9 files changed, 10050 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/20643-8.txt b/20643-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3336214
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3256 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin
+
+Author: Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+Release Date: February 21, 2007 [EBook #20643]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES
+IN
+HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor
+
+    History is past Politics and Politics present History.--Freeman
+
+NINTH SERIES
+XI-XII
+
+
+The Character and Influence of the
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin
+
+_A Study of the Trading Post as an Institution_
+
+BY FREDERICK J. TURNER, PH.D.
+
+_Professor of History, University of Wisconsin_
+
+
+BALTIMORE
+THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS
+PUBLISHED MONTHLY
+November and December, 1891
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY N. MURRAY.
+
+ISAAC FRIEDENWALD CO., PRINTERS,
+BALTIMORE.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                           PAGE.
+   I. INTRODUCTION                                             7
+  II. PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE                            10
+ III. PLACE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN THE SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA  11
+      1. Early Trade along the Atlantic Coast                 11
+      2. In New England                                       12
+      3. In the Middle Region                                 18
+      4. In the South                                         16
+      5. In the Far West                                      18
+  IV. THE RIVER AND LAKE SYSTEMS OF THE NORTHWEST             19
+   V. WISCONSIN INDIANS                                       22
+  VI. PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE                   25
+ VII. FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN                         26
+VIII. FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN                               33
+  IX. THE FOX WARS                                            34
+   X. FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN                          38
+  XI. THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE             40
+ XII. THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE
+        INDIAN TRADE ON DIPLOMACY                             42
+XIII. THE NORTHWEST COMPANY                                   51
+ XIV. AMERICAN INFLUENCES                                     51
+  XV. GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES                               58
+ XVI. WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820                                 61
+XVII. EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST                             67
+
+
+
+
+THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.[1]
+
+
+The trading post is an old and influential institution. Established in
+the midst of an undeveloped society by a more advanced people, it is a
+center not only of new economic influences, but also of all the
+transforming forces that accompany the intercourse of a higher with a
+lower civilization. The Phoenicians developed the institution into a
+great historic agency. Closely associated with piracy at first, their
+commerce gradually freed itself from this and spread throughout the
+Mediterranean lands. A passage in the Odyssey (Book XV.) enables us to
+trace the genesis of the Phoenician trading post:
+
+"Thither came the Phoenicians, mariners renowned, greedy merchant-men
+with countless trinkets in a black ship.... They abode among us a whole
+year, and got together much wealth in their hollow ship. And when their
+hollow ship was now laden to depart, they sent a messenger.... There
+came a man versed in craft to my father's house with a golden chain
+strung here and there with amber beads. Now, the maidens in the hall and
+my lady mother were handling the chain and gazing on it and offering him
+their price."
+
+It would appear that the traders at first sailed from port to port,
+bartering as they went. After a time they stayed at certain profitable
+places a twelvemonth, still trading from their ships. Then came the
+fixed factory, and about it grew the trading colony.[2] The Phoenician
+trading post wove together the fabric of oriental civilization, brought
+arts and the alphabet to Greece, brought the elements of civilization to
+northern Africa, and disseminated eastern culture through the
+Mediterranean system of lands. It blended races and customs, developed
+commercial confidence, fostered the custom of depending on outside
+nations for certain supplies, and afforded a means of peaceful
+intercourse between societies naturally hostile.
+
+Carthaginian, Greek, Etruscan and Roman trading posts continued the
+process. By traffic in amber, tin, furs, etc., with the tribes of the
+north of Europe, a continental commerce was developed. The routes of
+this trade have been ascertained.[3] For over a thousand years before
+the migration of the peoples Mediterranean commerce had flowed along the
+interlacing river valleys of Europe, and trading posts had been
+established. Museums show how important an effect was produced upon the
+economic life of northern Europe by this intercourse. It is a
+significant fact that the routes of the migration of the peoples were to
+a considerable extent the routes of Roman trade, and it is well worth
+inquiry whether this commerce did not leave more traces upon Teutonic
+society than we have heretofore considered, and whether one cause of the
+migrations of the peoples has not been neglected.[4]
+
+That stage in the development of society when a primitive people comes
+into contact with a more advanced people deserves more study than has
+been given to it. As a factor in breaking the "cake of custom" the
+meeting of two such societies is of great importance; and if, with
+Starcke,[5] we trace the origin of the family to economic
+considerations, and, with Schrader,[6] the institution of guest
+friendship to the same source, we may certainly expect to find important
+influences upon primitive society arising from commerce with a higher
+people. The extent to which such commerce has affected all peoples is
+remarkable. One may study the process from the days of Phoenicia to
+the days of England in Africa,[7] but nowhere is the material more
+abundant than in the history of the relations of the Europeans and the
+American Indians. The Phoenician factory, it is true, fostered the
+development of the Mediterranean civilization, while in America the
+trading post exploited the natives. The explanation of this difference
+is to be sought partly in race differences, partly in the greater gulf
+that separated the civilization of the European from the civilization of
+the American Indian as compared with that which parted the early Greeks
+and the Phoenicians. But the study of the destructive effect of the
+trading post is valuable as well as the study of its elevating
+influences; in both cases the effects are important and worth
+investigation and comparison.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: In this paper I have rewritten and enlarged an address
+before the State Historical Society of Wisconsin on the Character and
+Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin, published in the Proceedings of
+the Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting, 1889. I am under obligations to Mr.
+Reuben G. Thwaites, Secretary of this society, for his generous
+assistance in procuring material for my work, and to Professor Charles
+H. Haskins, my colleague, who kindly read both manuscript and proof and
+made helpful suggestions. The reader will notice that throughout the
+paper I have used the word _Northwest_ in a limited sense as referring
+to the region included between the Great Lakes and the Ohio and
+Mississippi rivers.]
+
+[Footnote 2: On the trading colony, see Roscher und Jannasch, Colonien,
+p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Consult: M�llenhoff, Altertumskunde I., 212; Schrader,
+Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, New York, 1890, pp. 348
+ff.; Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xxvii., 11; Montelius, Civilization of
+Sweden in Heathen Times, 98-99; Du Chaillu, Viking Age; and the
+citations in Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, 466-7; Keary, Vikings in
+Western Christendom, 23.]
+
+[Footnote 4: In illustration it may be noted that the early Scandinavian
+power in Russia seized upon the trade route by the Dnieper and the Duna.
+Keary, Vikings, 173. See also _post_, pp. 36, 38.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Starcke, Primitive Family.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Schrader, l.c.; see also Ihring, in _Deutsche Rundschau_,
+III., 357, 420; Kulischer, Der Handel auf primitiven Kulturstufen, in
+_Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft_, X., 378.
+_Vide post_, p. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 7: W. Bosworth Smith, in a suggestive article in the
+_Nineteenth Century_, December, 1887, shows the influence of the
+Mohammedan trade in Africa.]
+
+
+
+
+PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE.
+
+
+Long before the advent of the white trader, inter-tribal commercial
+intercourse existed. Mr. Charles Rau[8] and Sir Daniel Wilson[9] have
+shown that inter-tribal trade and division of labor were common among
+the mound-builders and in the stone age generally. In historic times
+there is ample evidence of inter-tribal trade. Were positive evidence
+lacking, Indian institutions would disclose the fact. Differences in
+language were obviated by the sign language,[10] a fixed system of
+communication, intelligible to all the western tribes at least. The
+peace pipe,[11] or calumet, was used for settling disputes,
+strengthening alliances, and speaking to strangers--a sanctity attached
+to it. Wampum belts served in New England and the middle region as money
+and as symbols in the ratification of treaties.[12] The Chippeways had
+an institution called by a term signifying "to enter one another's
+lodges,"[13] whereby a truce was made between them and the Sioux at the
+winter hunting season. During these seasons of peace it was not uncommon
+for a member of one tribe to adopt a member of another as his brother, a
+tie which was respected even after the expiration of the truce. The
+analogy of this custom to the classical "guest-friendship" needs no
+comment; and the economic cause of the institution is worth remark, as
+one of the means by which the rigor of primitive inter-tribal hostility
+was mitigated.
+
+But it is not necessary to depend upon indirect evidence. The earliest
+travellers testify to the existence of a wide inter-tribal commerce. The
+historians of De Soto's expedition mention Indian merchants who sold
+salt to the inland tribes. "In 1565 and for some years previous bison
+skins were brought by the Indians down the Potomac, and thence carried
+along-shore in canoes to the French about the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+During two years six thousand skins were thus obtained."[14] An
+Algonquin brought to Champlain at Quebec a piece of copper a foot long,
+which he said came from a tributary of the Great Lakes.[15] Champlain
+also reports that among the Canadian Indians village councils were held
+to determine what number of men might go to trade with other tribes in
+the summer.[16] Morton in 1632 describes similar inter-tribal trade in
+New England, and adds that certain utensils are "but in certain parts of
+the country made, where the severall trades are appropriated to the
+inhabitants of those parts onely."[17] Marquette relates that the
+Illinois bought firearms of the Indians who traded directly with the
+French, and that they went to the south and west to carry off slaves,
+which they sold at a high price to other nations.[18] It was on the
+foundation, therefore, of an extensive inter-tribal trade that the white
+man built up the forest commerce.[19]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: Smithsonian Report, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1889, VII.,
+59. See also Thruston, Antiquities of Tennessee, 79 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Mallery, in Bureau of Ethnology, I., 324; Clark, Indian
+Sign Language.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Shea, Discovery of the Mississippi, 34. Catilinite pipes
+were widely used, even along the Atlantic slope, Thruston, 80-81.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, I.,
+ch. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Minnesota Historical Collections, V., 267.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World, 230, citing
+Menendez.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Neill, in Narrative and Critical History of America, IV.,
+164.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Champlain's Voyages (Prince Society), III., 183.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Morton, New English Canaan (Prince Society), 159.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley,
+32.]
+
+[Footnote 19: For additional evidence see Radisson, Voyages (Prince
+Society), 91, 173; Massachusetts Historical Collections, I., 151;
+Smithsonian Contributions, XVI., 30; Jesuit Relations, 1671, 41;
+Thruston, Antiquities, etc., 79-82; Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi
+Valley, 25, 27; and _post_ pp. 26-7, 36.]
+
+
+
+
+EARLY TRADE ALONG THE ATLANTIC COAST.
+
+
+The chroniclers of the earliest voyages to the Atlantic coast abound in
+references to this traffic. First of Europeans to purchase native furs
+in America appear to have been the Norsemen who settled Vinland. In the
+saga of Eric the Red[20] we find this interesting account: "Thereupon
+Karlsefni and his people displayed their shields, and when they came
+together they began to barter with each other. Especially did the
+strangers wish to buy red cloth, for which they offered in exchange
+peltries and quite grey skins. They also desired to buy swords and
+spears, but Karlsefni and Snorri forbade this. In exchange for perfect
+unsullied skins the Skrellings would take red stuff a span in length,
+which they would bind around their heads. So their trade went on for a
+time, until Karlsefni and his people began to grow short of cloth, when
+they divided it into such narrow pieces that it was not more than a
+finger's breadth wide, but the Skrellings still continued to give just
+as much for this as before, or more."[21]
+
+The account of Verrazano's voyage mentions his Indian trade. Captain
+John Smith, exploring New England in 1614, brought back a cargo of fish
+and 11,000 beaver skins.[22] These examples could be multiplied; in
+short, a way was prepared for colonization by the creation of a demand
+for European goods, and thus the opportunity for a lodgement was
+afforded.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 20: Reeves, Finding of Wineland the Good, 47.]
+
+[Footnote 21: N.Y. Hist. Colls., I., 54-55, 59.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Smith, Generall Historie (Richmond, 1819), I., 87-8, 182,
+199; Strachey's Travaile into Virginia, 157 (Hakluyt Soc. VI.); Parkman,
+Pioneers, 230.]
+
+
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND INDIAN TRADE.
+
+
+The Indian trade has a place in the early history of the New England
+colonies. The Plymouth settlers "found divers corn fields and little
+running brooks, a place ... fit for situation,"[23] and settled down
+cuckoo-like in Indian clearings. Mr. Weeden has shown that the Indian
+trade furnished a currency (wampum) to New England, and that it afforded
+the beginnings of her commerce. In September of their first year the
+Plymouth men sent out a shallop to trade with the Indians, and when a
+ship arrived from England in 1621 they speedily loaded her with a
+return cargo of beaver and lumber.[24] By frequent legislation the
+colonies regulated and fostered the trade.[25] Bradford reports that in
+a single year twenty hhd. of furs were shipped from Plymouth, and that
+between 1631 and 1636 their shipments amounted to 12,150 _li_. beaver
+and 1156 _li_. otter.[26] Morton in his 'New English Canaan' alleges
+that a servant of his was "thought to have a thousand pounds in ready
+gold gotten by the beaver when he died."[27] In the pursuit of this
+trade men passed continually farther into the wilderness, and their
+trading posts "generally became the pioneers of new settlements."[28]
+For example, the posts of Oldham, a Puritan trader, led the way for the
+settlements on the Connecticut river,[29] and in their early days these
+towns were partly sustained by the Indian trade.[30]
+
+Not only did the New England traders expel the Dutch from this valley;
+they contended with them on the Hudson.[31]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 23: Bradford, Plymouth Plantation.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Bradford, 104.]
+
+[Footnote 25: _E.g._, Plymouth Records, I., 50, 54, 62, 119; II., 10;
+Massachusetts Colonial Records, I., 55, 81, 96, 100, 322; II., 86, 138;
+III., 424; V., 180; Hazard, Historical Collections, II., 19 (the
+Commissioners of the United Colonies propose giving the monopoly of the
+fur trade to a corporation). On public truck-houses, _vide post_, p.
+58.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Bradford, 108, gives the proceeds of the sale of these
+furs.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Force, Collections, Vol. I., No. 5, p. 53.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Weeden, I., 132, 160-1.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Winthrop, History of New England, I., 111, 131.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Connecticut Colonial Records, 1637, pp. 11, 18.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Weeden, I., 126.]
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN TRADE IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES.
+
+
+Morton, in the work already referred to, protested against allowing "the
+Great Lake of the Erocoise" (Champlain) to the Dutch, saying that it is
+excellent for the fur trade, and that the Dutch have gained by beaver
+20,000 pounds a year. Exaggerated though the statement is, it is true
+that the energies of the Dutch were devoted to this trade, rather than
+to agricultural settlement. As in the case of New France the settlers
+dispersed themselves in the Indian trade; so general did this become
+that laws had to be passed to compel the raising of crops.[32] New York
+City (New Amsterdam) was founded and for a time sustained by the fur
+trade. In their search for peltries the Dutch were drawn up the Hudson,
+up the Connecticut, and down the Delaware, where they had Swedes for
+their rivals. By way of the Hudson the Dutch traders had access to Lake
+Champlain, and to the Mohawk, the headwaters of which connected through
+the lakes of western New York with Lake Ontario. This region, which was
+supplied by the trading post of Orange (Albany), was the seat of the
+Iroquois confederacy. The results of the trade upon Indian society
+became apparent in a short time in the most decisive way. Furnished with
+arms by the Dutch, the Iroquois turned upon the neighboring Indians,
+whom the French had at first refrained from supplying with guns.[33] In
+1649 they completely ruined the Hurons,[34] a part of whom fled to the
+woods of northern Wisconsin. In the years immediately following, the
+Neutral Nation and the Eries fell under their power; they overawed the
+New England Indians and the Southern tribes, and their hunting and war
+parties visited Illinois and drove Indians of those plains into
+Wisconsin. Thus by priority in securing firearms, as well as by their
+remarkable civil organization,[35] the Iroquois secured possession of
+the St. Lawrence and Lakes Ontario and Erie. The French had accepted the
+alliance of the Algonquins and the Hurons, as the Dutch, and afterward
+the English, had that of the Iroquois; so these victories of the
+Iroquois cut the French off from the entrance to the Great Lakes by way
+of the upper St. Lawrence. As early as 1629 the Dutch trade was
+estimated at 50,000 guilders per annum, and the Delaware trade alone
+produced 10,000 skins yearly in 1663.[36] The English succeeded to this
+trade, and under Governor Dongan they made particular efforts to extend
+their operations to the Northwest, using the Iroquois as middlemen.
+Although the French were in possession of the trade with the Algonquins
+of the Northwest, the English had an economic advantage in competing for
+this trade in the fact that Albany traders, whose situation enabled them
+to import their goods more easily than Montreal traders could, and who
+were burdened with fewer governmental restrictions, were able to pay
+fifty per cent more for beaver and give better goods. French traders
+frequently received their supplies from Albany, a practice against which
+the English authorities legislated in 1720; and the _coureurs de bois_
+smuggled their furs to the same place.[37] As early as 1666 Talon
+proposed that the king of France should purchase New York, "whereby he
+would have two entrances to Canada and by which he would give to the
+French all the peltries of the north, of which the English share the
+profit by the communication which they have with the Iroquois by
+Manhattan and Orange."[38] It is a characteristic of the fur trade that
+it continually recedes from the original center, and so it happened that
+the English traders before long attempted to work their way into the
+Illinois country.[39] The wars between the French and English and
+Iroquois must be read in the light of this fact. At the outbreak of the
+last French and Indian war, however, it was rather Pennsylvania and
+Virginia traders who visited the Ohio Valley. It is said that some three
+hundred of them came over the mountains yearly, following the
+Susquehanna and the Juniata and the headwaters of the Potomac to the
+tributaries of the Ohio, and visiting with their pack-horses the Indian
+villages along the valley. The center of the English trade was
+Pickawillani on the Great Miami. In 1749 Celoron de Bienville, who had
+been sent out to vindicate French authority in the valley, reported that
+each village along the Ohio and its branches "has one or more English
+traders, and each of these has hired men to carry his furs."[40]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 32: New York Colonial Documents, I., 181, 389, �7.]
+
+[Footnote 33: _Ibid._ 182; Collection de manuscrits relatifs � la
+Nouvelle-France, I., 254; Radisson, 93.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Radisson; Margry,
+D�couvertes et �tablissemens, etc., IV., 586-598; Tailhan, Nicholas
+Perrot.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Morgan, League of the Iroquois.]
+
+[Footnote 36: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 408-9; V., 687, 726; Histoire et
+Commerce des Colonies Angloises, 154.]
+
+[Footnote 37: N.Y. Col. Docs., III., 471, 474; IX., 298, 319.]
+
+[Footnote 38: _Ibid._ IX., 57. The same proposal was made in 1681 by Du
+Chesneau, _ibid._ IX., 165.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Parkman's works; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 165; Shea's
+Charlevoix, IV., 16: "The English, indeed, as already remarked, from
+that time shared with the French in the fur trade; and this was the
+chief motive of their fomenting war between us and the Iroquois,
+inasmuch as they could get no good furs, which come from the northern
+districts, except by means of these Indians, who could scarcely effect a
+reconciliation with us without precluding them from this precious
+mine."]
+
+[Footnote 40: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 50.]
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN TRADE IN THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.
+
+
+The Indian trade of the Virginians was not limited to the Ohio country.
+As in the case of Massachusetts Bay, the trade had been provided for
+before the colony left England,[41] and in times of need it had
+preserved the infant settlement. Bacon's rebellion was in part due to
+the opposition to the governor's trading relations with the savages.
+After a time the nearer Indians were exploited, and as early as the
+close of the seventeenth century Virginia traders sought the Indians
+west of the Alleghanies.[42] The Cherokees lived among the mountains,
+"where the present states of Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, and the
+Carolinas join one another."[43] To the west, on the Mississippi, were
+the Chickasaws, south of whom lived the Choctaws, while to the south of
+the Cherokees were the Creeks. The Catawbas had their villages on the
+border of North and South Carolina, about the headwaters of the Santee
+river. Shawnese Indians had formerly lived on the Cumberland river, and
+French traders had been among them, as well as along the
+Mississippi;[44] but by the time of the English traders, Tennessee and
+Kentucky were for the most part uninhabited. The Virginia traders
+reached the Catawbas, and for a time the Cherokees, by a trading route
+through the southwest of the colony to the Santee. By 1712 this trade
+was a well-established one,[45] and caravans of one hundred pack-horses
+passed along the trail.[46]
+
+The Carolinas had early been interested in the fur trade. In 1663 the
+Lords Proprietors proposed to pay the governor's salary from the
+proceeds of the traffic. Charleston traders were the rivals of the
+Virginians in the southwest. They passed even to the Choctaws and
+Chickasaws, crossing the rivers by portable boats of skin, and sometimes
+taking up a permanent abode among the Indians. Virginia and Carolina
+traders were not on good terms with each other, and Governor Spottswood
+frequently made complaints of the actions of the Carolinians. His
+expedition across the mountains in 1716, if his statement is to be
+trusted, opened a new way to the transmontane Indians, and soon
+afterwards a trading company was formed under his patronage to avail
+themselves of this new route.[47] It passed across the Blue Ridge into
+the Shenandoah valley, and down the old Indian trail to the Cherokees,
+who lived along the upper Tennessee. Below the bend at the Muscle Shoals
+the Virginians met the competition of the French traders from New
+Orleans and Mobile.[48]
+
+The settlement of Augusta, Georgia, was another important trading post.
+Here in 1740 was an English garrison of fifteen or twenty soldiers, and
+a little band of traders, who annually took about five hundred
+pack-horses into the Indian country. In the spring the furs were floated
+down the river in large boats.[49] The Spaniards and the French also
+visited the Indians, and the rivalry over this trade was an important
+factor in causing diplomatic embroilment.[50]
+
+The occupation of the back-lands of the South affords a prototype of the
+process by which the plains of the far West were settled, and also
+furnishes an exemplification of all the stages of economic development
+existing contemporaneously. After a time the traders were accompanied to
+the Indian grounds by _hunters_, and sometimes the two callings were
+combined.[51] When Boone entered Kentucky he went with an Indian trader
+whose posts were on the Red river in Kentucky.[52] After the game
+decreased the hunter's clearing was occupied by the _cattle-raiser_, and
+his home, as settlement grew, became the property of the _cultivator of
+the soil_;[53] the _manufacturing era_ belongs to our own time.
