to divorce his wife Octavia, and also to
+murder his mother Agrippina. Under the pretense of a reconciliation, he
+invited Agrippina to meet him at Baiae, where she was placed in a boat,
+which fell to pieces as she entered it. Agrippina swam to the shore, but
+was there assassinated by the orders of her son. The Roman Senate
+congratulated Nero upon this fearful deed, while the philosopher Seneca
+wrote a defense of the matricide. The philosopher, the Senate, and the
+emperor seem worthy of each other.
+
+It would be impossible to enumerate all the crimes of Nero. In A.D. 64 a
+fire broke out in Rome, which lasted for six days, consuming the greater
+part of the city. Nero was supposed to have ordered the city to be
+fired, to obtain a clear representation of the burning of Troy, and,
+while Rome was in flames, amused himself by playing upon musical
+instruments. He sought to throw the odium of this event upon the
+Christians, and inflicted upon them fearful cruelties. The city was
+rebuilt upon an improved plan, and Nero's palace, called the Golden
+House, occupied a large part of the ruined capital with groves, gardens,
+and buildings of unequaled magnificence.
+
+In A.D. 65 a plot was discovered in which many eminent Romans were
+engaged. The poet Lucan, Seneca, the philosopher and defender of
+matricide, together with many others, were put to death. In A.D. 67
+Nero traveled to Greece, and performed on the cithara at the Olympian
+and Isthmian games. He also contended for the prize in singing, and put
+to death a singer whose voice was louder than his own. Stained with
+every crime of which human nature is capable, haunted by the shade of
+the mother he had murdered, and filled with remorse, Nero was finally
+dethroned by the Praetorian Guards, and died by his own hand, June 9,
+A.D. 68. He was the last of the Claudian family. No one remained who had
+an hereditary claim to the empire of Augustus, and the future emperors
+were selected by the Praetorian Guards or the provincial legions.
+
+During this reign, Boadicea, the British queen, A.D. 61, revolted
+against the Romans and defeated several armies; but the governor,
+Suetonius Paulinus, conquered the insurgents in a battle in which eighty
+thousand Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, unwilling to survive
+her liberty, put an end to her life.
+
+On the death of Nero, Servius Sulpicius Galba, already chosen emperor by
+the Praetorians and the Senate, was murdered in the Forum, January, A.D.
+69. He was succeeded by Salvius Otho, the infamous friend of Nero, and
+the husband of Poppaea Sabina. The legions on the Rhine, however,
+proclaimed their own commander, A. Vitellius, emperor, and Otho's forces
+being defeated in a battle near Bedriacum, between Verona and Cremona,
+he destroyed himself.
+
+Vitellius, the new emperor, was remarkable for his gluttony and his
+coarse vices. He neglected every duty of his office, and soon became
+universally contemptible. Vespasian, the distinguished general, who had
+been fighting successfully against the Jews in Palestine, was proclaimed
+emperor by the governor of Egypt. Leaving his son Titus to continue the
+war, Vespasian prepared to advance upon Rome. His brave adherent,
+Antonius Primus, at the head of the legions of the Danube, without any
+orders from Vespasian, marched into Italy and defeated the army of
+Vitellius. The Praetorians and the Roman populace still supported
+Vitellius; a fearful massacre took place in the city, and the Capitoline
+Temple was burned; but Antonius Primus took the Praetorian camp, and
+Vitellius was dragged from his palace and put to death, December 20,
+A.D. 69.
+
+REIGN OF T. FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, A.D. 69-79.--Vespasian, the founder of
+the first Flavian family of emperors, was a soldier of fortune, who had
+risen from a low station to high command in the army. He was brave,
+active, free from vice, and, although fond of money, was never charged
+with extortion or rapacity. Toward the close of the summer, A.D. 70, he
+arrived in Rome, and received the imperium from the Senate. He began
+at once to restore discipline in the army, and raised to the rank of
+Senators and Equites illustrious men from the provinces, as well as from
+Italy and Rome, thus giving to the provincials a certain share in the
+government. The courts of justice were purified, the _Delatores_, or
+spies, were discountenanced, and trials for treason ceased. To increase
+his revenues, Vespasian renewed the taxes in several provinces which had
+been exempted by Nero, and he introduced economy and good order into the
+administration of the finances. Yet he expended large sums in rebuilding
+the Capitoline Temple, and also in completing the Colosseum, whose
+immense ruins form one of the most remarkable features in the modern
+scenery of Rome. He built, too, the Temple of Peace and a public
+library. He appointed lecturers upon rhetoric, with a salary of 100
+sesterces, but was possessed himself of little mental cultivation. He is
+even said to have disliked literary men, and, in the year A.D. 74,
+expelled the Stoic and Cynic philosophers from Rome.
+
+In A.D. 70, September 2, his son Titus took the city of Jerusalem, after
+a brave defense by the Jews, who were finally betrayed by their own
+factions. The city was totally destroyed, and nearly half a million of
+the Jews perished in the siege. Those who survived, being forbidden to
+rebuild their city, were scattered over the empire, and each Jew was
+compelled to pay a yearly tax of two drachmae, which was appropriated to
+rebuilding the Capitoline Temple. The Arch of Titus, which still exists
+at Rome, was erected in commemoration of the fall of Jerusalem.
+
+Vespasian's generals repressed an insurrection of the Germans, and in
+A.D. 71 C. Julius Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus,
+entered Britain as legate to Petilius Cerialis. He was made governor of
+the province in A.D. 77, and led his victorious armies as far north as
+the Highlands of Scotland. This excellent character, by his justice and
+moderation, reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke.
+
+By his first wife, Flavia Domatilla, Vespasian had three
+children--Titus, Domitian, and Domatilla. When she died he formed an
+inferior kind of marriage with Coenis, a woman of low station, who,
+however, seems to have deserved his esteem. He died 23d of June, A.D.
+79, at the age of seventy. Although never a refined or cultivated man,
+Vespasian, by his hardy virtues, restored the vigor of the Roman
+government, and gave peace and prosperity to his subjects; while he who
+founded a library and established schools of rhetoric can not have been
+so wholly illiterate as some writers have imagined.
+
+
+REIGN OF TITUS, A.D. 79-81.
+
+Titus was one of the most accomplished and benevolent of men. Eloquent,
+warlike, moderate in his desires, he was called _Amor et deliciae humani
+generis_, "The love and the delight of the human race." In early life he
+had been thought inclined to severity, and his treatment of the Jews, at
+the fall of their city, does not seem in accordance with his character
+for humanity. But no sooner had he ascended the throne than he won a
+general affection. Such was the mildness of his government that no one
+was punished at Rome for political offenses. Those who conspired against
+him he not only pardoned, but took into his familiarity. He was so
+generous that he could refuse no request for aid. He was resolved, he
+said, that no one should leave his presence sorrowful; and he thought
+that day lost in which he had done no good deed. Titus wrote poems and
+tragedies in Greek, and was familiar with his native literature. During
+his reign, A.D. 79, occurred a violent eruption of Vesuvius, together
+with an earthquake, by which Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Pompeii, three
+towns on the Bay of Naples, were destroyed. The emperor was so touched
+by the sufferings of the inhabitants that he expended nearly his whole
+private fortune in relieving their wants. Pompeii and Herculaneum, which
+were covered by lava or ashes, were thus preserved from farther decay,
+and, having been partially excavated and restored, enable us to form a
+truthful conception of the domestic life of the Roman cities in the age
+of Titus. We here enter the villas of the rich or the humble homes of
+the poor, and find every where traces of comfort, elegance, and taste.
+
+The next year after the destruction of these cities, a fire broke out in
+Rome, which raged for three days, desolating the finest regions of the
+city. The Capitoline Temple was again destroyed, together with many
+buildings in the Campus Martius. A pestilence followed soon after, which
+ravaged Rome and all Italy.
+
+In A.D. 81 Titus dedicated the Colosseum, which was now completed, and
+also his famous baths, the ruins of which may still be visited at Rome.
+Splendid games and spectacles were exhibited in honor of these events.
+Few military events occurred during this reign, the empire being
+perfectly quiet, except where the active Agricola was subduing the
+wandering tribes of Scotland.
+
+At length Titus, having gone to the Sabine villa where his father
+Vespasian died, was himself suddenly arrested by death. It was believed
+that his brother Domitian was the cause of this unhappy event, and all
+the people lamented their emperor as if they had lost a father or a
+friend. Titus died September 13, A.D. 81.
+
+
+REIGN OF DOMITIAN, A.D. 81-96
+
+Domitian, who was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers upon his brother's
+death, possessed the mental ability of the Flavian family, joined to the
+vices and cruelty of the Claudian. In him Nero or Caligula seemed
+revived. His first political acts, however, were often useful, and for
+several years he concealed his true disposition. But he soon surrounded
+himself with spies and informers, and put to death the noblest men of
+his time. To preserve the fidelity of the soldiers he doubled their pay,
+while he won the populace by games and donations. But, to maintain his
+expenditure, he confiscated the property of the richer citizens, and no
+man of wealth was safe from an accusation of treason.
+
+Agricola, who had gained a great victory over the Caledonians at the
+foot of the Grampion Hills, and who was about to subdue all Scotland,
+Domitian recalled, being jealous of his military fame; and that brave
+leader passed the last eight years of his life in retirement at Rome, in
+order to avoid the suspicions of the tyrant. Meanwhile, the Dacians, led
+by their king Decebalus, having crossed the Danube, Domitian took the
+field against them, and, in A.D. 90, was defeated, and forced to
+conclude a humiliating peace. Yet, on his return to Rome, he celebrated
+a triumph, assuming the name of Dacicus. The next year an insurrection
+broke out among the German legions, which was, however, suppressed.
+
+Domitian now ordered himself to be styled the "Lord and God," and was
+worshiped with divine honors. A ferocious jealousy of all excellence in
+others seemed to possess him with rage against the wise and good. The
+most eminent of the nobility were put to death. All philosophers, and
+among them the virtuous Epictetus, were banished from Rome. The
+Christians, which name now included many persons of high station, were
+murdered in great numbers. At last the tyrant resolved to put to death
+his wife Domitia, but she discovered his design, and had him
+assassinated, 18th September, A.D. 96. The Senate passed a decree that
+his name should be erased from all public monuments, and refused to
+yield to the wishes of the soldiers, who would have proclaimed him a
+god.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing
+figure of Britannia.]
+
+CHAPTER XLI.
+
+PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF M.
+COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.
+
+
+This venerable man was sixty-four years old when he was proclaimed
+emperor upon the death of Domitian. He was a native of the town of
+Narnia, in Umbria, and his virtues had won him a general esteem. The
+Praetorians, who had not been consulted in his election, never looked
+upon him with favor, and Nerva was obliged to act with great caution. He
+stopped trials for high treason, pardoned political offenders,
+diminished taxes, recalled exiles, and strove by every honest art to
+attain popularity. But the Praetorians, becoming mutinous, not only put
+the murderers of Domitian to death, but forced the emperor to approve of
+their act publicly. This insult was deeply felt by Nerva, who now
+resolved to adopt a colleague, in order to increase his own authority.
+He therefore selected M. Ulpius Trajan, a distinguished general, who was
+in command of the army of Lower Germany.
+
+We now enter upon the most pleasing period in the history of the Roman
+Empire. During the next eighty years a general prosperity prevailed. The
+emperors were all men worthy to command, and capable of giving
+tranquillity to their vast dominions. Several of them were of the purest
+morals, of high mental cultivation, and are still looked upon as
+ornaments of the human race; and while they could not check the decline
+of their people, these virtuous emperors prevented, for a time, the fall
+of the Roman Empire.
+
+Nerva, in order to elevate the condition of his people, purchased lands,
+which he distributed among them, and he sought to make them feel the
+necessity of labor and of self-dependence. But it was too late to reform
+the manners of the indolent, licentious plebs, corrupted by the
+indulgence of their tyrants. Nerva died of a fever, January 27, A.D.
+98.
+
+
+M. ULPIUS TRAJANUS, A.D. 98-117
+
+Trajan, the first emperor who was not a native of Italy, was born at
+Italica, in Spain, and was about forty years of age at the death of
+Nerva. His memory was so much revered among the Romans, that, two
+hundred and fifty years later, the Senate hailed the accession of the
+new emperor with the prayer that he might be happier than Augustus,
+better than Trajan. He was free from every vice except an occasional
+indulgence in wine. His mind was naturally strong, his manners pleasing,
+his appearance noble and imposing. He desired only to restore the simple
+manners and virtuous habits of an earlier age.
+
+Trajan, after his adoption by Nerva, entered upon his high office at
+Cologne, and then traveled toward Rome. In A.D. 99 he entered that city
+on foot, followed by a small retinue, and was received with general good
+will. He abolished the trials for high treason, _judicia majestatis_,
+which had made Rome so often a scene of terror, restored freedom of
+speech to the Senate, revived the _Comitia_ for the election of
+magistrates, and bound himself by oath to observe the laws. He punished
+the principal informers, banishing many of them to the barren islands
+around Italy, while he at once, by severe measures, reduced the
+turbulent Praetorians to obedience. His wife Plotina, who was a woman of
+excellent character, with her sister Marcina, revived by their virtues
+the dignity of the Roman matron. The society of the city was purified,
+and the family of the emperor offered an example of propriety that
+produced an excellent effect upon the manners of the higher ranks.
+
+Among the first acts of Trajan was the foundation of public schools for
+the education and maintenance of poor children in various parts of
+Italy. He founded, too, the Ulpian Library at Rome, and adorned every
+part of his empire with magnificent buildings, roads, bridges, and
+various useful improvements. He seemed to live, in fact, wholly for his
+people, and passed his life in devising and executing plans for their
+advantage.
+
+When Decebalus, king of the Dacians, sent to demand the tribute which
+had been promised him by Domitian, Trajan refused to be bound by the
+disgraceful treaty, and, having levied an army of 60,000 men, marched
+against the Dacians, who had boldly advanced across the Danube. A
+terrible battle took place, in which the Romans were victorious; but so
+great was the slaughter that sufficient linen could not be obtained to
+dress the wounds of the soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes
+to supply their wants. He took the capital of the Dacian king, defeated
+him in various encounters, and compelled him (A.D. 102) to make peace,
+giving up a part of his territory. Having returned to Rome, Trajan
+received from the Senate the surname of Dacicus. But in A.D. 104 the
+Dacians again rose in arms, and the Senate declared Decebalus a public
+enemy. Trajan led an army in person against the barbarians, and, to
+provide for an easy access to their territory, built a stone bridge
+across the Danube of immense size and strength, fortified at each end
+with towers. He next advanced into the midst of the hostile country,
+took the capital of the Dacians, and reduced them to subjection.
+Decebalus, in despair, fell by his own hand. All Dacia, comprising the
+modern countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, was made a
+Roman province; and several Roman colonies were planted among the
+barbarians, thus for the first time preparing for the spread of
+civilization in that savage country. Trajan now returned to Rome, to
+triumph a second time for his Dacian successes. He also began that
+famous Column in commemoration of his victories which still stands at
+Rome, and which shows in its rich sculpture the various captives and
+spoils of the Dacian war.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Arabia Petraea was also at this time added to the Roman Empire, after
+which a peace of several years succeeded. In A.D. 114, a Parthian war
+breaking out, Trajan hastened to the East, and, having passed the winter
+at Antioch, witnessed a severe earthquake, which shook that city as well
+as all Syria. He himself escaped with difficulty from a falling house.
+In the spring, at the head of his legions, he overran Armenia and formed
+it into a province. He next built a bridge across the Tigris, resembling
+that upon the Danube, and led his army into Assyria, a country never yet
+visited by a Roman general. He took Babylon and Ctesiphon, the capital
+of the Parthian kingdom, and, sailing down the Tigris, passed through
+the Persian Gulf, and annexed a large portion of Arabia Felix to his
+empire. The Jews, too, about this time revolted, but were subdued,
+after a brave resistance, and treated with great severity. His Eastern
+conquests, however, proved by no means secure, and his new subjects
+revolted as soon as his armies were gone. In A.D. 117 Trajan entered
+Southern Arabia to complete the subjection of that country, when he was
+seized with a dropsy and forced to return to Rome. He did not reach that
+city, but died, August 9th, A.D. 117, at Selinus, in Cilicia. His ashes
+were carried to Rome, and placed under the magnificent column which
+recorded his Dacian victories.
+
+During Trajan's reign, the empire, already too extensive, was made more
+unwieldy by his various conquests. He was evidently ambitious of the
+fame of a conqueror, and possessed many of the qualities of an able
+general. He was also a skillful ruler of his immense dominions, leaving
+no portion unprotected by his vigilance. The only stain upon his fame is
+his persecution of the Christians, whom he continued to treat with
+severity even when convinced of their perfect innocence.
+
+After the conclusion of the Dacian war he celebrated games and
+spectacles, which are said to have lasted through four months, and in
+which ten thousand gladiators fought and suffered for the entertainment
+of the people--a proof that the Romans were yet, in some respects,
+barbarians. Trajan, however, forbade the performance of indecent
+pantomimes. Trajan's bridge across the Danube is described by Dion
+Cassius as of greater importance than any of his other works. He
+designed it to form an easy access to his Dacian province. It was formed
+of twenty stone piers, distant about 170 feet from each other, and sixty
+feet wide: they were probably connected by arches of wood. Trajan also
+began to make roads across the Pontine Marshes, and founded several
+public libraries. Pliny the younger, who lived during this reign, was
+the most eminent literary man of the time, and wrote a fine panegyric
+upon his friend the emperor. Pliny saw the first eruption of Vesuvius,
+in which his uncle and adopted father, the elder Pliny, perished. He was
+a person of great wealth and uncommon generosity, having given 300,000
+sesterces yearly to maintain the children of the poor in his native town
+of Comum. His letters to Trajan show that he was an excellent master,
+husband, and friend, and we may well believe that in this happy period
+many Romans resembled Trajan and his learned correspondent.
+
+
+REIGN OF HADRIAN, A.D. 117-138.
+
+Hadrian, descended from a family of Hadria, in Picenum, was a military
+commander, distinguished for his courage and activity. His father had
+married an aunt of the late emperor, who, upon the father's death, was
+appointed one of Hadrian's guardians. Yet it is supposed Trajan made no
+nomination of a successor to the throne, and that his wife Plotina
+forged the will by which the world was made to believe that he had
+adopted Hadrian. This will was, however, published, and Hadrian entered
+upon his government at Antioch, August 11th, A.D. 117, and was there
+proclaimed emperor. The Senate, to whom he wrote a letter announcing his
+appointment, at once confirmed him in his power. He now made peace with
+the Parthians, and restored to Chosroes, their king, Assyria and
+Mesopotamia. He adopted the policy of Augustus, refusing to extend the
+limits of the empire. In A.D. 118 he returned to Rome, but was soon
+forced to march to the defense of the province of Moesia, which had
+been invaded by the Sarmatae and Roxolani. His object being merely to
+preserve the boundaries of the empire, he concluded a peace with the
+Roxolani, and probably purchased their submission. He was about to march
+against the Sarmatae, when the news of a conspiracy at Rome was brought
+to him. He seems to have ordered the leaders to be put to death,
+although he afterward denied that he had done so. Having returned to
+Rome, he endeavored to win the affections of the people by donations,
+games, and gladiatorial shows. He also canceled a large amount of unpaid
+taxes, now due for fifteen years, and promised the Senators never to
+punish one of their body without their approval. He divided Italy into
+four regions, a Consular Magistrate being placed over each; and he
+introduced a new system of administration into the palace, the army, and
+the state, which lasted until the reign of Constantine the Great.