+
+In the South, the Middle Colonies and New England the trade opened the
+water-courses, the trading post grew into the palisaded town, and rival
+nations sought to possess the trade for themselves. Throughout the
+colonial frontier the effects, as well as the methods, of Indian traffic
+were strikingly alike. The trader was the pathfinder for civilization.
+Nor was the process limited to the east of the Mississippi. The
+expeditions of Verenderye led to the discovery of the Rocky
+Mountains.[54] French traders passed up the Missouri; and when the Lewis
+and Clarke expedition ascended that river and crossed the continent, it
+went with traders and voyageurs as guides and interpreters. Indeed,
+Jefferson first conceived the idea of such an expedition[55] from
+contact with Ledyard, who was organizing a fur trading company in
+France, and it was proposed to Congress as a means of fostering our
+western Indian trade.[56] The first immigrant train to California was
+incited by the representations of an Indian trader who had visited the
+region, and it was guided by trappers.[57]
+
+St. Louis was the center of the fur trade of the far West, and Senator
+Benton was intimate with leading traders like Chouteau.[58] He urged the
+occupation of the Oregon country, where in 1810 an establishment had for
+a time been made by the celebrated John Jacob Astor; and he fostered
+legislation opening the road to the southwestern Mexican settlements
+long in use by the traders. The expedition of his son-in-law Fr�mont was
+made with French voyageurs, and guided to the passes by traders who had
+used them before.[59] Benton was also one of the stoutest of the early
+advocates of a Pacific railway.
+
+But the Northwest[60] was particularly the home of the fur trade, and
+having seen that this traffic was not an isolated or unimportant matter,
+we may now proceed to study it in detail with Wisconsin as the field of
+investigation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 41: Charter of 1606.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Ramsay, Tennessee, 63.]
+
+[Footnote 43: On the Southwestern Indians see Adair, American Indians.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Ramsay, 75.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Spottswood's Letters, Virginia Hist. Colls., N.S., I.,
+67.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180. The reader will find a
+convenient map for the southern region in Roosevelt, Winning of the
+West, I.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Spottswood's Letters, I., 40; II., 149, 150.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Ramsay, 64. Note the bearing of this route on the Holston
+settlement.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Georgia Historical Collections, I., 180; II., 123-7.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Spottswood. II., 331, for example.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Ramsay, 65.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Boone, Life and Adventures.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Observations on the North American Land Co., pp. xv., 144,
+London, 1796.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Margry, VI.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Allen, Lewis and Clarke Expedition, I., ix.; _vide post_,
+pp. 70-71.]
+
+[Footnote 56: _Vide post_, p. 71.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Century Magazine_, XLI., 759.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Jessie Benton Fr�mont in _Century Magazine_, XLI., 766-7.]
+
+[Footnote 59: _Century Magazine_, XLI., p. 759; _vide post_, p. 74.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Parkman's works, particularly Old R�gime, make any
+discussion of the importance of the fur trade to Canada proper
+unnecessary. La Hontan says: "For you must know that Canada subsists
+only upon the trade of skins or furs, three-fourths of which come from
+the people that live around the Great Lakes." La Hontan, I., 53, London,
+1703.]
+
+
+
+
+NORTHWESTERN RIVER SYSTEMS IN THEIR RELATION TO THE FUR TRADE.
+
+
+The importance of physical conditions is nowhere more manifest than in
+the exploration of the Northwest, and we cannot properly appreciate
+Wisconsin's relation to the history of the time without first
+considering her situation as regards the lake and river systems of North
+America.
+
+When the Breton sailors, steering their fishing smacks almost in the
+wake of Cabot, began to fish in the St. Lawrence gulf, and to traffic
+with the natives of the mainland for peltries, the problem of how the
+interior of North America was to be explored was solved. The
+water-system composed of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes is the key
+to the continent. The early explorations in a wilderness must be by
+water-courses--they are nature's highways. The St. Lawrence leads to the
+Great Lakes; the headwaters of the tributaries of these lakes lie so
+near the headwaters of the rivers that join the Mississippi that canoes
+can be portaged from the one to the other. The Mississippi affords
+passage to the Gulf of Mexico; or by the Missouri to the passes of the
+Rocky Mountains, where rise the headwaters of the Columbia, which brings
+the voyageur to the Pacific. But if the explorer follows Lake Superior
+to the present boundary line between Minnesota and Canada, and takes the
+chain of lakes and rivers extending from Pigeon river to Rainy lake and
+Lake of the Woods, he will be led to the Winnipeg river and to the lake
+of the same name. From this, by streams and portages, he may reach
+Hudson bay; or he may go by way of Elk river and Lake Athabasca to Slave
+river and Slave lake, which will take him to Mackenzie river and to the
+Arctic sea. But Lake Winnipeg also receives the waters of the
+Saskatchewan river, from which one may pass to the highlands near the
+Pacific where rise the northern branches of the Columbia. And from the
+lakes of Canada there are still other routes to the Oregon country.[61]
+At a later day these two routes to the Columbia became an important
+factor in bringing British and Americans into conflict over that
+territory.
+
+In these water-systems Wisconsin was the link that joined the Great
+Lakes and the Mississippi; and along her northern shore the first
+explorers passed to the Pigeon river, or, as it was called later, the
+Grand Portage route, along the boundary line between Minnesota and
+Canada into the heart of Canada.
+
+It was possible to reach the Mississippi from the Great Lakes by the
+following principal routes:[62]
+
+1. By the Miami (Maumee) river from the west end of Lake Erie to the
+Wabash, thence to the Ohio and the Mississippi.
+
+2. By the St. Joseph's river to the Wabash, thence to the Ohio.
+
+3. By the St. Joseph's river to the Kankakee, and thence to the Illinois
+and the Mississippi.
+
+4. By the Chicago river to the Illinois.
+
+5. By Green bay, Fox river, and the Wisconsin river.
+
+6. By the Bois Brul� river to the St. Croix river.
+
+Of these routes, the first two were not at first available, owing to the
+hostility of the Iroquois.
+
+Of all the colonies that fell to the English, as we have seen, New York
+alone had a water-system that favored communication with the interior,
+tapping the St. Lawrence and opening a way to Lake Ontario. Prevented by
+the Iroquois friends of the Dutch and English from reaching the
+Northwest by way of the lower lakes, the French ascended the Ottawa,
+reached Lake Nipissing, and passed by way of Georgian Bay to the islands
+of Lake Huron. As late as the nineteenth century this was the common
+route of the fur trade, for it was more certain for the birch canoes
+than the tempestuous route of the lakes. At the Huron islands two ways
+opened before their canoes. The straits of Michillimackinac[63]
+permitted them to enter Lake Michigan, and from this led the two routes
+to the Mississippi: one by way of Green bay and the Fox and Wisconsin,
+and the other by way of the lake to the Chicago river. But if the trader
+chose to go from the Huron islands through Sault Ste. Marie into Lake
+Superior, the necessities of his frail craft required him to hug the
+shore, and the rumors of copper mines induced the first traders to take
+the south shore, and here the lakes of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota
+afford connecting links between the streams that seek Lake Superior and
+those that seek the Mississippi,[64] a fact which made northern
+Wisconsin more important in this epoch than the southern portion of the
+state.
+
+We are now able to see how the river-courses of the Northwest permitted
+a complete exploration of the country, and that in these courses
+Wisconsin held a commanding situation,[65] But these rivers not only
+permitted exploration; they also furnished a motive to exploration by
+the fact that their valleys teemed with fur-bearing animals. This is the
+main fact in connection with Northwestern exploration. The hope of a
+route to China was always influential, as was also the search for mines,
+but the practical inducements were the profitable trade with the Indians
+for beaver and buffaloes and the wild life that accompanied it. So
+powerful was the combined influence of these far-stretching rivers, and
+the "hardy, adventurous, lawless, fascinating fur trade," that the
+scanty population of Canada was irresistibly drawn from agricultural
+settlements into the interminable recesses of the continent; and herein
+is a leading explanation of the lack of permanent French influence in
+America.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 61: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10-11.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 224, n. 1; Margry, V.
+See also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., map and pp. 38-9, 128.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Mackinaw.]
+
+[Footnote 64: See Doty's enumeration, Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 202.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Jes. Rels., 1672, p. 37; La Hontan, I., 105 (1703).]
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN INDIANS.[66]
+
+
+"All that relates to the Indian tribes of Wisconsin," says Dr. Shea,
+"their antiquities, their ethnology, their history, is deeply
+interesting from the fact that it is the area of the first meeting of
+the Algic and Dakota tribes. Here clans of both these wide-spread
+families met and mingled at a very early period; here they first met in
+battle and mutually checked each other's advance." The Winnebagoes
+attracted the attention of the French even before they were visited.
+They were located about Green bay. Their later location at the entrance
+of Lake Winnebago was unoccupied, at least in the time of Allouez,
+because of the hostility of the Sioux. Early authorities represented
+them as numbering about one hundred warriors.[67] The Pottawattomies we
+find in 1641 at Sault Ste. Marie,[68] whither they had just fled from
+their enemies. Their proper home was probably about the southeastern
+shore and islands of Green bay, where as early as 1670 they were again
+located. Of their numbers in Wisconsin at this time we can say but
+little. Allouez, at Chequamegon bay, was visited by 300 of their
+warriors, and he mentions some of their Green bay villages, one of which
+had 300 souls.[69] The Menomonees were found chiefly on the river that
+bears their name, and the western tributaries of Green bay seem to have
+been their territory. On the estimates of early authorities we may say
+that they had about 100 warriors.[70] The Sauks and Foxes were closely
+allied tribes. The Sauks were found by Allouez[71] four leagues[72] up
+the Fox from its mouth, and the Foxes at a place reached by a four days'
+ascent of the Wolf river from its mouth. Later we find them at the
+confluence of the Wolf and the Fox. According to their early visitors
+these two tribes must have had something over 1000 warriors.[73] The
+Miamis and Mascoutins were located about a league from the Fox river,
+probably within the limits of what is now Green Lake county,[74] and
+four leagues away were their friends the Kickapoos. In 1670 the Miamis
+and Mascoutins were estimated at 800 warriors, and this may have
+included the Kickapoos. The Sioux held possession of the Upper
+Mississippi, and in Wisconsin hunted on its northeastern tributaries.
+Their villages were in later times all on the west of the Mississippi,
+and of their early numbers no estimate can be given. The Chippeways were
+along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Their numbers also are in
+doubt, but were very considerable.[75] In northwestern Wisconsin, with
+Chequamegon bay as their rendezvous, were the Ottawas and Hurons,[76]
+who had fled here to escape the Iroquois. In 1670 they were back again
+to their homes at Mackinaw and the Huron islands. But in 1666, as
+Allouez tells us, they were situated at the bottom of this beautiful
+bay, planting their Indian corn and leading a stationary life. "They are
+there," he says, "to the number of eight hundred men bearing arms, but
+collected from seven different nations who dwell in peace with each
+other thus mingled together."[77] And the Jesuit Relations of 1670 add
+that the Illinois "come here from time to time in great numbers as
+merchants to procure hatchets, cooking utensils, guns, and other things
+of which they stand in need." Here, too, came Pottawattomies, as we have
+seen, and Sauks.
+
+At the mouth of Fox river[78] we find another mixed village of
+Pottawattomies, Sauks, Foxes, and Winnebagoes, and at a later period
+Milwaukee was the site of a similar heterogeneous community. Leaving out
+the Hurons, the tribes of Wisconsin were, with two exceptions, of the
+Algic stock. The exceptions are the Winnebagoes and the Sioux, who
+belong to the Dakota family. Of these Wisconsin tribes it is probable
+that the Sauks and Foxes, the Pottawattomies, the Hurons and Ottawas and
+the Mascoutins, and Miamis and Kickapoos, were driven into Wisconsin by
+the attacks of eastern enemies. The Iroquois even made incursions as far
+as the home of the Mascoutins on Fox river. On the other side of the
+state were the Sioux, "the Iroquois of the West," as the missionaries
+call them, who had once claimed all the region, and whose invasions,
+Allouez says, rendered Lake Winnebago uninhabited. There was therefore a
+pressure on both sides of Wisconsin which tended to mass together the
+divergent tribes. And the Green bay and Fox and Wisconsin route was the
+line of least resistance, as well as a region abounding in wild rice,
+fish and game, for these early fugitives. In this movement we have two
+facts that are not devoid of significance in institutional history:
+first, the welding together of separate tribes, as the Sauks and Foxes,
+and the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos; and second, a commingling of
+detached families from various tribes at peculiarly favorable
+localities.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 66: On these early locations, consult the authorities cited by
+Shea in Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 125 _et seq._, and by Branson in his
+criticism on Shea, _ibid._ IV., 223. See also Butterfield's Discovery of
+the Northwest in 1634, and _Mag. West. Hist._, V., 468, 630; and Minn.
+Hist. Colls., V.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Some early estimates were as follows: 1640, "Great
+numbers" (Margry, I., 48); 1718, 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX., 889); 1728, 60 or 80 warriors (Margry, VI., 553); 1736, 90 warriors
+(Chaurignerie, cited in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 282); 1761,
+150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32).]
+
+[Footnote 68: Margry, I., 46.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Jes. Rels., 1667, 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 70: 1718, estimated at 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX.,889); 1762, estimated at 150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+I., 32).]
+
+[Footnote 71: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 72: French leagues.]
+
+[Footnote 73: 1670, Foxes estimated at 400 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1670);
+1667, Foxes, 1000 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1667); 1695, Foxes and
+Mascoutins, 1200 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633); 1718, Sauks 100
+or 120, Foxes 500 warriors (2 Penn. Archives, VI., 54); 1728, Foxes, 200
+warriors (Margry, V.); 1762, Sauks and Foxes, 700 warriors (Gorrell,
+Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32). This, it must be observed, was after the Fox
+wars.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Jes. Rels., 1670; Butterfield's Discovery of the
+Northwest.]
+
+[Footnote 75: In 1820 those in Wisconsin numbered about 600 hunters.]
+
+[Footnote 76: On these Indians consult, besides authorities already
+cited, Shea's Discovery, etc. lx.; Jes. Rels.; Narr. and Crit. Hist. of
+Amer., IV., 168-170, 175; Radisson's Voyages; Margry, IV., 586-598.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Jes. Rels., 1666-7.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+
+
+
+PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE.
+
+
+The Indian trade was almost the sole interest in Wisconsin during the
+two centuries that elapsed from the visit of Nicolet in 1634 to about
+1834, when lead-mining had superseded it in the southwest and land
+offices were opened at Green Bay and Mineral Point; when the port of
+Milwaukee received an influx of settlers to the lands made known by the
+so-called Black Hawk war; and when Astor retired from the American Fur
+Company. These two centuries may be divided into three periods of the
+trade: 1. French, from 1634 to 1763; 2. English, from 1763 to 1816; 3.
+American, from 1816 to 1834.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+Sagard,[79] whose work was published in 1636, tells us that the Hurons,
+who traded with the French, visited the Winnebagoes and the Fire Nation
+(Mascoutins),[80] bartering goods for peltries. Champlain, the famous
+fur-trader, who represented the Company of the Hundred Associates,[81]
+formed by Richelieu to monopolize the fur trade of New France and govern
+the country, sent an agent named Jean Nicolet, in 1634,[82] to Green bay
+and Fox river to make a peace between the Hurons and the Winnebagoes in
+the interests of inter-tribal commerce. The importance of this phase of
+the trade as late as 1681 may be inferred from these words of Du
+Chesneau, speaking of the Ottawas, and including under the term the
+Petun Hurons and the Chippeways also: "Through them we obtain beaver,
+and although they, for the most part, do not hunt, and have but a small
+portion of peltry in their country, they go in search of it to the most
+distant places, and exchange for it our merchandise which they procure
+at Montreal." Among the tribes enumerated as dealing with the Ottawas
+are the Sioux, Satiks, Pottawattomies, Winnebagoes, Menomonees and
+Mascoutins--all Wisconsin Indians at this time. He adds: "Some of these
+tribes occasionally come down to Montreal, but usually they do not do so
+in very great numbers because they are too far distant, are not expert
+at managing canoes, and because the other Indians intimidate them, in
+order to be the carriers of their merchandise and to profit
+thereby."[83]
+
+It was the aim of the authorities to attract the Indians to Montreal, or
+to develop the inter-tribal communication, and thus to centralize the
+trade and prevent the dissipation of the energies of the colony; but the
+temptations of the free forest traffic were too strong. In a memoir of
+1697, Aubert de la Chesnaye says:
+
+"At first, the French went only among the Hurons, and since then to
+Missilimakinak, where they sold their goods to the savages of the
+places, who in turn went to exchange them with other savages in the
+depths of the woods, lands and rivers. But at present the French, having
+licenses, in order to secure greater profit surreptitiously, pass all
+the 'Ottawas and savages of Missilimakinak in order to go themselves to
+seek the most distant tribes, which is very displeasing to the former.
+_It is they, also, who have made excellent discoveries;_ and four or
+five hundred young men, the best men of Canada, are engaged in this
+business.... They have given us knowledge of many names of savages that
+we did not know; and four or five hundred leagues more remote are others
+who are unknown to us."[84]
+
+Two of the most noteworthy of these _coureurs de bois_, or wood-rangers,
+were Radisson and Groseilliers.[85] In 1660 they returned to Montreal
+with 300 Algonquins and sixty canoes laden with furs, after a voyage in
+which they visited, among other tribes, the Pottawattomies, Mascoutins,
+Sioux, and Hurons, in Wisconsin. From the Hurons they learned of the
+Mississippi, and probably visited the river. They soon returned from
+Montreal to the northern Wisconsin region. In the course of their
+wanderings they had a post at Chequamegon bay, and they ascended the
+Pigeon river, thus opening the Grand Portage route to the heart of
+Canada. Among their exploits they induced England to enter the Hudson
+Bay trade, and gave the impetus that led to the organization of the
+Hudson Bay Company. The reports which these traders brought back had a
+most important effect in fostering exploration in the Northwest, and led
+to the visit of Menard, who was succeeded by Allouez, the pioneers of
+the Jesuits in Wisconsin.[86] Radisson gives us a good account of the
+early Wisconsin trade. Of his visit to the Ottawas he says:
+
+"We weare wellcomed & made of saying that we weare the Gods and devils
+of the earth; that we should fournish them, & that they would bring us
+to their enemy to destroy them. We tould them [we] were very well
+content. We persuaded them first to come peaceably, not to distroy them
+presently, and if they would not condescend then would wee throw away
+the hatchett and make use of our thunders. We sent ambassadors to them
+wth guifts. That nation called Pontonatemick[87] without more adoe
+comes and meets us with the rest, and peace was concluded." "The
+savages," he writes, "love knives better than we serve God, which should
+make us blush for shame." In another place, "We went away free from any
+burden whilst those poore miserable thought themselves happy to carry
+our Equipage for the hope that they had that we should give them a
+brasse ring, or an awle, or an needle."[88] We find them using this
+influence in various places to make peace between hostile tribes, whom
+they threatened with punishment. This early commerce was carried on
+under the fiction of an exchange of presents. For example, Radisson
+says: "We gave them severall gifts and received many. They bestowed upon
+us above 300 robs of castors out of wch we brought not five to the
+ffrench being far in the country."[89] Among the articles used by
+Radisson in this trade were kettles, hatchets, knives, graters, awls,
+needles, tin looking-glasses, little bells, ivory combs, vermilion,
+sword blades, necklaces and bracelets. The sale of guns and blankets was
+at this time exceptional, nor does it appear that Radisson carried
+brandy in this voyage.[90]
+
+More and more the young men of Canada continued to visit the savages at
+their villages. By 1660 the _coureurs de bois_ formed a distinct
+class,[91] who, despite the laws against it, pushed from
+Michillimackinac into the wilderness. Wisconsin was a favorite resort of
+these adventurers. By the time of the arrival of the Jesuits they had
+made themselves entirely at home upon our lakes. They had preceded
+Allouez at Chequamegon bay, and when he established his mission at Green
+bay he came at the invitation of the Pottawattomies, who wished him to
+"mollify some young Frenchmen who were among them for the purpose of
+trading and who threatened and ill-treated them."[92] He found fur
+traders before him on the Fox and the Wolf. Bancroft's assertion[93]
+that "religious enthusiasm took possession of the wilderness on the
+upper lakes and explored the Mississippi," is misleading. It is not true
+that "not a cape was turned, nor a mission founded, nor a river entered,
+nor a settlement begun, but a Jesuit led the way." In fact the Jesuits
+followed the traders;[94] their missions were on the sites of trading
+posts, and they themselves often traded.[95]
+
+When St. Lusson, with the _coureur de bois_, Nicholas Perrot, took
+official possession of the Northwest for France at the Sault Ste. Marie
+in 1671, the cost of the expedition was defrayed by trade in beaver.[96]
+Joliet, who, accompanied by Marquette, descended the Mississippi by the
+Fox and Wisconsin route in 1673, was an experienced fur trader. While Du
+Lhut, chief of the _coureurs de bois_, was trading on Lake Superior, La
+Salle,[97] the greatest of these merchants, was preparing his
+far-reaching scheme for colonizing the Indians in the Illinois region
+under the direction of the French, so that they might act as a check on
+the inroads of the Iroquois, and aid in his plan of securing an exit for
+the furs of the Northwest, particularly buffalo hides, by way of the
+Mississippi and the Gulf. La Salle's "Griffen," the earliest ship to
+sail the Great Lakes, was built for this trade, and received her only
+cargo at Green Bay. Accault, one of La Salle's traders, with Hennepin,
+met Du Lhut on the upper Mississippi, which he had reached by way of the
+Bois Brul� and St. Croix, in 1680. Du Lhut's trade awakened the jealousy
+of La Salle, who writes in 1682: "If they go by way of the Ouisconsing,
+where for the present the chase of the buffalo is carried on and where I
+have commenced an establishment, they will ruin the trade on which alone
+I rely, on account of the great number of buffalo which are taken there
+every year, almost beyond belief."[98] Speaking of the Jesuits at Green
+Bay, he declares that they "have in truth the key to the beaver country,
+where a brother blacksmith that they have and two companions convert
+more iron into beaver than the fathers convert savages into
+Christians."[99] Perrot says that the beaver north of the mouth of the
+Wisconsin were better than those of the Illinois country, and the chase
+was carried on in this region for a longer period;[100] and we know from
+Dablon that the Wisconsin savages were not compelled to separate by
+families during the hunting season, as was common among other tribes,
+because the game here was so abundant.[101] Aside from its importance as
+a key to the Northwestern trade, Wisconsin seems to have been a rich
+field of traffic itself.
+
+With such extensive operations as the foregoing in the region reached by
+Wisconsin rivers, it is obvious that the government could not keep the
+_coureurs de bois_ from the woods. Even governors like Frontenac
+connived at the traffic and shared its profits. In 1681 the government
+decided to issue annual licenses,[102] and messengers were dispatched to
+announce amnesty to the _coureurs de bois_ about Green Bay and the south
+shore of Lake Superior.[103]
+
+We may now offer some conclusions upon the connection of the fur trade
+with French explorations:
+
+1. The explorations were generally induced and almost always rendered
+profitable by the fur trade. In addition to what has been presented on
+this point, note the following:
+
+In 1669, Patoulet writes to Colbert concerning La Salle's voyage to
+explore a passage to Japan: "The enterprise is difficult and dangerous,
+but the good thing about it is that the King will be at no expense for
+this pretended discovery."[104]
+
+The king's instructions to Governor De la Barre in 1682 say that,
+"Several inhabitants of Canada, excited by the hope of the profit to be
+realized from the trade with the Indians for furs, have undertaken at
+various periods discoveries in the countries of the Nadoussioux, the
+river Mississipy, and other parts of America."[105]
+
+2. The early traders were regarded as quasi-supernatural beings by the
+Indians.[106] They alone could supply the coveted iron implements, the
+trinkets that tickled the savage's fancy, the "fire-water," and the guns
+that gave such increased power over game and the enemy. In the course of
+a few years the Wisconsin savages passed from the use of the implements
+of the stone age to the use of such an important product of the iron age
+as firearms. They passed also from the economic stage in which their
+hunting was for food and clothing simply, to that stage in which their
+hunting was made systematic and stimulated by the European demand for
+furs. The trade tended to perpetuate the hunter stage by making it
+profitable, and it tended to reduce the Indian to economic
+dependence[107] upon the Europeans, for while he learned to use the
+white man's gun he did not learn to make it or even to mend it. In this
+transition stage from their primitive condition the influence of the
+trader over the Indians was all-powerful. The pre-eminence of the
+individual Indian who owned a gun made all the warriors of the tribe
+eager to possess like power. The tribe thus armed placed their enemies
+at such a disadvantage that they too must have like weapons or lose
+their homes.[108] No wonder that La Salle was able to say: "The savages
+take better care of us French than of their own children. From us only
+can they get guns and goods."[109] This was the power that France used
+to support her in the struggle with England for the Northwest.
+
+3. The trader used his influence to promote peace between the
+Northwestern Indians.[110]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 79: Histoire du Canada, 193-4 (edition of 1866).]
+
+[Footnote 80: Dablon, Jesuit Relations, 1671.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See Parkman, Pioneers, 429 ff. (1890).]
+
+[Footnote 82: Margry, I., 50. The date rests on inference; see
+Bibliography of Nicolet in Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., and cf. Hebberd,
+Wisconsin under French Dominion, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 83: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 160.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Margry, VI., 3; Coll. de Mamiscrits, I., 255, where the
+date is wrongly given as 1676. The italics are ours.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Radisson, Voyages (Prince Soc. Pubs.); Margry, I., 53-55,
+83; Jes. Rels., 1660; Wis. Hist. Colls., X., XI; Narrative and Critical
+Hist. Amer., IV., 168-173.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Cf. Radisson, 173-5, and Jes. Rels., 1660, pp. 12, 30;
+1663, pp. 17 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 87: Pottawattomies in the region of Green Bay.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8.]
+
+[Footnote 89: _Ibid._ XI., 90.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Radisson, 200, 217, 219.]
+
+[Footnote 91: Suite, in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of
+Science, Arts and Letters, V., 141; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 153, 140,152;
+Margry, VI., 3; Parkman, Old R�gime, 310-315.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Cf. Jes. Rels., 1670, p. 92.]
+
+[Footnote 93: History of United States, II., 138 (1884).]
+
+[Footnote 94: Harrisse, Notes sur la Nouvelle France, 174-181.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Parkman, Old R�gime, 328 ff., and La Salle, 98; Margry,
+II., 251; Radisson, 173.]
+
+[Footnote 96: See Talon's report quoted in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+IV., 175.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Margry abounds in evidences of La Salle's commercial
+activity, as does Parkman's La Salle. See also Dunn, Indiana, 20-1.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Margry, II., 254.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Margry, II., 251.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Tailhan's Perrot, 57.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 102: La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 159; Parkman,
+Old R�gime, 305.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Margry, VI., 45.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Margry, I., 81.]
+
+[Footnote 105: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 187. On the cost of such
+expeditions, see documents in Margry, I., 293-296; VI., 503-507. On the
+profits of the trade, see La Salle in 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18-19.]
+
+[Footnote 106: See Radisson, _ante_, p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 107: _Vide post_, p. 62.]
+
+[Footnote 108: _Vide ante_, p. 14; Radisson, 154; Minn. Hist. Colls.,
+V., 427. Compare the effects of the introduction of bronze weapons into
+Europe.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Margry, II., 234. On the power possessed by the French
+through this trade consult also D'Iberville's plan for locating
+Wisconsin Indians on the Illinois by changing their trading posts; see
+Margry, IV., 586-598.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8, 90; Narr. and Crit. Hist.
+Amer., IV., 182; Perrot, 327; Margry, VI., 507-509, 653-4.]
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+In the governorship of Dongan of New York, as has been noted, the
+English were endeavoring to secure the trade of the Northwest. As early
+as 1685, English traders had reached Michillimackinac, the depot of
+supplies for the _coureur de bois_, where they were cordially received
+by the Indians, owing to their cheaper goods[111]. At the same time the
+English on Hudson Bay were drawing trade to their posts in that region.
+The French were thoroughly alarmed. They saw the necessity of holding
+the Indians by trading posts in their midst, lest they should go to the
+English, for as Begon declared, the savages "always take the part of
+those with whom they trade."[112] It is at this time that the French
+occupation of the Northwest begins to assume a new phase. Stockaded
+trading posts were established at such key-points as a strait, a
+portage, a river-mouth, or an important lake, where also were Indian
+villages. In 1685 the celebrated Nicholas Perrot was given command of
+Green Bay and its dependencies[113]. He had trading posts near
+Trempealeau and at Fort St. Antoine on the Wisconsin side of Lake Pepin
+where he traded with the Sioux, and for a time he had a post and worked
+the lead-mines above the Des Moines river. Both these and Fort St.
+Nicholas at the mouth of the Wisconsin[114] were dependencies of Green
+Bay. Du Lhut probably established Fort St. Croix at the portage between
+the Bois Brul� river and the St. Croix.[115] In 1695 Le Sueur built a
+fort on the largest island above Lake Pepin, and he also asked the
+command of the post of Chequamegon.[116]
+
+These official posts were supported by the profits of Indian
+commerce,[117] and were designed to keep the northwestern tribes at
+peace, and to prevent the English and Iroquois influence from getting
+the fur trade.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 111: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 296, 308; IV., 735.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Quoted in Sheldon, Early History of Michigan, 310.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Tailhan's Perrot, 156.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Wis. Hist. Colls., X., 54, 300-302, 307, 321.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 186.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Margry, VI., 60. Near Ashland, Wis.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Consult French MSS., 3d series, VI., Parl. Library,
+Ottawa, cited in Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422; Id., V., 425. In 1731 M.
+La Ronde, having constructed at his own expense a bark of forty tons on
+Lake Superior, received the post of La Pointe de Chagouamigon as a
+gratuity to defray his expenses. See also the story of Verenderye's
+posts, in Parkman's article in _Atlantic Monthly_, June, 1887, and
+Margry, VI. See also 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18; La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y.
+Col. Docs., IX., 159; Tailhan, Perrot, 302.]
+
+
+
+
+THE FOX WARS.
+
+
+In 1683 Perrot had collected Wisconsin Indians for an attack on the
+Iroquois, and again in 1686 he led them against the same enemy. But the
+efforts of the Iroquois and the English to enter the region with their
+cheaper and better goods, and the natural tendency of savages to plunder
+when assured of supplies from other sources, now overcame the control
+which the French had exercised. The Sauks and Foxes, the Mascoutins,
+Kickapoos and Miamis, as has been described, held the Fox and Wisconsin
+route to the West, the natural and easy highway to the Mississippi, as
+La Hontan calls it.[118] Green Bay commanded this route, as La Pointe de
+Chagouamigon[119] commanded the Lake Superior route to the Bois Brul�
+and the St. Croix. One of Perrot's main objects was to supply the Sioux
+on the other side of the Mississippi, and these were the routes to them.
+To the Illinois region, also, the Fox route was the natural one. The
+Indians of this waterway therefore held the key to the French position,
+and might attempt to prevent the passage of French goods and support
+English influence and trade, or they might try to monopolize the
+intermediate trade themselves, or they might try to combine both
+policies.
+
+As early as 1687 the Foxes, Mascoutins and Kickapoos, animated
+apparently by hostility to the trade carried on by Perrot with the
+Sioux, their enemy at that time, threatened to pillage the post at Green
+Bay.[120] The closing of the Ottawa to the northern fur trade by the
+Iroquois for three years, a blow which nearly ruined Canada in the days
+of Frontenac, as Parkman has described,[121] not only kept vast stores
+of furs from coming down from Michillimackinac; it must, also, have kept
+goods from reaching the northwestern Indians. In 1692 the Mascoutins,
+who attributed the death of some of their men to Perrot, plundered his
+goods, and the Foxes soon entered into negotiation with the
+Iroquois.[122] Frontenac expressed great apprehension lest with their
+allies on the Fox and Wisconsin route they should remove eastward and
+come into connection with the Iroquois and the English, a grave danger
+to New France.[123] Nor was this apprehension without reason.[124] Even
+such docile allies as the Ottawas and Pottawattomies threatened to leave
+the French if goods were not sent to them wherewith to oppose their
+enemies. "They have powder and iron," complained an Ottawa deputy; "how
+can we sustain ourselves? Have compassion, then, on us, and consider
+that it is no easy matter to kill men with clubs."[125] By the end of
+the seventeenth century the disaffected Indians closed the Fox and
+Wisconsin route against French trade.[126] In 1699 an order was issued
+recalling the French from the Northwest, it being the design to
+concentrate French power at the nearer posts.[127] Detroit was founded
+in 1701 as a place to which to attract the northwestern trade and
+intercept the English. In 1702 the priest at St. Joseph reported that
+the English were sending presents to the Miamis about that post and
+desiring to form an establishment in their country.[128] At the same
+date we find D'Iberville, of Louisiana, proposing a scheme for drawing
+the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos from the Wisconsin streams to the
+Illinois, by changing their trading posts from Green Bay to the latter
+region, and drawing the Illinois by trading posts to the lower
+Ohio.[129] It was shortly after this that the Miamis and Kickapoos
+passed south under either the French or English influence,[130] and the
+hostility of the Foxes became more pronounced. A part of the scheme of
+La Motte Cadillac at Detroit was to colonize Indians about that
+post,[131] and in 1712 Foxes, Sauks, Mascoutins, Kickapoos,
+Pottawattomies, Hurons, Ottawas, Illinois, Menomonees and others were
+gathered there under the influence of trade. But soon, whether by design
+of the French and their allies or otherwise, hostilities broke out
+against the Foxes and their allies. The animus of the combat appears in
+the cries of the Foxes as they raised red blankets for flags and shouted
+"We have no father but the English!" while the allies of the French
+replied, "The English are cowards; they destroy the Indians with brandy
+and are enemies of the true God!" The Foxes were defeated with great
+slaughter and driven back to Wisconsin.[132] From this time until 1734
+the French waged war against the Foxes with but short intermissions. The
+Foxes allied themselves with the Iroquois and the Sioux, and acted as
+middlemen between the latter and the traders, refusing passage to goods
+on the ground that it would damage their own trade to allow this.[133]
+They fostered hostilities between their old foes the Chippeways and
+their new allies the Sioux, and thus they cut off English intercourse
+with the latter by way of the north. This trade between the Chippeways
+and the Sioux was important to the French, and commandants were
+repeatedly sent to La Pointe de Chagouamigon and the upper Mississippi
+to make peace between the two tribes.[134] While the wars were in
+progress the English took pains to enforce their laws against furnishing
+Indian goods to French traders. The English had for a time permitted
+this, and their own Indian trade had suffered because the French were
+able to make use of the cheap English goods. By their change in policy
+the English now brought home to the savages the fact that French goods
+were dearer.[135] Moreover, English traders were sent to Niagara to deal
+directly with "the far Indians," and the Foxes visited the English and
+Iroquois, and secured a promise that they might take up their abode with
+the latter and form an additional member of the confederacy in case of
+need.[136] As a counter policy the French attempted to exterminate the
+Foxes, and detached the Sioux from their alliance with the Foxes by
+establishing Fort Beauharnois, a trading post on the Minnesota side of
+Lake Pepin.[137]
+
+The results of these wars were as follows:
+
+1. They spread the feeling of defection among the Northwestern Indians,
+who could no longer be restrained, as at first, by the threat of cutting
+off their trade, there being now rivals in the shape of the English, and
+the French traders from Louisiana.[138]
+
+2. They caused a readjustment of the Indian map of Wisconsin. The
+Mascoutins and the Pottawattomies had already moved southward to the
+Illinois country. Now the Foxes, driven from their river, passed first
+to Prairie du Chien and then down the Mississippi. The Sauks went at
+first to the Wisconsin, near Sauk Prairie, and then joined the Foxes.
+The Winnebagoes gradually extended themselves along the Fox and
+Wisconsin. The Chippeways,[139] freed from their fear of the Foxes, to
+whom the Wolf and the Wisconsin had given access to the northern portion
+of the state, now passed south to Lac du Flambeau,[140] to the
+headwaters of the Wisconsin, and to Lac Court Oreilles.[141]
+
+3. The closing of the Fox and Wisconsin route fostered that movement of
+trade and exploration which at this time began to turn to the far
+Northwest along the Pigeon river route into central British America, in
+search of the Sea of the West,[142] whereby the Rocky Mountains were
+discovered; and it may have aided in turning settlement into the
+Illinois country.
+
+4. These wars were a part of a connected series, including the Iroquois
+wars, the Fox wars, the attack of the Wisconsin trader, Charles de
+Langlade, upon the center of English trade at Pickawillany,[143] Ohio,
+and the French and Indian war that followed. All were successive stages
+of the struggle against English trade in the French possessions.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 118: La Hontan, I., 105.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Near Ashland, Wis.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Tailhan, Perrot, 139, 302.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Frontenac, 315-316. Cf. Perrot, 302.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Perrot, 331; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633.]
+
+[Footnote 123: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 124: N.Y. Col. Docs., IV., 732-7.]
+
+[Footnote 125: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 673.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Shea, Early Voyages, 49.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Kingsford, Canada, II., 394; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 635.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Margry, V.,219.]
+
+[Footnote 129: _Ibid._ IV., 597.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 149; Smith, Wisconsin, II.,
+315.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Coll. de Manus., III., 622.]
+
+[Footnote 132: See Hebberd's account, Wisconsin under French Dominion;
+Coll. de Manus., I., 623; Smith, Wisconsin, II., 315.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Margry, VI., 543.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Tailhan, Perrot, _passim_; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 570,
+619, 621; Margry, VI., 507-509, 553, 653-4; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422,
+425; Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 154.]
+
+[Footnote 135: N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 136: _Ibid._ IV., 732, 735, 796-7; V., 687, 911.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Margry, VI., 553, 563, 575-580; Neill in _Mag. Western
+History_, November, 1887.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Perrot, 148; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 42;
+Hebberd, Wisconsin under French Dominion, chapters on the Fox wars.]
+
+[Footnote 139: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 190-1.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Oneida county.]
+
+[Footnote 141: Sawyer county.]
+
+[Footnote 142: Margry, VI.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84, and citations; _vide
+post_, p. 41.]
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+Settlement was not the object of the French in the Northwest. The
+authorities saw as clearly as do we that the field was too vast for the
+resources of the colony, and they desired to hold the region as a source
+of peltries, and contract their settlements. The only towns worthy of
+the name in the Northwest were Detroit and the settlements in Indiana
+and Illinois, all of which depended largely on the fur trade.[144] But
+in spite of the government the traffic also produced the beginnings of
+settlement in Wisconsin. About the middle of the century, Augustin de
+Langlade had made Green Bay his trading post. After Pontiac's war,[145]
+Charles de Langlade[146] made the place his permanent residence, and a
+little settlement grew up. At Prairie du Chien French traders annually
+met the Indians, and at this time there may have been a stockaded
+trading post there, but it was not a permanent settlement until the
+close of the Revolutionary war. Chequamegon bay was deserted[147] at the
+outbreak of the French war. There may have been a regular trading post
+at Milwaukee in this period, but the first trader recorded is not until
+1762.[148] Doubtless wintering posts existed at other points in
+Wisconsin.
+
+The characteristic feature of French occupancy of the Northwest was the
+trading post, and in illustration of it, and of the centralized
+administration of the French, the following account of De Repentigny's
+fort at Sault Ste. Marie (Michigan) is given in the words of Governor La
+Jonqui�re to the minister for the colonies in 1751:[149]
+
+"He arrived too late last year at the Sault Ste. Marie to fortify
+himself well; however, he secured himself in a sort of fort large enough
+to receive the traders of Missilimakinac.... He employed his hired men
+during the whole winter in cutting 1100 pickets of fifteen feet for his
+fort, with the doublings, and the timber necessary for the construction
+of three houses, one of them thirty feet long by twenty wide, and two
+others twenty-five feet long and the same width as the first. His fort
+is entirely furnished with the exception of a redoubt of oak, which he
+is to have made twelve feet square, and which shall reach the same
+distance above the gate of the fort. His fort is 110 feet square.
+
+"As for the cultivation of the lands, the Sieur de Repentigny has a
+bull, two bullocks, three cows, two heifers, one horse and a mare from
+Missilimakinac.... He has engaged a Frenchman who married at Sault Ste.
+Marie an Indian woman to take a farm; they have cleared it and sowed it,
+and without a frost they will gather 30 to 35 sacks of corn. The said
+Sieur de Repentigny so much feels it his duty to devote himself to the
+cultivation of these lands that he has already entered into a bargain
+for two slaves[150] whom he will employ to take care of the corn[151]
+that he will gather upon these lands."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 144: Fergus, Historical Series, No. 12; Breese, Early History
+of Illinois; Dunn, Indiana; Hubbard, Memorials of a Half Century;
+Monette, History of the Valley of the Mississippi, I., ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Henry, Travels, ch. x.]
+
+[Footnote 146: See Memoir in Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.; III., 224; VII.,
+127, 152, 166.]
+
+[Footnote 147: Henry, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 35.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 435-6.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Indians. Compare Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 256; VII., 158,
+117, 179.]
+
+[Footnote 151: The French minister for the colonies expressing approval
+of this post writes in 1752: "As it can hardly be expected that any
+other grain than corn will grow there, it is necessary at least for a
+while to stick to it, and not to persevere stubbornly in trying to raise
+wheat." On this Dr. E.D. Neill comments: "Millions of bushels of wheat
+from the region west and north of Lake Superior pass every year ...
+through the ship canal at Sault Ste. Marie." The corn was for supplying
+the voyageurs.]
+
+
+
+
+THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE.
+
+
+While they had been securing the trade of the far Northwest and the
+Illinois country, the French had allowed the English to gain the trade
+of the upper Ohio,[152] and were now brought face to face with the
+danger of losing the entire Northwest, and thus the connection of Canada
+and Louisiana. The commandants of the western posts were financially as
+well as patriotically interested. In 1754, Green Bay, then garrisoned by
+an officer, a sergeant and four soldiers, required for the Indian trade
+of its department thirteen canoes of goods annually, costing about 7000
+livres each, making a total of nearly $18,000.[153] Bougainville
+asserts that Marin, the commandant of the department of the Bay, was
+associated in trade with the governor and intendant, and that his part
+netted him annually 15,000 francs.
+
+When it became necessary for the French to open hostilities with the
+English traders in the Ohio country, it was the Wisconsin trader,
+Charles de Langlade, with his Chippeway Indians, who in 1752 fell upon
+the English trading post at Pickawillany and destroyed the center of
+English trade in the Ohio region.[154] The leaders in the opening of the
+war that ensued were Northwestern traders. St. Pierre, who commanded at
+Fort Le Boeuf when Washington appeared with his demands from the
+Governor of Virginia that the French should evacuate the Ohio country,
+had formerly been the trader in command at Lake Pepin on the upper
+Mississippi.[155] Coulon de Villiers, who captured Washington at Fort
+Necessity, was the son of the former commandant at Green Bay.[156]
+Beaujeau, who led the French troops to the defeat of Braddock, had been
+an officer in the Fox wars.[157] It was Charles de Langlade who
+commanded the Indians and was chiefly responsible for the success of the
+ambuscade.[158] Wisconsin Indians, representing almost all the tribes,
+took part with the French in the war.[159] Traders passed to and from
+their business to the battlefields of the East. For example, De
+Repentigny, whose post at Sault Ste. Marie has been described, was at
+Michillimackinac in January, 1755, took part in the battle of Lake
+George in the fall of that year, formed a partnership to continue the
+trade with a trader of Michillimackinac in 1756, was at that place in
+1758, and in 1759 fought with Montcalm on the heights of Abraham.[160]
+It was not without a struggle that the traders yielded their beaver
+country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 152: Margry, VI., 758.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Canadian Archives, 1886, clxxii.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84.]
+
+[Footnote 155: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 433. Washington was guided to the
+fort along an old trading route by traders; the trail was improved by
+the Ohio Company, and was used by Braddock in his march (Sparks,
+Washington's Works, II., 302).]
+
+[Footnote 156: Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.]
+
+[Footnote 157: _Ibid._, 115.]
+
+[Footnote 158: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II., 425-6. He was
+prominently engaged in other battles; see Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.,
+123-187.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Neill, in _Mag. West. Hist._, VII., 17, and Minn. Hist.