+
+In A.D. 119 he began a journey through all the provinces of his empire,
+in order to examine into their condition, and to discover and amend any
+faults in the system of government. Hadrian, too, was fond of travel,
+and was never content to remain long in repose. A large part of his
+reign was occupied with this important journey. He first visited Gaul
+and Germany, and thence, in A.D. 121, passed over into Britain. Here he
+found the Britons already partially civilized, but unable to defend
+themselves from the incursions of their neighbors the Caledonians. To
+protect them from these forays, he built a wall across the island from
+the mouth of the Tyne to Solway, remains of which are still shown to the
+traveler. On his return he adorned the town of Nemausus (Nismes) with
+fine buildings, and then went into Spain, where he passed the winter. He
+returned to Rome A.D. 122, but soon after went to Athens, where he spent
+three years. During his residence in that city he began many magnificent
+buildings, and he seems to have looked upon Athens with singular
+affection and reverence. He visited Sicily, returned to Rome, set out
+for Africa, whence, after a brief visit, he once more visited Athens, to
+view the completion of his architectural designs. He finished the Temple
+of the Olympian Jupiter, the largest and most magnificent in the world,
+which had been commenced by Pisistratus, and left many other fine works
+behind him. Then he passed through Asia, inspecting the conduct of the
+provincial officers, and next traveled through Syria into Egypt, where
+his favorite Antinous, a beautiful youth, was drowned. This event seems
+to have filled him with a lasting grief. At length, in A.D. 131, he
+returned to Rome.
+
+[Illustration: Mole of Hadrian restored.[78]]
+
+Here he published the _Edictum Perpetuum_, a codification of the edicts
+of the Roman Praetors, which was composed by Salvius Julianus, an eminent
+lawyer. The design of this work was to condense the vast body of the law
+into a convenient form.
+
+A revolt broke out among the Jews, Hadrian having established a colony
+called AElia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, and, not content with
+introducing pagan worship into the holy city, had even issued an edict
+forbidding the practice of circumcision. These imprudent measures
+produced a revolt among the Jews, who, under their leader Barcochab,
+fought with their usual courage and desperation. The war continued for
+several years, during which more than half a million of Jews are said to
+have perished. At length Julius Severus came from Britain to lead the
+Roman armies, and the rebellion was suppressed. The Jews were now
+forbidden to live in Jerusalem or its neighborhood, and the nation was
+scattered over the habitable world.
+
+A war which seemed about to break out with the Albanians and Iberians in
+the East was prevented by Hadrian, who, with his usual policy, sent
+large presents to his enemies, and thus converted them into friends. He
+now returned from his travels to Rome, where he built his magnificent
+villa at Tibur, the extensive ruins of which may still be seen; and he
+passed the remainder of his life either at Tibur or in Rome. His health
+had been affected by his incessant labors, and in A.D. 135 he was seized
+with dropsy. Having no children, he adopted L. Ceionius, under the name
+of L. AElius Verus, a young noble, who, however, died on the first day of
+the year A.D. 138. Hadrian then adopted Arrius Antoninus (afterward the
+Emperor Antoninus Pius), and presented him as his successor to the
+Senators assembled around his bed. At the same time he obliged him to
+adopt L. Commodus Verus, the son of the former Verus, and also M. Annius
+Verus, the future Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Ill health seems now to have
+fatally affected the mind and disposition of Hadrian. He became morose
+and cruel. He put many eminent nobles to death, and is said to have sunk
+into debauchery at his Tiburtine villa. His disease proving incurable,
+he several times attempted suicide; but having removed to Baiae, hoping
+for some relief in that fine climate, he died there July 10th, A.D. 138,
+aged sixty-three. He was buried in the villa of Cicero, near Puteoli.
+When the Senate, enraged at his cruelties in the latter part of his
+life, wished to annul his acts, and would have refused him divine
+honors, Antoninus interposed, and excused his adopted father on the plea
+that ill health had disordered his mind. For this filial conduct he
+received the name of Pius. The Senate not only numbered Hadrian among
+the deities, but ordered temples to be erected in his honor. He left the
+empire prosperous and at peace. During his reign the Senate lost its
+importance in the administration of affairs, since Hadrian supplied its
+place by a _Consistorium Principis_, or council, composed of eminent
+men, presided over by a distinguished lawyer. Hadrian was fond of
+letters and the arts, and adorned every part of his empire with fine
+buildings or useful works. Wherever he traveled he did something for the
+benefit of his subjects.
+
+[Footnote 78: This mausoleum, begun by Hadrian, is now the Castle of St.
+Angelo.]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse of a brass Coin of Antoninus Pius.]
+
+
+REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS, A.D. 138-161.
+
+This excellent man was born at Lanuvium, September 19th, A.D. 86, but
+his family came from the town of Nemausis (Nismes), in Gaul. Soon after
+his accession to the empire he married his daughter Faustina to Marcus
+Aurelius, procured for him the tribunitian and proconsular power from
+the Senate, and made him his associate in the labors of the government.
+His tranquil and prosperous reign is the most pleasing period in the
+history of the Roman Empire. The world enjoyed a general peace, and the
+emperor endeavored, by every wise measure, to secure the prosperity of
+his subjects. Like Numa, to whom he has often been compared, Antoninus
+was the peacemaker between distant nations, who were accustomed to
+submit their differences to him, and to abide implicitly by his award.
+He checked the persecutions to which the Christians had been exposed in
+former reigns, and to him Justin Martyr addressed his apology for
+Christianity. He watched carefully the conduct of the provincial
+governors, and applied the public revenues to founding schools,
+repairing roads and harbors, and encouraging every where industry and
+trade. When Asia and Rhodes were devastated by an earthquake, Antoninus
+expended large sums in relieving the sufferers by that calamity, as well
+as those who were reduced to indigence by the great fires which nearly
+destroyed Carthage, Narbonne, and Antioch, in A.D. 153. He appointed
+teachers of rhetoric in various cities of the empire, conferred honors
+and emoluments upon men of letters, and in A.D. 141 founded a
+charity-school for orphan girls, whom he styled _Puellae Alimentariae
+Faustinianae_, in memory of his wife Faustina, who had died the year
+before. Faustina, however, does not seem to have merited his esteem, and
+the emperor was well acquainted with her faults; yet he generously
+overlooked them while she lived, and upon her death paid unusual honors
+to her memory. His piety, his devotion to the national religion, and his
+various virtues, seem to have won for him universal love and veneration,
+and his successors during the next century assumed the name of Antoninus
+as their worthiest title.
+
+Antoninus made no attempt to extend the boundaries of the empire. The
+barbarous races who were now beginning to swarm upon the frontiers, the
+Germans and the Dacians, were held in check; and although the Brigantes
+made several inroads into Britain, they were defeated by A. Lollius, the
+Legate, in A.D. 141; and a wall of turf was raised beyond the former
+wall built by Agricola to check the incursions of the Caledonians. This
+peaceful reign, however, seems to have increased the general indolence
+of the people, and the martial spirit of the Roman soldiers declined in
+the idleness of their stationary camps. After a reign of twenty-three
+years, Antoninus died, March 7th, A.D. 161, in his villa at Lorium, aged
+seventy-five years.
+
+
+REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 161-180.
+
+He was succeeded by Aurelius, who was born at Rome A.D. 121. This prince
+is known as the Philosopher; and the wish of Plato that philosophers
+might be kings, or kings philosophers, seems to have been fulfilled at
+his accession. Aurelius had been from his youth a lover of truth. His
+morals and his intellect were trained by the purest and wisest men of
+his age. He had studied under Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto, two
+famous rhetoricians, and also under the Stoic philosophers Junius
+Rusticus and Apollonius; and he had been constantly employed by his
+adopted father Antoninus as an associate in all his useful and
+benevolent designs. His health was, however, delicate, and he now
+admitted to a share in the empire his adopted brother, L. Verus, who
+possessed a vigorous constitution, but was addicted to licentious
+pleasures.
+
+The general peace which had prevailed during the reign of Marcus
+Antoninus was forever passed away, and the world was in future to be
+desolated by almost perpetual hostilities. The Parthian king Vologeses
+III. having invaded the eastern provinces, and cut to pieces a Roman
+legion, L. Verus was sent to oppose his advance; but upon arriving at
+Antioch, Verus remained there, plunged in dissipation, while his brave
+lieutenant Avidius Cassius drove back the Parthians, invaded
+Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and penetrated to Babylon. Another
+Roman general conquered Armenia, and restored the legitimate king Soaemus
+to his throne. At the close of the war, Verus, A.D. 166, returned to
+Rome, and triumphed. His army brought the plague with it from the East,
+which now desolated Italy and Rome. Many illustrious men died; but the
+famous physician Galen (Claudius Galenus), who had come from Pergamus to
+Rome, was now enabled to exhibit his uncommon professional skill. This
+pestilence lasted for several years.
+
+Verus died of intemperance A.D. 171, and Aurelius prevailed upon the
+Senate to rank him among the gods. He now marched against the
+Marcomanni, but was defeated in a great battle, and, in order to provide
+a new army, sold the imperial plate and jewels. He now took up a
+position at Sirmium (Sirmich), and endeavored to wear out the barbarians
+by skirmishes and sudden attacks, without venturing far from his
+strong-hold. At length, however, upon one occasion, having been drawn
+into a defile, the Roman army was relieved by a fierce storm of thunder
+and rain, which terrified the barbarians. Tradition attributes this
+sudden storm to the prayers of a Christian legion. The barbarians now
+submitted, and withdrew beyond the Danube.
+
+Soon after, an insurrection broke out in Syria, where Avidius Cassius,
+at the instigation, it is said, of the emperor's wife Faustina, had
+proclaimed himself emperor. But Cassius, by his severity, disgusted his
+own soldiers, and was assassinated by a centurion. Aurelius lamented
+this event, since it deprived him of an opportunity of showing clemency
+to an erring friend. He at once set out for the East, and there freely
+forgave all those who had conspired against him. He took the young
+family of Cassius under his protection, and ordered the papers of that
+officer to be destroyed, lest they might disclose the names of the
+conspirators. Faustina, who had accompanied her husband to Cilicia, died
+soon after, it is said, by her own hand.
+
+It is remarkable that this philosophic emperor should have permitted a
+cruel persecution of the Christians in A.D. 177, perhaps at the
+instigation of the Stoic philosophers--the only blot upon his general
+humanity and benevolence. Among the victims of this persecution was
+Justin Martyr, the author of the Apologies for Christianity, addressed
+to Antoninus, as well as to Aurelius himself. Toward the close of his
+reign, having become convinced of the falseness of the charges made
+against the Christians, Aurelius became once more tolerant and
+philosophic.
+
+In A.D. 176 the emperor triumphed at Rome for his various successes. He
+gave a donation of eight pieces of gold to every citizen, and made his
+son Commodus his colleague. In the mean time the barbarians in the
+interior of Europe, moved by a general impulse, began to press upon the
+frontiers of the empire, and from this time seem never to have ceased
+their inroads until the final destruction of the Roman power. Aurelius
+marched, A.D. 177, to the frontier, defeated the barbarians in various
+engagements, and had perhaps proved the savior and second founder of
+Rome, when he was seized with a fever at Vindobona (Vienna), A.D. 180,
+and died after a few days' illness. He was the last of the Roman
+emperors who labored for the welfare of his people. He was, no doubt,
+the greatest and wisest of them all, and he united the different talents
+of a man of learning, a fine writer, a skillful soldier, and a
+benevolent, judicious ruler. His "Meditations," which have made him
+known to posterity, are among the most delightful productions of the
+human intellect, while his private character seems to have been no less
+attractive than his writings.
+
+
+REIGN OF M. COMMODUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 180-192.
+
+The depraved Commodus succeeded his virtuous father at the age of
+twenty. He had been educated with singular care, but was wholly given up
+to coarse sensuality. The people, however, still hoped that he might be
+worthy of his father, and received him, upon his accession, with loud
+expressions of joy. For a short time he concealed his true disposition;
+but his sister Lucilla, jealous of her brother's wife Crispina, formed a
+conspiracy against him in A.D. 182, and he escaped with difficulty from
+the hand of the assassin. From this moment he threw off all disguise,
+and indulged his natural vices without restraint. He put to death the
+most illustrious men of the time, encouraged informers and false
+accusations, and filled Rome with terror. In the midst of these
+cruelties he often sang, danced, or played the buffoon in public, fought
+as a gladiator in the circus, and ordered the people to worship him as a
+second Hercules. His lieutenant Marcellus, in A.D. 184, defeated the
+Caledonians, after they had passed the long wall of Hadrian, and had
+ravaged the northern part of Britain; and in A.D. 191 an invasion of the
+Frisians was repelled. Commodus, however, paid no attention to the
+affairs of the empire. In A.D. 189 Italy suffered from a pestilence and
+famine, when the people of Rome rose against the emperor's praefect,
+Cleander, and tore him to pieces. Commodus still continued his murders,
+and was at last assassinated by the directions of his mistress, Marcia,
+whose death he had resolved upon. He died December 31st, A.D. 192. The
+Senate ordered his memory to be held infamous, and his body to be
+dragged by iron hooks through the streets, and then to be thrown into
+the Tiber; but his successor Pertinax prevailed that it should be placed
+in the mausoleum of Hadrian. Such was the son of Marcus Aurelius.
+
+[Illustration: Commodus.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Pertinax.]
+
+CHAPTER XLII.
+
+FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.
+
+
+Pertinax, an aged senator of consular rank, and now Praefect of the city,
+was summoned by the conspirators, who came to his house late at night,
+after the murder of Commodus, to ascend the vacant throne. He was one of
+the few friends and ministers of Marcus Aurelius who yet survived, and,
+having filled many important offices, had always been distinguished for
+firmness, prudence, and integrity. The rumor was spread that Commodus
+had died of apoplexy, and that Pertinax had succeeded him; but the
+Praetorian Guards were dissatisfied at his election. The Senate, however,
+confirmed the choice of the conspirators, and Pertinax lived among his
+own order rather as an equal than a master. His manners were simple, his
+mode of life frugal, and he sought to revive the pleasing simplicity of
+the early Republic.
+
+Pertinax administered justice with strictness, released those who had
+been left in prison by Commodus, reformed the finances and introduced
+economy, redivided the uncultivated lands among those who would till
+them, removed oppressive restrictions upon trade, and deserved the
+respect of the wiser portion of his subjects.
+
+But the Praetorians were never reconciled to his rule, and on the 28th of
+March, A.D. 193, eighty-six days after his election, they broke into
+the imperial palace, and struck down the emperor with innumerable blows.
+His head was separated from his body, and, being placed upon a lance,
+was carried in triumph to the Praetorian camp, while the people silently
+lamented the death of this virtuous ruler.
+
+The soldiers, meanwhile, proclaimed from the ramparts of their camp that
+the throne of the world would be sold at auction to the highest bidder.
+Didius Julianus, a wealthy Senator, whose age had not quenched his
+vanity and ambition, offered about a thousand dollars to each man for
+the possession of the prize. He was declared emperor, and, surrounded by
+the armed Praetorians, was carried to the Senate, who were forced to
+accept the selection of the soldiers. But the Senators and the people
+felt deeply the disgrace of their country, and even the Praetorians were
+ashamed of their unworthy choice. Julianus found himself on the throne
+of the world without a friend.
+
+[Illustration: Septimius Severus.]
+
+The armies in the provinces, when they heard of these transactions at
+the capital, rose in revolt, and refused to acknowledge the authority of
+Julian. Clodius Albinus commanded the legions in Britain, Septimius
+Severus those in Pannonia, and Pescennius Niger the army of the East.
+Severus, more active than his competitors, was saluted by his soldiers
+as emperor, and marched rapidly toward Rome. Julian, deserted by the
+Praetorians, was condemned to death by the Senate, and was executed as a
+common criminal after a reign of only sixty-six days. Severus was
+acknowledged as their lawful emperor by the Senate, June 2, A.D. 193,
+and his first act was to disarm the Praetorian Guards and banish them
+from the capital.
+
+He next marched against Niger, and defeated him in two battles, while he
+was also successful in a severe contest with Clodius Albinus at Lyons.
+Both of his competitors were put to death, and Severus, now set free
+from fear of rivalry, began to show the native cruelty of his
+disposition. Forty-one Senators, whom he accused of having favored
+Albinus, were executed, with their wives and children; and many of the
+provincial nobles of Spain and Gaul shared their fate. Yet Severus was
+in many respects a useful ruler; strict in the administration of the
+laws, careful to correct abuses, and restraining his subjects with stern
+impartiality. Peace returned to the provinces, cities were repeopled,
+roads repaired, Rome abounded in provisions, and the people were
+satisfied. Severus changed the constitution of the Praetorian Guards, and
+filled up their ranks with the bravest soldiers of the legions of the
+frontier. These barbarians, he thought, would be able to suppress any
+rebellion that might arise; and he increased the number to fifty
+thousand men. The Praefect of the Praetorians, who had at first been a
+simple soldier, now became the chief minister of the emperor, and was at
+the head of the finances and even of the law. The celebrated lawyer
+Papinian was appointed Praefect after the fall of Plautianus; and several
+great jurisconsults, particularly Paulus and Ulpian, flourished under
+the reign of Severus or his family.
+
+Severus, however, was a military despot, and, despising the feeble
+Senate, assumed both the legislative and the executive power. The
+jurisconsults, in fact, from this reign, begin to treat the emperor as
+the source of all law, the Senate and the people being no longer
+considered in the state. But this arbitrary rule, introduced by Severus,
+is thought to have tended more than any thing else to destroy the vigor
+of the Roman Empire, by leading the people to an abject dependence upon
+their rulers.
+
+The wife of Severus, Julia Domna, a Syrian lady of great beauty and
+various accomplishments, became the mother of two sons, Caracalla and
+Geta, and the emperor hoped that they would prove worthy of the high
+office to which they were born. They soon, however, showed themselves
+incapable of any serious study or employment, and were chiefly
+remarkable for the hatred they bore toward each other. The court was
+already divided into two factions, composed of the adherents of either
+son; and the emperor, who in vain strove to remove their rivalry,
+foresaw that one must fall a victim to the hatred of the other.
+
+In A.D. 208 a war broke out in Britain, and Severus, although now more
+than sixty years of age, and afflicted with the gout, so that he was
+carried on a litter, set out at the head of his army, attended by his
+two sons, and penetrated into the interior of Scotland. This was his
+last enterprise, for he died at York, February 4, A.D. 211. He left his
+empire to his two sons, who returned to Rome, and were acknowledged by
+the Senate and the army.
+
+[Illustration: Caracalla.]
+
+Their discord, however, still continued, and they planned a division of
+the empire, a measure which was then distasteful to all the Romans, and
+which was only prevented from taking place by the tears and entreaties
+of their mother, Julia Domna. Geta, the younger son, who was of a gentle
+disposition, soon after, in A.D. 212, February 27th, was murdered by the
+cruel and relentless Caracalla. Twenty thousand of his friends are said
+to have been put to death at the same time, and his unhappy mother,
+Julia Domna, was forced to receive her guilty son with feigned smiles
+and words of approbation. Remorse, however, fastened upon Caracalla, and
+the shade of Geta haunted him wherever he went. His cruelties now
+redoubled. He put to death Papinian, the Praetorian Praefect, the splendid
+ornament of the Roman bar; and his massacres filled every part of the
+empire with mourning and terror. In A.D. 213 he left the city of Rome,
+and never returned thither again; the rest of his reign was passed in
+the provinces, and wherever he came he indulged himself in endless
+murders, confiscations, and acts of violence. "He was," says Gibbon,
+"the common enemy of mankind." He directed a general massacre of the
+people of Alexandria, who had lampooned him, and viewed the scene from
+a secure post in the Temple of Serapis. To retain the affections of his
+army, he lavished upon them immense sums, the plunder of his empire; and
+he was at length assassinated, March 8, A.D. 217, at the instigation of
+Macrinus, one of the Praetorian Praefects, who had discovered that the
+tyrant had planned his own death.
+
+Macrinus, Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, was elected emperor March 11,
+A.D. 217, and the Senate and the provinces submitted without a murmur.
+But the new emperor was disliked by the nobles on account of his humble
+origin, and soon offended his army by endeavoring to reform their
+discipline. The Empress Julia now withdrew by a voluntary death from the
+sorrow which surrounded her, and the family of Severus became extinct. A
+rebellion broke out in the Syrian army, who proclaimed Bassianus, the
+grandson of Julia Maesa, sister of the late empress, and who assumed the
+name of Antoninus. He pretended that he was the natural son of
+Caracalla. A battle took place, in which Macrinus was defeated, and soon
+after put to death; and Elagabalus, for that is the name under which
+this monster is commonly known, ascended the throne.