+Colls., V., 434-436. For other examples see Wis. Hist. Colls., V.,
+113-118; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 430-1.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE ON
+DIPLOMACY.
+
+
+In the meantime what was the attitude of the English toward the
+Northwest? In 1720 Governor Spotswood of Virginia wrote:[161] "The
+danger which threatens these, his Maj'ty's Plantations, from this new
+Settlement is also very considerable, for by the communication which the
+French may maintain between Canada and Mississippi by the conveniency of
+the Lakes, they do in a manner surround all the British Plantations.
+They have it in their power by these Lakes and the many Rivers running
+into them and into the Mississippi to engross all the Trade of the
+Indian Nations w'ch are now supplied from hence."
+
+Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of New York, says in 1724: "New
+France (as the French now claim) extends from the mouth of the
+Mississippi to the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, by which the French
+plainly shew their intention of enclosing the British Settlements and
+cutting us off from all Commerce with the numerous Nations of Indians
+that are everywhere settled over the vast continent of North
+America."[162] As time passed, as population increased, and as the
+reports of the traders extolled the fertility of the country, both the
+English and the French, but particularly the Americans, began to
+consider it from the standpoint of colonization as well as from that of
+the fur trade.[163] The Ohio Company had both settlement and the fur
+trade in mind,[164] and the French Governor, Galissoni�re, at the same
+period urged that France ought to plant a colony in the Ohio
+region.[165] After the conquest of New France by England there was still
+the question whether she should keep Canada and the Northwest.[166]
+Franklin, urging her to do so, offered as one argument the value of the
+fur trade, intrinsically and as a means of holding the Indians in check.
+Discussing the question whether the interior regions of America would
+ever be accessible to English settlement and so to English manufactures,
+he pointed out the vastness of our river and lake system, and the fact
+that Indian trade already permeated the interior. In interesting
+comparison he called their attention to the fact that English commerce
+reached along river systems into the remote parts of Europe, and that in
+ancient times the Levant had carried on a trade with the distant
+interior.[167]
+
+That the value of the fur trade was an important element in inducing the
+English to retain Canada is shown by the fact that Great Britain no
+sooner came into the possession of the country than she availed herself
+of the fields for which she had so long intrigued. Among the western
+posts she occupied Green Bay, and with the garrison came traders;[168]
+but the fort was abandoned on the outbreak of Pontiac's war.[169] This
+war was due to the revolt of the Indians of the Northwest against the
+transfer of authority, and was fostered by the French traders.[170] It
+concerned Wisconsin but slightly, and at its close we find Green Bay a
+little trading community along the Fox, where a few families lived
+comfortably[171] under the quasi-patriarchal rule of Langlade.[172] In
+1765 trade was re-established at Chequamegon Bay by an English trader
+named Henry, and here he found the Chippeways dressed in deerskins, the
+wars having deprived them of a trader.[173]
+
+As early as 1766 some Scotch merchants more extensively reopened the fur
+trade, using Michillimackinac as the basis of their operations and
+employing French voyageurs.[174] By the proclamation of the King in 1763
+the Northwest was left without political organization, it being reserved
+as crown lands and exempt from purchase or settlement, the design being
+to give up to the Indian trade all the lands "westward of the sources of
+the rivers which fall into the sea from the West and Northwest as
+aforesaid." In a report of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and
+Plantations in 1772 we find the attitude of the English government
+clearly set forth in these words:[175]
+
+"The great object of colonization upon the continent of North America
+has been to improve and extend the commerce and manufactures of this
+kingdom.... It does appear to us that the extension of the fur trade
+depends entirely upon the Indians being undisturbed in the possession of
+their hunting grounds, and that all colonization does in its nature and
+must in its consequence operate to the prejudice of that branch of
+commerce.... Let the savages enjoy their deserts in quiet. Were they
+driven from their forests the peltry trade would decrease."
+
+In a word, the English government attempted to adopt the western policy
+of the French. From one point of view it was a successful policy. The
+French traders took service under the English, and in the Revolutionary
+war Charles de Langlade led the Wisconsin Indians to the aid of Hamilton
+against George Rogers Clark,[176] as he had before against the British,
+and in the War of 1812 the British trader Robert Dickson repeated this
+movement.[177] As in the days of Begon, "the savages took the part of
+those with whom they traded." The secret proposition of Vergennes, in
+the negotiations preceding the treaty of 1783, to limit the United
+States by the Alleghanies and to give the Northwest to England, while
+reserving the rest of the region between the mountains and the
+Mississippi as Indian territory under Spanish protection,[178] would
+have given the fur trade to these nations.[179] In the extensive
+discussions over the diplomacy whereby the Northwest was included within
+the limits of the United States, it has been asserted that we won our
+case by the chartered claims of the colonies and by George Rogers
+Clark's conquest of the Illinois country. It appears, however, that in
+fact Franklin, who had been a prominent member and champion of the Ohio
+Company, and who knew the West from personal acquaintance, had persuaded
+Shelburne to cede it to us as a part of a liberal peace that should
+effect a reconciliation between the two countries. Shelburne himself
+looked upon the region from the point of view of the fur trade simply,
+and was more willing to make this concession than he was some others. In
+the discussion over the treaty in Parliament in 1783, the Northwestern
+boundary was treated almost solely from the point of view of the fur
+trade and of the desertion of the Indians. The question was one of
+profit and loss in this traffic. One member attacked Shelburne on the
+ground that, "not thinking the naked independence a sufficient proof of
+his liberality to the United States, he had clothed it with the warm
+covering of our fur trade." Shelburne defended his cession "on the fair
+rule of the value of the district ceded,"[180] and comparing exports and
+imports and the cost of administration, he concluded that the fur trade
+of the Northwest was not of sufficient value to warrant continuing the
+war. The most valuable trade, he argued, was north of the line, and the
+treaty merely applied sound economic principles and gave America "a
+share in the trade." The retention of her Northwestern posts by Great
+Britain at the close of the war, in contravention of the treaty, has an
+obvious relation to the fur trade. In his negotiations with Hammond, the
+British ambassador in 1791, Secretary of State Jefferson said: "By these
+proceedings we have been intercepted entirely from the commerce of furs
+with the Indian nations to the northward--a commerce which had ever been
+of great importance to the United States, not only for its intrinsic
+value, but as it was the means of cherishing peace with these Indians,
+and of superseding the necessity of that expensive warfare which we have
+been obliged to carry on with them during the time that these posts have
+been in other hands."[181]
+
+In discussing the evacuation of the posts in 1794 Jay was met by a
+demand that complete freedom of the Northwestern Indian trade should be
+granted to British subjects. It was furthermore proposed by Lord
+Grenville[182] that, "Whereas it is now understood that the river
+Mississippi would at no point thereof be intersected by such westward
+line as is described in the said treaty [1783]; and whereas it was
+stipulated in the said treaty that the navigation of the Mississippi
+should be free to both parties"--one of two new propositions should be
+accepted regarding the northwestern boundary. The maps in American State
+Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 492, show that both these proposals
+extended Great Britain's territory so as to embrace the Grand Portage
+and the lake region of northern Minnesota, one of the best of the
+Northwest Company's fur-trading regions south of the line, and in
+connection by the Red river with the Canadian river systems.[183] They
+were rejected by Jay. Secretary Randolph urged him to hasten the removal
+of the British, stating that the delay asked for, to allow the traders
+to collect their Indian debts, etc., would have a bad effect upon the
+Indians, and protesting that free communication for the British would
+strike deep into our Indian trade.[184] The definitive treaty included
+the following provisions:[185] The posts were to be evacuated before
+June 1, 1796. "All settlers and traders, within the precincts or
+jurisdiction of the said posts, shall continue to enjoy, unmolested, all
+their property of every kind, and shall be protected therein. They shall
+be at full liberty to remain there, or to remove with all or any part of
+their effects; and it shall also be free to them to sell their lands,
+houses, or effects, or to retain the property thereof, at their
+discretion; such of them as shall continue to reside within the said
+boundary lines shall not be compelled to become citizens of the United
+States, or to take any oath of allegiance to the government thereof; but
+they shall be at full liberty to do so if they think proper, and they
+shall make and declare their election within one year after the
+evacuation aforesaid. And all persons who shall continue there after the
+expiration of the said year without having declared their intention of
+remaining subjects of his British Majesty shall be considered as having
+elected to become citizens of the United States." "It is agreed that it
+shall at all times be free to His Majesty's subjects, and to the Indians
+dwelling on either side of the said boundary line, freely to pass and
+repass by land or inland navigation into the respective territories and
+countries of the two parties on the continent of America (the country
+within the limits of the Hudson's Bay Company only excepted), and to
+navigate all the lakes, rivers and waters thereof, and freely to carry
+on trade and commerce with each other."
+
+In his elaborate defence of Jay's treaty, Alexander Hamilton paid much
+attention to the question of the fur trade. Defending Jay for permitting
+so long a delay in evacuation and for granting right of entry into our
+fields, he minimized the value of the trade. So far from being worth
+$800,000 annually, he asserted the trade within our limits would not be
+worth $100,000, seven-eighths of the traffic being north of the line.
+This estimate of the value of the northwestern trade was too low. In the
+course of his paper he made this observation:[186]
+
+"In proportion as the article is viewed on an enlarged plan and
+permanent scale, its importance to us magnifies. Who can say how far
+British colonization may spread southward and down the west side of the
+Mississippi, northward and westward into the vast interior regions
+towards the Pacific ocean?... In this large view of the subject, the fur
+trade, which has made a very prominent figure in the discussion, becomes
+a point scarcely visible. Objects of great variety and magnitude start
+up in perspective, eclipsing the little atoms of the day, and promising
+to grow and mature with time."
+
+Such was not the attitude of Great Britain. To her the Northwest was
+desirable on account of its Indian commerce. By a statement of the
+Province of Upper Canada, sent with the approbation of
+Lieutenant-General Hunter to the Duke of Kent, Commander-in-Chief of
+British North America, in the year 1800, we are enabled to see the
+situation through Canadian eyes:[187]
+
+"The Indians, who had loudly and Justly complained of a treaty [1783] in
+which they were sacrificed by a cession of their country contrary to
+repeated promises, were with difficulty appeased, however finding the
+Posts retained and some Assurances given they ceased to murmur and
+resolved to defend their country extending from the Ohio Northward to
+the Great Lakes and westward to the Mississippi, an immense tract, in
+which they found the deer, the bear, the wild wolf, game of all sorts in
+profusion. They employed the Tomahawk and Scalping Knife against such
+deluded settlers who on the faith of the treaty to which they did not
+consent, ventured to cross the Ohio, secretly encouraged by the Agents
+of Government, supplied with Arms, Ammunition, and provisions they
+maintained an obstinate & destructive war against the States, cut off
+two Corps sent against them.... The American Government, discouraged by
+these disasters were desirous of peace on any terms, their deputies were
+sent to Detroit, they offered to confine their Pretensions within
+certain limits far South of the Lakes. if this offer had been accepted
+the Indian Country would have been for ages an impassible Barrier
+between us. twas unfortunately perhaps wantonly rejected, and the war
+continued."
+
+Acting under the privileges accorded to them by Jay's treaty, the
+British traders were in almost as complete possession of Wisconsin until
+after the war of 1812 as if Great Britain still owned it. When the war
+broke out the keys of the region, Detroit and Michillimackinac, fell
+into the British hands. Green Bay and Prairie du Chien were settlements
+of French-British traders and voyageurs. Their leader was Robert
+Dickson, who had traded at the latter settlement. Writing in 1814 from
+his camp at Winnebago Lake, he says: "I think that Bony [Bonaparte]
+must be knocked up as all Europe are now in Arms. The crisis is not far
+off when I trust in God that the Tyrant will be humbled, & the Scoundrel
+American Democrats be obliged to go down on their knees to
+Britain."[188] Under him most of the Wisconsin traders of importance
+received British commissions. In the spring of 1814 the Americans took
+Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin river, whereupon Col.
+M'Douall, the British commandant at Michillimackinac, wrote to General
+Drummond:[189] ... "I saw at once the imperious necessity which existed
+of endeavoring by every means to dislodge the American Genl from his new
+conquest, and make him relinquish the immense tract of country he had
+seized upon in consequence & which brought him into the very heart of
+that occupied by our friendly Indians, There was no alternative it must
+either be done or there was an end to our connection with the Indians
+for if allowed to settle themselves by dint of threats bribes & sowing
+divisions among them, tribe after tribe would be gained over or subdued,
+& thus would be destroyed the only barrier which protects the great
+trading establishments of the North West and the Hudson's Bay Companys.
+Nothing could then prevent the enemy from gaining the source of the
+Mississippi, gradually extending themselves by the Red river to Lake
+Winnipic, from whense the descent of Nelsons river to York Fort would in
+time be easy."
+
+The British traders, voyageurs and Indians[190] dislodged the Americans,
+and at the close of the war England was practically in possession of the
+Indian country of the Northwest.
+
+In the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners asserted the
+sovereignty of the Indians over their lands, and their independence in
+relation to the United States, and demanded that a barrier of Indian
+territory should be established between the two countries, free to the
+traffic of both nations but not open to purchase by either.[191] The
+line of the Grenville treaty was suggested as a basis for determining
+this Indian region. The proposition would have removed from the
+sovereignty of the United States the territory of the Northwest with the
+exception of about two-thirds of Ohio,[192] and given it over to the
+British fur traders. The Americans declined to grant the terms, and the
+United States was finally left in possession of the Northwest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 161: Va. Hist. Colls., N.S., II, 329.]
+
+[Footnote 162: N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726.]
+
+[Footnote 163: Indian relations had a noteworthy influence upon colonial
+union; see Lucas, Appendiculae Historicae, 161, and Frothingham, Rise of
+the Republic, ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 59; Sparks, Washington's
+Works, II., 302.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 21.]
+
+[Footnote 166: _Ibid._ II., 403.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Bigelow, Franklin's Works, III., 43, 83, 98-100.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26-38.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Parkman, Pontiac, I., 185. Consult N.Y. Col. Docs., VI.,
+635, 690, 788, 872, 974.]
+
+[Footnote 170: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26.]
+
+[Footnote 171: Carver, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Porlier Papers, Wis. Pur Trade MSS., in possession of
+Wis. Hist. Soc.; also Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 200-201.]
+
+[Footnote 173: Henry, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 61 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Sparks, Franklin's Works, IV., 303-323.]
+
+[Footnote 176: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI.]
+
+[Footnote 177: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 178: Jay, Address before the N.Y. Hist. Soc. on the Treaty
+Negotiations of 1782-3, appendix; map in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+VII., 148.]
+
+[Footnote 179: But Vergennes had a just appreciation of the value of the
+region for settlement as well. He recognized and feared the American
+capacity for expansion.]
+
+[Footnote 180: Hansard, XXIII., 377-8, 381-3, 389, 398-9, 405, 409-10,
+423, 450, 457, 465.]
+
+[Footnote 181: American State Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 190.]
+
+[Footnote 182: _Ibid._ 487.]
+
+[Footnote 183: As early as 1794 the company had established a stockaded
+fort at Sandy lake. After Jay's treaty conceding freedom of entry, the
+company dotted this region with posts and raised the British flag over
+them. In 1805 the center of trade was changed from Grand Portage to Fort
+William Henry, on the Canada side. Neill, Minnesota, 239 (4th edn.).
+Bancroft, Northwest Coast, I., 560. _Vide ante_, p. 20, and _post_, p.
+55.]
+
+[Footnote 184: Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., I., p. 509.]
+
+[Footnote 185: Treaties and Conventions, etc., 1776-1887, p. 380.]
+
+[Footnote 186: Lodge, Hamilton's Works, IV., 514.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Michigan Pioneer Colls., XV., 8; cf. 10, 12, 23 and XVI.,
+67.]
+
+[Footnote 188: Wis. Fur Trade MSS., 1814 (State Hist. Soc.).]
+
+[Footnote 189: Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 260. Mich. Pioneer Colls., XVI.,
+103-104.]
+
+[Footnote 190: Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 255. Cf. Mich. Pioneer Colls.,
+XVI., 67. Rolette, one of the Prairie du Chien traders, was tried by the
+British for treason to Great Britain.]
+
+[Footnote 191: Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., III., 705.]
+
+[Footnote 192: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., L, 562. See map in
+Collet's Travels, atlas.]
+
+
+
+
+THE NORTHWEST COMPANY.
+
+
+The most striking feature of the English period was the Northwest
+Company.[193] From a study of it one may learn the character of the
+English occupation of the Northwest.[194] It was formed in 1783 and
+fully organized in 1787, with the design of contesting the field with
+the Hudson Bay Company. Goods were brought from England to Montreal, the
+headquarters of the company, and thence from the four emporiums,
+Detroit, Mackinaw, Sault Ste. Marie, and Grand Portage, they were
+scattered through the great Northwest, even to the Pacific ocean.
+
+Toward the end of the eighteenth century ships[195] began to take part
+in this commerce; a portion of the goods was sent from Montreal in
+boats to Kingston, thence in vessels to Niagara, thence overland to Lake
+Erie, to be reshipped in vessels to Mackinaw and to Sault Ste. Marie,
+where another transfer was made to a Lake Superior vessel. These ships
+were of about ninety-five tons burden and made four or five trips a
+season. But in the year 1800 the primitive mode of trade was not
+materially changed. From the traffic along the main artery of commerce
+between Grand Portage and Montreal may be learned the kind of trade that
+flowed along such branches as that between the island of Mackinaw and
+the Wisconsin posts. The visitor at La Chine rapids, near Montreal,
+might have seen a squadron of Northwestern trading canoes leaving for
+the Grand Portage, at the west of Lake Superior.[196]
+
+The boatmen, or "engag�s," having spent their season's gains in
+carousal, packed their blanket capotes and were ready for the wilderness
+again. They made a picturesque crew in their gaudy turbans, or hats
+adorned with plumes and tinsel, their brilliant handkerchiefs tied
+sailor-fashion about swarthy necks, their calico shirts, and their
+flaming worsted belts, which served to hold the knife and the tobacco
+pouch. Rough trousers, leggings, and cowhide shoes or gaily-worked
+moccasins completed the costume. The trading birch canoe measured forty
+feet in length, with a depth of three and a width of five. It floated
+four tons of freight, and yet could be carried by four men over
+difficult portages. Its crew of eight men was engaged at a salary[197]
+of from five to eight hundred livres, about $100 to $160 per annum,
+each, with a yearly outfit of coarse clothing and a daily food allowance
+of a quart of hulled corn, or peas, seasoned with two ounces of tallow.
+
+The experienced voyageurs who spent the winters in the woods were called
+_hivernans_, or winterers, or sometimes _hommes du nord_; while the
+inexperienced, those who simply made the trip from Montreal to the
+outlying depots and return, were contemptuously dubbed _mangeurs de
+lard_,[198] "pork-eaters," because their pampered appetites demanded
+peas and pork rather than hulled corn and tallow. Two of the crew, one
+at the bow and the other at the stern, being especially skilled in the
+craft of handling the paddle in the rapids, received higher wages than
+the rest. Into the canoe was first placed the heavy freight, shot, axes,
+powder; next the dry goods, and, crowning all, filling the canoe to
+overflowing, came the provisions--pork, peas or corn, and sea biscuits,
+sewed in canvas sacks.
+
+The lading completed, the voyageur hung his votive offerings in the
+chapel of Saint Anne, patron saint of voyageurs, the paddles struck the
+waters of the St. Lawrence, and the fleet of canoes glided away on its
+six weeks' journey to Grand Portage. There was the Ottawa to be
+ascended, the rapids to be run, the portages where the canoe must be
+emptied and where each voyageur must bear his two packs of ninety pounds
+apiece, and there were the _d�charges_, where the canoe was merely
+lightened and where the voyageurs, now on the land, now into the rushing
+waters, dragged it forward till the rapids were passed. There was no
+stopping to dry, but on, until the time for the hasty meal, or the
+evening camp-fire underneath the pines. Every two miles there was a stop
+for a three minutes' smoke, or "pipe," and when a portage was made it
+was reckoned in "pauses," by which is meant the number of times the men
+must stop to rest. Whenever a burial cross appeared, or a stream was
+left or entered, the voyageurs removed their hats, and made the sign of
+the cross while one of their number said a short prayer; and again the
+paddles beat time to some rollicking song.[199]
+
+    Dans mon chemin, j'ai rencontr�
+    Trois cavali�res, bien mont�es;
+    L'on, lon, laridon daine,
+    Lon, ton, laridon dai.
+
+    Trois cavali�res, bien mont�es,
+    L'un � cheval, et l'autre � pied;
+    L'on, lon, laridon daine,
+    Lon, ton, laridon dai.
+
+Arrived at Sault Ste. Marie, the fleet was often doubled by newcomers,
+so that sometimes sixty canoes swept their way along the north shore,
+the paddles marking sixty strokes a minute, while the rocks gave back
+the echoes of Canadian songs rolling out from five hundred lusty
+throats. And so they drew up at Grand Portage, near the present
+northeast boundary of Minnesota, now a sleepy, squalid little village,
+but then the general rendezvous where sometimes over a thousand men met;
+for, at this time, the company had fifty clerks, seventy interpreters,
+eighteen hundred and twenty canoe-men, and thirty-five guides. It sent
+annually to Montreal 106,000 beaver-skins, to say nothing of other
+peltries. When the proprietors from Montreal met the proprietors from
+the northern posts, and with their clerks gathered at the banquet in
+their large log hall to the number of a hundred, the walls hung with
+spoils of the chase, the rough tables furnished with abundance of
+venison, fish, bread, salt pork, butter, peas, corn, potatoes, tea,
+milk, wine and _eau de vie_, while, outside, the motley crowd of engages
+feasted on hulled corn and melted fat--was it not a truly baronial
+scene? Clerks and engag�s of this company, or its rival, the Hudson Bay
+Company, might winter one season in Wisconsin and the next in the remote
+north. For example, Amable Grignon, a Green Bay trader, wintered in 1818
+at Lac qui Parle in Minnesota, the next year at Lake Athabasca, and the
+third in the hyperborean regions of Great Slave Lake. In his engagement
+he figures as Amable Grignon, _of the Parish of Green Bay, Upper
+Canada_, and he receives $400 "and found in tobacco and shoes and two
+doges," besides "the usual equipment given to clerks." He afterwards
+returned to a post on the Wisconsin river. The attitude of Wisconsin
+traders toward the Canadian authorities and the Northwestern wilds is
+clearly shown in this document, which brings into a line Upper Canada,
+"the parish of Green Bay," and the Hudson Bay Company's territories
+about Great Slave Lake![200]
+
+How widespread and how strong was the influence of these traders upon
+the savages may be easily imagined, and this commercial control was
+strengthened by the annual presents made to the Indians by the British
+at their posts. At a time when our relations with Great Britain were
+growing strained, such a power in the Northwest was a serious
+menace.[201] In 1809 John Jacob Astor secured a charter from the State
+of New York, incorporating the American Fur Company. He proposed to
+consolidate the fur trade of the United States, plant an establishment
+in the contested Oregon territory, and link it with Michillimackinac
+(Mackinaw island) by way of the Missouri through a series of trading
+posts. In 1810 two expeditions of his Pacific Fur Company set out for
+the Columbia, the one around Cape Horn and the other by way of Green
+bay and the Missouri. In 1811 he bought a half interest in the Mackinaw
+Company, a rival of the Northwest Company and the one that had especial
+power in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and this new organization he called
+the Southwest Company. But the war of 1812 came; Astoria, the Pacific
+post, fell into the hands of the Northwest Company, while the Southwest
+Company's trade was ruined.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 193: On this company see Mackenzie, Voyages; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., 378-616, and citations; _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, III.,
+185; Irving, Astoria; Ross, The Fur Hunters of the Far West; Harmon,
+Journal; Report on the Canadian Archives, 1881, p. 61 et seq. This
+fur-trading life still goes on in the more remote regions of British
+America. See Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch. xv.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 123-5.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Mackenzie, Voyages, xxxix. Harmon, Journal, 36. In the
+fall of 1784, Haldimand granted permission to the Northwest Company to
+build a small vessel at Detroit, to be employed next year on Lake
+Superior. Calendar of Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 72.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Besides the authorities cited above, see "Anderson's
+Narrative," in Wis. Hist. Colls., IX., 137-206.]
+
+[Footnote 197: An estimate of the cost of an expedition in 1717 is given
+in Margry, VI., 506. At that time the wages of a good voyageur for a
+year amounted to about $50. Provisions for the two months' trip from
+Montreal to Mackinaw cost about $1.00 per month per man. Indian corn for
+a year cost $16; lard, $10; _eau de vie_, $1.30; tobacco, 25 cents. It
+cost, therefore, less than $80 to support a voyageur for one year's trip
+into the woods. Gov. Ninian Edwards, writing at the time of the American
+Fur Company (_post_, p. 57), says: "The whole expense of transporting
+eight thousand weight of goods from Montreal to the Mississippi,
+wintering with the Indians, and returning with a load of furs and
+peltries in the succeeding season, including the cost of provisions and
+portages and the hire of five engages for the whole time does not exceed
+five hundred and twenty-five dollars, much of which is usually paid to
+those engages when in the Indian country, in goods at an exorbitant
+price." American State Papers, VI., 65.]
+
+[Footnote 198: This distinction goes back at least to 1681 (N.Y. Col.
+Docs., IX., 152). Often the engagement was for five years, and the
+voyageur might be transferred from one master to another, at the
+master's will.
+
+The following is a translation of a typical printed engagement, one of
+scores in the possession of the Wisconsin Historical Society, the
+written portions in brackets:
+
+"Before a Notary residing at the post of Michilimakinac, Undersigned;
+Was Present [Joseph Lamarqueritte] who has voluntarily engaged and doth
+bind himself by these Presents to M[onsieur Louis Grignion] here present
+and accepting, at [his] first requisition to set off from this Post [in
+the capacity of Winterer] in one of [his] Canoes or Bateaux to make the
+Voyage [going as well as returning] and to winter for [two years at the
+Bay].
+
+"And to have due and fitting care on the route and while at the said
+[place] of the Merchandise, Provisions, Peltries, Utensils and of
+everything necessary for the Voyage; to serve, obey and execute
+faithfully all that the said Sieur [Bourgeois] or any other person
+representing him to whom he may transport the present Engagement,
+commands him lawfully and honestly; to do [his] profit, to avoid
+anything to his damage, and to inform him of it if it come to his
+knowledge, and generally to do all that a good [Winterer] ought and is
+obliged to do; without power to make any particular trade, to absent
+himself, or to quit the said service, under pain of these Ordinances,
+and of loss of wages. This engagement is therefore made, for the sum of
+[Eight Hundred] livres or shillings, ancient currency of Quebec, that he
+promises [and] binds himself to deliver and pay to the said [Winterer
+one month] after his return to this Post, and at his departure [an
+Equipment each year of 2 Shirts, 1 Blanket of 3 point, 1 Carot of
+Tobacco, 1 Cloth Blanket, 1 Leather Shirt, 1 Pair of Leather Breeches, 5
+Pairs of Leather Shoes, and Six Pounds of Soap.]
+
+"For thus, etc., promising, etc., binding, etc., renouncing, etc.
+
+"Done and passed at the said [Michilimackinac] in the year eighteen
+hundred [Seven] the [twenty-fourth] of [July before] twelve o'clock; &
+have signed with the exception of the said [Winterer] who, having
+declared himself unable to do so, has made his ordinary mark after the
+engagement was read to him.
+
+                              his
+                    "JOSEPH X LAMARQUERITTE. [SEAL]
+                              mark.
+                                  Louis GEIGNON. [SEAL]
+"SAML. ABBOTT,
+  Not. Pub."
+
+Endorsed--"Engagement of Joseph Lamarqueritte to Louis Grignon."]
+
+[Footnote 199: For Canadian boat-songs see _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, III.,
+189; Mrs. Kinzie, Wau Bun; Bela Hubbard, Memorials of a Half-Century;
+Robinson, Great Fur Land.]
+
+[Footnote 200: Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (Wis. Hist. Soc.). Published in
+Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the State Hist. Soc.
+of Wis. 1889, pp. 81-82.]
+
+[Footnote 201: See Mich. Pioneer Colls., XV., XVI., 67, 74. The
+government consulted the Northwest Company, who made particular efforts
+to "prevent the Americans from ever alienating the minds of the
+Indians." To this end they drew up memoirs regarding the proper
+frontiers.]
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INFLUENCES.
+
+
+Although the Green Bay court of justice, such as it was, had been
+administered under American commissions since 1803, when Reaume
+dispensed a rude equity under a commission of Justice of the Peace from
+Governor Harrison,[202] neither Green Bay nor the rest of Wisconsin had
+any proper appreciation of its American connections until the close of
+this war. But now occurred these significant events:
+
+1. Astor's company was reorganized as the American Fur Company, with
+headquarters at Mackinaw island.[203]
+
+2. The United States enacted in 1816 that neither foreign fur traders,
+nor capital for that trade, should be admitted to this country.[204]
+This was designed to terminate English influence among the tribes, and
+it fostered Astor's company. The law was so interpreted as not to
+exclude British (that is generally, French) interpreters and boatmen,
+who were essential to the company; but this interpretation enabled
+British subjects to evade the law and trade on their own account by
+having their invoices made out to some Yankee clerk, while they
+accompanied the clerk in the guise of interpreters.[205] In this way a
+number of Yankees came to the State.
+
+3. In the year 1816 United States garrisons were sent to Green Bay and
+Prairie du Chien.[206]
+
+4. In 1814 the United States provided for locating government trading
+posts at these two places.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 202: Reaume's petition in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of
+Wisconsin Historical Society.]
+
+[Footnote 203: On this company consult Irving, Astoria; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., ch. xvi.; II., chs. vii-x; _Mag. Amer. Hist._
+XIII., 269; Franchere, Narrative; Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers
+on the Oregon, or Columbia River (1849); Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (State
+Hist. Sec.).]
+
+[Footnote 204: U.S. Statutes at Large, III., 332. Cf. laws in 1802 and
+1822.]
+
+[Footnote 205: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 103; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 9.
+The Warren brothers, who came to Wisconsin in 1818, were descendants of
+the Pilgrims and related to Joseph Warren who fell at Bunker Hill; they
+came from Berkshire, Mass., and marrying the half-breed daughters of
+Michael Cadotte, of La Pointe, succeeded to his trade.]
+
+[Footnote 206: See the objections of British traders, Mich. Pioneer
+Colls., XVI., 76 ff. The Northwest Company tried to induce the British
+government to construe the treaty so as to prevent the United States
+from erecting the forts, urging that a fort at Prairie du Chien would
+"deprive the Indians of their 'rights and privileges'", guaranteed by
+the treaty.]
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES.
+
+
+The system of public trading houses goes back to colonial days. At first
+in Plymouth and Jamestown all industry was controlled by the
+commonwealth, and in Massachusetts Bay the stock company had reserved
+the trade in furs for themselves before leaving England.[207] The trade
+was frequently farmed out, but public "truck houses" were established by
+the latter colony as early as 1694-5.[208] Franklin, in his public
+dealings with the Ohio Indians, saw the importance of regulation of the
+trade, and in 1753 he wrote asking James Bowdoin of Massachusetts to
+procure him a copy of the truckhouse law of that colony, saying that if
+it had proved to work well he thought of proposing it for
+Pennsylvania.[209] The reply of Bowdoin showed that Massachusetts
+furnished goods to the Indians at wholesale prices and so drove out the
+French and the private traders. In 1757 Virginia adopted the system for
+a time,[210] and in 1776 the Continental Congress accepted a plan
+presented by a committee of which Franklin was a member,[211] whereby
+�140,000 sterling was expended at the charge of the United Colonies for
+Indian goods to be sold at moderate prices by factors of the
+congressional commissioners.[212] The bearing of this act upon the
+governmental powers of the Congress is worth noting.
+
+In his messages of 1791 and 1792 President Washington urged the need of
+promoting and regulating commerce with the Indians, and in 1793 he
+advocated government trading houses. Pickering, of Massachusetts, who
+was his Secretary of War with the management of Indian affairs, may have
+strengthened Washington in this design, for he was much interested in
+Indian improvement, but Washington's own experience had shown him the
+desirability of some such plan, and he had written to this effect as
+early as 1783.[213] The objects of Congressional policy in dealing with
+the Indians were stated by speakers in 1794 as follows:[214] 1.
+Protection of the frontiersmen from the Indians, by means of the army.
+2. Protection of the Indians from the frontiersmen, by laws regulating
+settlement. 3. Detachment of the Indians from foreign influence, by
+trading houses where goods could be got cheaply. In 1795 a small
+appropriation was made for trying the experiment of public trading
+houses,[215] and in 1796, the same year that the British evacuated the
+posts, the law which established the system was passed.[216] It was to
+be temporary, but by re-enactments with alterations it was prolonged
+until 1822, new posts being added from time to time. In substance the
+laws provided a certain capital for the Indian trade, the goods to be
+sold by salaried United States factors, at posts in the Indian country,
+at such rates as would protect the savage from the extortions of the
+individual trader, whose actions sometimes provoked hostilities, and
+would supplant British influence over the Indian. At the same time it
+was required that the capital stock should not be diminished. In the
+course of the debate over the law in 1796 considerable _laissez faire_
+sentiment was called out against the government's becoming a trader,
+notwithstanding that the purpose of the bill was benevolence and
+political advantage rather than financial gain.[217] President Jefferson
+and Secretary Calhoun were friends of the system.[218] It was a failure,
+however, and under the attacks of Senator Benton, the Indian agents and
+the American Fur Company, it was brought to an end in 1822. The causes
+of its failure were chiefly these:[219] The private trader went to the
+hunting grounds of the savages, while the government's posts were fixed.
+The private traders gave credit to the Indians, which the government did
+not.[220] The private trader understood the Indians, was related to them
+by marriage, and was energetic and not over-scrupulous. The government
+trader was a salaried agent not trained to the work. The private trader
+sold whiskey and the government did not. The British trader's goods were
+better than those of the government. The best business principles were
+not always followed by the superintendent. The system was far from
+effecting its object, for the Northwestern Indians had been accustomed
+to receive presents from the British authorities, and had small respect
+for a government that traded. Upon Wisconsin trade from 1814 to 1822 its
+influence was slight.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 207: Mass. Coll. Recs., I., 55: III., 424.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Acts and Resolves of the Prov. of Mass. Bay, I., 172.]
+
+[Footnote 209: Bigelow, Franklin's Works, II., 316, 221. A plan for
+public trading houses came before the British ministry while Franklin
+was in England, and was commented upon by him for their benefit.]
+
+[Footnote 210: Hening, Statutes, VII., 116.]
+
+[Footnote 211: Journals of Congress, 1775, pp. 162, 168, 247.]
+
+[Footnote 212: _Ibid._, 1776, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 213: Ford's Washington's Writings, X., 309.]
+
+[Footnote 214: Annals of Cong., IV., 1273; cf. _ibid._, V., 231.]
+
+[Footnote 215: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 583.]
+
+[Footnote 216: Annals of Cong., VI., 2889.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Annals of Congress, V., 230 ff., 283; Abridgment of
+Debates, VII., 187-8.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684; II., 181.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Amer. State Papers, VI., Ind. Affs., II., 203; Ind.
+Treaties, 399 _et seq._; Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 269; _Washington
+Gazette_, 1821, 1822, articles by Ramsay Crooks under signature
+"Backwoodsman," and speech of Tracy in House of Representatives,
+February 23, 1821; Benton, Thirty Years View; _id._, Abr. Deb., VII.,
+1780.]
+
+[Footnote 220: To understand the importance of these two points see
+_post_, pp. 62-5.]
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820.[221]
+
+
+The goods used in the Indian trade remained much the same from the
+first, in all sections of the country.[222] They were chiefly blankets,
+coarse cloths, cheap jewelry and trinkets (including strings of wampum),
+fancy goods (like ribbons, shawls, etc.), kettles, knives, hatchets,
+guns, powder, tobacco, and intoxicating liquor.[223] These goods,
+shipped from Mackinaw, at first came by canoes or bateaux,[224] and in
+the later period by vessel, to a leading post, were there redivided[225]
+and sent to the various trading posts. The Indians, returning from the
+hunting grounds to their villages in the spring,[226] set the squaws to
+making maple sugar,[227] planting corn, watermelons, potatoes, squashes,
+etc., and a little hunting was carried on. The summer was given over to
+enjoyment, and in the early period to wars. In the autumn they collected
+their wild rice, or their corn, and again were ready to start for the
+hunting grounds, sometimes 300 miles distant. At this juncture the
+trader, licensed by an Indian agent, arrived upon the scene with his
+goods, without which no family could subsist, much less collect any
+quantity of furs.[228] These were bought on credit by the hunter, since
+he could not go on the hunt for the furs, whereby he paid for his
+supplies, without having goods and ammunition advanced for the purpose.
+This system of credits,[229] dating back to the French period, had
+become systematized so that books were kept, with each Indian's account.
+The amount to which the hunter was trusted was between $40 and $50, at
+cost prices, upon which the trader expected a gain of about 100 per
+cent, so that the average annual value of furs brought in by each hunter
+to pay his credits should have been between $80 and $100.[230] The
+amount of the credit varied with the reputation of the hunter for
+honesty and ability in the chase.[231] Sometimes he was trusted to the
+amount of three hundred dollars. If one-half the credits were paid in
+the spring the trader thought that he had done a fair business. The
+importance of this credit system can hardly be overestimated in
+considering the influence of the fur trade upon the Indians of
+Wisconsin, and especially in rendering them dependent upon the earlier
+settlements of the State.
+
+The system left the Indians at the mercy of the trader when one nation
+monopolized the field, and it compelled them to espouse the cause of one
+or other when two nations contended for supremacy over their territory.
+At the same time it rendered the trade peculiarly adapted to monopoly,
+for when rivals competed, the trade was demoralized, and the Indian
+frequently sold to a new trader the furs which he had pledged in advance
+for the goods of another. When the American Fur Company gained control,
+they systematized matters so that there was no competition between their
+own agents, and private dealers cut into their trade but little for some
+years. The unit of trade was at first the beaver skin, or, as the pound
+of beaver skin came to be called, the "plus."[232] The beaver skin was
+estimated at a pound and a half, though it sometimes weighed two, in
+which case an allowance was made. Wampum was used for ornament and in
+treaty-making, but not as currency. Other furs or Indian commodities,
+like maple sugar and wild rice, were bought in terms of beaver. As this
+animal grew scarcer the unit changed to money. By 1820, when few beaver
+were marketed in Wisconsin, the term plus stood for one dollar.[233] The
+muskrat skin was also used as the unit in the later days of the
+trade.[234] In the southern colonies the pound of deer skin had answered
+the purpose of a unit.[235]
+
+The goods being trusted to the Indians, the bands separated for the
+hunting grounds. Among the Chippeways, at least, each family or group
+had a particular stream or region where it exclusively hunted and
+trapped.[236] Not only were the hunting grounds thus parcelled out;
+certain Indians were apportioned to certain traders,[237] so that the
+industrial activities of Wisconsin at this date were remarkably
+systematic and uniform. Sometimes the trader followed the Indians to
+their hunting grounds. From time to time he sent his engag�s (hired
+men), commonly five or six in number, to the various places where the
+hunting bands were to be found, to collect furs on the debts and to sell
+goods to those who had not received too large credits, and to the
+customers of rival traders; this was called "running a deouine."[238]
+The main wintering post had lesser ones, called "jack-knife posts,"[239]
+depending on it, where goods were left and the furs gathered in going to
+and from the main post. By these methods Wisconsin was thoroughly
+visited by the traders before the "pioneers" arrived.[240]
+
+The kind and amount of furs brought in may be judged by the fact that in
+1836, long after the best days of the trade, a single Green Bay firm,
+Porlier and Grignon, shipped to the American Fur Company about 3600 deer
+skins, 6000 muskrats, 150 bears, 850 raccoons, besides beavers, otters,
+fishers, martens, lynxes, foxes, wolves, badgers, skunks, etc.,
+amounting to over $6000.
+
+None of these traders became wealthy; Astor's company absorbed the
+profits. It required its clerks, or factors, to pay an advance of 81-1/2
+per cent on the sterling cost of the blankets, strouds, and other
+English goods, in order to cover the cost of importation and the expense
+of transportation from New York to Mackinaw. Articles purchased in New
+York were charged with 15-1/3 per cent advance for transportation, and
+each class of purchasers was charged with 33-1/3 per cent advance as
+profit on the aggregate amount.[241]
+
+I estimate, from the data given in the sources cited on page 63, note,
+that in 1820 between $60,000 and $75,000 worth of goods was brought
+annually to Wisconsin for the Indian trade. An average outfit for a
+single clerk at a main post was between $1500 and $2000, and for the
+dependent posts between $100 and $500. There were probably not over 2000
+Indian hunters in the State, and the total Indian population did not
+much exceed 10,000. Comparing this number with the early estimates for
+the same tribes, we find that, if the former are trustworthy, by 1820
+the Indian tribes that remained in Wisconsin had increased their
+numbers. But the material is too unsatisfactory to afford any valuable
+conclusion.
+
+After the sale of their lands and the receipt of money annuities, a
+change came over the Indian trade. The monopoly held by Astor was broken
+into, and as competition increased, the sales of whiskey were larger,
+and for money, which the savage could now pay. When the Indians went to
+Montreal in the days of the French, they confessed that they could not
+return with supplies because they wasted their furs upon brandy. The
+same process now went on at their doors. The traders were not dependent
+upon the Indian's success in hunting alone; they had his annuities to
+count on, and so did not exert their previous influence in favor of
+steady hunting. Moreover, the game was now exploited to a considerable
+degree, so that Wisconsin was no longer the hunter's paradise that it
+had been in the days of Dablon and La Salle. The long-settled economic
+life of the Indian being revolutionized, his business honesty declined,
+and credits were more frequently lost. The annuities fell into the
+traders' hands for debts and whiskey. "There is no less than near
+$420,000 of claims against the Winnebagoes," writes a Green Bay trader
+at Prairie du Chien, in 1838, "so that if they are all just, the
+dividend will be but very small for each claimant, as there is only
+$150,000 to pay that."[242]
+
+By this time the influence of the fur trader had so developed mining in
+the region of Dubuque, Iowa, Galena, Ill., and southwestern Wisconsin,
+as to cause an influx of American miners, and here began a new element
+of progress for Wisconsin. The knowledge of these mines was possessed by
+the early French explorers, and as the use of firearms spread they were
+worked more and more by Indians, under the stimulus of the trader. In
+1810 Nicholas Boilvin, United States Indian agent at Prairie du Chien,
+reported that the Indians about the lead mines had mostly abandoned the
+chase and turned their attention to the manufacture of lead, which they
+sold to fur traders. In 1825 there were at least 100 white miners in the
+entire lead region,[243] and by 1829 they numbered in the thousands.
+
+Black Hawk's war came in 1832, and agricultural settlement sought the
+southwestern part of the State after that campaign. The traders opened
+country stores, and their establishments were nuclei of settlement.[244]
+In Wisconsin the Indian trading post was a thing of the past.
+
+The birch canoe and the pack-horse had had their day in western New York
+and about Montreal. In Wisconsin the age of the voyageur continued
+nearly through the first third of this century. It went on in the Far
+Northwest in substantially the same fashion that has been here
+described, until quite recently; and in the great North Land tributary
+to Hudson Bay the _chanson_ of the voyageur may still be heard, and the
+dog-sledge laden with furs jingles across the snowy plains from distant
+post to distant post.[245]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 221: In an address before the State Historical Society of
+Wisconsin, on the Character and Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin
+(Proceedings, 1889, pp. 86-98), I have given details as to Wisconsin
+settlements, posts, routes of trade, and Indian location and population
+in 1820.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377. Compare the articles used by
+Radisson, _ante_, p. 29. For La Salle's estimate of amount and kind of
+goods needed for a post, and the profits thereon, see Penna. Archives,
+2d series, VI., 18-19. Brandy was an important item, one beaver selling
+for a pint. For goods and cost in 1728 see a bill quoted by E.D. Neill,
+on p. 20, _Mag. West. Hist._, Nov., 1887, Cf. 4 Mass. Hist. Colls.,
+III., 344; Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180 ff.; Minn. Hist. Colls., II., 46;
+Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 42 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 223: Wis. Fur Trade MSS. Cf. Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377, and
+Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 360. The amount of liquor taken to
+the woods was very great. The French Jesuits had protested against its
+use in vain (Parkman's Old R�gime); the United States prohibited it to
+no purpose. It was an indispensable part of a trader's outfit. Robert
+Stuart, agent of the American Fur Company at Mackinaw, once wrote to
+John Lawe, one of the leading traders at Green Bay, that the 56 bbls. of
+whiskey which he sends is "enough to last two years, and half drown all
+the Indians he deals with." See also Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 282;
+McKenney's Tour to the Lakes, 169, 299-301; McKenney's Memoirs, I.,
+19-21. An old trader assured me that it was the custom to give five or
+six gallons of "grog"--one-fourth water--to the hunter when he paid his
+credits; he thought that only about one-eighth or one-ninth part of the
+whole sales was in whiskey.]