+
+He at once plunged into every vice. The sun was worshiped at Emessa
+under the name of Elagabalus, from whence the new emperor derived his
+surname, having been a priest in the temple; and he now introduced the
+lascivious rites of the Syrian deity into the capital of the world. A
+magnificent temple of the god Elagabalus was raised on the Palatine
+Mount, and the grave and dignified nobles of Rome were forced to take
+part in the ceremonies, clothed in long Phoenician tunics.
+
+It would be impossible to describe the vices of this wretched being, who
+seems to have sunk to the very extreme of depravity. His cousin,
+however, Alexander Severus, as if to show that human nature had not
+wholly declined, was amiable, virtuous, and learned. Elagabalus was
+murdered by the Praetorians March 10, A.D. 222, and Alexander placed upon
+the throne.
+
+Alexander Severus seems to have inclined toward the Christian faith,
+which was now very widely extended throughout the empire. He revoked all
+former edicts against the Christians, and ordered the words "Do unto
+others as you would have them do to you" to be inscribed upon his
+palaces and other buildings. The Persian Empire was now arising in new
+strength under the house of the Sassanides, and a war having broken out
+with them, Alexander marched against the Persians, and gained a
+considerable victory. He returned to Rome in triumph, and entered the
+city in a chariot drawn by four elephants. Soon after, the Germans
+having invaded Gaul, he led his army to the defense of the frontier;
+but, while attempting to reform the discipline of the Gallic legions, he
+was assassinated by a band of discontented soldiers, and Maximin, a
+Thracian peasant of great personal strength, who had risen to a high
+command in the army, was raised to the throne.
+
+[Illustration: Alexander Severus.]
+
+Maximin, A.D. 235, began his reign by massacring many of the friends of
+the late emperor, and even all those who showed any regret for his
+death. He was a fierce, ignorant barbarian, but was very successful in
+his wars against the Germans, having ravaged their country, and sent
+great numbers of them to be sold as slaves in Italy. He also defeated
+the Dacians and Sarmatians. But his severities produced a revolt in
+Africa, where the legions proclaimed their proconsul Gordian emperor,
+then in the eightieth year of his age. The Senate now revolted against
+Maximin, and ordered all his friends in Rome to be put to death. Maximin
+now made peace with the barbarians, and marched toward Italy, while, in
+the mean time, Gordian and his son were defeated and slain in Africa.
+The Senate immediately elected Papianus and Balbinus emperors, to whom,
+in order to gratify the people, they joined the younger Gordian, then
+only twelve years of age. Maximin entered Italy and besieged Aquileia,
+but his soldiers, weary of the length of the siege, put him to death,
+A.D. 238. The Goths on the Danube and the Persians in the East now
+assailed the empire, and at the same time the Praetorian Guards murdered
+his two associates, leaving Gordian sole emperor of Rome. Gordian was
+married to the daughter of Misitheus, Praefect of the Praetorians, an
+excellent minister and commander. Together they marched to the East,
+and defeated the Persians under their king Sapor, in various
+engagements. Misitheus now died, and Gordian appointed the Arab Philip
+his prime minister. Sapor was again defeated; but the Arab conspired
+against Gordian, his benefactor, who was assassinated in A.D. 244.
+
+Philip, having made peace with the Persians, returned to Rome, where he
+won the favor of the people by his mild conduct. In his reign the
+secular games were celebrated, it being reckoned one thousand years
+since the foundation of the city. Philip ruled with mildness, and was an
+enemy to persecution. In A.D. 249, however, the Illyrian army revolted,
+and proclaimed their commander, Trajanus Decius, emperor, who defeated
+Philip near Verona, and put him to death. His son, who had remained at
+Rome, was slain by the Praetorian Guards.
+
+In A.D. 250 the Goths invaded the empire. These fierce barbarians came
+from the north of Europe, and were among the chief instruments of the
+fall of Rome. Decius, who does not seem to have wanted skill and
+courage, was finally defeated and slain by them, together with his son.
+Decius is remembered as one of the most cruel persecutors of the
+Christians. The innocent victims of his rage were subjected to torture,
+driven to hide in the wilderness among rocks and forests, and were glad
+to live among the wild beasts, more humane than man. The Bishop of Rome,
+Fabian, the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, and many more eminent in
+the Church, suffered from the unrelenting severity of this persecutor.
+
+A son of Decius, Hostilianus, together with Gallus, an experienced
+soldier, were now made emperors. They concluded a disgraceful, but
+probably necessary peace with the Goths. But Hostilianus soon after
+died, and Gallus was defeated and slain by AEmilianus, who was himself
+assassinated, and Valerian, the Censor, in A.D. 253, was made emperor. A
+very high character is given of this ruler, whose reign, however, was
+filled with disasters. Having joined his son Gallienus with him,
+Valerian vainly sought to repel the attacks of innumerable enemies on
+every side of the empire--the Goths, the Franks, the Scythians, and the
+Persians. In a campaign against the latter Valerian was taken prisoner,
+and for nine years languished in captivity, his unnatural son making no
+effort for his liberation.
+
+The Allemanni, meanwhile, had entered Italy, ravaged its northern
+territory, and even threatened Rome. They withdrew, loaded with plunder.
+To gain allies among the barbarians, Gallienus now married the daughter
+of the king of the Marcomanni. Every part of the empire seems now to
+have been laid open to the invaders. Greece was ravaged by the Goths;
+the famous Temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned by them, together with
+that fine city; and Sapor, king of the Persians, overran Syria and Asia.
+He was, however, finally repelled by the brave Odenatus, who, with his
+queen Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra.
+
+Valerian died in captivity, while a crowd of usurpers rose in arms
+against the weak Gallienus. There were nineteen pretenders to the throne
+according to Gibbon, but this period is usually known as that of the
+Thirty Tyrants. This melancholy period was also marked by a pestilence,
+which raged for fifteen years in every province. Five thousand persons
+are said to have died daily at Rome for some time; cities were
+depopulated, and the number of the human species must have sensibly
+declined. A famine preceded and attended the pestilence, earthquakes
+were common, and the third century is, no doubt, the most melancholy
+period in the history of Europe.
+
+Gallienus was murdered in A.D. 268, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius
+Claudius, who died of a pestilence which had broken out in his army in
+Egypt. Aurelian, a native of Pannonia, was the next emperor. His reign
+lasted four years and nine months, but was filled with remarkable
+events. He abandoned Dacia to the Goths, defeated the Alemanni, and
+drove them out of Italy. But he foresaw the danger of future invasions,
+and surrounded Rome with new walls about twenty-one miles in extent. In
+A.D. 272 he marched against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who ventured to
+defy the power of Rome. This illustrious woman was not only learned,
+beautiful, and an agreeable writer, but governed the East for five years
+with discretion and success. Aurelian was amazed at her warlike
+preparations upon the fall of Palmyra, and treated her beautiful city
+with lenity; but the Palmyrenians having rebelled, the city was taken by
+storm, and its people put to death. The ruins of Palmyra are still among
+the most remarkable of the ancient world.
+
+Aurelian now returned to Rome to celebrate his triumph. The spoils of
+every climate were borne before him; his captives were from Germany,
+Syria, and Egypt, and among them were the Emperor Tetricus and the
+beautiful Zenobia, bound with fetters of gold. A whole day was consumed
+in the passage of the triumphal procession through the streets of Rome.
+But Aurelian, who was illiterate, unpolished, and severe, failed to win
+the regard of his people, and was plainly more at his ease at the head
+of his army than in the cultivated society of Rome. He returned,
+therefore, to the East, where he died, as was usual with so many of the
+emperors, by the hand of an assassin, in A.D. 275. He restored vigor to
+the empire, and preserved it from instant destruction.
+
+The army, filled with sorrow for the loss of the emperor, revenged his
+death by tearing his assassin in pieces; and they then wrote a
+respectful letter to the Senate, asking the Senators to select his
+successor. The Senate, however, passed a decree that the army should
+name the new emperor. The soldiers, in their turn, refused, and thus for
+eight months an interregnum prevailed while this friendly contest
+continued. At last the Senate appointed the virtuous Tacitus, who
+claimed a descent from his namesake, the famous historian. Tacitus,
+however, who was seventy years old, sank under the hardships of his
+first campaign, and died A.D. 276, at Tyania, in Cappadocia.
+
+His brother Florian then ascended the throne, but was defeated and put
+to death by Probus, the best soldier of the age, who, in six years, once
+more repelled the barbarians from every part of the empire. He delivered
+Gaul from the ravages of the Germans, pursued them across the Rhine, and
+every where defeated them. He suppressed, also, several insurrections,
+and employed his soldiers in various useful works. But at length, weary
+of these labors, they put Probus to death, A.D. 282.
+
+Carus, the next emperor, was singularly frugal in his mode of life. When
+the Persian embassadors visited him in his tent they found him sitting
+upon the grass, clothed in a coarse robe, and eating his supper of bacon
+and hard pease. Carus gained many victories over the Persians, but died
+suddenly in A.D. 283. His two sons, Carinus and Namerian, succeeded him,
+but were soon assassinated, giving place to the more famous Diocletian.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro.]
+
+CHAPTER XLIII.
+
+FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
+
+
+Diocletian began to reign A.D. 284, and once more revived the vigor of
+the declining empire, which now seemed more than ever to depend for its
+existence upon the qualities of a single ruler. It seems, indeed, to
+have required an intellect of no common order to preserve the unity of
+the empire, composed of so many different nations, of territories
+separated by such vast distances, and threatened on every side by
+innumerable foes; but, of all his contemporaries, Diocletian was best
+suited to this task. His parents had been the slaves of a Roman Senator,
+and he had himself risen from this low station to the highest positions
+in the army. He acted with generosity toward the servants of the former
+emperor, not only suffering them to remain in safety under his rule, but
+even to retain their offices. Finding the empire too large to be
+governed by a single ruler, he selected as his colleague Maximian, a
+brave, but fierce and ignorant soldier, who, like himself, had risen to
+a high rank in the army. Maximian, however, always admitted the
+intellectual superiority of Diocletian. The emperor assumed the title of
+Jovius, and Maximian that of Herculius. Diocletian also appointed two
+Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, to aid him in the defense of the
+empire, which was divided between the four princes. Gaul, Spain, and
+Britain were intrusted to the care of Constantius, Italy and Africa to
+Maximian, Galerius commanded the legions on the Danube, while Diocletian
+reserved for himself Thrace, Egypt, and Asia. The four rulers seemed to
+have labored together in harmony, but the establishment of four courts
+in different parts of the empire obliged them to increase the taxes, and
+every province suffered under new impositions. Even Italy, which had
+always been favored in this particular, was now heavily burdened, and
+every where lands were abandoned and left uncultivated because their
+owners could not pay the taxes and impositions. In A.D. 287 a rebellion
+occurred in Gaul, which was suppressed by Maximian; soon after,
+Carausius, having become master of Britain, and possessing a
+considerable fleet, defied the power of the emperor; but when
+Constantius was appointed Caesar he prepared to reduce the island to
+subjection. In A.D. 294 Carausius was put to death by Allectus, a new
+usurper. Constantius now crossed the Channel and recovered the island,
+which, after a separation of ten years, was once more reunited to the
+empire. During this reign the Goths, Vandals, and other northern
+barbarians wasted their strength in destructive contests with each
+other; but whenever, in intervals of peace, they invaded the Roman
+territory, they were driven back by the valor of the two Caesars.
+Maximian, in the mean time, subdued a revolt in Africa; and Diocletian
+himself suppressed one of those seditions to which Egypt was constantly
+exposed. The emperor besieged Alexandria for eight months, cut off the
+aqueducts which conveyed water to the city, and, having taken it, put
+many thousands of its citizens to death. One remarkable edict which he
+now published forbade the study of alchemy in Egypt, and ordered all
+books upon that subject to be burned. He also made a treaty with the
+Nubians, in order to protect the frontiers of Egypt.
+
+It gives us, indeed, a clear view of the immense extent of the Roman
+power when we reflect that its commanders were, almost at the same
+moment, struggling successfully against its enemies in Africa, Britain,
+Germany, and the East. A war with Persia now arose, in which Galerius
+was at first defeated, A.D. 296. But the next year he passed through
+the mountains of Armenia at the head of twenty-five thousand chosen men,
+and, having surprised the Persian army in the night, slaughtered great
+numbers of them; the booty, too, was immense. A barbarian soldier,
+finding a bag of shining leather filled with pearls, threw away the
+contents and preserved the bag; and the uncultivated savages gathered a
+vast spoil from the tents of the Persians. Galerius, having taken
+prisoners several of the wives and children of the Persian monarch
+Narses, treated them with such tenderness and respect that Narses made
+peace. Mesopotamia was now added to the empire, being taken from the
+King of Armenia, who received in its place a considerable Persian
+province.
+
+The two emperors returned to Rome and celebrated their triumph November
+20, A.D. 303, the last spectacle of that kind which the world has
+witnessed. Romulus, more than a thousand years before, had ascended the
+Capitoline Mount on foot, bearing in his arms the spoil of Acron, and
+his example had been followed by a long line of Roman heroes. In the
+last triumph, the two emperors were attended by the spoils of Africa and
+Britain, of the East and the West.
+
+During this reign also occurred the last persecution of the Christians,
+who were soon to become the masters of the empire. It began A.D. 303,
+and continued for ten years; and such multitudes of the Christians
+perished that the emperors boasted that they had wholly extirpated the
+sect!
+
+Diocletian introduced an Eastern pomp into his court, assumed the titles
+of "Lord and Emperor," and wore a diadem set with pearls. His robes were
+of silk and gold. He required his subjects to prostrate themselves
+before him, and to adore him as a divinity.
+
+In A.D. 305, like Charles V., he resolved to abdicate his power, having
+persuaded his colleague Maximian to do the same: he lived in retirement
+for nine years, and amused himself cultivating his garden. "I wish you
+would come to Salona" (Spalatro), he wrote to Maximian, who sought to
+draw him from his retirement, "and see the cabbages I have planted: you
+would never again mention to me the name of empire." But the close of
+his life was embittered by the ingratitude of Constantine and Licinius,
+and the dangers of the empire. It is not known whether he died by
+disease or by his own hand.
+
+Upon the abdication of Diocletian and his colleague, the two Caesars,
+Constantius and Galerius, assumed the title of Augustus. Constantius
+retained his former provinces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He was
+moderate, amiable, and lived with Roman simplicity. Galerius, on the
+other hand, was haughty, severe, and ambitious. He had married a
+daughter of Diocletian, and hoped that the death of Constantius would
+soon leave him the sole emperor of Rome. The two emperors now appointed
+two Caesars, Maximin and Severus, the first nephew to Galerius, and the
+latter devoted to his interests. Constantius died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 306, and his son Constantine was proclaimed Augustus by the
+soldiers.
+
+[Illustration: Constantine and Fausta.]
+
+This prince, afterward Constantine the Great, was the son of Constantius
+and Helena, who was said to have been the daughter of an inn-keeper.
+When Constantius became Caesar he divorced Helena, and her son was, in a
+measure, neglected. Constantine, however, soon distinguished himself as
+a soldier, and won the affection of the army. In appearance he was tall,
+dignified, and pleasing; he excelled in all military exercises, was
+modest, prudent, and well informed. He soon attracted the jealousy of
+Galerius, who would have put him to death had he not escaped to his
+father in Britain; and now Galerius refused to allow him any higher
+title than that of Caesar.
+
+Maxentius, the son of the abdicated emperor Maximian, was also
+proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and prevailed upon his father once
+more to ascend the throne. Severus, who marched against them, was
+defeated and put to death; and Constantine now married Fausta, the
+daughter of Maximian. Galerius led a large army from the East, but was
+repulsed from Rome and retreated, leaving Maximian and his son masters
+of the capital. Galerius next associated Licinius with him in his
+power, and there were now six sovereigns upon the throne.
+
+In A.D. 310, however, Maximian, having conspired against the life of
+Constantine, was put to death; Galerius died the next year; in A.D. 312
+Maxentius fell before the arms of Constantine, and was drowned in the
+Tiber while attempting to make his escape. It was during this campaign
+that Constantine is said to have seen the miraculous cross in the
+heavens.
+
+The Roman Senate paid unusual honors to Constantine; games and festivals
+were instituted in memory of his victory over Maxentius, and a triumphal
+arch was erected, whose imperfect architecture shows the decline of
+ancient taste. The Arch of Trajan was stripped of its ornaments to adorn
+that of Constantine.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Constantine.]
+
+The new emperor introduced good order into the administration of the
+West, revived the authority of the Senate, and disbanded the Praetorian
+Guards; he revoked the edicts against the Christians, and paid unusual
+deference to the bishops and saints of the Church. The Emperor Licinius,
+who had married his sister, in A.D. 313 defeated and put to death
+Maximin, so that the empire was now shared between Constantine and
+Licinius.
+
+The former now summoned a council of bishops at Arles to suppress the
+heresy of the Donatists, but, before it met, was forced to march against
+Licinius, who had conspired against him. Licinius was defeated in two
+battles, and forced to give up a large part of his dominions to his
+conqueror. Constantine next defeated the Goths and Sarmatae. Licinius
+had assumed the defense of Paganism, while Constantine raised the
+standard of the Cross. The last struggle between them took place near
+Adrianople; the Pagan army was defeated and put to flight, and in A.D.
+324 Licinius was put to death. Thus Constantine reigned alone over the
+empire of Augustus.
+
+At the famous Council of Nice, which met in A.D. 325, the doctrine of
+the Trinity was established, Arianism condemned, and at the same time
+the emperor was, in effect, acknowledged to be the spiritual head of the
+Church. But an event now occurred which must have destroyed forever the
+happiness of Constantine. He was induced to put to death his virtuous
+son Crispus, through the false accusations of his wife Fausta, and when
+afterward he discovered the falseness of the charges made against
+Crispus, he directed Fausta and her accomplices to be slain.
+
+Rome, which had so long been the capital of the world, was now to
+descend from that proud position and become a provincial city. When
+Constantine returned to Rome after the Council of Nice, he found himself
+assailed with insults and execrations. The Senate and the people of the
+capital saw with horror the destroyer of their national faith, and they
+looked upon Constantine as accursed by the gods. The execution of his
+wife and son soon after increased the ill feeling against the emperor,
+and Constantine probably resolved to abandon a city upon which he had
+bestowed so many favors, and which had repaid him with such ingratitude.
+He was conscious, too, that Rome, seated in the heart of Italy, was no
+longer a convenient capital for his empire, and he therefore resolved to
+build a new city on the site of ancient Byzantium. The Bosphorus, a
+narrow strait, connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora; and here,
+on a triangular piece of ground, inclosing on one side an excellent
+harbor, Constantine laid the foundations of his capital. It was situated
+in the forty-first degree of latitude, possessed a temperate climate,
+and a fertile territory around it; while, being placed on the confines
+of both Europe and Asia, it commanded the two divisions of the empire.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus.]
+
+Constantinople was adorned with all the architectural elegance of the
+age, but the arts of sculpture and of decoration had so declined that
+Constantine was forced to rob the cities of Greece of their finest works
+in order to supply the deficiencies of his own artists: Athens and Asia
+were despoiled to adorn his semi-barbarous capital. The city was
+provided with a forum, in which was placed a column of porphyry upon a
+white marble base, in all one hundred and twenty feet high, upon which
+stood a bronze figure of Apollo. A hippodrome, or circus of great size,
+and the baths and pleasure-grounds, recalled the memory of those of
+Rome. Schools and theatres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen
+palaces, and a great number of magnificent private houses, added to the
+splendor of the new city. Constantine designed, it is said, to have
+called his capital the SECOND OR NEW ROME, but his own name has always
+been preferred.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Constantinople.]