+
+[Footnote 224: A light boat sometimes called a "Mackinaw boat," about 32
+feet long, by 6-1/2 to 15 feet wide amidships, and sharp at the ends.]
+
+[Footnote 225: See Wis. Hist. Colls., II., 108.]
+
+[Footnote 226: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 263.]
+
+[Footnote 227: See Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 220, 286; III., 235;
+McKenney's Tour, 194; Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, II., 55. Sometimes a
+family made 1500 lbs. in a season.]
+
+[Footnote 228: Lewis Cass in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II., 1.]
+
+[Footnote 229: See D'Iberville's plans for relocating Indian tribes by
+denying them credit at certain posts, Margry, IV., 597. The system was
+used by the Dutch, and the Puritans also; see Weeden, Economic and
+Social Hist. New Eng., I., 98. In 1765, after the French and Indian war,
+the Chippeways of Chequamegon Bay told Henry, a British trader, that
+unless he advanced them goods on credit, "their wives and children would
+perish; for that there were neither ammunition nor clothing left among
+them." He distributed goods worth 3000 beaver skins. Henry, Travels,
+195-6. Cf. Neill, Minnesota, 225-6; N.Y. Col. Docs., VII., 543; Amer.
+State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 64, 66, 329, 333-5; _North American
+Review_, Jan., 1826, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 230: Biddle, an Indian agent, testified in 1822 that while the
+cost of transporting 100 wt. from New York to Green Bay did not exceed
+five dollars, which would produce a charge of less than 10 percent on
+the original cost, the United States factor charged 50 per cent
+additional. The United States capital stock was diminished by this
+trade, however. The private dealers charged much more. Schoolcraft in
+1831 estimated that $48.34 in goods and provisions at cost prices was
+the average annual supply of each hunter, or $6.90 to each soul. The
+substantial accuracy of this is sustained by my data. See Sen. Doc., No.
+90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 45; State Papers, No. 7, 18th Cong., 1st
+Sess., I.; State Papers, No. 54, 18th Cong., 2d Sess., III.;
+Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 599; Invoice Book, Amer. Fur Co., for
+1820, 1821; Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of Wisconsin Historical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 231: The following is a typical account, taken from the books
+of Jacques Porlier, of Green Bay, for the year 1823: The Indian Michel
+bought on credit in the fall: $16 worth of cloth; a trap, $1.00; two and
+a half yards of cotton, $3.12-1/2; three measures of powder, $1.50;
+lead, $1.00; a bottle of whiskey, 50 cents, and some other articles,
+such as a gun worm, making in all a bill of about $25. This he paid in
+full by bringing in eighty-five muskrats, worth nearly $20; a fox,
+$1.00, and a mocock of maple sugar, worth $4.00.]
+
+[Footnote 232: A.J. Vieau, who traded in the thirties, gave me this
+information.]
+
+[Footnote 233: For the value of the beaver at different periods and
+places consult indexes, under "beaver," in N.Y. Col. Docs,; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast; Weeden, Economic and Social Hist. New Eng.; and see
+Morgan, American Beaver, 243-4; Henry, Travels, 192; 2 Penna. Archives,
+VI., 18; Servent, in Paris Ex. Univ. 1867, Rapports, VI., 117, 123;
+Proc. Wis. State Hist. Soc., 1889, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 234: Minn. Hist. Colls. II., 46, gives the following table for
+1836:
+
+_St. Louis Prices._               _Minn. Price._             _Nett Gain._
+Three pt. blanket  = $3 25   60 rat skins at 20 cents = $12 00      $8 75
+1-1/2 yds. Stroud  =  2 37   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 63
+1 N.W. gun         =  6 50  100 rat skins at 20 cents =  20 00      13 50
+1 lb. lead         =    06    2 rat skins at 20 cents =     40         34
+1 lb. powder       =    28   10 rat skins at 20 cents =   2 00       1 72
+1 tin kettle       =  2 50   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 50
+1 knife            =    20    4 rat skins at 20 cents =     80         60
+1 lb. tobacco      =    12    8 rat skins at 20 cents =   1 60       1 38
+1 looking glass    =    04    4 rat skins at 20 cents =     80         76
+1-1/2 yd.
+scarlet cloth      =  3 00   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 00
+
+See also the table of prices in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st
+Sess.; II., 42 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 235: Douglass, Summary, I., 176.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Morgan, American Beaver, 243.]
+
+[Footnote 237: Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc., 1889, pp. 92-98.]
+
+[Footnote 238: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 66.]
+
+[Footnote 239: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 220, 223.]
+
+[Footnote 240: The centers of Wisconsin trade were Green Bay, Prairie du
+Chien, and La Pointe (on Madelaine island, Chequamegon bay). Lesser
+points of distribution were Milwaukee and Portage. From these places, by
+means of the interlacing rivers and the numerous lakes of northern
+Wisconsin, the whole region was visited by birch canoes or Mackinaw
+boats.]
+
+[Footnote 241: Schoolcraft in Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II,. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 242: Lawe to Vieau, in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. See also U.S.
+Indian Treaties, and Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 236.]
+
+[Footnote 243: House Ex. Docs., 19th Cong., 2d Sess., II., No. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 244: For example see the Vieau Narrative in Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+XI., and the Wis. Fur Trade MSS.]
+
+[Footnote 245: Butler, Wild North Land; Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+xv.]
+
+
+
+
+EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST.
+
+
+We are now in a position to offer some conclusions as to the influence
+of the Indian trading post.
+
+I. Upon the savage it had worked a transformation. It found him without
+iron, hunting merely for food and raiment. It put into his hands iron
+and guns, and made him a hunter for furs with which to purchase the
+goods of civilization. Thus it tended to perpetuate the hunter stage;
+but it must also be noted that for a time it seemed likely to develop a
+class of merchants who should act as intermediaries solely. The
+inter-tribal trade between Montreal and the Northwest, and between
+Albany and the Illinois and Ohio country, appears to have been commerce
+in the proper sense of the term[246] (_Kauf zum Verkauf_). The trading
+post left the unarmed tribes at the mercy of those that had bought
+firearms, and this caused a relocation of the Indian tribes and an
+urgent demand for the trader by the remote and unvisited Indians. It
+made the Indian dependent on the white man's supplies. The stage of
+civilization that could make a gun and gunpowder was too far above the
+bow and arrow stage to be reached by the Indian. Instead of elevating
+him the trade exploited him. But at the same time, when one nation did
+not monopolize the trade, or when it failed to regulate its own traders,
+the trading post gave to the Indians the means of resistance to
+agricultural settlement. The American settlers fought for their farms in
+Kentucky and Tennessee at a serious disadvantage, because for over half
+a century the Creeks and Cherokees had received arms and ammunition from
+the trading posts of the French, the Spanish and the English. In
+Wisconsin the settlers came after the Indian had become thoroughly
+dependent on the American traders, and so late that no resistance was
+made. The trading post gradually exploited the Indian's hunting ground.
+By intermarriages with the French traders the purity of the stock was
+destroyed and a mixed race produced.[247] The trader broke down the old
+totemic divisions, and appointed chiefs regardless of the Indian social
+organization, to foster his trade. Indians and traders alike testify
+that this destruction of Indian institutions was responsible for much of
+the difficulty in treating with them, the tribe being without a
+recognized head.[248] The sale of their lands, made less valuable by the
+extinction of game, gave them a new medium of exchange, at the same time
+that, under the rivalry of trade, the sale of whiskey increased.
+
+II. Upon the white man the effect of the Indian trading post was also
+very considerable. The Indian trade gave both English and French a
+footing in America. But for the Indian supplies some of the most
+important settlements would have perished.[249] It invited to
+exploration: the dream of a water route to India and of mines was always
+present in the more extensive expeditions, but the effective practical
+inducement to opening the water systems of the interior, and the thing
+that made exploration possible, was the fur trade. As has been shown,
+the Indian eagerly invited the trader. Up to a certain point also the
+trade fostered the advance of settlements. As long as they were in
+extension of trade with the Indians they were welcomed. The trading
+posts were the pioneers of many settlements along the entire colonial
+frontier. In Wisconsin the sites of our principal cities are the sites
+of old trading posts, and these earliest fur-trading settlements
+furnished supplies to the farming, mining and lumbering pioneers. They
+were centers about which settlement collected after the exploitation of
+the Indian. Although the efforts of the Indians and of the great
+trading companies, whose profits depended upon keeping the primitive
+wilderness, were to obstruct agricultural settlement, as the history of
+the Northwest and of British America shows, nevertheless reports brought
+back by the individual trader guided the steps of the agricultural
+pioneer. The trader was the farmer's pathfinder into some of the richest
+regions of the continent. Both favorably and unfavorably the influence
+of the Indian trade on settlement was very great.
+
+The trading post was the strategic point in the rivalry of France and
+England for the Northwest. The American colonists came to know that the
+land was worth more than the beaver that built in the streams, but the
+mother country fought for the Northwest as the field of Indian trade in
+all the wars from 1689 to 1812. The management of the Indian trade led
+the government under the lead of Franklin and Washington into trading on
+its own account, a unique feature of its policy. It was even proposed by
+the Indian Superintendent at one time that the government should
+manufacture the goods for this trade. In providing a new field for the
+individual trader, whom he expected the government trading houses to
+dispossess, Jefferson proposed the Lewis and Clarke expedition, which
+crossed the continent by way of the Missouri and the Columbia, as the
+British trader, Mackenzie, had before crossed it by way of Canadian
+rivers. The genesis of this expedition illustrates at once the
+comprehensive western schemes of Jefferson, and the importance of the
+part played by the fur trade in opening the West. In 1786, while the
+Annapolis convention was discussing the navigation of the Potomac,
+Jefferson wrote to Washington from Paris inquiring about the best place
+for a canal between the Ohio and the Great Lakes.[250] This was in
+promotion of the project of Ledyard, a Connecticut man, who was then in
+Paris endeavoring to interest the wealthiest house there in the fur
+trade of the Far West. Jefferson took so great an interest in the plan
+that he secured from the house a promise that if they undertook the
+scheme the depot of supply should be at Alexandria, on the Potomac
+river, which would be in connection with the Ohio, if the canal schemes
+of the time were carried out. After the failure of the negotiations of
+Ledyard, Jefferson proposed to him to cross Russia to Kamschatka, take
+ship to Nootka Sound, and thence return to the United States by way of
+the Missouri.[251] Ledyard was detained in Russia by the authorities in
+spite of Jefferson's good offices, and the scheme fell through. But
+Jefferson himself asserts that this suggested the idea of the Lewis and
+Clarke expedition, which he proposed to Congress as a means of fostering
+our Indian trade.[252] Bearing in mind his instructions to this party,
+that they should see whether the Oregon furs might not be shipped down
+the Missouri instead of passing around Cape Horn, and the relation of
+his early canal schemes to this design, we see that he had conceived the
+project of a transcontinental fur trade which should center in Virginia.
+Astor's subsequent attempt to push through a similar plan resulted in
+the foundation of his short-lived post of Astoria at the mouth of the
+Columbia. This occupation greatly aided our claim to the Oregon country
+as against the British traders, who had reached the region by way of the
+northern arm of the Columbia.
+
+In Wisconsin, at least, the traders' posts, placed at the carrying
+places around falls and rapids, pointed out the water powers of the
+State. The portages between rivers became canals, or called out canal
+schemes that influenced the early development of the State. When
+Washington, at the close of his military service, inspected the Mohawk
+valley and the portages between the headwaters of the Potomac and the
+Ohio, as the channels "of conveyance of the extensive and valuable
+trade of a rising empire,"[253] he stood between two eras--the era with
+which he was personally familiar, when these routes had been followed by
+the trader with the savage tribes,[254] and the era which he foresaw,
+when American settlement passed along the same ways to the fertile West
+and called into being the great trunk-lines of the present day.[255] The
+trails became the early roads. An old Indian trader relates that "the
+path between Green Bay and Milwaukee was originally an Indian trail, and
+very crooked, but the whites would straighten it by cutting across lots
+each winter with their jumpers, wearing bare streaks through the thin
+covering, to be followed in the summer by foot and horseback travel
+along the shortened path."[256] The process was typical of a greater
+one. Along the lines that nature had drawn the Indians traded and
+warred; along their trails and in their birch canoes the trader passed,
+bringing a new and a transforming life. These slender lines of eastern
+influence stretched throughout all our vast and intricate water-system,
+even to the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, and the Arctic seas, and these
+lines were in turn followed by agricultural and by manufacturing
+civilization.
+
+In a speech upon the Pacific Railway delivered in the United States
+Senate in 1850, Senator Benton used these words: "There is an idea
+become current of late ... that none but a man of science, bred in a
+school, can lay off a road. That is a mistake. There is a class of
+topographical engineers older than the schools, and more unerring than
+the mathematics. They are the wild animals--buffalo, elk, deer,
+antelope, bears, which traverse the forest, not by compass, but by an
+instinct which leads them always the right way--to the lowest passes in
+the mountains, the shallowest fords in the rivers, the richest pastures
+in the forest, the best salt springs, and the shortest practicable
+routes between remote points. They travel thousands of miles, have their
+annual migrations backwards and forwards, and never miss the best and
+shortest route. These are the first engineers to lay out a road in a new
+country; the Indians follow them, and hence a buffalo-road becomes a
+war-path. The first white hunters follow the same trails in pursuing
+their game; and after that the buffalo-road becomes the wagon-road of
+the white man, and finally the macadamized or railroad of the scientific
+man. It all resolves itself into the same thing--into the same
+buffalo-road; and thence the buffalo becomes the first and safest
+engineer. Thus it has been here in the countries which we inhabit and
+the history of which is so familiar. The present national road from
+Cumberland over the Alleghanies was the military road of General
+Braddock; which had been the buffalo-path of the wild animals. So of the
+two roads from western Virginia to Kentucky--one through the gap in the
+Cumberland mountains, the other down the valley of the Kenhawa. They
+were both the war-path of the Indians and the travelling route of the
+buffalo, and their first white acquaintances the early hunters.
+Buffaloes made them in going from the salt springs on the Holston to the
+rich pastures and salt springs of Kentucky; Indians followed them first,
+white hunters afterwards--and that is the way Kentucky was discovered.
+In more than a hundred years no nearer or better routes have been found;
+and science now makes her improved roads exactly where the buffalo's
+foot first marked the way and the hunter's foot afterwards followed him.
+So all over Kentucky and the West; and so in the Rocky Mountains. The
+famous South Pass was no scientific discovery. Some people think
+Fr�mont discovered it. It had been discovered forty years before--long
+before he was born. He only described it and confirmed what the hunters
+and traders had reported and what they showed him. It was discovered, or
+rather first seen by white people, in 1808, two years after the return
+of Lewis and Clark, and by the first company of hunters and traders that
+went out after their report laid open the prospect of the fur trade in
+the Rocky Mountains.
+
+"An enterprising Spaniard of St. Louis, Manuel Lisa, sent out the party;
+an acquaintance and old friend of the Senator from Wisconsin who sits on
+my left [General Henry Dodge] led the party--his name Andrew Henry. He
+was the first man that saw that pass; and he found it in the prosecution
+of his business, that of a hunter and trader, and by following the game
+and the road which they had made. And that is the way all passes are
+found. But these traders do not write books and make maps, but they
+enable other people to do it."[257]
+
+Benton errs in thinking that the hunter was the pioneer in Kentucky. As
+I have shown, the trader opened the way. But Benton is at least valid
+authority upon the Great West, and his fundamental thesis has much truth
+in it. A continuously higher life flowed into the old channels, knitting
+the United States together into a complex organism. It is a process not
+limited to America. In every country the exploitation of the wild
+beasts,[258] and of the raw products generally, causes the entry of the
+disintegrating and transforming influences of a higher civilization.
+"The history of commerce is the history of the intercommunication of
+peoples."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 246: Notwithstanding Kulischer's assertion that there is no
+room for this in primitive society. _Vide_ Der Handel auf den primitiven
+Culturstufen, in _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie und
+Sprachwissenschaft_, X., No. 4, p. 378. Compare instances of
+inter-tribal trade given _ante_, pp. 11, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 247: On the "_metis_," _bo�s-brul�s_, or half-breeds, consult
+Smithsonian Reports, 1879, p. 309, and Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+iii.]
+
+[Footnote 248: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 135; Biddle to Atkinson, 1819, in
+Ind. Pamphlets, Vol. I, No. 15 (Wis. Hist. Soc. Library).]
+
+[Footnote 249: Parkman, Pioneers of France, 230; Carr, Mounds of the
+Mississippi, p. 8, n. 8; Smith's Generall Historie, I., 88, 90, 155
+(Richmond, 1819).]
+
+[Footnote 250: Jefferson, Works, II., 60, 250, 370.]
+
+[Footnote 251: Allen's Lewis and Clarke Expedition, p. ix (edition of
+1814. The introduction is by Jefferson).]
+
+[Footnote 252: Jefferson's messages of January 18, 1803, and February
+19, 1806. See Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684.]
+
+[Footnote 253: See Adams, Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to
+U.S., J.H.U. Studies, 3d Series, No. I., pp. 80-82.]
+
+[Footnote 254: _Ibid._ _Vide ante_, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 255: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10. Compare Adams, as
+above. At Jefferson's desire, in January and February of 1788,
+Washington wrote various letters inquiring as to the feasibility of a
+canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio, "whereby the fur and peltry of the
+upper country can be transported"; saying: "Could a channel once be
+opened to convey the fur and peltry from the Lakes into the eastern
+country, its advantages would be so obvious as to induce an opinion that
+it would in a short time become the channel of conveyance for much the
+greater part of the commodities brought from thence." Sparks,
+Washington's Works, IX., 303, 327.]
+
+[Footnote 256: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 230.]
+
+[Footnote 257: Cong. Rec., XXIII., 57. I found this interesting
+confirmation of my views after this paper was written. Compare _Harper's
+Magazine_, Sept. 1890, p. 565.]
+
+[Footnote 258: The traffic in furs in the Middle Ages was enormous, says
+Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, III., 62. Numerous cities in England and
+on the Continent, whose names are derived from the word "beaver" and
+whose seals bear the beaver, testify to the former importance in Europe
+of this animal; see _Canadian Journal_, 1859, 359. See Du Chaillu,
+Viking Age, 209-10; Marco Polo, bk. iv., ch. xxi. "Wattenbach, in
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, IX., 391, shows that German traders were
+known in the lands about the Baltic at least as early as the knights.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20643-8.txt or 20643-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/4/20643/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20643-8.zip b/20643-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74685ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643-8.zip
diff --git a/20643-h.zip b/20643-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a2d70a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643-h.zip
diff --git a/20643-h/20643-h.htm b/20643-h/20643-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe5cbcd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643-h/20643-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,3522 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick J. Turner.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 1%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: left;
+                color: gray;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .blockquot1 {margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em;
+               padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em;
+               float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em;
+               font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;}
+
+    .bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+    .bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+    .br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span.i0     {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin
+
+Author: Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+Release Date: February 21, 2007 [EBook #20643]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES</h3>
+<h4>IN</h4>
+<h3>HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE</h3>
+
+<h4>HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<div class="blockquot1">History is past Politics and Politics present History.&mdash;Freeman</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<h4>NINTH SERIES<br />
+XI-XII</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h1>The Character and Influence of the<br />
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin</h1>
+
+<h3><i>A Study of the Trading Post as an Institution</i></h3>
+
+<h2>BY FREDERICK J. TURNER, PH.D.</h2>
+
+<h4><i>Professor of History, University of Wisconsin</i></h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<h4>BALTIMORE<br />
+THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS<br />
+PUBLISHED MONTHLY<br />
+November and December, 1891</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h5>COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY N. MURRAY.</h5>
+
+<h5>ISAAC FRIEDENWALD CO., PRINTERS,<br />
+BALTIMORE.</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>PAGE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>I.</td>
+  <td align='left'>INTRODUCTION</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>II.</td>
+  <td align='left'>PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>III.</td>
+  <td align='left'>PLACE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN THE SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Early Trade along the Atlantic Coast</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. In New England</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. In the Middle Region</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">4. In the South</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">5. In the Far West</span></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>IV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE RIVER AND LAKE SYSTEMS OF THE NORTHWEST</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>V.</td>
+  <td align='left'>WISCONSIN INDIANS</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>VI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>VII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>VIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>IX.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE FOX WARS</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>X.</td>
+  <td align='left'>FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE ON DIPLOMACY</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>THE NORTHWEST COMPANY</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XIV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>AMERICAN INFLUENCES</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XVI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='right'>XVII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>The trading post is an old and influential institution. Established in
+the midst of an undeveloped society by a more advanced people, it is a
+center not only of new economic influences, but also of all the
+transforming forces that accompany the intercourse of a higher with a
+lower civilization. The Ph&oelig;nicians developed the institution into a
+great historic agency. Closely associated with piracy at first, their
+commerce gradually freed itself from this and spread throughout the
+Mediterranean lands. A passage in the Odyssey (Book XV.) enables us to
+trace the genesis of the Ph&oelig;nician trading post:</p>
+
+<p>"Thither came the Ph&oelig;nicians, mariners renowned, greedy merchant-men
+with countless trinkets in a black ship.... They abode among us a whole
+year, and got together much wealth in their hollow ship. And when their
+hollow ship was now laden to depart, they sent a messenger.... There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+came a man versed in craft to my father's house with a golden chain
+strung here and there with amber beads. Now, the maidens in the hall and
+my lady mother were handling the chain and gazing on it and offering him
+their price."</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the traders at first sailed from port to port,
+bartering as they went. After a time they stayed at certain profitable
+places a twelvemonth, still trading from their ships. Then came the
+fixed factory, and about it grew the trading colony.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The Ph&oelig;nician
+trading post wove together the fabric of oriental civilization, brought
+arts and the alphabet to Greece, brought the elements of civilization to
+northern Africa, and disseminated eastern culture through the
+Mediterranean system of lands. It blended races and customs, developed
+commercial confidence, fostered the custom of depending on outside
+nations for certain supplies, and afforded a means of peaceful
+intercourse between societies naturally hostile.</p>
+
+<p>Carthaginian, Greek, Etruscan and Roman trading posts continued the
+process. By traffic in amber, tin, furs, etc., with the tribes of the
+north of Europe, a continental commerce was developed. The routes of
+this trade have been ascertained.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> For over a thousand years before
+the migration of the peoples Mediterranean commerce had flowed along the
+interlacing river valleys of Europe, and trading posts had been
+established. Museums show how important an effect was produced upon the
+economic life of northern Europe by this intercourse. It is a
+significant fact that the routes of the migration of the peoples were to
+a considerable extent the routes of Roman trade, and it is well worth
+inquiry whether this commerce did not leave more traces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> upon Teutonic
+society than we have heretofore considered, and whether one cause of the
+migrations of the peoples has not been neglected.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>That stage in the development of society when a primitive people comes
+into contact with a more advanced people deserves more study than has
+been given to it. As a factor in breaking the "cake of custom" the
+meeting of two such societies is of great importance; and if, with
+Starcke,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> we trace the origin of the family to economic
+considerations, and, with Schrader,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> the institution of guest
+friendship to the same source, we may certainly expect to find important
+influences upon primitive society arising from commerce with a higher
+people. The extent to which such commerce has affected all peoples is
+remarkable. One may study the process from the days of Ph&oelig;nicia to
+the days of England in Africa,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> but nowhere is the material more
+abundant than in the history of the relations of the Europeans and the
+American Indians. The Ph&oelig;nician factory, it is true, fostered the
+development of the Mediterranean civilization, while in America the
+trading post exploited the natives. The explanation of this difference
+is to be sought partly in race differences, partly in the greater gulf
+that separated the civilization of the European from the civilization of
+the American Indian as compared with that which parted the early Greeks
+and the Ph&oelig;nicians. But the study of the destructive effect of the
+trading post is valuable as well as the study of its elevating
+influences; in both cases the effects are important and worth
+investigation and comparison.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Long before the advent of the white trader, inter-tribal commercial
+intercourse existed. Mr. Charles Rau<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and Sir Daniel Wilson<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> have
+shown that inter-tribal trade and division of labor were common among
+the mound-builders and in the stone age generally. In historic times
+there is ample evidence of inter-tribal trade. Were positive evidence
+lacking, Indian institutions would disclose the fact. Differences in
+language were obviated by the sign language,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> a fixed system of
+communication, intelligible to all the western tribes at least. The
+peace pipe,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> or calumet, was used for settling disputes,
+strengthening alliances, and speaking to strangers&mdash;a sanctity attached
+to it. Wampum belts served in New England and the middle region as money
+and as symbols in the ratification of treaties.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The Chippeways had
+an institution called by a term signifying "to enter one another's
+lodges,"<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> whereby a truce was made between them and the Sioux at the
+winter hunting season. During these seasons of peace it was not uncommon
+for a member of one tribe to adopt a member of another as his brother, a
+tie which was respected even after the expiration of the truce. The
+analogy of this custom to the classical "guest-friendship" needs no
+comment; and the economic cause of the institution is worth remark, as
+one of the means by which the rigor of primitive inter-tribal hostility
+was mitigated.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not necessary to depend upon indirect evidence. The earliest
+travellers testify to the existence of a wide inter-tribal commerce. The
+historians of De Soto's expedition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> mention Indian merchants who sold
+salt to the inland tribes. "In 1565 and for some years previous bison
+skins were brought by the Indians down the Potomac, and thence carried
+along-shore in canoes to the French about the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+During two years six thousand skins were thus obtained."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> An
+Algonquin brought to Champlain at Quebec a piece of copper a foot long,
+which he said came from a tributary of the Great Lakes.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Champlain
+also reports that among the Canadian Indians village councils were held
+to determine what number of men might go to trade with other tribes in
+the summer.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Morton in 1632 describes similar inter-tribal trade in
+New England, and adds that certain utensils are "but in certain parts of
+the country made, where the severall trades are appropriated to the
+inhabitants of those parts onely."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Marquette relates that the
+Illinois bought firearms of the Indians who traded directly with the
+French, and that they went to the south and west to carry off slaves,
+which they sold at a high price to other nations.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> It was on the
+foundation, therefore, of an extensive inter-tribal trade that the white
+man built up the forest commerce.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>EARLY TRADE ALONG THE ATLANTIC COAST.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The chroniclers of the earliest voyages to the Atlantic coast abound in
+references to this traffic. First of Europeans to purchase native furs
+in America appear to have been the Norsemen who settled Vinland. In the
+saga of Eric the Red<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> we find this interesting account: "Thereupon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+Karlsefni and his people displayed their shields, and when they came
+together they began to barter with each other. Especially did the
+strangers wish to buy red cloth, for which they offered in exchange
+peltries and quite grey skins. They also desired to buy swords and
+spears, but Karlsefni and Snorri forbade this. In exchange for perfect
+unsullied skins the Skrellings would take red stuff a span in length,
+which they would bind around their heads. So their trade went on for a
+time, until Karlsefni and his people began to grow short of cloth, when
+they divided it into such narrow pieces that it was not more than a
+finger's breadth wide, but the Skrellings still continued to give just
+as much for this as before, or more."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>The account of Verrazano's voyage mentions his Indian trade. Captain
+John Smith, exploring New England in 1614, brought back a cargo of fish
+and 11,000 beaver skins.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> These examples could be multiplied; in
+short, a way was prepared for colonization by the creation of a demand
+for European goods, and thus the opportunity for a lodgement was
+afforded.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>NEW ENGLAND INDIAN TRADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Indian trade has a place in the early history of the New England
+colonies. The Plymouth settlers "found divers corn fields and little
+running brooks, a place ... fit for situation,"<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and settled down
+cuckoo-like in Indian clearings. Mr. Weeden has shown that the Indian
+trade furnished a currency (wampum) to New England, and that it afforded
+the beginnings of her commerce. In September of their first year the
+Plymouth men sent out a shallop to trade with the Indians, and when a
+ship arrived from England in 1621 they speedily loaded her with a
+return<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> cargo of beaver and lumber.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> By frequent legislation the
+colonies regulated and fostered the trade.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Bradford reports that in
+a single year twenty hhd. of furs were shipped from Plymouth, and that
+between 1631 and 1636 their shipments amounted to 12,150 <i>li</i>. beaver
+and 1156 <i>li</i>. otter.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Morton in his 'New English Canaan' alleges
+that a servant of his was "thought to have a thousand pounds in ready
+gold gotten by the beaver when he died."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> In the pursuit of this
+trade men passed continually farther into the wilderness, and their
+trading posts "generally became the pioneers of new settlements."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+For example, the posts of Oldham, a Puritan trader, led the way for the
+settlements on the Connecticut river,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> and in their early days these
+towns were partly sustained by the Indian trade.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>Not only did the New England traders expel the Dutch from this valley;
+they contended with them on the Hudson.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INDIAN TRADE IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Morton, in the work already referred to, protested against allowing "the
+Great Lake of the Erocoise" (Champlain) to the Dutch, saying that it is
+excellent for the fur trade, and that the Dutch have gained by beaver
+20,000 pounds a year. Exaggerated though the statement is, it is true
+that the energies of the Dutch were devoted to this trade, rather than
+to agricultural settlement. As in the case of New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> France the settlers
+dispersed themselves in the Indian trade; so general did this become
+that laws had to be passed to compel the raising of crops.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> New York
+City (New Amsterdam) was founded and for a time sustained by the fur
+trade. In their search for peltries the Dutch were drawn up the Hudson,
+up the Connecticut, and down the Delaware, where they had Swedes for
+their rivals. By way of the Hudson the Dutch traders had access to Lake
+Champlain, and to the Mohawk, the headwaters of which connected through
+the lakes of western New York with Lake Ontario. This region, which was
+supplied by the trading post of Orange (Albany), was the seat of the
+Iroquois confederacy. The results of the trade upon Indian society
+became apparent in a short time in the most decisive way. Furnished with
+arms by the Dutch, the Iroquois turned upon the neighboring Indians,
+whom the French had at first refrained from supplying with guns.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> In
+1649 they completely ruined the Hurons,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> a part of whom fled to the
+woods of northern Wisconsin. In the years immediately following, the
+Neutral Nation and the Eries fell under their power; they overawed the
+New England Indians and the Southern tribes, and their hunting and war
+parties visited Illinois and drove Indians of those plains into
+Wisconsin. Thus by priority in securing firearms, as well as by their
+remarkable civil organization,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> the Iroquois secured possession of
+the St. Lawrence and Lakes Ontario and Erie. The French had accepted the
+alliance of the Algonquins and the Hurons, as the Dutch, and afterward
+the English, had that of the Iroquois; so these victories of the
+Iroquois cut the French off from the entrance to the Great Lakes by way
+of the upper St. Lawrence. As early as 1629 the Dutch trade was
+estimated at 50,000 guilders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> per annum, and the Delaware trade alone
+produced 10,000 skins yearly in 1663.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> The English succeeded to this
+trade, and under Governor Dongan they made particular efforts to extend
+their operations to the Northwest, using the Iroquois as middlemen.
+Although the French were in possession of the trade with the Algonquins
+of the Northwest, the English had an economic advantage in competing for
+this trade in the fact that Albany traders, whose situation enabled them
+to import their goods more easily than Montreal traders could, and who
+were burdened with fewer governmental restrictions, were able to pay
+fifty per cent more for beaver and give better goods. French traders
+frequently received their supplies from Albany, a practice against which
+the English authorities legislated in 1720; and the <i>coureurs de bois</i>
+smuggled their furs to the same place.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> As early as 1666 Talon
+proposed that the king of France should purchase New York, "whereby he
+would have two entrances to Canada and by which he would give to the
+French all the peltries of the north, of which the English share the
+profit by the communication which they have with the Iroquois by
+Manhattan and Orange."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> It is a characteristic of the fur trade that
+it continually recedes from the original center, and so it happened that
+the English traders before long attempted to work their way into the
+Illinois country.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The wars between the French and English and
+Iroquois must be read in the light of this fact. At the outbreak of the
+last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> French and Indian war, however, it was rather Pennsylvania and
+Virginia traders who visited the Ohio Valley. It is said that some three
+hundred of them came over the mountains yearly, following the
+Susquehanna and the Juniata and the headwaters of the Potomac to the
+tributaries of the Ohio, and visiting with their pack-horses the Indian
+villages along the valley. The center of the English trade was
+Pickawillani on the Great Miami. In 1749 Celoron de Bienville, who had
+been sent out to vindicate French authority in the valley, reported that
+each village along the Ohio and its branches "has one or more English
+traders, and each of these has hired men to carry his furs."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INDIAN TRADE IN THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Indian trade of the Virginians was not limited to the Ohio country.
+As in the case of Massachusetts Bay, the trade had been provided for
+before the colony left England,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> and in times of need it had
+preserved the infant settlement. Bacon's rebellion was in part due to
+the opposition to the governor's trading relations with the savages.
+After a time the nearer Indians were exploited, and as early as the
+close of the seventeenth century Virginia traders sought the Indians
+west of the Alleghanies.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The Cherokees lived among the mountains,
+"where the present states of Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, and the
+Carolinas join one another."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> To the west, on the Mississippi, were
+the Chickasaws, south of whom lived the Choctaws, while to the south of
+the Cherokees were the Creeks. The Catawbas had their villages on the
+border of North and South Carolina, about the headwaters of the Santee
+river. Shawnese Indians had formerly lived on the Cumberland river, and
+French traders had been among them, as well as along the
+Missis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>sippi;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> but by the time of the English traders, Tennessee and
+Kentucky were for the most part uninhabited. The Virginia traders
+reached the Catawbas, and for a time the Cherokees, by a trading route
+through the southwest of the colony to the Santee. By 1712 this trade
+was a well-established one,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and caravans of one hundred pack-horses
+passed along the trail.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Carolinas had early been interested in the fur trade. In 1663 the
+Lords Proprietors proposed to pay the governor's salary from the
+proceeds of the traffic. Charleston traders were the rivals of the
+Virginians in the southwest. They passed even to the Choctaws and
+Chickasaws, crossing the rivers by portable boats of skin, and sometimes
+taking up a permanent abode among the Indians. Virginia and Carolina
+traders were not on good terms with each other, and Governor Spottswood
+frequently made complaints of the actions of the Carolinians. His
+expedition across the mountains in 1716, if his statement is to be
+trusted, opened a new way to the transmontane Indians, and soon
+afterwards a trading company was formed under his patronage to avail
+themselves of this new route.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> It passed across the Blue Ridge into
+the Shenandoah valley, and down the old Indian trail to the Cherokees,
+who lived along the upper Tennessee. Below the bend at the Muscle Shoals
+the Virginians met the competition of the French traders from New
+Orleans and Mobile.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>The settlement of Augusta, Georgia, was another important trading post.
+Here in 1740 was an English garrison of fifteen or twenty soldiers, and
+a little band of traders, who annually took about five hundred
+pack-horses into the Indian country. In the spring the furs were floated
+down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> the river in large boats.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> The Spaniards and the French also
+visited the Indians, and the rivalry over this trade was an important
+factor in causing diplomatic embroilment.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>The occupation of the back-lands of the South affords a prototype of the
+process by which the plains of the far West were settled, and also
+furnishes an exemplification of all the stages of economic development
+existing contemporaneously. After a time the traders were accompanied to
+the Indian grounds by <i>hunters</i>, and sometimes the two callings were
+combined.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> When Boone entered Kentucky he went with an Indian trader
+whose posts were on the Red river in Kentucky.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> After the game
+decreased the hunter's clearing was occupied by the <i>cattle-raiser</i>, and
+his home, as settlement grew, became the property of the <i>cultivator of
+the soil</i>;<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> the <i>manufacturing era</i> belongs to our own time.</p>
+
+<p>In the South, the Middle Colonies and New England the trade opened the
+water-courses, the trading post grew into the palisaded town, and rival
+nations sought to possess the trade for themselves. Throughout the
+colonial frontier the effects, as well as the methods, of Indian traffic
+were strikingly alike. The trader was the pathfinder for civilization.
+Nor was the process limited to the east of the Mississippi. The
+expeditions of Verenderye led to the discovery of the Rocky
+Mountains.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> French traders passed up the Missouri; and when the Lewis
+and Clarke expedition ascended that river and crossed the continent, it
+went with traders and voyageurs as guides and interpreters. Indeed,
+Jefferson first conceived the idea of such an expedition<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> from
+contact with Ledyard, who was organizing a fur trading company in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+France, and it was proposed to Congress as a means of fostering our
+western Indian trade.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The first immigrant train to California was
+incited by the representations of an Indian trader who had visited the
+region, and it was guided by trappers.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Louis was the center of the fur trade of the far West, and Senator
+Benton was intimate with leading traders like Chouteau.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> He urged the
+occupation of the Oregon country, where in 1810 an establishment had for
+a time been made by the celebrated John Jacob Astor; and he fostered
+legislation opening the road to the southwestern Mexican settlements
+long in use by the traders. The expedition of his son-in-law Fr&eacute;mont was
+made with French voyageurs, and guided to the passes by traders who had
+used them before.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Benton was also one of the stoutest of the early
+advocates of a Pacific railway.</p>
+
+<p>But the Northwest<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> was particularly the home of the fur trade, and
+having seen that this traffic was not an isolated or unimportant matter,
+we may now proceed to study it in detail with Wisconsin as the field of
+investigation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>NORTHWESTERN RIVER SYSTEMS IN THEIR RELATION TO THE FUR TRADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The importance of physical conditions is nowhere more manifest than in
+the exploration of the Northwest, and we cannot properly appreciate
+Wisconsin's relation to the history of the time without first
+considering her situation as regards the lake and river systems of North
+America.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When the Breton sailors, steering their fishing smacks almost in the
+wake of Cabot, began to fish in the St. Lawrence gulf, and to traffic
+with the natives of the mainland for peltries, the problem of how the
+interior of North America was to be explored was solved. The
+water-system composed of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes is the key
+to the continent. The early explorations in a wilderness must be by
+water-courses&mdash;they are nature's highways. The St. Lawrence leads to the
+Great Lakes; the headwaters of the tributaries of these lakes lie so
+near the headwaters of the rivers that join the Mississippi that canoes
+can be portaged from the one to the other. The Mississippi affords
+passage to the Gulf of Mexico; or by the Missouri to the passes of the
+Rocky Mountains, where rise the headwaters of the Columbia, which brings
+the voyageur to the Pacific. But if the explorer follows Lake Superior
+to the present boundary line between Minnesota and Canada, and takes the
+chain of lakes and rivers extending from Pigeon river to Rainy lake and
+Lake of the Woods, he will be led to the Winnipeg river and to the lake
+of the same name. From this, by streams and portages, he may reach
+Hudson bay; or he may go by way of Elk river and Lake Athabasca to Slave
+river and Slave lake, which will take him to Mackenzie river and to the
+Arctic sea. But Lake Winnipeg also receives the waters of the
+Saskatchewan river, from which one may pass to the highlands near the
+Pacific where rise the northern branches of the Columbia. And from the
+lakes of Canada there are still other routes to the Oregon country.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+At a later day these two routes to the Columbia became an important
+factor in bringing British and Americans into conflict over that
+territory.</p>
+
+<p>In these water-systems Wisconsin was the link that joined the Great
+Lakes and the Mississippi; and along her northern shore the first
+explorers passed to the Pigeon river, or, as it was called later, the
+Grand Portage route, along the bound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>ary line between Minnesota and
+Canada into the heart of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>It was possible to reach the Mississippi from the Great Lakes by the
+following principal routes:<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>1. By the Miami (Maumee) river from the west end of Lake Erie to the
+Wabash, thence to the Ohio and the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>2. By the St. Joseph's river to the Wabash, thence to the Ohio.</p>
+
+<p>3. By the St. Joseph's river to the Kankakee, and thence to the Illinois
+and the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>4. By the Chicago river to the Illinois.</p>
+
+<p>5. By Green bay, Fox river, and the Wisconsin river.</p>
+
+<p>6. By the Bois Brul&eacute; river to the St. Croix river.</p>
+
+<p>Of these routes, the first two were not at first available, owing to the
+hostility of the Iroquois.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the colonies that fell to the English, as we have seen, New York
+alone had a water-system that favored communication with the interior,
+tapping the St. Lawrence and opening a way to Lake Ontario. Prevented by
+the Iroquois friends of the Dutch and English from reaching the
+Northwest by way of the lower lakes, the French ascended the Ottawa,
+reached Lake Nipissing, and passed by way of Georgian Bay to the islands
+of Lake Huron. As late as the nineteenth century this was the common
+route of the fur trade, for it was more certain for the birch canoes
+than the tempestuous route of the lakes. At the Huron islands two ways
+opened before their canoes. The straits of Michillimackinac<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+permitted them to enter Lake Michigan, and from this led the two routes
+to the Mississippi: one by way of Green bay and the Fox and Wisconsin,
+and the other by way of the lake to the Chicago river. But if the trader
+chose to go from the Huron islands through Sault Ste. Marie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> into Lake
+Superior, the necessities of his frail craft required him to hug the
+shore, and the rumors of copper mines induced the first traders to take
+the south shore, and here the lakes of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota
+afford connecting links between the streams that seek Lake Superior and
+those that seek the Mississippi,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> a fact which made northern
+Wisconsin more important in this epoch than the southern portion of the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>We are now able to see how the river-courses of the Northwest permitted
+a complete exploration of the country, and that in these courses
+Wisconsin held a commanding situation,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> But these rivers not only
+permitted exploration; they also furnished a motive to exploration by
+the fact that their valleys teemed with fur-bearing animals. This is the
+main fact in connection with Northwestern exploration. The hope of a
+route to China was always influential, as was also the search for mines,
+but the practical inducements were the profitable trade with the Indians
+for beaver and buffaloes and the wild life that accompanied it. So
+powerful was the combined influence of these far-stretching rivers, and
+the "hardy, adventurous, lawless, fascinating fur trade," that the
+scanty population of Canada was irresistibly drawn from agricultural
+settlements into the interminable recesses of the continent; and herein
+is a leading explanation of the lack of permanent French influence in
+America.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>WISCONSIN INDIANS.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>"All that relates to the Indian tribes of Wisconsin," says Dr. Shea,
+"their antiquities, their ethnology, their history, is deeply
+interesting from the fact that it is the area of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> first meeting of
+the Algic and Dakota tribes. Here clans of both these wide-spread
+families met and mingled at a very early period; here they first met in
+battle and mutually checked each other's advance." The Winnebagoes
+attracted the attention of the French even before they were visited.
+They were located about Green bay. Their later location at the entrance
+of Lake Winnebago was unoccupied, at least in the time of Allouez,
+because of the hostility of the Sioux. Early authorities represented
+them as numbering about one hundred warriors.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> The Pottawattomies we
+find in 1641 at Sault Ste. Marie,<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> whither they had just fled from
+their enemies. Their proper home was probably about the southeastern
+shore and islands of Green bay, where as early as 1670 they were again
+located. Of their numbers in Wisconsin at this time we can say but
+little. Allouez, at Chequamegon bay, was visited by 300 of their
+warriors, and he mentions some of their Green bay villages, one of which
+had 300 souls.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> The Menomonees were found chiefly on the river that
+bears their name, and the western tributaries of Green bay seem to have
+been their territory. On the estimates of early authorities we may say
+that they had about 100 warriors.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> The Sauks and Foxes were closely
+allied tribes. The Sauks were found by Allouez<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> four leagues<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> up
+the Fox from its mouth, and the Foxes at a place reached by a four days'
+ascent of the Wolf river from its mouth. Later we find them at the
+confluence of the Wolf and the Fox. According to their early visitors
+these two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> tribes must have had something over 1000 warriors.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The
+Miamis and Mascoutins were located about a league from the Fox river,
+probably within the limits of what is now Green Lake county,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and
+four leagues away were their friends the Kickapoos. In 1670 the Miamis
+and Mascoutins were estimated at 800 warriors, and this may have
+included the Kickapoos. The Sioux held possession of the Upper
+Mississippi, and in Wisconsin hunted on its northeastern tributaries.