+
+Having thus provided a capital, Constantine next began to form a new
+constitution for his empire; he established, therefore, a complete
+despotism, all the power being lodged in the emperor, and all honors and
+titles being conferred by him alone. The name of Consul was still
+preserved, these officers being yearly appointed by the emperor; but we
+now notice the titles of _Count_ and _Duke_ joined with those of
+Quaestors and Proconsuls. All the civil magistrates were taken from the
+legal profession. The law was now the most honorable of the professions,
+and the law school at Berytus, in Phoenicia, had flourished since the
+reign of Alexander Severus.
+
+The Roman Empire was divided into four great praefectures, which were
+themselves subdivided into dioceses and provinces. The praefectures were
+named that of the East, of Illyricum, of Italy, and of Gaul. A Praetorian
+Praefect had charge of each praefecture, and regulated its civil
+government; took care of the roads, ports, granaries, manufactures,
+coinage; was the supreme legal magistrate, from whose decision there was
+no appeal. Rome and Constantinople had their own Praefects, whose courts
+took the place of those of the ancient Praetors, while a considerable
+police force preserved the quiet of each city. The magistrates of the
+empire were divided into three classes, the Illustrissimi, or
+illustrious; the Spectabiles, or respectable; and the Clarissimi, or the
+honorable.
+
+Constantine also made Christianity the established religion of the
+state, and appropriated a large portion of the revenues of the cities to
+the support of the churches and the clergy. His standing army was very
+large, but the ranks were now filled chiefly by barbarians, the Roman
+youth having lost all taste for arms. It is said the young men of Italy
+were in the habit of cutting off the fingers of the right hand in order
+to unfit themselves for military service.
+
+In order to support this extensive system, Constantine was forced to
+impose heavy taxes upon his people. Every year the emperor subscribed
+with his own hand, in purple ink, the _indiction_, or tax levy of each
+diocese, which was set up in its principal city, and when this proved
+insufficient, an additional tax, or _superindiction_, was imposed.
+Lands, cattle, and slaves were all heavily taxed, and the declining
+agriculture of the empire was finally ruined by the exorbitant demands
+of the state. In Campania alone, once the most fertile part of Italy,
+one eighth of the whole province lay uncultivated, and the condition of
+Gaul seems to have been no better. Besides this, merchants,
+manufacturers, mechanics, and citizens were taxed beyond their power of
+endurance, while those who failed to pay were shut up in prison. Every
+fourth year these taxes on industry were levied, a period to which the
+people looked forward with terror and lamentation. Gifts were also
+demanded from the cities or provinces on various occasions, such as the
+accession of an emperor, the birth of an emperor's heir, the free gift
+of the city of Rome, for example, being fixed at about three hundred
+thousand dollars; and, in fine, the imperial despotism reduced the
+people to want, and hastened, even more than the inroads of the
+barbarians, the destruction of civil society.
+
+Constantine in his old age adopted the luxury and pomp which Diocletian
+introduced from the East; he wore false hair of various colors carefully
+arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of silk embroidered with
+flowers of gold. His family, at an earlier period, consisted of Crispus,
+a son by his first wife Minervina, and the three sons of Fausta,
+Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. Besides these there were three
+daughters. Crispus, however, who was beloved by the people and the army,
+excited the jealousy of Fausta. Constantine was led to believe that his
+son was engaged in a conspiracy against his life, and Crispus was
+executed by his father's orders, together with Caesar Licinius, the son
+of Constantine's favorite sister. Helena, the aged mother of
+Constantine, undertook to avenge her grandson. Fausta was finally proved
+to be unfaithful to her husband, and put to death, with many of her
+friends and followers. These fearful scenes within the palace recalled
+to the Roman people the memory of Nero and Caligula.
+
+The three sons of Fausta were now the heirs of the throne, and, with
+their two cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were carefully
+instructed by Christian professors, Greek philosophers, and Roman
+jurisconsults, the emperor himself teaching them the science of
+government and of man. They also studied the art of war in defending the
+frontiers of the empire; but no important war disturbed the last
+fourteen years of this reign. Constantine reigned thirty years, the
+longest period of any since Augustus; and he died May 22, A.D. 337, at
+his palace at Nicomedia, aged sixty-four years.
+
+Constantine, although professing the Christian faith, was not baptized
+until a short time before his death, when he received that solemn rite
+with many professions of penitence, and of a desire to live in future
+according to the precepts of religion. He seems to have possessed many
+excellent qualities, was brave, active, and untiring, ruled with
+firmness, and gave a large portion of his time to the cares of state.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Julian the Apostate.]
+
+CHAPTER XLIV.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, A.D.
+476.
+
+
+The three sons of the late emperor, Constantine, Constantius, and
+Constans, as soon as their father was dead, put to death their two
+cousins, Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, with many more of their relatives;
+only Gallus and Julian, the children of Julius Constantius, being left
+alive. They then divided the empire, A.D. 337, Constantine, the elder,
+retaining the new capital, Constans receiving the western provinces,
+while to Constantius was left Syria and the East. Sapor, king of Persia,
+invaded the Eastern provinces, and defeated the Romans in various
+battles. Meanwhile a quarrel broke out between Constantine and Constans,
+and the former, having invaded his brother's provinces, was defeated and
+slain, A.D. 350. Ten years afterward Constans was himself put to death
+by Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who at once assumed the name of
+emperor. Constantius marched against him, but found that Vetranio,
+praefect of Illyricum, had joined him, instigated by the Princess
+Constantina. He finally, however, defeated Magnentius, and deposed the
+aged Vetranio, and thus became the master of Rome. Having recalled
+Gallus and Julian from banishment, the emperor gave them the title of
+Caesars. Gallus proved unfit for public affairs, while Julian won the
+esteem of all men by his conduct and valor. He drove the Germans out of
+Gaul, which they had invaded, and even crossed the Rhine, in imitation
+of Julius Caesar.
+
+Constantius now became jealous of the rising fame of Julian, who was
+beloved by the Western legions, and commanded him to send the finest
+part of his army to the East. Julian prepared to obey, but the soldiers
+rose in revolt, proclaiming him Julian Augustus. He sent messengers to
+the emperor demanding the recognition of his election; but war could not
+long be averted. Julian abjured Christianity, which he had hitherto
+professed, together with his allegiance to the emperor, and led a small
+army of well-chosen soldiers against his rival. Meantime Constantius, in
+A.D. 361, November 3d, died of a fever in Syria, while Julian entered
+Constantinople December 11th, amid the applause of the people. He was
+acknowledged emperor. He was now in his thirty-second year, in many
+particulars the most remarkable of the second Flavian family.
+
+Julian had been educated by the Platonic philosophers, and resolved to
+restore the ancient form of religion. He sacrificed to the pagan gods,
+rebuilt their temples, revived the practice of augury, or divination,
+and vainly strove to impose upon the human mind a superstition which it
+had just thrown off. In order to mortify the Christians, he resolved to
+rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and restore the Jews to their ancient
+seat. But some natural phenomenon interposed; the workmen were driven
+away by balls of fire, and Julian abandoned his design.
+
+Except this unphilosophical hostility toward the Christians, whose faith
+he had once professed, Julian seems to have made a sincere attempt to
+improve the condition of his people. He lived with frugality, rewarded
+merit, and encouraged learning, except where it was employed in the
+defense of Christianity. He was also successful in his wars against the
+Germans and the Persians, but at length was defeated by the latter, and
+was killed A.D. 363, June 26th.
+
+Julian affected in his dress and manners the rudeness and indifference
+of a philosopher, was free from vice, possessed considerable learning,
+and wrote a work of some value, in which he compared and studied the
+characters of the long line of his predecessors.
+
+Jovian was now proclaimed emperor by the Eastern army, and concluded a
+dishonorable peace with the Persians. He next published an edict
+restoring Christianity, but was found dead in his bed, A.D. 364.
+
+Valentinian was next chosen emperor, who gave the Eastern provinces to
+his brother Valens. He made Milan the seat of his own government, while
+Valens reigned at Constantinople; and the empire was from this time
+divided into the Eastern and the Western. The whole of the Western world
+was distressed by the invasion of barbarous tribes, and Valentinian now
+made his son Gratian his heir, in order to remove all doubt as to the
+succession. The Saxon pirates, meantime, harassed all the coasts of
+Gaul, while Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots. Theodosius,
+however, defeated them, and was soon after sent to quell an insurrection
+in Africa. This he succeeded in doing, when Valentinian died suddenly,
+A.D. 375.
+
+Valens, his brother, meantime had suppressed a rebellion in the East,
+led by Procopius; and then, having become an Arian, commenced a severe
+persecution of the orthodox, of whom no fewer than eighty ecclesiastics
+were put to death for supporting the election of a bishop of their own
+faith at Constantinople. Valens also succeeded in repelling the attacks
+of the Persians.
+
+In the West Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian and
+Valentinian II. The brave Theodosius, meanwhile, whose valor had
+preserved the peace of the nation, was executed by order of Gratian, and
+soon after the Huns appeared upon the Danube. These savages are thought
+to have entered Europe from Tartary. Their faces were artificially
+flattened and their beards plucked out. They left the cultivation of
+their fields to the women or slaves, and devoted their lives to warfare.
+A wandering race, they built no cities nor houses, and never slept
+beneath a roof. They lived upon horseback. The Huns first attacked their
+fellow-barbarians, the Ostrogoths, and made a fearful carnage, putting
+all the women and children to death.
+
+The Gothic nation now begged permission from the Romans to cross the
+Danube, and settle within the Roman territory. Their request was
+granted, upon condition that they should surrender all their arms; but
+this condition was imperfectly fulfilled. The celebrated Bishop Ulphilas
+about this time converted the Goths to Arianism, invented a Gothic
+alphabet, and infused among the Goths a hatred for the Catholic faith,
+which served to increase their zeal in all their future conflicts with
+the Romans. Ill-treated by the Roman commissioners who had been sent by
+the Emperor Valens to superintend their settlement, the Goths marched
+against Constantinople. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid, and the latter,
+although his own dominions were harassed by the Germans, marched to the
+aid of his uncle, but died at Sirmium. Valens encountered Fritigern, the
+Gothic leader, near Adrianople, in A.D. 378, and was defeated and slain.
+Nearly the whole of the Roman army was destroyed upon this fatal field.
+
+Gratian now chose as his colleague Theodosius, the son of the former
+brave commander of that name, and Theodosius for a time restored the
+Roman empire. He defeated the Goths, won their affections by his
+clemency, and induced them to protect the frontiers of the Danube.
+Gratian was defeated and put to death, A.D. 383, by a usurper, Maximus,
+who also deprived Valentinian II. of his province of Italy. Theodosius,
+however, defeated the usurper in A.D. 388, and generously restored
+Valentinian to his throne. Valentinian was murdered by a Frank,
+Arbogastes, in A.D. 392, but Theodosius marched against him, and
+defeated and destroyed the rebels Arbogastes and Eugenius, A.D. 394.
+
+Theodosius the Great, who had thus reunited the empire under his own
+sway, belonged to the orthodox faith, and sought to suppress Arianism,
+as well as many other heresies which, had crept into the Christian
+Church. He was a prudent ruler, and resisted successfully the inroads of
+the barbarians. He divided his empire between his two sons, Honorius and
+Arcadius, the former becoming Emperor of the West, the latter, who was
+the elder, succeeding his father at Constantinople; and Theodosius soon
+after died, lamented by his subjects. Rufinus, who became the chief
+minister of Arcadius, oppressed and plundered the Eastern empire. He was
+universally hated by the people. Stilicho, on the other hand, who also
+became the chief minister of Honorius, was a very different character.
+He was a brave and active commander, and restored the former glory of
+the Roman arms. His chief opponent was the famous Alaric, who now united
+the Gothic forces under his own command, and, having penetrated into
+Greece, ravaged and desolated that unhappy country. The barbarians
+plundered Athens, Corinth, Sparta, and Argos; and those cities, once so
+renowned for valor, seemed to offer him no resistance, so fallen was the
+ancient spirit of the Greeks. Stilicho, however, pursued Alaric into
+Elis, and would, perhaps, have totally destroyed the barbarians had not
+the feeble Arcadius not only made peace with Alaric, but appointed him
+to the command of Illyricum. Alaric, not long after, invaded Italy, but
+was defeated by his rival. In A.D. 403 he again invaded Italy, and was
+induced to retreat by a considerable bribe.
+
+The Emperor Honorius removed from Rome to Ravenna, where he believed
+himself more secure; and when a new horde of barbarians invaded Italy in
+A.D. 406, and had besieged Florence, they were totally defeated and
+destroyed by Stilicho. A portion of the invaders escaped into Gaul,
+where they committed great ravages, until Constantine, the governor of
+Britain, was proclaimed emperor, who wrested Gaul and Spain from the
+dominion of Honorius. This weak prince, in A.D. 408, consented to the
+murder of Stilicho. His new minister, Olympius, directed the slaughter
+of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy, a cruelty which was
+fearfully avenged.
+
+Alaric, the scourge of Rome, marched into Italy, and in A.D. 408
+besieged the capital. Pestilence and famine soon raged within the walls
+of Rome, until the Senate purchased a respite from their calamities by
+an enormous ransom. Honorius refused to confirm the treaty, and the next
+year Alaric once more appeared before the city. He took possession of
+Ostia, the port of Rome, reduced the Senate to surrender, and proclaimed
+Attalus emperor. Honorius still refusing to yield to his demands, Alaric
+resolved to punish Rome for the vices of its emperor. The sack of that
+city now followed, one of the most fearful tragedies in history.
+
+No foreign enemy had appeared before the gates of Rome since the
+invasion of Hannibal, until Alaric made his successful inroad into
+Italy. The city still retained all that magnificence with which it had
+been invested by the emperors. The Colosseum, the baths, the aqueducts,
+the palaces of the Senators, the public gardens, and the ancient
+temples, still remained; but its people were lost in luxury and vice.
+Learning was no longer respected among them, the gamester or the cook
+being more esteemed than philosophers or poets; and the luxurious
+Senators passed their lives in frivolous and degrading amusements. The
+indolent people were maintained by a daily distribution of bread, baked
+in the public ovens; and oil, wine, and bacon were also provided for
+them during a part of the year. The public baths were open to the
+people, and for a small copper coin they might enter those scenes of
+luxury where the walls were incrusted with precious marble, and
+perpetual streams of hot water flowed from silver tubes. From the bath
+they passed to the Circus, where, although the combats of gladiators had
+been suppressed by Christian princes, a succession of amusements was
+still provided. In this manner the luxurious nobles and people of Rome
+passed their tranquil, inglorious lives.
+
+The wealth of the capital was such as might well attract the barbarous
+invader. The palaces of the Senators were filled with gold and silver
+ornaments, and the churches had been enriched by the contributions of
+pious worshipers. Many of the nobles possessed estates which produced
+several hundred thousand dollars a year, and the wealth of the world was
+gathered within the walls of its capital.
+
+We have no means of estimating accurately the population of Rome. Its
+walls embraced a circuit of twenty-one miles, and it is probable that
+nearly a million of people were contained within the walls and the
+suburbs.
+
+Such was the condition of Rome when it was about to fall before the arms
+of the barbarians. August 24th, A.D. 410, Alaric approached the city,
+and the gates being opened to him by some Gothic slaves, his troops
+began at night a fearful scene of pillage and destruction. Men, women,
+and children were involved in a general massacre; nobles and plebeians
+suffered under a common fate. The Goths, as they entered, set fire to
+the houses in order to light their path, and the flames consumed a large
+part of the city. Great numbers of the citizens were driven away in
+hordes to be sold as slaves; others escaped to Africa, or to the islands
+on the coast of Italy, where the Goths, having no ships, were unable to
+follow them. But Alaric, who was an Arian, spared the churches of Rome,
+and was anxious to save the city from destruction. From this time,
+however, A.D. 410, began that rapid decay which soon converted Rome into
+a heap of ruins.
+
+Alaric, after six days given to plunder, marched out of the city, to the
+southern part of Italy, where he died. His body was buried under the
+waters of a rivulet, which was turned from its course in order to
+prepare his tomb; and, the waters being once more led back to their
+channel, the captives who had performed the labor were put to death,
+that the Romans might never discover the remains of their Gothic
+scourge.
+
+The brother of Alaric, Adolphus, who succeeded him, was married to the
+Princess Placidia, and now became the chief ally of Honorius. He
+restored Gaul to the empire, but was murdered while upon an expedition
+into Spain. Wallia, the next Gothic king, reduced all Spain and the
+eastern part of Gaul under the yoke of the Visigoths. The empire of the
+West was now rapidly dismembered. The Franks and Burgundians took
+possession of Gaul. Britain, too, was from this time abandoned by the
+Romans, and was afterward, in A.D. 448, overrun and conquered by the
+Angles and the Saxons, and thus the two great races, the English and the
+French, began.
+
+Arcadius, the Eastern emperor, governed by his minister, the eunuch
+Eutropius, and by the Empress Eudoxia, was led into many cruelties; and
+St. Chrysostom, the famous bishop and orator, was one of the illustrious
+victims of their persecutions. Arcadius died in A.D. 408, and was
+succeeded by the young Theodosius, who was controlled in all his
+measures by his sister Pulcheria, and for forty years Pulcheria ruled
+the East with uncommon ability. Honorius died in A.D. 423, when
+Valentinian III., son of Placidia, his sister, was made Emperor of the
+West. He was wholly governed by his mother, and thus Placidia and
+Pulcheria ruled over the civilized world.
+
+The Vandals, who had settled in the province of Andalusia, in Spain,
+were invited into Africa by Count Boniface, who had been led into this
+act of treachery by the intrigues of his rival AEtius. Genseric, the
+Vandal king, conquered Africa, although Boniface, repenting of his
+conduct, endeavored to recover the province; and thus Italy was now
+threatened on the south by the Vandal power in Africa.
+
+The Huns, meantime, who had been detained upon the upper side of the
+Danube, now crossed that river, being united under the control of
+Attila, and became the terror of the civilized world. Attila first
+threatened an attack upon the Eastern empire, but at length turned his
+arms against the West. He was defeated by AEtius and the Visigoths in
+A.D. 451, but the next year he invaded Italy, demanded the Princess
+Honoria in marriage, and destroyed many of the Italian cities. He spared
+the city of Rome, however, and finally died in A.D. 453. His death alone
+saved the empire from complete ruin.
+
+Valentinian III., who had put to death the brave commander AEtius, was
+murdered by the patrician Maximus in A.D. 455. The Vandals now besieged
+and plundered Rome, and sold many thousands of the citizens as slaves.
+Avitus, a Gaul, next became emperor by the influence of Theodoric, king
+of the Visigoths, but was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, and was
+followed by Majorian, a man of merit, who endeavored to reform the
+nation. He died in A.D. 461. Count Ricimer then declared Severus
+emperor, but was forced to apply for aid against the Vandals to the
+court of Constantinople, where Leo was now emperor. Leo appointed
+Anthemius to the throne of the West, and sent an army against the
+Vandals in Africa, which was totally defeated. Ricimer then deposed
+Anthemius, and declared Olybrius emperor; but both Ricimer and Olybrius
+died in A.D. 472. Leo next appointed Julius Nepos his colleague.
+Glycerius, an obscure soldier, made an effort to obtain the throne, but
+yielded to Nepos, and became Bishop of Salona. Orestes, who had
+succeeded Count Ricimer as commander of the barbarian mercenaries,
+deprived Nepos of his throne; and Nepos, having fled into Dalmatia, was
+executed by his old rival Glycerius.
+
+Orestes gave the throne to his son Romulus, to whom he also gave the
+title of Augustus, which was afterward changed by common consent to
+Augustulus. But Odoacer, the leader of the German tribes, put Orestes to
+death, sent Augustulus into banishment, with a pension for his support,
+and, having abolished the title of emperor, in A.D. 476 declared himself
+King of Italy.
+
+Romulus Augustus was the last emperor of the West, and bore the name of
+the founder of the monarchy as well as of the empire, a singular
+circumstance.
+
+In this manner fell the Roman Empire, a noble fabric, which its founder
+hoped would endure forever. Its destruction, however, gave rise to the
+various kingdoms and states of modern Europe, and thus civilization and
+Christianity, which might have remained confined to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, have been spread over a large portion of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV.
+
+ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.
+
+
+Roman literature, which had risen to its highest excellence under
+Augustus, declined rapidly under his successors, and was finally lost
+with the fall of the Western empire. The language was no longer pure,
+and neither prose nor poetry retained the harmony and elegance of the
+Augustan age. A certain sadness and discontent, which marks all the
+later literature, forms also a striking contrast with the cheerful tone
+of the earlier writers. Every part of the empire, however, abounded with
+men of letters, and a high degree of mental cultivation seems every
+where to have prevailed.
+
+Epic poetry continued to nourish, and Virgil found many imitators. The
+best epic writer of this period was M. Annaeus Lucanus, who was born at
+Corduba, in Spain, in the year A.D. 38. Lucan was educated at Rome under
+the Stoic Cornutus, and was introduced by his uncle Seneca to the
+Emperor Nero. Having for a time enjoyed the patronage of Nero, he at
+length became the object of his jealousy and hatred, was accused of
+having taken part in Piso's conspiracy, and was condemned to death. He
+was allowed, as a favor, to put an end to his own life, and thus died,
+A.D. 65. Although so young, for he was scarcely twenty-seven years of
+age, Lucan, besides several shorter poems, produced the Pharsalia, an
+epic, of which he finished only ten books: it relates the wars between
+Caesar and Pompey, and contains many fine thoughts and striking images.
+He evidently prefers Pompey to Caesar, and possessed a strong love for
+liberty, which lends vigor to his verses. His language is pure, his
+rhythm often harmonious, but he never attains the singular delicacy and
+sweetness of his master, Virgil.
+
+C. Silius Italicus, the place of whose birth is unknown, also lived
+during the reign of Nero, and was Consul in the year A.D. 68. He was a
+Stoic, and put an end to his own life in the year A.D. 100, when he was
+about seventy-five years of age. His poem, the Punica, is an account of
+the second Punic War in verse, and is chiefly valuable to the historical
+student. He had little inventive power, and takes but a low rank in
+poetry.
+
+P. Papinius Statius, the son of the teacher of the Emperor Domitian, was
+carefully educated at Rome, and became renowned at an early age for his
+poetical talents. He spent the last years of his life at Naples, which
+was also the place of his birth, and died there in the year A.D. 96. He
+wrote the Thebais, in twelve parts; the Achilleis, in two books; the
+Sylvae, a collection of poems; a tragedy, and other works. He seems to
+have borrowed much from earlier Greek writers, but was possessed of
+considerable poetical fervor.
+
+Claudius Claudianus, who lived under Theodosius the Great and his two
+sons, was probably born and educated at Alexandria, but we know little
+of his history. He came to Rome about A.D. 395, and, under the patronage
+of Stilicho, rose to a high position in the state. The time and place of
+his death are unknown. His chief works were, 1. Raptus Proserpinae, an
+unfinished poem in three parts; 2. Gigantomachia, another unfinished
+work; 3. De Bello Gildonico, of which we possess only the first book;
+and, 4. De Bello Getico, in which the poet sings the victory of Stilicho
+over Alaric at Pollentia. His poems have a rude vigor which sometimes
+strikes the attention, but are chiefly valued for the light they throw
+upon the Gothic wars. They are marked by many faults of taste.
+
+Lyric poetry was little cultivated at Rome after the death of Horace;
+but satire, which was peculiar to the Romans, reached its highest
+excellence under the empire. Juvenal is still the master of this kind of
+writing, although he has been imitated by Boileau, Pope, and Johnson;
+and his contemporary Persius was also a writer of great power.
+
+Aulus Persius Flaccus was born at Volaterrae, in Etruria, in the year
+A.D. 34, of a distinguished family of the equestrian rank. He was
+educated at Rome under the best masters, particularly under the Stoic
+Cornutus, with whom he lived in close friendship, as well as with Lucan,
+Seneca, and the most distinguished men of his time. He died at the early
+age of twenty-eight, leaving behind him six satires and a brief preface.
+Persius possessed a generous, manly character, was the foe of every kind
+of vice, and formed one of that graceful band of writers who maintained
+their independence under the terrors of a despotic government.
+
+Decimus Junius Juvenalis, of whose life we have few particulars, was
+born at Aquinum A.D. 38 or 40, and came up to Rome, where he at first
+studied eloquence with great ardor, but at length gave himself wholly to
+satirical writing. He offended Domitian by his satires, it is said, and
+was sent by that emperor to the extreme boundary of Egypt, where he died
+of grief and exile; but scarcely any fact in the history of this great
+man has been perfectly ascertained.
+
+We possess sixteen satires of Juvenal, the last of which, however, is of
+doubtful authenticity. These satires are full of noble appeals to the
+purest emotions of virtue, and of severe rebukes for triumphant vice.
+Juvenal's language is often harsh and his taste impure; but his ideas
+are so elevated, his perception of truth, honor, and justice so clear,
+that he seldom fails to win the attention of his readers.
+
+Epigrams seem to have been a favorite mode of expressing thought at the
+court of Augustus, and almost every eminent Roman from the time of
+Cicero has left one or more of these brilliant trifles behind him. M.
+Valerius Martialis, the chief of the epigrammatists, was born about A.D.
+40, at Bibilis, in Spain, from whence he came to Rome, when about
+twenty, to perfect his education. Here he lived for thirty-five years,
+engaged in poetical pursuits, and patronized by Titus and Domitian. He
+seems finally to have returned to his native land, where he was living
+in the year A.D. 100. His poems are about fifteen hundred in number,
+divided into fourteen books, and are altogether original in their
+design. They are always witty, often indecent, and contain many personal
+allusions which can not now be understood. Martial is one of the most
+gifted of the Roman writers.
+
+The practice of writing epigrams was preserved until a very late period.
+Seneca, Pliny the younger, Hadrian, and many others, were fond of
+composing them; and in modern times the epigram has been a favorite kind
+of poetry with most good writers.
+
+Phaedrus, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote pleasing fables.
+Calphurnius and Ausonius imitated Virgil's bucolics, and fragments of
+many other poets are preserved, whom we can not mention here.
+
+Historical writers also abounded under the empire. Velleius Paterculus,
+an excellent historian descended from a patrician family, was born about
+B.C. 19. He was the friend and flatterer of Tiberius, and rose, in
+consequence, to several high offices. He was Quaestor in perhaps A.D. 7,
+and Praetor in A.D. 15. His _Historicae Romanae_, two books of which
+remain, is an abridgment of the history of the world, written in a clear
+and pleasing style, and is, in general, trustworthy. He flatters his
+benefactors, Augustus and Tiberius, but his fine tribute to the memory
+of Cicero shows that he felt a strong sympathy with that chief of the
+Republicans.
+
+Valerius Maximus, who also lived under Tiberius, wrote a considerable
+work, composed of remarkable examples of virtue, and other anecdotes,
+collected from Roman or foreign history. He had plainly a just
+conception of moral purity, although he dedicates his book to Tiberius.
+His style is inflated and tasteless, but the work is not without
+interest.
+
+Next after Valerius arose Tacitus, the chief of the imperial prose
+writers. Tacitus, a plebeian by birth, was born at Interamna. The year
+of his birth is not known, but must have lain between A.D. 47 and A.D.
+61. Tacitus served in the army under Vespasian and Titus. He rose to
+many honors in the state, but in A.D. 89 left Rome, together with his
+wife, the daughter of the excellent Agricola. He returned thither in
+A.D. 97, and was made Consul by the Emperor Nerva. His death took place,
+no doubt, after A.D. 117. So few are the particulars that remain of the
+life of this eminent man; but the disposition and sentiments of Tacitus
+may be plainly discovered in his writings. He was honest, candid, a
+sincere lover of virtue. He lamented incessantly the fall of the old
+republic, and does not spare Augustus or Tiberius, whom he believed to
+be its destroyers. Like Juvenal, whom he resembled in the severity of
+his censure as well as the greatness of his powers, Tacitus wrote in a
+sad, desponding temper of mind, as if he foresaw the swift decline of
+his country.
+
+His style is wholly his own--concise, obscure, strong, forever arousing
+the attention. He could never have attained the easy elegance of Livy,
+and he never tells a story with the grace of that unequaled narrator,
+but he has more vigor in his descriptions, more reality in his
+characters.
+
+The life of his father-in-law Agricola is one of the most delightful of
+biographies. His account of the Germans was a silent satire upon the
+corrupt condition of the Roman state. The _Historiarum Libri_ is a
+history of his own age, from the fall of Galba to the death of Domitian,
+and was probably designed to embrace the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. A
+small portion only of this work is preserved. The _Annales_ relate the
+history of Rome from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, but are also
+imperfect. A treatise upon the orators is also attributed to the
+historian. Tacitus and Juvenal are the last great names in Roman
+literature.
+
+Quintus Curtius Rufus, an interesting writer, who lived perhaps under
+Claudius or Tiberius, his true period being uncertain, wrote, in ten
+books, an account of the exploits of Alexander the Great. He was
+succeeded by C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who came to Rome during the reign
+of Domitian, and there studied rhetoric and grammar. Under Hadrian he
+fell into disgrace and went into exile: the period of his death is
+unknown. Suetonius wrote the lives of the twelve Caesars, ending with
+Domitian. His language is good, and he paints with uncommon minuteness
+the vices as well as the virtues of his subjects; he abounds, too, in
+particulars which throw light upon the manners of the Romans. Suetonius
+also wrote several short treatises, while various biographies have been
+attributed to him which probably belong to inferior writers.
+
+L. Annaeus Florus, who perhaps lived under Trajan, wrote an epitome of
+Roman history. Justin, whose period is unknown, wrote or abridged from
+an earlier author, _Trogus_, a history of the world. The _Scriptores
+Historiae Augustae_ is a collection of writers of little merit, who
+flourished in different periods of the empire. Aurelius Victor, who was
+probably Praefect of Rome under Theodosius, wrote _Origo Gentis Romanae_,
+only a small portion of which has been preserved, and several other
+historical works. Eutropius, who served under Julian against the
+Persians, composed a brief history of Rome, written in a pure and
+natural style.
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, who lived under Valens, Valentinian, and
+Theodosius until A.D. 410, and was a Greek by birth, wrote a history of
+the empire from Nerva to the death of Valens, A.D. 378. A large part of
+this work is lost. Ammianus abounds in digressions and descriptions, and
+is, on that account, the more entertaining. His manner can not be
+praised.
+
+The Spaniard Orosius concludes the list of the Latin historians. Orosius
+was a Christian presbyter, and, while defending Christianity, paints a
+lamentable picture of the condition of the pagan world. He borrowed from
+Justin and other writers, and lived in the fifth century.
+
+Rhetoric continued to be cultivated, but eloquence no longer possessed
+the power which it held under the Republic. The speeches now delivered
+were chiefly declamations upon unimportant themes. M. Annaeus Seneca, the
+father of the philosopher, came to Rome from his native city Corduba, in
+Spain, during the reign of Augustus, and became a famous rhetorician. M.
+Fabius Quintilianus, a greater name in literature, was born A.D. 42, at
+Calgurris, in Spain, but, as was customary with men of merit at that
+period, went up to Rome, and became celebrated as a teacher of rhetoric.
+He was a person of excellent character, and, besides practicing at the
+bar, rose to the consulship. Having passed many years in politics or the
+law, Quintilian at last returned to his old profession, and in the close
+of his life gave himself wholly to letters. He now wrote his work upon
+oratory, _Libri duodecim Institutionis Oratoriae_. In this valuable work
+he seeks to restore the purity of the language, inculcates simplicity,
+and shows an excellent taste. The younger Pliny was also a famous orator
+or declaimer.
+
+The Romance, or modern novel, is also thought to have begun in the first
+century with the satirical tale ascribed to Petronius Arbiter, or
+perhaps with the translation of the Milesian tales of Aristides from the
+Greek by Sisenna. The _Petronii Arbitri Satiricon_ is a romance in prose
+and verse, and was probably written in the first century by an author of
+whom nothing is known. It relates the adventures of a certain
+_Encolopius_, and satirizes the vices and follies of the age. The
+language of this work is pure, the wit lively, but indecent: only a
+portion, however, of the _Satiricon_ has been preserved. During the age
+of the Antonines arose _Appuleius_, the best known of the ancient
+writers of tales. He was born at Madaura, in Africa, but went to
+Carthage, and from thence to Athens, where he was initiated into the
+Grecian mysteries, and studied the Platonic philosophy. Appuleius was an
+agreeable speaker, and had filled his mind with the learning of his age;
+but his fame with posterity rests upon his novel _Metamorphoseon_, in
+which he strives to correct the vices of his contemporaries. In this
+work a vicious young man is transformed into an ass, under which form he
+goes through many amusing adventures, but is at last changed to a new
+man through the influence of the mysteries. The story is full of
+episodes, the moral good, but the language shows the decline of literary
+taste.
+
+Philosophy, since the time of Cicero, had become a favorite study with
+the Romans, although they produced no remarkable philosopher. Seneca,
+the most eminent of them, was the son of M. Annaeus Seneca, the
+rhetorician. He was probably born at Corduba, in Spain, soon after the
+Christian era, and was educated by the best masters at Rome. He
+possessed an active intellect, was early renowned, and held various high
+offices in the state. Having been the preceptor of Nero, he was finally
+condemned to death by that monster, and put an end to his life A.D. 65.
+Seneca was a Stoic, and taught self-control, tranquillity of mind, and
+contempt for the changes of fortune. His various essays and other
+writings have always been admired, although he wanted a correct taste,
+and is often affected and rhetorical. He possessed great wealth, which
+he either inherited or accumulated. His town house was adorned with
+marbles and citron-wood, and his country villas, of which he had
+several, were filled with costly luxuries; yet his morals were probably
+pure, and he was much beloved for his generosity and fidelity to his
+many friends.
+
+The elder Pliny, _Plinius Secundus Major_, another famous philosopher,
+was born in the year A.D. 23, either at Como or Verona. He served with
+the army in Germany, and rose high in office under Vespasian. Being in
+command of the fleet at Misenum during the first eruption of Vesuvius in
+A.D. 79, in order to gratify his curiosity he remained too long near the
+burning mountain, and was suffocated by its exhalations. Pliny passed
+his whole life in study, and was never satisfied unless engaged in
+acquiring knowledge. His _Historia Naturalis_ resembles the Cosmos of
+Humboldt, and passes in review over the whole circle of human knowledge.
+It treats of the heavens, of the earth and its inhabitants, of the
+various races of man, of animals, trees, flowers, minerals, the contents
+of the sea and land, of the arts and sciences; and shows that the
+author possessed an intellect of almost unequaled activity. His nephew,
+the younger Pliny, who lived under Trajan, and was the favorite
+correspondent of that emperor, is remembered for his agreeable letters,
+and the purity and dignity of his character.
+
+Grammatical studies and critical writings also afforded employment for
+many intelligent Romans; and every part of the empire seems to have been
+filled with cultivated men, who, possessing wealth and leisure, gave
+themselves to literary studies. Aulus Gellius, one of the best known of
+the grammarians, lived during the period of the Antonines. His _Noctes
+Atticae_ is a critical work in twenty books, in which he discusses many
+questions in language, philosophy, and science. He seems to have passed
+his life in traveling over Italy and Greece, collecting materials for
+this work, and, wherever he goes he never fails to meet with agreeable,
+intelligent friends, who delight, like himself, in improving
+conversation.
+
+Aurelius Macrobius, another well-known grammarian, lived during the
+fifth century. His Commentary on the Dream of Scipio is full of the
+scientific speculations of his age. His _Saturnalia_ contains many
+extracts from the best Roman writers, with criticisms upon them, in
+which he detects the plagiarisms of Virgil, and observes the faults as
+well as the beauties of the orators and poets of Rome. The works of
+other grammarians have been preserved or are partly known to us, among
+which are those of Servius, Festus, Priscianus, and Isidorus.
+
+The study of the law, too, flourished in uncommon excellence under the
+emperors, and nearly two thousand legal works were condensed in the
+Digests of Justinian, few of which belonged to the Republican period.
+Under Augustus and Tiberius, Q. Antistius Labeo founded the famous
+school of the Proculians. He left four hundred volumes upon legal
+subjects. His rival, C. Ateius Capito, founded the school of the
+Sabinians, and was also a profuse writer. Under Hadrian, Salvius
+Julianus prepared the _Edictum Perpetuum_, about the year A.D. 132,
+which condensed all the edicts of former magistrates into a convenient
+code. Papinianus, Ulpianus, and Paulus were also celebrated for their
+legal writings. The only complete legal work, however, which we possess
+from this period, is a Commentary by Gaius, who lived probably under
+Hadrian. This valuable treatise was discovered in the year 1816 by the
+historian Niebuhr, in the library of Verona. It contains a clear account
+of the principles of the Roman law, and the Institutes of Justinian are
+little more than a transcript of those of Gaius.
+
+Various medical writers also belong to the Imperial period, the most
+important of whom is A. Cornelius Celsus. Works on agriculture were also
+written by Columella, Palladius, and others, which serve to show the
+decline of that pursuit among the Romans. Geography, mathematics, and
+architecture were also cultivated; but of most of these scientific
+authors only the name is preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Juvenal.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+_Accensi_, 123.
+
+Accius, L., 275.
+
+Achaean League, 107;
+  in alliance with Philip V., 108.
+
+Achaean War, 138.
+
+AEdiles, 117.
+
+Adolphus, brother of Alaric, 341.
+
+AElius Saturninus, 297.
+
+AElius Sejanus, 297;
+  his death, 299.
+
+AEmilianus, 324.
+
+AEmilius Lepidus, M., military road made by, 114.
+
+AEmilius Paullus, L., ends the war in Illyria, 79;
+  slain in the battle of Cannae, 88.
+
+AEmilius Paullus, L. (son), defeats Perseus, 135.
+
+AEneas, legend of, 8.
+
+AEquians, 58.
+
+AEtolian League, 107;
+  forms alliance with Rome, 108;
+  but is obliged to make peace with Philip V., 108;
+  chief town Ambracia taken by the Romans, 111;
+  compelled to sue for peace, and the League crushed, 111.
+
+Afranius, L., Consul, 224.
+
+Afranius, L. (poet), 274.
+
+Africa, invaded by the Romans, 72;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius, 31;
+  law introduced by Ti. Gracchus, 150, 151;
+  extended by C. Gracchus, 157;
+  law introduced by Caesar, 225.
+
+Agricola, Julius, legate to Britain, 303;
+  his forced retirement, 305.
+
+Agrigentum besieged and taken, 70.
+
+Agrippa, M., Octavian's general, drives L. Antonius and Fulvia out of
+    Rome, 263;
+  defeats them at Perusia, 263;
+  constructs the Julius Portus, 265;
+  defeats fleet of Sextus Pompey, 266.
+
+Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 286.
+
+Agrippa, Postumus, 293;
+  assassination of, 295.
+
+Agrippina, 298;
+  put to death by Tiberius, 299.
+
+Alaric ravages Greece, 339;
+  besieges Rome, 340;
+  sacks the city, 341.
+
+Alba Longa, foundation of, 8;
+  destruction of, 14.
+
+Alban Lake, legend of the, 43.
+
+Alesia surrenders to Caesar, 234.
+
+Alexander Severus, Emperor, 322.
+
+Alexandria, 288;
+  trade between, and the Indies, 288.
+
+Allemanni threaten Rome, 324;
+  defeated by Aurelian, 325.
+
+Allobroges, embassadors of the, 220.
+
+Alps, Hannibal's passage of, note on, 90.
+
+_Ambitus_, 128.
+
+Ancus Marcius, succeeds Tullus Hostilius, 14;
+  conquers several Latin cities, and removes inhabitants to Rome, 14;
+  institutes the Fetiales, 15;
+  founds a colony at Ostia, 15;
+  fortifies the Janiculum, 15;
+  constructs the Pons Sublicius, 15;
+  his reign and death, 15.
+
+Andriscus, 137.
+
+Antiochus, king of Syria, proposes to Philip V. to partition Egypt
+    between them, 108;
+  receives Hannibal as a fugitive, 110;
+  is persuaded to invade Greece, 110;
+  is defeated at Thermopylae, and returns to Syria, 111;
+  invades the kingdom of Pergamus, but is defeated near Magnesia, 111;
+  is compelled to cede all his dominions in Asia Minor, to pay fines,
+      and surrender Hannibal, 111;
+  peace concluded, and affairs of Asia settled, 112.
+
+Antiochus Asiaticus deposed, 212.
+
+_Antepilani_, 122.
+
+Antoninus, M. Aurelius, Emperor, 314;
+  death of, 316.
+
+Antoninus, M. Commodus, Emperor, 316.
+
+Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 313.
+
+Antonius, C., 219, 220, 221.
+
+Antonius, M. (orator), assassinated, 185.
+
+Antony (Marcus Antonius), Consul with Caesar, 249;
+  offers the diadem to Caesar, 249;
+  takes possession of Caesar's papers and treasures, 252;
+  pronounces the funeral oration over the body of Caesar, 253;
+  master of Rome, 253;
+  attacked by Cicero in his Philippies, 254;
+  retires to Cisalpine Gaul, and besieges Mutina, 254;
+  declared a public enemy, 254;
+  defeats Pansa, 255;
+  is defeated by Hirtius, 255;
+  received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, 255;
+  forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, 256;
+  defeats Cassius at Philippi, 261;
+  licentious conduct in Asia Minor, and meeting with
+      Cleopatra, 262, 263;
+  follows her to Alexandria, 263;
+  Fulvia, his wife, and L. Antonius, his brother, rise against him, 263;
+  his troops defeated in Syria, 264;
+  meets his wife and brother at Athens, 264;
+  his wife dies, 264;
+  forms an alliance with Sextus Pompey, 264;
+  marries Octavia, sister of Octavian, 264;
+  returns to the East with Octavia, 265;
+  his success in Syria, 265;
+  makes another treaty with Octavian, 266;
+  renews his union with Cleopatra, 267;
+  is defeated in Parthia, 267;
+  returns to Alexandria, 267;
+  is defeated by Octavian in the battle of Actium, 268, 269;
+  is again defeated at Alexandria, 269;
+  stabs himself, 269.
+
+Apollonia, besieged by Philip V. of Macedon, 107.
+
+_Appellatio_, 121.
+
+Appius Claudius, 38, 40.
+
+Appius Claudius Caecus, 66;
+  his son, 69.
+
+Appuleius, 349.
+
+Apulia, 4.
+
+Aquae Sextae, battle at, 171.
+
+Aquillius, M'., Consul, suppresses the Second Servile War in
+    Sicily, 172;
+  is defeated, and made prisoner by Mithridates, 188.
+
+Arabia Felix invaded by Trajan, 308.
+
+Arabia Petraea made a Roman province, 308.
+
+Arcadius, son of Theodosius, 339;
+  his cruelties, 341.
+
+Archelaus defeated at Chaeronea, 188;
+  and again at Orchomenos, 189.
+
+Archimedes, 93, 94.
+
+Ariobarzanes expelled from Cappadocia, 187;
+  restored, 183;
+  again expelled, 188;
+  restored to his kingdom, 213.
+
+Ariovistus defeated by Caesar, 280.
+
+Aristobulus surrenders to Pompey, 212, 213.
+
+Armenia, Pompey in, 212.
+
+Arminius, 291.
+
+Army, Roman, constitution of, 122.
+
+Artaxata, submission of Mithridates at, 212.
+
+As (weight), 19.
+
+Ascanius, legend of, 8.
+
+Asculum, revolt at, 178.
+
+Astures conquered by Augustus, 291.
+
+_Atellanae Fabulae_, 275.
+
+Athenio, leader of slaves in Sicily, 172;
+  defeated and slain by Catulus, 172.
+
+Athens, 107;
+  declares against Rome, 188.
+
+Attalus Philometor, 147.
+
+Attila invades Italy, 348.
+
+Augurs, 18, 57.
+
+Augusta Emerita (Merida) founded by Augustus, 291.
+
+Aurelian, Emperor, 325.
+
+Ausonius, 346.
+
+Autronius Paetus, P., 218.
+
+Avidius Cassius defeats the Parthians, 315.
+
+
+B.
+
+Babylon captured by Trajan, 308.
+
+Balearic Slingers, 124.
+
+Barcochab, 312.
+
+Belgic War, 230.
+
+Bibulus, M., 216, 225.
+
+Boadicea, 302.
+
+Boii finally conquered and slaughtered, 114.
+
+Bononia (Bologna), colony at, 114.
+
+Bosporus, Cimmerian, 211.
+
+Brennus, 45, 46, 47.
+
+Brigantium taken by Caesar, 224.
+
+Bruttii, 4.
+
+Britain, first invasion by Caesar, 231;
+  second invasion, 232.
+
+Brutus, D., put to death at Aquileia, 256.
+
+Brutus, L. Junius, 23-25;
+  his death, 26.
+
+Brutus, M. Junius, Praetor, conspires with Cassius and others to
+    assassinate Caesar, 249;
+  retires to Macedonia, 253;
+  goes to Athens, and collects an army, 257, 255;
+  plunders Lycia, 258;
+  crosses over into Thrace, 258;
+  defeated by Octavian at Philippi, 261;
+  slays himself, 261.
+
+
+C.
+
+Caecilius, Q., 274.
+
+Caesar Augusta (Saragossa) founded by Augustus, 291.
+
+Caesar, Augustus, his conduct of the empire, 286;
+  extent of his empire, 289;
+  his government, 289;
+  decree against celibacy, 289;
+  his protection, the Praetorian Guard, 290;
+  army, navy, and revenues, 290;
+  plots against his life, 290;
+  his military enterprises, 291;
+  domestic misfortunes, 291-293;
+  his death, 293;
+  personal appearance, 294.
+
+Caesar, Caius Caligula, 293;
+  succeeds Tiberius, 299;
+  death of, 300.
+
+Caesar, Caius Julius, early life, 214, 215;
+  Quaestor, 215;
+  AEdile, 216;
+  restores statues and trophies of Marius, 216;
+  Propraetor in Spain, 224;
+  his conquests there, 224;
+  Consul, 225;
+  forms cabal with Pompey and Crasus (1st Triumvirate), 225;
+  carries Agrarian Law, 225;
+  supports Pompey, and gives him his only daughter Julia in
+      marriage, 225;
+  divorces his wife, 226;
+  obtains command in Gaul, 226;
+  1st campaign in Gaul, 229;
+  2nd, 230;
+  3rd, 230;
+  4th, 231;
+  5th, 232;
+  6th, 232;
+  7th, 233;
+  8th, 234;
+  rivalry of Pompey, 237-8-9;
+  returns to Italy, 240;
+  quarters at Ravenna, 240;
+  ordered to disband his army, 240;
+  refuses, and crosses the Rubicon, 241;
+  enters Rome, 242;
+  conquers his opponents in Spain, 242;
+  short Dictatorship, 243;
+  crosses to Greece to encounter Pompey, 243-4;
+  total defeat of Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia, 245;
+  Dictator, 246;
+  pursues Pompey into Egypt, 246;
+  supports Cleopatra, 246;
+  conquers Pharnaces in Syria, 240;
+  returns to Rome, 246;
+  defeats Pompeian army in Africa, 247;
+  death of Cato at Utica, 247;
+  master of the Roman world, and Dictator for ten years, 247;
+  his Triumph, 247;
+  his clemency and reforms, 247-8-9;
+  Imperator and Dictator for life, 249;
+  appoints Octavius his heir, 249;
+  conspiracy against him, 249-50;
+  assassination, 250;
+  character, 250-1;
+  his character as a writer, 283.
+
+Caesar, L.. Julius, Consul, 179;
+  in Social War, 179;
+  proposes Lex Julia, 179.
+
+Caesar, Lucius, 293.
+
+Caesar, Tiberius Claudius, succeeds Caligula, 300;
+  enters Britain, 301.
+
+Caesar, Vespasianus, 301;
+  emperor, 302;
+  death, 303.
+
+Caesar, A. Vitellius, Emperor, 302.
+
+Calabria, 4.
+
+Calphurnius, 346.
+
+Calpurnian Law, 157.
+
+Camillus, M. Furius, 43, 44, 47, 48, 52.
+
+Campagna, 3.
+
+Campania, 4.
+
+Cannae, immense Roman army defeated at, by Hannibal, 88.
+
+Cantabri, conquered by Augustus, 291.
+
+Cantabrians, 114, 144-5.
+
+Canuleia Lex, 41.
+
+Capito, C. Ateius, 350.
+
+Capitolium, 23.
+
+Capua, opens its gates to Hannibal, 89;
+  retaken by the Romans, 96.
+
+Caracalla, Emperor, 321;
+  assassinated, 322.
+
+Caractacus, 301.
+
+Carbo, Cn. Papirius, Consul, joins Cinnae, 190.
+
+Carinus, 326.
+
+Carthage, 68;
+  capture and destruction of, 142;
+  rebuilt by the Romans, 142;
+  capital of the Vandal kingdom, 142;
+  finally destroyed by the Arabs, 142.
+
+Carthaginians, their navy, 70;
+  defeated by the Roman navy, 71, 72.
+
+Carus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Catilina, L. Sergius, early life, 218;
+  crimes, 218;
+  conspiracy, 219;
+  accused by Cicero, 219;
+  leaves Rome, 220;
+  collects troops, 221;
+  defeated and slain, 221.
+
+Cassius Longinus, C., fights under Crassus in Mesopotamia, 237;
+  conducts the retreat to Syria, 237;
+  originates the conspiracy against Caesar, 249;
+  retires into Syria, 253;
+  defeats Dolabella in Syria, 258;
+  plunders Rhodes, 258;
+  marches with Brutus into Thrace, 258;
+  defeated by Antony at Philippi, 261;
+  his death, 261.
+
+Cato, M. Porcius, in Spain, 114;
+  Quaestor, Praetor, Consul, 129;
+  Censor, 132;
+  his reforms, 132;
+  his prejudices, 132, 133;
+  his severity and avarice, 133.
+
+Cato, M. Porcius, advocates the death of the Catilinarian
+    conspirators, 221;
+  his death at Utica, 247;
+  his character as a writer, 283.
+
+Catullus, Valerius, 276.
+
+Catulus, Q. Lutatius, combined with Marius in the overthrow of the
+    Cimbri, 171;
+  his death by order of Marius, 185.
+
+Catulus, Q. Lutatius (son), hails Cicero as "Father of his
+    Country," 221.
+
+Caudine Forks, battle at, 57, 58.
+
+Celsus, A. Cornelius, 350.
+
+Celtiberians, tribes of, 114;
+  war with, 145.
+
+Censors, 118.
+
+Census, 118.
+
+_Centuriones_, 122.
+
+Cethegus, C. Cornelius, 219, 220.
+
+Chosroes, king of the Parthians, 310.
+
+Cicero, M, Tullius, early life, studies, and success as an orator, 216;
+  Quaestor, 217;
+  prosecutes Verres, 217;
+  his speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria, 216;
+  studies at Athens and in Asia Minor, 216;
+  Quaestor in Sicily, under Sex. Peducaeus, at Lilybaeum, 217;
+  AEdile, Praetor, 217;
+  Consul, 219;
+  opposes agrarian law of Rullus, 219;
+  denounces Catiline, 219;
+  arrests conspirators, 220;
+  third oration, 220;
+  his popularity, 221;
+  hostility of Clodius, 227;
+  his banishment, 227;
+  his return to Rome, 228;
+  joins the party of Caesar's assassins, 252;
+  his Philippics against Antony, 254;
+  stimulates the Senate against Antony and Octavian, 255;
+  is included in the list of proscriptions, 257;
+  his death, 257;
+  his character as a writer, 282.
+
+Cimbri, 169;
+  they enter and ravage Spain, 170;
+  enter Italy, destroyed by Marius and Catulus, 171.
+
+Cincinnatus and the AEquians, 34.
+
+Cincius Alimentus, L., 282.
+
+Cinna, L., Consul, 184;
+  conflict with Octavius, 185;
+  associated with Marius, 185;
+  their massacres in Rome, 185;
+  murdered by his army, 190.
+
+Cinna, grandson of Pompey, 290.
+
+Circus Maximus, 17.
+
+Cisalpine Gaul, a Roman province, 114.
+
+_Cives Romani_, 66.
+
+Claudianus, Claudius, 345.
+
+Claudius, M. Aurelius, Emperor, 325.
+
+Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, meets M. Antony at Tarsus, 262-3;
+  attracts him to Alexandria, 263;
+  is deserted for Octavia, 265;
+  again attracts Antony, who returns with her to Alexandria, 267;
+  war declared against her by the Senate, 268;
+  defeated with Antony at Actium, 268;
+  deceives Antony, but fails to deceive Octavian, 269;
+  kills herself, 269.
+
+Clients, 12.
+
+Clodius Albinus, 319.
+
+Clodius Pulcher, P., profligate conduct of, 226;
+  tribune, 227;
+  procures the banishment of Cicero, 227;
+  killed by Milo, 238.
+
+Clusium besieged, 45.
+
+Cocceius Nerva, 293, 299;
+  emperor, 306.
+
+Cohorts, 123.
+
+Collatia, Collatinus, 16.
+
+Colonies, Roman, 43.
+
+Colosseum, the, 303.
+
+Columella, 350.
+
+_Comitia Centuriata_, 20, 120.
+
+_Comitia Curiata_, 12, 20, 120.
+
+_Comitia Tributa_, 18, 20, 121.
+
+Constantine proclaimed Augustus, 330;
+  emperor, 331;
+  removes the capital to Constantinople, 332;
+  his character, 335.
+
+Constantius, 328;
+  emperor, 329.
+
+Consuls, duties of, 118.
+
+Corfinium, new republic at, 178.
+
+Corinth captured, and burnt, 138.
+
+Coriolanus, C. Marcius, 32;
+  banished from Rome, 32;
+  invades Rome at the head of a Volscian army, 32;
+  spares the city, 33;
+  his death, 33.
+
+Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, 149, 160.
+
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, married to Caesar, 214;
+  her death, 215.
+
+Corneliae Leges, 186.
+
+Cornelii, slaves so called, 195.
+
+Cornelius Fronto, 314.
+
+Corsica and Sardinia formed into a Roman province, 77.
+
+Corsica, revolt in, 115.
+
+Cotta, C. Aurelius, lawyer, 216.
+
+Cotta, L. Aurelius, 218.
+
+Cotta, M. Aurelius, defeated by Mithridates, 206.
+
+Crassus, P. Licinius, 147.
+
+Crassus, M. Licinius, Praetor, appointed to command the army against the
+    Gladiators, 202;
+  defeats and slays Spartacus, 203;
+  Consul with Pompey, 203;
+  forms 1st Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey, 225;
+  meets Caesar and Pompey at Luca, 236;
+  second Consulship with Pompey, 236;
+  his command in Syria, 236;
+  crosses the Euphrates, 237;
+  defeated and killed, 237.
+
+Cremona besieged, 113.
+
+Cretan Archers (_Sagittarii_), 124.
+
+Ctesiphon captured by Trajan, 308.
+
+Curiae, 12.
+
+Curiatii, 18.
+
+Curius, M'., defeats Pyrrhus, 65.
+
+Curtius, M., legend of, 53.
+
+_Curules Magistratus_, 117.
+
+
+D.
+
+Dacia made a Roman province, 308.
+
+Dacians cross the Danube, 305.
+
+Decebalus, 305;
+  demands tribute, 307;
+  his defeat, 308.
+
+Decemvirate, 36;
+  Decemviri appointed, 37;
+  their tyranny, 37;
+  the Twelve Tables, 38;
+  Decemviri continue in office, 38;
+  they assassinate Licinius Dentatus, 38;
+  Virginia slain by her father to save her from the Decemvir Appius
+      Claudius, 39;
+  resignation of the Decemvirs, 39;
+  and election of 10 Tribunes, 40.
+
+Decius Mus, P., self-sacrifice, 55;
+  and of his son, 59.
+
+Decuriones, 123.
+
+Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, 213.
+
+Delatores, 297, 303.
+
+Demetrius of Pharos, 79.
+
+Dictator, 28 (note), 51.
+
+Dictatorship, 118;
+  revived by Sulla, 194
+
+Didius Julianus, Emperor, 319.
+
+Diocletian, Emperor, 327;
+  selects Maximian for his colleague, 328;
+  defeats the Persians, 329.
+
+Dolabella, Cn., accused of extortion, 215;
+  puts an end to his life, 258.
+
+Domitian, reign of, 305.
+
+Drama, Roman, 272.
+
+Drusus. M. Livius, 158, 159.
+
+Drusus, 291;
+  sent to Germany, 295;
+  receives the tribunitian power, 297;
+  poisoned by his wife, 208.
+
+Drusus, M. Livius, son of the opponent of C. Gracchus, elected a
+    Tribune, endeavours to obtain the Roman franchise for the
+    Allies, 176;
+  assassinated, 176.
+
+
+E.
+
+Eburones, revolt of the, 232.
+
+Egypt, condition of, 107;
+  under Augustus, 288.
+
+Elagabalus, Emperor, 322.
+
+Enna (Servile War), 146-7
+
+Ennius, Q., 273.
+
+Equestrian Order, 158.
+
+Etruria, 2.
+
+Etruscans, their name, language, origin, and portions of Italy occupied
+    by them, 5, 6;
+  wars with the, 43;
+  defeated, 58;
+  in league with the Umbrians, 59;
+  defeated at Lake Vadimo, 60.
+
+Eumenes, king of Pergamus, obtains Mysia, Lydia, and part of Curia, 112.
+
+Eunus (Servile War), 146, 147.
+
+Eutropius, 343.
+
+
+F.
+
+Fabia Gens and the Veientines, 33.
+
+Fabius, lieutenant, defeated by Mithridates, 208.
+
+Fabius Maximus, Q., appointed Dictator, and to the command-in-chief
+    against Hannibal, 87;
+  styled the _Cunctator_, or "Lingerer," 87;
+  obtains Tarentum, 96.
+
+Fabius Pictor, Q., 282.
+
+Fabius Sanga, Q., 220.
+
+Falerii surrenders to the Romans, 44.
+
+Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, 315.
+
+Fescennine songs, 276.
+
+_Fetiales_, 15.
+
+Fidenae taken and destroyed, 43.
+
+Fimbria defeated, slays himself, 183.
+
+Flaccus, Aldus Persius, 315.
+
+Flamens, 13.
+
+Flamininus, L., act of cruelty of, 127.
+
+Flamininus, T. Quinctius, appointed to the command against Philip V.,
+    whose army is defeated in the battle of Cynoscephalae, 103;
+  proclaims the independence of Greece, 109;
+  withdraws the Roman garrisons from all the towns of Greece, and
+      returns to Italy, 109.
+
+Flaminius, C., defeats the Insubres, 79;
+  is defeated by Hannibal near Lake Trasimenus, and slain, 86.
+
+Florian, Emperor, 326.
+
+Florus, L. Annaeus, 347.
+
+_Fossa Mariana_, 170.
+
+Frentani, 3.
+
+Fulvia (mistress of Q. Curius), 219.
+
+Fulvia, wife of M. Antony, conspires against him, 263;
+  is driven out of Home, and defeated at Perusia, 263;
+  dies at Sicyon, 264.
+
+Fulvius Nobilior, M., besieges and captures the town of Ambracia, 111.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gabii, 25
+
+Gabinius, A., Tribune, 210.
+
+Gaius, 350.
+
+Galatia, 106.
+
+Galatians attacked by Cn. Manlius Vulso, defeated in two battles, and
+    compelled to sue for peace, 112.
+
+Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, his treachery, 144;
+  succeeds Nero, 302.
+
+Galerius, 328:
+  emperor, 329.
+
+Gallia Cisalpina, 2.
+
+Gallaecians, 114.
+
+Gallienus, Emperor, 325.
+
+Gallus, Emperor, 324.
+
+Gaul, Caesar's wars in, 229-234;
+  under Augustus, 287;
+  insurrection in, 297.
+
+Gauls in Italy, 6:
+  (Insubres) conquered, 79.
+
+Gellius, Aulus, 350.
+
+Gentes, Roman, 12.
+
+Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius, 293;
+  quells a mutiny on the Rhine, 296;
+  his German campaigns, 296;
+  his death, 296.
+
+Geta, son of Septimius, killed by Caracalla, 321.
+
+Glabrio, M. Acilius, 209.
+
+Glaucia, fellow-demagogue of Saturninus, pelted to death with tiles by
+    the mob, 175.
+
+Gordian, Emperor, 324.
+
+Goths (Senones) besiege Clusium, 45;
+  march against Rome, 46;
+  battle of the Allia, 46;
+  Rome destroyed, 46;
+  the Capitol besieged, 46;
+  Capitol saved, 47;
+  Goths repulsed and destroyed, 47;
+  invade the Empire, 324
+
+Gracchi, 148-160.
+
+Gracchus, Caius Sempronius (the Tribune), returns from Sardinia, 157;
+  elected Tribune, 157;
+  his legal reforms, 157, 158;
+  opposed by M. Livius Drusus, 159;
+  murdered, 160.
+
+Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (father of the Tribunes), subdues Spain, 115.
+
+Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius (the Tribune), Quaestor in Spain, 145;
+  at the siege of Carthage, 149;
+  elected Tribune, 150;
+  introduces Agrarian Law, 150, 151;
+  his murder, 152.
+
+Graecia, Magna, 6, 60.
+
+Greece under Augustus, 288.
+
+Greek colonies in Italy, 6.
+
+
+H.
+
+Hadrian, Emperor, 309;
+  journey through his provinces, 310;
+  his _Edictum Perpetuum_, 311;
+  builds a villa at Tibur, 312.
+
+Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, excites Gauls and Ligurians against
+    Romans, 113.
+
+Hamilcar Barca, 75;
+  relieves Lilybaeum and Drepanum, 76;
+  conquests in Spain, 80;
+  death, 80.
+
+Hannibal elected to succeed Hasdrubal, 80;
+  first campaigns in Spain, 80;
+  besieges and takes Saguntum, 80, 81;
+  crosses the Iberus and the Pyrenees with a large army, 83;
+  reaches the Rhone, 83;
+  crosses the Alps, 83;
+  encamps in the plains of the Po, among the Insubres, 84;
+  reduces the Taurinians, 84;
+  defeats the army of Scipio near the Ticinus, 84;
+  defeats combined army of Scipio and Longus near the Trebia, 84;
+  marches through Liguria to the Arno, 86;
+  defeats C. Flaminius at Lake Trasimenus, 86;
+  eludes Q. Fabius and defeats Minucius, 87;
+  annihilates an immense Roman army at Cannae, 88;
+  marches into Samnium and Campania, and obtains Capua, 89;
+  his rapid marches, 92;
+  campaigns of B.C. 215-213, 92, 93;
+  obtains Tarentum, 93;
+  marches up to the walls of Rome, but is unable to take the city, 95;
+  loses Capua, 96;
+  loses Salapia, 96;
+  destroys the army of Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea, 96;
+  loses Tarentum, 96;
+  is recalled from Italy, 104;
+  defeated by Scipio near Zama, 104;
+  is protected by Antiochus, after whose defeat at Magnesia he escapes,
+      and is received by Prusias, king of Bithynia, 111;
+  is demanded by Rome, takes poison, and dies, 131, 132.
+
+Hanno, in command of Carthaginian fleet, defeated by Lutatius
+    Catulus, 76.
+
+Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar, 80;
+  founds New Carthage, 80;
+  assassinated, 80.
+
+Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, marches from Spain into Italy, 97;
+  is defeated on the Metaurus, and slain, 98.
+
+_Hastati_, 122, 123.
+
+Helvetii defeated by Caesar, 229.
+
+Hernicans, 59.
+
+Herodes Atticus, 314.
+
+Hiero, king of Syracuse, 69;
+  besieges Messana, 70;
+  is defeated by the Romans, and makes peace, 70;
+  his death, 93.
+
+Hirtius, A., Consul, defeats Antony at Mutina, but is slain, 255.
+
+Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, 114.
+
+Honorius, son of Theodosius, 339.
+
+Horatii, 13.
+
+Horatius Flaccus, Q. (poet), 278.
+
+Hortensia, Lex, 51.
+
+Hortensius, Q. (orator), 210, 211, 216, 217.
+
+Hostilianus, Emperor, 324.
+
+Hostilius Mancinus, C., defeated by the Celtiberians, 145.
+
+Huns appear on the Danube, 338;
+  cross the river, 342.
+
+Hyrcanus favored by Pompey, 212, 213.
+
+
+I.
+
+Iapygians, 5.
+
+_Ignobiles_, 128 (note).
+
+Illyria and Illyrians, 78-9.
+
+Illyrian Wars, 78, 79.
+
+Istria subdued, 115.
+
+Italia, 7.
+
+Italians proper, 5.
+
+Italicus, C. Silius, 344.
+
+Italy, geography of, 1;
+  fertility, 5;
+  early inhabitants, 5;
+  struggles in Central Italy, 59;
+  under Augustus, 286, 287.
+
+Iulus, or Ascanius, 8.
+
+
+J.
+
+Janiculum fortified, 15.
+
+Janus, temple of, 13;
+  closed for the 2d time, 78;
+  for the 3d time, 270.
+
+Jerusalem besieged and taken by Pompey, 212.
+
+Jesus Christ, birth of, 293.
+
+Jugurtha, under Scipio in Spain, 146;
+  early life, 162;
+  bribes the Senators, 163;
+  defeats Adherbal, and puts him to death, 163;
+  war declared against him, but comes to Rome under safe-conduct, 164;
+  murders Massiva, and is ordered to quit Italy, 164;
+  defeated by Metellus, 166;
+  and by Marius, 167;
+  who takes him prisoner, and conveys him to Rome, where he is starved
+      in prison, 167-8.
+
+Julia, aunt of Caesar, married to Marius, 214;
+  her death, 215.
+
+Julia, daughter of Caesar, married to Pompey, 225.
+
+Julia, daughter of Augustus, 292.
+
+Julia, Lex, 179-80.
+
+Julian, Emperor, 337.
+
+_Jus Imaginum_, 128 (note).
+
+Justin Martyr, 315.
+
+Juvenalis, Decimus Junius, 345.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kings of Rome, 9-28.
+
+
+L.
+
+Labeo, Q. Antistius, 350.
+
+Labienus (Tribune), 219.
+
+Laberius, Dec., 275.
+
+Latin War, 54;
+  battle at the foot of Vesuvius, 55;
+  self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus, 55;
+  defeat of the Latins, 55.
+
+Latins, 5.
+
+Latium, 3;
+  incorporated with the Republic of Rome, 56.
+
+Legends of early Roman history, 8.
+
+_Leges_ and _Plebiscita_, 121.
+
+_Legiones_, 19, 122.
+
+Lentulus Sura, P. Cornelius, 219, 220, 231.
+
+Lepidus, 290.
+
+Lepidus, M., Consul, opposes the public funeral of Sulla, 195-6;
+  proposes the repeal of Sulla's laws, 199;
+  collects an army and marches upon Rome, 199;
+  is defeated near the Mulvian Bridge, retires to Sardinia, and
+      dies, 199, 200.
+
+Lepidus, M., Master of the Horse, 249;
+  forms Triumvirate with Octavian and Antony, 255;
+  in Africa, 264.
+
+Licinian Rogations and Laws, 49, 150.
+
+Licinius colleague with Constantine, 331.
+
+Lictors (note), 25.
+
+Liguria, 2;
+  Ligurians, 113.
+
+Lilybaeum, sieges of, 64, 74, 75.
+
+Livius Andronicus, M., 272.
+
+Livius, Titus, 284.
+
+Lucan, 301;
+  his poetry, 344.
+
+Lucania and Lucanians, 4.
+
+Lucanians, 6.
+
+_Luceres_, 12.
+
+Lucilius, C., 276.
+
+Lucretius Carus, T. (poet), 276.
+
+Lucullus, L. Licinius, opposes and defeats Mithridates in Bithynia and
+    Pontus, 206-7;
+  sends Appius Claudius to Tigranes, 207;
+  his reforms in Asia, 207-8;
+  defeats Tigranes at Tigranocerta and at Artaxata, 208;
+  recalled, and superseded by Pompey, 209.
+
+_Ludi Magni_, 117.
+
+Lusitania, invaded by Ser. Sulpicius Galba, 143;
+  tribes of, subdued by Caesar, 224.
+
+Lusitanians, 114, 144-5.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macedonia, kingdom of, 107;
+  under Augustus, 289.
+
+Macedonian War, 135.
+
+Macrinus, Emperor, 322;
+  defeated by Elagabalus, 322.
+
+Macrobius, 350.
+
+Maecenas, C. Cilnius, 286.
+
+Maelius, Sp., slain, 42.
+
+Magister Equitum, 28 (note).
+
+Magna Graecia, 6, 60.
+
+Mamertini, 69.
+
+Manilian Law, Cicero's address in favor of, 217.
+
+Manilius, C., Tribune, 210.
+
+_Manipuli_, 122.
+
+Manlius, M., saves the Capitol, 47;
+  patron of the poor, 48;
+  his fate, 49.
+
+Manlius Torquatus, L., 218, 220.
+
+Manlius Torquatus, T., legend of, 48;
+  and of his son, 55.
+
+Manlius Vulso, Cn., defeats the Galatians, and afterward, in conjunction
+    with commissioners, concludes a peace with Antiochus, and settles
+    the affairs of Asia, 111, 112.
+
+Marcellinus, Ammianus, 348.
+
+Marcellus, 292.
+
+Marcellus, M., Consul, arrives in Sicily, 93;
+  takes Leontini, 93;
+  invests Syracuse, where he is baffled by Archimedes, 93,
+    but finally captures it, 94;
+  takes Salapia, 96;
+  defeated and slain in Lucania, 97.
+
+Marcius, C., Coriolanus, 32.
+
+Marcomanni defeat Verus, 315.
+
+Marius, C., early life, 161;
+  in Spain with Scipio, 146, 162;
+  elected Tribune, 162;
+  sends the Consul Metellus to prison, 162;
+  elected Praetor, 162;
+  marries Julia, sister of C. Julius Caesar the elder, 162;
+  accompanies Metellus to Africa, 164;
+  returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, with command in Numidia, 166;
+  repulses a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus, 167;
+  attaches Bocchus to the Romans, and takes Jugurtha prisoner, both by
+      the agency of his Quaestor Sulla, 167;
+  elected Consul during his absence, and returns to Rome, leading
+      Jugurtha in triumph, 168;
+  reorganizes the army, 170;
+  elected Consul a third and fourth time, 170;
+  defeats and destroys the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambrones, 171;
+  elected Consul a fifth time, and has a Triumph, 171;
+  enters into a compact with Saturninus and Glaucia, 173;
+  and is elected Consul a sixth time, 173, 174;
+  loses reputation, and sets sail for Cappadocia and Galatia, 175;
+  in the Social War, 179;
+  is surpassed by Sulla, 180;
+  intrigues to obtain the command against Mithridates, 181;
+  is opposed by Sulla, who enters Rome with his army, and Marius makes
+      his escape, 183;
+  his sufferings, risks, and return to Rome with Cinna, 185;
+  his conquests, and the massacres in Rome, 185;
+  in conjunction with Cinna elects himself Consul for the seventh
+      time, 185;
+  his death, 185.
+
+Marius, the younger, defeated by Sulla, 192;
+  orders his opponents to be put to death, 192;
+  embarks for Africa, 192;
+  puts an end to his own life, 193.
+
+Marrucini, 3.
+
+Marsi, 3.
+
+Marsic or Social War, 178-80.
+
+Martialis, M. Valerius, 346.
+
+Masinissa, enters into treaty with Scipio, 101;
+  assists Scipio, 103;
+  aids Scipio to defeat Hasdrubal and Syphax, 103;
+  marries, and soon afterward kills Sophonisba, 103-4.
+
+Massilia, 287.
+
+Maximin, Emperor, 323.
+
+Maximus, Valerius, 346.
+
+Mediterranean Sea infested with pirates, 209.
+
+Memmius, C., murdered, 174.
+
+Menapii defeated by Caesar, 231.
+
+Menenius Agrippa, fable told by, 31.
+
+Mesopotamia added to the Roman empire, 329.
+
+Messala, M. Valerius, 286.
+
+Messana, 69.
+
+Metellus Celer, 221.
+
+Metellus, L., defeats the Carthaginians at Panormus, 73.
+
+Metellus (Macedonicus), Q., 145.
+
+Metellus (Numidicus), Q. Caecilius, Consul, conducts the war in Africa
+    against Jugurtha, 166;
+  superseded by Marius, 166.
+
+Metellus, Q., Consul, 224.
+
+Military Tribunes appointed, 41.
+
+Mimes, 275.
+
+Mithridates V., king of Pontus, assassinated, 186.
+
+Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, early life, 186;
+  conquests and alliances, 187-8;
+  orders a massacre of Romans and Italians in the cities of Asia, 188;
+  defeated by L. Valerius Flaccus and by Sulla, 188-9;
+  obtains peace on hard conditions, 189;
+  defeats Murena on the Halys, 205;
+  makes peace with Rome, and evacuates Cappadocia, 205;
+  renews the war with Rome, 206;
+  overruns Bithynia, and defeats Cotta, 200;
+  retreats before Lucullus into Pontus, 207;
+  defeated by Lucullus at Cabira, and takes refuge in Armenia, 207;
+  defeats Fabius and Triarius, 208;
+  unites with Tigranes, when they overrun Pontus and Cappadocia, 209;
+  is defeated by Pompey, 211;
+  escapes into the Cimmerian Bosporos, 211;
+  conspiracy of his son Pharnaces, 213;
+  his death, 213.
+
+Mithridatic Wars: First, 183-9;
+  Second, 205;
+  Third, 205-13.
+
+Moorish Dartmen, 124.
+
+Morini defeated by Caesar, 231.
+
+Mucius Scaevola, C., 27.
+
+Mulvian bridge, battle of the, 199.
+
+Murena, L., invades Cappadocia and Pontus, 205;
+  is opposed by Mithridates, and defeated, 205.
+
+
+N.
+
+Naevius, Cn., 273.
+
+Naples, Bay of, 4.
+
+Nasica, Scipio, 152.
+
+Navius, Attus, 17.
+
+Navy, Carthaginian, 70, 71, 72.
+
+Navy, Roman, 70, 71, 72, 73.
+
+Neapolis attacked, 56.
+
+Nepos, Cornelius, 284.
+
+Nero and Livius, Consuls, defeat Hasdrubal, 97, 98.
+
+Nero, 301;
+  death of, 302.
+
+Nervii defeated by Caesar, 230.
+
+Nicomedes III, driven out of Bithynia, 187;
+  restored, 188;
+  again expelled, 188;
+  dies, leaving his dominions to the Roman people, 200.
+
+_Nobiles_, 127 (note).
+
+Nobility, 127-8.
+
+_Nomen Latinum_, 66.
+
+Nonius, A., murder of, 174.
+
+Norbanus, C., Consul, defeated by Sulla, 191.
+
+_Novus Homo_, 128 (note).
+
+Numa Pompilius elected to succeed Romulus, 12;
+  his reign and institutions, 12.
+
+Numantine War, disastrous till conducted by Scipio, 145,
+   who captures and destroys Numantia, 146.
+
+Numerian, 326.
+
+Numidia, political condition of and war in, 162-8.
+
+Numitor, 9.
+
+
+O.
+
+Octavian (C. Julius Caesar Octavianus), appointed heir to Caesar, 249;
+  comes to Rome, and claims the inheritance, 254;
+  collects an army, 254;
+  elected Consul, 255;
+  forms Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, 256;
+  proscriptions, 256-7;
+  defeats Brutus at Philippi, 261;
+  returns to Rome, 263;
+  reconciliation with Antony, 264;
+  his fleet destroyed by Sextus Pompey, 265;
+  renews the Triumvirate, 266;
+  subdues the Dalmatians, 267;
+  rupture with Antony, 267;
+  defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, 268;
+  his Triumph, 270;
+  Imperator for life, Princeps, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, 270;
+  end of the Republic, 270.
+
+Octavius. _See_ Octavian.
+
+Octavius, Cn., conflict with Cinna, 185;
+  slain, 185.
+
+Oppian Law repealed, 130.
+
+Orosius, 348.
+
+Ostia founded, 15.
+
+Ostrogoths obtain permission to cross the Danube, 338.
+
+Otho, Salvius, 302.
+
+Ovid banished, 203.
+
+Ovidius Naso, P. (poet), 281.
+
+
+P.
+
+Pacuvius, M., 275.
+
+Palaeopolis taken, 56.
+
+Palladius, 350.
+
+Palmyra, fall of, 325.
+
+Pannonia, mutiny in, 296.
+
+Panormus, defeat there of Carthaginians, 73.
+
+Pansa, C. Vibius, Consul, defeated by Antony, and slain, 255.
+
+Papinianus, 350.
+
+Papius Mutilus, C., 179;
+  defeated by Sulla, 180.
+
+Paterculus, Velleius, 346.
+
+_Patres Majorum_ and _Minorum Gentium_, 17.
+
+Patricians, 12;
+  struggles between them and the Plebeians, 29;
+  ascendency of the Patricians, 29.
+  _See_ Plebeians.
+
+_Patronus_, 12.
+
+Paulus, 350.
+
+Peligni, 3.
+
+Pergamus, 106;
+  made a province, 147.
+
+Perperna, M., re-enforces Sertorius in Spain, 200;
+  becomes jealous of Sertorius, and assassinates him, 202;
+  is defeated by Pompey, 202.
+
+Perseus succeeds Philip as king of Macedon, 134;
+  defeated by L. AEmilius Paullus, 135;
+  death, 136.
+
+Persius, 345.
+
+Pertinax, Emperor, 318.
+
+Pescennius Niger, 319.
+
+Petreius, M., 221.
+
+Petronius Arbiter, 348.
+
+Phaedrus, 346.
+
+Pharnaces, conspiracy of, against Mithridates, 213;
+  confirmed in position of the kingdom of the Bosporus, 213.
+
+Philip, Emperor, 324.
+
+Philip V., king of Macedon, enters into a treaty with Hannibal, 107;
+  appears in the Adriatic with a fleet, and lays siege to Oricus and
+      Apollonia, 107;
+  takes Oricus, but is driven from Apollonia, and burns his fleet, 107;
+  in alliance with the Achaeans, and at peace with the AEtolians and
+      Romans, 108;
+  assists Hannibal at Zama, 108;
+  attacks the Rhodians and Attalus, king of Pergamus, 108;
+  treats with Antiochus for the partition of Egypt, 108;
+  besieges Athens, which is relieved by a Roman fleet, 108;
+  sues for peace after his defeat in the battle of Cynoscephalae, 109;
+  refuses to take part with Antiochus against the Romans, 110;
+  his death, 134.
+
+Phoenicians, 68.
+
+Phalanx, 122.
+
+Phraates, king of the Parthians, 291.
+
+Picenum, 2.
+
+Piracy in the Mediterranean suppressed by Pompey, 310.
+
+Piso, Cn. Calpurnius, 218.
+
+Placentia taken and destroyed, 118.
+
+Plautia Papiria, Lex, 180.
+
+Plautus, T. Maccius, 273.
+
+_Plebiscita_, 40, 51;
+  and _Leges_, 121.
+
+Plebs, Plebeians, origin of the, 14;
+  sufferings of the, 30;
+  Ager Publicus, 30;
+  secession of Plebeians to the Sacred Mount, 31;
+  institution of Tribunes of the Plebs, 31;
+  Agrarian Law introduced by Sp. Cassius, 31.
+
+Pliny, Secundus Major, 349.
+
+Poeni, 68 (note).
+
+Pollio, Asinius, 286.
+
+Pomoerium, 9, 20.
+
+Pompaedius Silo, Q., 178.
+
+Pompeiopolis, 210.
+
+Pompeius Strabo, Cn., in Social War, 180.
+
+Pompey (Cn. Pompeius Magnus), early life and career, 200-1;
+  receives the surname of Magnus, 201;
+  sent to Spain as Proconsul against Sertorius, 201;
+  failures and successes, 201;
+  defeats Perperna, 202;
+  concludes the war, 202;
+  elected Consul, with Crassus, 203;
+  restores the Tribunitian power, 203;
+  suppresses piracy in the Mediterranean, 210;
+  supersedes Lucullus in the East, 211;
+  defeats Mithridates in Lesser Armenia, 211;
+  receives the submission of Tigranes, 212;
+  his conquests in Syria and Palestine, 212-13;
+  returns to Italy, 213;
+  his Triumph, 223;
+  Senate refuses to sanction his measures in Asia, 224,
+    but afterward ratifies them, 225;
+  forms cabal with Caesar and Crassus (first Triumvirate), 225;
+  marries Caesar's daughter Julia, 225;
+  meets Caesar and Crassus at Luca, 236;
+  Consul with Crassus, 236;
+  obtains government of Spain, 236;
+  his new theatre at Rome opened, 236;
+  his wife Julia dies, 237;
+  elected sole Consul, 238;
+  becomes hostile to Caesar, 239;
+  measures in opposition to Caesar, 239-40;
+  invested by the Senate with command of the army, 240;
+  retreats before Caesar, 242;
+  embarks for Greece, 242;
+  besieged by Caesar at Dyrrhachium, 244;
+  forces Caesar to retreat, 244;
+  defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia, 245;
+  flies to Egypt, 245;
+  slain there, 245.
+
+Pompey, Sextus, in alliance with M. Antony, 264;
+  master of the sea, 264;
+  forms alliance with Octavian and Antony, 264;
+  rupture of the alliance, 265;
+  defeats Octavian's fleet, 265;
+  his own fleet defeated by M. Agrippa, 266;
+  is taken prisoner, and put to death at Miletus, 266.
+
+Pontiffs, 12, 51.
+
+Pontine Marshes, 4.
+
+Pontius, C., defeats the Romans, 57, 58;
+  is defeated and put to death, 59.
+
+Pontius, the Samnite, 193.
+
+Pontus, 106;
+  kingdom of, 186;
+  made a Roman province, 212.
+
+Porcius Cato, M. _See_ Cato.
+
+Populus Romanus, 14.
+
+Porsena, Lars, marches against Rome in aid of Tarquin, 26;
+  bridge defended by Horatius Cocles, 26;
+  C. Mucius Scaevola, 27;
+  Cloelia swims across the Tiber, 27;
+  Porsena withdraws his army, 27;
+  war with the Latins, 28;
+  battle of the Lake Regillus, 28;
+  death of Tarquinius Superbus, 28.
+
+Praeneste surrenders, 193.
+
+Praetor Peregrinus, 117.
+
+Praetors, afterward called Consuls, 25.
+
+Praetors and Praetorship, 51, 117.
+
+_Principes_, 122.
+
+Privernum, conquest of, 56.
+
+Probus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Proconsuls, 118.
+
+Propertius, Sextus Aurelius (poet), 280.
+
+Propraetors, 118.
+
+_Proscriptio_, what it was, 193.
+
+Provinces, Roman, 147.
+
+_Provocatio_, 121 (note).
+
+Prusias, king of Bithynia, shelters Hannibal, 131.
+
+Publilian Law, 31 (note), 36.
+
+Publilian Laws, 51.
+
+_Publicani_, 119 (note).
+
+Pulcheria, 351.
+
+Punic War, First, 68-76;
+  Second, 82-105.
+
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, assists the Tarentines, 62;
+  defeats the Romans near Heraclea, 62;
+  sends Cineas to negotiate a peace, 63;
+  terms rejected, 63;
+  takes Praeneste, 63;
+  winter quarters, at Tarentum, 63;
+  embassy of Fabricius, 63;
+  proposal to poison Pyrrhus, 64;
+  releases Roman prisoners without ransom, 64;
+  crosses over into Sicily, 64;
+  is repulsed at Lilybaeum, 64;
+  returns to Italy, 64;
+  seizes the treasures of the temple of Proserpine at Locri, 65;
+  his remorse, 65;
+  is defeated at Beneventum, 65;
+  returns to Greece, and is slain, 65.
+
+
+Q.
+
+_Quaestio Perpetua_, 197.
+
+Quaestor; and Quaestorship, 4, 117.
+
+Quintilianus, M. Fabius, 348.
+
+Quintius, P., speech of Cicero for, 216.
+
+_Quirites_, 11 (note).
+
+
+R.
+
+Rabirius, C., 219.
+
+Ramnes, 12.
+
+Rasena, 5.
+
+Regillus, Lake, battle of, 28.
+
+Regulus, M. Atilius, defeats the Carthaginians, 72;
+  is defeated by Xanthippus, 73.
+
+Regulus, M. Atilius, sent, as prisoner, with an embassy, to
+    Rome, 73, 74;
+  advises the Senate to reject the terms, 74;
+  returns, and is put to death, 74.
+
+Remus and Romulus, 9;
+  Remus slain, 10.
+
+_Repetundae_, 128 (note).
+
+Republic established at Rome, 25;
+  end of, 270.
+
+Rhea Silvia, legend of, 8.
+
+Rhodes, 107;
+  school of rhetoric at, 215.
+
+_Rogatio_ and _Lex_, 49 (note).
+
+Roma Quadrata, 9.
+
+Roman Literature, sketch of, 272-285;
+  _Poetry_: Saturnian Metre and the Drama, 272;
+  M. Livius Andronicus, 272, 273;
+  Cn. Naevius, 273;
+  Q. Ennius, 273;
+  T. Maccius Plautus, 273;
+  P. Terentius Afer, 274;
+  Q. Caecilius, L. Afranius, 274;
+  M. Pacuvius, 275;
+  L. Accius, 275;
+  _Atellanae Fabulae_, _Mimes_, 275;
+  Dec. Laberius, P. Syrus, 275;
+  Fescennine Songs, 276;
+  Satires, 276;
+  C. Lucilius, 276;
+  T. Lucretius Carus, 276;
+  Valerius Catullus, 276;
+  P. Virgilius Maro, 277;
+  Q. Horatius Flaccus, 278;
+  Albius Tibullus, 280;
+  Sextus Aurelius Propertius, 280;
+  P. Ovidius Naso, 281.
+  _Prose Writers_--Q. Fabius Pictor, 282;
+  L. Cincius Alimentus, 282;
+  M. Porcius Cato, 282;
+  M. Tullius Cicero, 282;
+  M. Terentius Varro, 283;
+  C. Julius Caesar, 283;
+  C. Sallustius Crispus, 284;
+  Cornelius Nepos, 284;
+  Titus Livius, 284.
+
+Rome, situation and first inhabitants, 7;
+  legends and early history, 8;
+  first four kings, 9-15;
+  last three kings, 16-28;
+  foundation of, 9;
+  destroyed by the Goths (Senones) under Brennus, 47;
+  rebuilt, 48;
+  pestilence at, 62;
+  sacked by Alaric, 341.
+
+Romulus, birth of, 9;
+  slays Remus, 10;
+  rape of Sabine virgins, 10;
+  war with Sabines, 10;
+  reigns conjointly with Titus Tatius, 11;
+  succeeds T. Tatius as ruler of the Sabines, and thus becomes solo
+      ruler, 11;
+  his death, 11;
+  institutions, 12.
+
+Romulus Augustus, 343.
+
+Rorarii, 123.
+
+Rufinus, 339.
+
+Rufus, Q. Curtius, 347.
+
+Rullus (Tribune), 219.
+
+Rupilius, P., captures Tauromenium and Enna, and ends the First Servile
+    War, 147.
+
+Rutilius Rufus found guilty and banished, 175.
+
+Rutilius Lupus, P., Consul, 179;
+  defeated and slain, 179.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sabellians, 3.
+
+Sabine virgins, rape of, 10.
+
+Sabini, 3, 11 (note).
+
+Sacred Mount, first secession to, 31;
+  second secession, 39.
+
+Sacrovir, 297.
+
+Saguntum captured, 81.
+
+Salii, priests of Mars, 13.
+
+Sallustius Crispus, C., 284.
+
+Salvius, leader of the slaves in Sicily, 172;
+  assumes the surname of Tryphon, 172.
+
+Salvus Julianus, 350.
+
+Samnites, history, 53;
+  tribes, 53;
+  conquer Campania and Lucania, 53;
+  attack the Sidicini and Campanians, 53;
+  enter into war with the Romans, 54;
+  are defeated at Mount Gaurus, 54;
+  peace 54;
+  second of Great War with the Romans, 57;
+  quarrel between Q. Fabius Maximus and L. Papirius Cursor, 57;
+  Samnite general, C. Pontius, defeats the Romans at the Caudine
+      Forks, 57, 58;
+  treaty rejected by the Romans, 58;
+  successes of the Romans, and peace, 58;
+  third war, 59;
+  battle of Sentinum, 59;
+  defeat, and peace, 59.
+
+Samnium and Samnites, 4.
+
+Sapor, king of Persia, 336.
+
+Sardinia obtained from Carthage, and formed into a Roman province, 77;
+  revolt in, 115;
+  Praetor for, 118.
+
+Satires, Roman, 276.
+
+Saturnian Metre, 272.
+
+Saturninus elected Tribune, 174;
+  brings in an Agrarian Law, 174;
+  murders Memmius, 174;
+  is declared a public enemy, 174;
+  pelted to death with tiles by the mob, 175.
+
+Scipio, Cneius, in Spain, 95;
+  slain there, 95.
+
+Scipio, P. Cornelius, marches to oppose Hannibal, 83;
+  killed in Spain, 95.
+
+Scipio Africanus Major, P. Cornelius, his early life, 99;
+  elected Proconsul, and goes to Spain, 100;
+  captures New Carthage, 100;
+  defeats Hasdrubal, 101;
+  master of nearly all Spain, by a victory (place uncertain), 101;
+  crosses over to Africa, 101;
+  quells insurrection and mutiny in Spain, 101;
+  captures Gades, 102;
+  returns to Rome, and is elected Consul, 102;
+  passes over to Sicily, and thence to Africa, 103;
+  besieges Utica, 103;
+  is opposed by Hasdrubal and Syphax, whom he defeats, 103;
+  defeats Hannibal near Zama, 104;
+  returns to Rome, 105;
+  prosecuted, 131;
+  retires from Rome, 131;
+  death, 131.
+
+Scipio Africanus Minor, 140;
+  captures and destroys Carthage, 142;
+  sent to Spain, 145;
+  opposes Ti. Gracchus, 153;
+  found dead in his room, 153.
+
+Scipio, L. Cornelius (Asiaticus) appointed to the command against
+    Antiochus, who had invaded the kingdom of Pergamus, 111;
+  defeats Antiochus near Magnesia, and returns to Rome, 111;
+  prosecution of, 130.
+
+Scipio Nasica, P. Cornelius, subdues the Boii, 114.
+
+Sempronian Laws, 157.
+
+Senate, 12, 119.
+
+Senators bribed by Jugurtha found guilty by a commission, 164.
+
+_Senatus Consultum_, 120.
+
+Seneca, 301;
+  his writings, 349.
+
+Seneca, M. Annaeus, 348.
+
+Senones, 45.
+
+Septimius Severus, Emperor, 320;
+  penetrates to the interior of Scotland, 321.
+
+Sertorius Macro, 299.
+
+Sertorius, Q., in Spain, 200;
+  defeats Q. Metellus, 200;
+  is opposed to Pompey, 201;
+  assassinated by Perperna, 202.
+
+Servile War at Carthage, 77.
+
+Servile War in Sicily, First, 146-7;
+  Second, suppressed by M. Aquillius, 172.
+
+Servilius, Q., murdered, 178.
+
+Servius Tullius, succeeds Tarquinius Priscus, 18;
+  reforms the constitution, and divides the territory, 18;
+  increases the city, and surrounds it with a wall, 20;
+  forms an alliance with the Latins, 20;
+  his death, 22;
+  his two daughters, 22.
+
+Seven hills of Rome, 20 (note).
+
+Sextius, L., first Plebeian Consul, 50.
+
+Sicily invaded by the Romans, 69-71;
+  made subject to the Romans, except Syracuse, 76;
+  Praetor for, 118;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Sicinius Dentatus slain, 38.
+
+Sidicini, 53.
+
+Silanus, 297.
+
+Slaves under the Romans, 146.
+
+Social War, or Marsic War, 178-180.
+
+_Socii_, or Allies, 66;
+  troops furnished by, 123.
+
+_Sociorum Praefecti_, 123.
+
+Soli, afterward Pompeiopolis, occupied by pirates, 210.
+
+Spain in two provinces, 114;
+  Praetors for, 118;
+  under Augustus, 287.
+
+Spanish Wars, 143-146.
+
+Sparta, 107.
+
+Spartacus, a gladiator, excites an insurrection of slaves, 202;
+  devastates Italy with a large army of slaves, 203;
+  defeated by Crassus, 203;
+  slain in battle, 203.
+
+_Spolia opima_ won by A. Cornelius Cossus, 43.
+
+Statius, P. Papinius, 344.
+
+Stilicho, 339.
+
+St. Chrysostom, 311.
+
+_Suffetes_, 68.
+
+Sulla, C. Cornelius, early life and character, 167;
+  Quaestor with Marius in Africa, 168;
+  gains over Bocchus, and entraps and makes a prisoner of Jugurtha, 167;
+  in Social War, 180;
+  Consul, 181;
+  rivalry with Marius, 182;
+  enters Rome with his army, and takes possession of the city, 183;
+  leaves Rome for the East, 184;
+  plunders Athens, 188;
+  victory at Orchomenus, 189;
+  makes peace with Mithridates, 189;
+  overcomes Fimbria, 189;
+  defeats the younger Marius, and enters Rome, 192;
+  battle with the Samnites and Lucanians for the possession of
+      Rome, 192;
+  Allies defeated, 193;
+  elected Dictator, 193;
+  his massacres and proscriptions, 194;
+  elected Consul, 194;
+  his Triumph, and assumed title of Felix, 194;
+  his military colonies, 194, 195;
+  his reforms, 194, 195;
+  resignation of Dictatorship, retirement, and death, 195;
+  his legislation, 190-193.
+
+Sulpicius Rufus, P., sells himself to Marius, 182;
+  put to death, 183.
+
+_Supplicatio_, 125.
+
+Synorium, fortress of, 211.
+
+Syphax, at war with Carthage, 95;
+  is visited by Scipio, but, falling in love with Sophonisba, daughter
+      of Hasdrubal, becomes an ally of the Carthaginians, 101;
+  defeated by Scipio and Masinissa, and flies into Numidia, 103;
+  is pursued and taken prisoner by Laelius and Masinissa, 103.
+
+Syracuse captured by Marcellus, 94.
+
+Syria, condition of, 106;
+  made a Roman province, 212.
+
+Syrus, P., 275.
+
+
+T.
+
+Tacitus, Emperor, 326.
+
+Tacitus, the historian, 346.
+
+Tarentum, 60, 62;
+  captured, 65.
+
+Tarpeia, 10.
+
+Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, his birth and descent, 16;
+  elected 5th king of Rome, 16;
+  defeats the Sabines and captures Collatia, 16;
+  takes also many Latin towns, and becomes ruler of all Latium, 16;
+  constructs the cloacae, 16;
+  lays out the Circus Maximus, and institutes the games of the
+      Circus, 17;
+  increases the Senate, the Equites, and the Vestal Virgins, 17;
+  appoints Servius Tullius his successor, 18;
+  his reign and death, 18.
+
+Tarquinius Superbus, Lucius, succeeds Servius Tullius, 22;
+  his tyranny, 22;
+  alliance with the Latins, 22;
+  war with the Volscians, 23;
+  founds the temple named the Capitolium, 23;
+  purchases the three Sybilline books, 23;
+  attacks and captures Gabii, 23;
+  sends to consult the oracle at Delphi, 23;
+  besieges Ardea, 24;
+  Lucretia ravished by Sextus Tarquinius, 24;
+  death of Lucretia, 25;
+  is expelled from Rome with his sons, 25;
+  attempts to regain the throne, 25;
+  his Etruscan allies defeated, 26;
+  dies at Cumae, 28.
+
+Terentius Afer, P., 274.
+
+Teutones and Ambrones enter France, in march for Italy, 170;
+  defeated and destroyed by Marius, 171.
+
+Theodosius, Emperor, 339.
+
+Thurii, 60.
+
+Tiberius, 201;
+  divorced from his wife, 292;
+  succeeds Augustus, 295;
+  retires to Capreae, 298;
+  death, 299.
+
+Tibullus, Albius (poet), 280.
+
+Tigranes, king of Armenia, receives his father-in-law Mithridates, 207;
+  defeated by Lucullus at Tigranocerta, 208;
+  acts in concert with Mithridates, 209;
+  submits to Pompey, 212.
+
+Tigranes the younger revolts against his father, 212.
+
+Tities, 12.
+
+Titus takes Jerusalem, 303;
+  emperor, 304.
+
+Trajanus Decius, Emperor, 324.
+
+Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Emperor, 307;
+  conflict with the Dacians, 308;
+  leads an army into Assyria, 308;
+  death, 309.
+
+Trasimenus, Lake, Roman army destroyed at, 86.
+
+_Triarii_, 123.
+
+Triarius defeated by Mithridates, 208.
+
+Tribes, Assembly of the, 121.
+
+Tribunes, 31, 117, 121.
+
+Tribuneship degraded by Sulla's laws, 197.
+
+_Tribuni Militum_, 123.
+
+Tributum, a property-tax, 121.
+
+Triumph, the general's, 124.
+
+Triumvirate, First, 225;
+  Second, 256.
+
+Triumviri visit Greece to inquire into the laws, 37.
+
+Tullianum (dungeon), 221.
+
+Tullus Hostilius elected to succeed Numa, 13;
+  battle of the Horatii and Curiatii, 13;
+  conquers the Albans, 14;
+  conquers the Etruscans, 14;
+  punishes Mettius Fuffetius, 14;
+  destroys Alba Longa, and removes inhabitants to Rome, 14;
+  his reign and death, 14.
+
+_Turmae_, 123.
+
+Twelve Tables, 38.
+
+
+U.
+
+Ulphilas, 338.
+
+Ulpianus, 350.
+
+Umbria, 2.
+
+Umbrians in league with the Etruscans, 59.
+
+Umbro-Sabellians, 5.
+
+
+V.
+
+Vadimo, Lake, defeat of Gauls and Etruscans there, 60.
+
+Valentinian, Emperor, 338.
+
+Valentinian III., 342.
+
+Valerian and Horatian Laws, 40.
+
+Valerian, Emperor, 324.
+
+Valerius, Corvus, M., legend of, 48.
+
+Valerius Publicola, 26.
+
+Vandals invited into Africa, 342;
+  plunder Rome, 342.
+
+Varro, M. Terentius, 283.
+
+Varus, 291.
+
+_Vectigalia_, 121.
+
+Veii besieged, 43;
+  Alban Lake, 43;
+  city captured, 44.
+
+_Velites_, 123.
+
+Veneti defeated by Caesar, 231.
+
+Ventidius, Tribune and Consul, 265;
+  his successful wars against the Parthians, 265.
+
+Vercingetorix defeated and taken prisoner, 234.
+
+Verus, L., 314, 315.
+
+Vestal Virgins, 13, 17.
+
+_Vestini_, 3.
+
+Veto of the Tribunes, 31, 121.
+
+Vettius, L., accuses Caesar, 222;
+  is thrown into prison, 222.
+
+_Vexillarius_, 122.
+
+Via AEmilia, Appia, Flaminina, 114, 119.
+
+Victor, Aurelius, 347.
+
+Viriathus, 144;
+  assassinated, 145.
+
+Virgilius Maro, P., 277.
+
+Vologeses III., king of the Parthians, 314.
+
+Volturcius, T., 220.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wallia, 341.
+
+
+X.
+
+Xanthippus, 72, 73.
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 325.
+
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Augustus.]
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by
+William Smith and Eugene Lawrence
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19694.txt or 19694.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/6/9/19694/
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19694.zip b/19694.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf4682a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19694.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1213301
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #19694 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19694)