+Their villages were in later times all on the west of the Mississippi,
+and of their early numbers no estimate can be given. The Chippeways were
+along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Their numbers also are in
+doubt, but were very considerable.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> In northwestern Wisconsin, with
+Chequamegon bay as their rendezvous, were the Ottawas and Hurons,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>
+who had fled here to escape the Iroquois. In 1670 they were back again
+to their homes at Mackinaw and the Huron islands. But in 1666, as
+Allouez tells us, they were situated at the bottom of this beautiful
+bay, planting their Indian corn and leading a stationary life. "They are
+there," he says, "to the number of eight hundred men bearing arms, but
+collected from seven different nations who dwell in peace with each
+other thus mingled together."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> And the Jesuit Relations of 1670 add
+that the Illinois "come here from time to time in great numbers as
+merchants to procure hatchets, cooking utensils, guns, and other things
+of which they stand in need." Here, too, came Pottawattomies, as we have
+seen, and Sauks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the mouth of Fox river<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> we find another mixed village of
+Pottawattomies, Sauks, Foxes, and Winnebagoes, and at a later period
+Milwaukee was the site of a similar heterogeneous community. Leaving out
+the Hurons, the tribes of Wisconsin were, with two exceptions, of the
+Algic stock. The exceptions are the Winnebagoes and the Sioux, who
+belong to the Dakota family. Of these Wisconsin tribes it is probable
+that the Sauks and Foxes, the Pottawattomies, the Hurons and Ottawas and
+the Mascoutins, and Miamis and Kickapoos, were driven into Wisconsin by
+the attacks of eastern enemies. The Iroquois even made incursions as far
+as the home of the Mascoutins on Fox river. On the other side of the
+state were the Sioux, "the Iroquois of the West," as the missionaries
+call them, who had once claimed all the region, and whose invasions,
+Allouez says, rendered Lake Winnebago uninhabited. There was therefore a
+pressure on both sides of Wisconsin which tended to mass together the
+divergent tribes. And the Green bay and Fox and Wisconsin route was the
+line of least resistance, as well as a region abounding in wild rice,
+fish and game, for these early fugitives. In this movement we have two
+facts that are not devoid of significance in institutional history:
+first, the welding together of separate tribes, as the Sauks and Foxes,
+and the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos; and second, a commingling of
+detached families from various tribes at peculiarly favorable
+localities.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Indian trade was almost the sole interest in Wisconsin during the
+two centuries that elapsed from the visit of Nicolet in 1634 to about
+1834, when lead-mining had superseded it in the southwest and land
+offices were opened at Green Bay and Mineral Point; when the port of
+Milwaukee received an influx of settlers to the lands made known by the
+so-called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> Black Hawk war; and when Astor retired from the American Fur
+Company. These two centuries may be divided into three periods of the
+trade: 1. French, from 1634 to 1763; 2. English, from 1763 to 1816; 3.
+American, from 1816 to 1834.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Sagard,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> whose work was published in 1636, tells us that the Hurons,
+who traded with the French, visited the Winnebagoes and the Fire Nation
+(Mascoutins),<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> bartering goods for peltries. Champlain, the famous
+fur-trader, who represented the Company of the Hundred Associates,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+formed by Richelieu to monopolize the fur trade of New France and govern
+the country, sent an agent named Jean Nicolet, in 1634,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> to Green bay
+and Fox river to make a peace between the Hurons and the Winnebagoes in
+the interests of inter-tribal commerce. The importance of this phase of
+the trade as late as 1681 may be inferred from these words of Du
+Chesneau, speaking of the Ottawas, and including under the term the
+Petun Hurons and the Chippeways also: "Through them we obtain beaver,
+and although they, for the most part, do not hunt, and have but a small
+portion of peltry in their country, they go in search of it to the most
+distant places, and exchange for it our merchandise which they procure
+at Montreal." Among the tribes enumerated as dealing with the Ottawas
+are the Sioux, Satiks, Pottawattomies, Winnebagoes, Menomonees and
+Mascoutins&mdash;all Wisconsin Indians at this time. He adds: "Some of these
+tribes occasionally come down to Montreal, but usually they do not do so
+in very great numbers because they are too far distant, are not expert
+at managing canoes, and because the other Indians intimidate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> them, in
+order to be the carriers of their merchandise and to profit
+thereby."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was the aim of the authorities to attract the Indians to Montreal, or
+to develop the inter-tribal communication, and thus to centralize the
+trade and prevent the dissipation of the energies of the colony; but the
+temptations of the free forest traffic were too strong. In a memoir of
+1697, Aubert de la Chesnaye says:</p>
+
+<p>"At first, the French went only among the Hurons, and since then to
+Missilimakinak, where they sold their goods to the savages of the
+places, who in turn went to exchange them with other savages in the
+depths of the woods, lands and rivers. But at present the French, having
+licenses, in order to secure greater profit surreptitiously, pass all
+the 'Ottawas and savages of Missilimakinak in order to go themselves to
+seek the most distant tribes, which is very displeasing to the former.
+<i>It is they, also, who have made excellent discoveries;</i> and four or
+five hundred young men, the best men of Canada, are engaged in this
+business.... They have given us knowledge of many names of savages that
+we did not know; and four or five hundred leagues more remote are others
+who are unknown to us."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>Two of the most noteworthy of these <i>coureurs de bois</i>, or wood-rangers,
+were Radisson and Groseilliers.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> In 1660 they returned to Montreal
+with 300 Algonquins and sixty canoes laden with furs, after a voyage in
+which they visited, among other tribes, the Pottawattomies, Mascoutins,
+Sioux, and Hurons, in Wisconsin. From the Hurons they learned of the
+Mississippi, and probably visited the river. They soon returned from
+Montreal to the northern Wisconsin region. In the course of their
+wanderings they had a post at Chequa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>megon bay, and they ascended the
+Pigeon river, thus opening the Grand Portage route to the heart of
+Canada. Among their exploits they induced England to enter the Hudson
+Bay trade, and gave the impetus that led to the organization of the
+Hudson Bay Company. The reports which these traders brought back had a
+most important effect in fostering exploration in the Northwest, and led
+to the visit of Menard, who was succeeded by Allouez, the pioneers of
+the Jesuits in Wisconsin.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Radisson gives us a good account of the
+early Wisconsin trade. Of his visit to the Ottawas he says:</p>
+
+<p>"We weare wellcomed &amp; made of saying that we weare the Gods and devils
+of the earth; that we should fournish them, &amp; that they would bring us
+to their enemy to destroy them. We tould them [we] were very well
+content. We persuaded them first to come peaceably, not to distroy them
+presently, and if they would not condescend then would wee throw away
+the hatchett and make use of our thunders. We sent ambassadors to them
+w^th guifts. That nation called Pontonatemick<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> without more adoe
+comes and meets us with the rest, and peace was concluded." "The
+savages," he writes, "love knives better than we serve God, which should
+make us blush for shame." In another place, "We went away free from any
+burden whilst those poore miserable thought themselves happy to carry
+our Equipage for the hope that they had that we should give them a
+brasse ring, or an awle, or an needle."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> We find them using this
+influence in various places to make peace between hostile tribes, whom
+they threatened with punishment. This early commerce was carried on
+under the fiction of an exchange of presents. For example, Radisson
+says: "We gave them severall gifts and received many. They bestowed upon
+us above 300 robs of castors out of wch we brought not five to the
+ffrench being far in the country."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> Among the articles used by
+Radisson in this trade were kettles, hatchets, knives, graters, awls,
+needles, tin looking-glasses, little bells, ivory combs, vermilion,
+sword blades, necklaces and bracelets. The sale of guns and blankets was
+at this time exceptional, nor does it appear that Radisson carried
+brandy in this voyage.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>More and more the young men of Canada continued to visit the savages at
+their villages. By 1660 the <i>coureurs de bois</i> formed a distinct
+class,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> who, despite the laws against it, pushed from
+Michillimackinac into the wilderness. Wisconsin was a favorite resort of
+these adventurers. By the time of the arrival of the Jesuits they had
+made themselves entirely at home upon our lakes. They had preceded
+Allouez at Chequamegon bay, and when he established his mission at Green
+bay he came at the invitation of the Pottawattomies, who wished him to
+"mollify some young Frenchmen who were among them for the purpose of
+trading and who threatened and ill-treated them."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> He found fur
+traders before him on the Fox and the Wolf. Bancroft's assertion<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+that "religious enthusiasm took possession of the wilderness on the
+upper lakes and explored the Mississippi," is misleading. It is not true
+that "not a cape was turned, nor a mission founded, nor a river entered,
+nor a settlement begun, but a Jesuit led the way." In fact the Jesuits
+followed the traders;<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> their missions were on the sites of trading
+posts, and they themselves often traded.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>When St. Lusson, with the <i>coureur de bois</i>, Nicholas Perrot, took
+official possession of the Northwest for France<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> at the Sault Ste. Marie
+in 1671, the cost of the expedition was defrayed by trade in beaver.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+Joliet, who, accompanied by Marquette, descended the Mississippi by the
+Fox and Wisconsin route in 1673, was an experienced fur trader. While Du
+Lhut, chief of the <i>coureurs de bois</i>, was trading on Lake Superior, La
+Salle,<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> the greatest of these merchants, was preparing his
+far-reaching scheme for colonizing the Indians in the Illinois region
+under the direction of the French, so that they might act as a check on
+the inroads of the Iroquois, and aid in his plan of securing an exit for
+the furs of the Northwest, particularly buffalo hides, by way of the
+Mississippi and the Gulf. La Salle's "Griffen," the earliest ship to
+sail the Great Lakes, was built for this trade, and received her only
+cargo at Green Bay. Accault, one of La Salle's traders, with Hennepin,
+met Du Lhut on the upper Mississippi, which he had reached by way of the
+Bois Brul&eacute; and St. Croix, in 1680. Du Lhut's trade awakened the jealousy
+of La Salle, who writes in 1682: "If they go by way of the Ouisconsing,
+where for the present the chase of the buffalo is carried on and where I
+have commenced an establishment, they will ruin the trade on which alone
+I rely, on account of the great number of buffalo which are taken there
+every year, almost beyond belief."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> Speaking of the Jesuits at Green
+Bay, he declares that they "have in truth the key to the beaver country,
+where a brother blacksmith that they have and two companions convert
+more iron into beaver than the fathers convert savages into
+Christians."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Perrot says that the beaver north of the mouth of the
+Wisconsin were better than those of the Illinois country, and the chase
+was carried on in this region for a longer period;<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> and we know from
+Dablon that the Wisconsin savages were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> not compelled to separate by
+families during the hunting season, as was common among other tribes,
+because the game here was so abundant.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> Aside from its importance as
+a key to the Northwestern trade, Wisconsin seems to have been a rich
+field of traffic itself.</p>
+
+<p>With such extensive operations as the foregoing in the region reached by
+Wisconsin rivers, it is obvious that the government could not keep the
+<i>coureurs de bois</i> from the woods. Even governors like Frontenac
+connived at the traffic and shared its profits. In 1681 the government
+decided to issue annual licenses,<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> and messengers were dispatched to
+announce amnesty to the <i>coureurs de bois</i> about Green Bay and the south
+shore of Lake Superior.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>We may now offer some conclusions upon the connection of the fur trade
+with French explorations:</p>
+
+<p>1. The explorations were generally induced and almost always rendered
+profitable by the fur trade. In addition to what has been presented on
+this point, note the following:</p>
+
+<p>In 1669, Patoulet writes to Colbert concerning La Salle's voyage to
+explore a passage to Japan: "The enterprise is difficult and dangerous,
+but the good thing about it is that the King will be at no expense for
+this pretended discovery."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>The king's instructions to Governor De la Barre in 1682 say that,
+"Several inhabitants of Canada, excited by the hope of the profit to be
+realized from the trade with the Indians for furs, have undertaken at
+various periods discoveries in the countries of the Nadoussioux, the
+river Mississipy, and other parts of America."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. The early traders were regarded as quasi-supernatural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> beings by the
+Indians.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> They alone could supply the coveted iron implements, the
+trinkets that tickled the savage's fancy, the "fire-water," and the guns
+that gave such increased power over game and the enemy. In the course of
+a few years the Wisconsin savages passed from the use of the implements
+of the stone age to the use of such an important product of the iron age
+as firearms. They passed also from the economic stage in which their
+hunting was for food and clothing simply, to that stage in which their
+hunting was made systematic and stimulated by the European demand for
+furs. The trade tended to perpetuate the hunter stage by making it
+profitable, and it tended to reduce the Indian to economic
+dependence<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> upon the Europeans, for while he learned to use the
+white man's gun he did not learn to make it or even to mend it. In this
+transition stage from their primitive condition the influence of the
+trader over the Indians was all-powerful. The pre-eminence of the
+individual Indian who owned a gun made all the warriors of the tribe
+eager to possess like power. The tribe thus armed placed their enemies
+at such a disadvantage that they too must have like weapons or lose
+their homes.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> No wonder that La Salle was able to say: "The savages
+take better care of us French than of their own children. From us only
+can they get guns and goods."<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> This was the power that France used
+to support her in the struggle with England for the Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>3. The trader used his influence to promote peace between the
+Northwestern Indians.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the governorship of Dongan of New York, as has been noted, the
+English were endeavoring to secure the trade of the Northwest. As early
+as 1685, English traders had reached Michillimackinac, the depot of
+supplies for the <i>coureur de bois</i>, where they were cordially received
+by the Indians, owing to their cheaper goods<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>. At the same time the
+English on Hudson Bay were drawing trade to their posts in that region.
+The French were thoroughly alarmed. They saw the necessity of holding
+the Indians by trading posts in their midst, lest they should go to the
+English, for as Begon declared, the savages "always take the part of
+those with whom they trade."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> It is at this time that the French
+occupation of the Northwest begins to assume a new phase. Stockaded
+trading posts were established at such key-points as a strait, a
+portage, a river-mouth, or an important lake, where also were Indian
+villages. In 1685 the celebrated Nicholas Perrot was given command of
+Green Bay and its dependencies<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>. He had trading posts near
+Trempealeau and at Fort St. Antoine on the Wisconsin side of Lake Pepin
+where he traded with the Sioux, and for a time he had a post and worked
+the lead-mines above the Des Moines river. Both these and Fort St.
+Nicholas at the mouth of the Wisconsin<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> were dependencies of Green
+Bay. Du Lhut probably established Fort St. Croix at the portage between
+the Bois Brul&eacute; river and the St. Croix.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> In 1695 Le Sueur built a
+fort on the largest island above Lake Pepin, and he also asked the
+command of the post of Chequamegon.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>These official posts were supported by the profits of Indian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+commerce,<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and were designed to keep the northwestern tribes at
+peace, and to prevent the English and Iroquois influence from getting
+the fur trade.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE FOX WARS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In 1683 Perrot had collected Wisconsin Indians for an attack on the
+Iroquois, and again in 1686 he led them against the same enemy. But the
+efforts of the Iroquois and the English to enter the region with their
+cheaper and better goods, and the natural tendency of savages to plunder
+when assured of supplies from other sources, now overcame the control
+which the French had exercised. The Sauks and Foxes, the Mascoutins,
+Kickapoos and Miamis, as has been described, held the Fox and Wisconsin
+route to the West, the natural and easy highway to the Mississippi, as
+La Hontan calls it.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Green Bay commanded this route, as La Pointe de
+Chagouamigon<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> commanded the Lake Superior route to the Bois Brul&eacute;
+and the St. Croix. One of Perrot's main objects was to supply the Sioux
+on the other side of the Mississippi, and these were the routes to them.
+To the Illinois region, also, the Fox route was the natural one. The
+Indians of this waterway therefore held the key to the French position,
+and might attempt to prevent the passage of French goods and support
+English influence and trade, or they might try to monopolize the
+intermediate trade themselves, or they might try to combine both
+policies.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1687 the Foxes, Mascoutins and Kickapoos,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> animated
+apparently by hostility to the trade carried on by Perrot with the
+Sioux, their enemy at that time, threatened to pillage the post at Green
+Bay.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> The closing of the Ottawa to the northern fur trade by the
+Iroquois for three years, a blow which nearly ruined Canada in the days
+of Frontenac, as Parkman has described,<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> not only kept vast stores
+of furs from coming down from Michillimackinac; it must, also, have kept
+goods from reaching the northwestern Indians. In 1692 the Mascoutins,
+who attributed the death of some of their men to Perrot, plundered his
+goods, and the Foxes soon entered into negotiation with the
+Iroquois.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> Frontenac expressed great apprehension lest with their
+allies on the Fox and Wisconsin route they should remove eastward and
+come into connection with the Iroquois and the English, a grave danger
+to New France.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Nor was this apprehension without reason.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> Even
+such docile allies as the Ottawas and Pottawattomies threatened to leave
+the French if goods were not sent to them wherewith to oppose their
+enemies. "They have powder and iron," complained an Ottawa deputy; "how
+can we sustain ourselves? Have compassion, then, on us, and consider
+that it is no easy matter to kill men with clubs."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> By the end of
+the seventeenth century the disaffected Indians closed the Fox and
+Wisconsin route against French trade.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> In 1699 an order was issued
+recalling the French from the Northwest, it being the design to
+concentrate French power at the nearer posts.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> Detroit was founded
+in 1701 as a place to which to attract the northwestern trade and
+intercept the English. In 1702 the priest at St. Joseph reported that
+the English were sending presents<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> to the Miamis about that post and
+desiring to form an establishment in their country.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> At the same
+date we find D'Iberville, of Louisiana, proposing a scheme for drawing
+the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos from the Wisconsin streams to the
+Illinois, by changing their trading posts from Green Bay to the latter
+region, and drawing the Illinois by trading posts to the lower
+Ohio.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> It was shortly after this that the Miamis and Kickapoos
+passed south under either the French or English influence,<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> and the
+hostility of the Foxes became more pronounced. A part of the scheme of
+La Motte Cadillac at Detroit was to colonize Indians about that
+post,<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> and in 1712 Foxes, Sauks, Mascoutins, Kickapoos,
+Pottawattomies, Hurons, Ottawas, Illinois, Menomonees and others were
+gathered there under the influence of trade. But soon, whether by design
+of the French and their allies or otherwise, hostilities broke out
+against the Foxes and their allies. The animus of the combat appears in
+the cries of the Foxes as they raised red blankets for flags and shouted
+"We have no father but the English!" while the allies of the French
+replied, "The English are cowards; they destroy the Indians with brandy
+and are enemies of the true God!" The Foxes were defeated with great
+slaughter and driven back to Wisconsin.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> From this time until 1734
+the French waged war against the Foxes with but short intermissions. The
+Foxes allied themselves with the Iroquois and the Sioux, and acted as
+middlemen between the latter and the traders, refusing passage to goods
+on the ground that it would damage their own trade to allow this.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>
+They fostered hostilities between their old foes the Chippeways and
+their new allies the Sioux, and thus they cut off English intercourse
+with the latter by way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> of the north. This trade between the Chippeways
+and the Sioux was important to the French, and commandants were
+repeatedly sent to La Pointe de Chagouamigon and the upper Mississippi
+to make peace between the two tribes.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> While the wars were in
+progress the English took pains to enforce their laws against furnishing
+Indian goods to French traders. The English had for a time permitted
+this, and their own Indian trade had suffered because the French were
+able to make use of the cheap English goods. By their change in policy
+the English now brought home to the savages the fact that French goods
+were dearer.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Moreover, English traders were sent to Niagara to deal
+directly with "the far Indians," and the Foxes visited the English and
+Iroquois, and secured a promise that they might take up their abode with
+the latter and form an additional member of the confederacy in case of
+need.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> As a counter policy the French attempted to exterminate the
+Foxes, and detached the Sioux from their alliance with the Foxes by
+establishing Fort Beauharnois, a trading post on the Minnesota side of
+Lake Pepin.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>The results of these wars were as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. They spread the feeling of defection among the Northwestern Indians,
+who could no longer be restrained, as at first, by the threat of cutting
+off their trade, there being now rivals in the shape of the English, and
+the French traders from Louisiana.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. They caused a readjustment of the Indian map of Wisconsin. The
+Mascoutins and the Pottawattomies had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> already moved southward to the
+Illinois country. Now the Foxes, driven from their river, passed first
+to Prairie du Chien and then down the Mississippi. The Sauks went at
+first to the Wisconsin, near Sauk Prairie, and then joined the Foxes.
+The Winnebagoes gradually extended themselves along the Fox and
+Wisconsin. The Chippeways,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> freed from their fear of the Foxes, to
+whom the Wolf and the Wisconsin had given access to the northern portion
+of the state, now passed south to Lac du Flambeau,<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> to the
+headwaters of the Wisconsin, and to Lac Court Oreilles.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>3. The closing of the Fox and Wisconsin route fostered that movement of
+trade and exploration which at this time began to turn to the far
+Northwest along the Pigeon river route into central British America, in
+search of the Sea of the West,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> whereby the Rocky Mountains were
+discovered; and it may have aided in turning settlement into the
+Illinois country.</p>
+
+<p>4. These wars were a part of a connected series, including the Iroquois
+wars, the Fox wars, the attack of the Wisconsin trader, Charles de
+Langlade, upon the center of English trade at Pickawillany,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> Ohio,
+and the French and Indian war that followed. All were successive stages
+of the struggle against English trade in the French possessions.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Settlement was not the object of the French in the Northwest. The
+authorities saw as clearly as do we that the field was too vast for the
+resources of the colony, and they desired to hold the region as a source
+of peltries, and contract their settlements. The only towns worthy of
+the name in the Northwest were Detroit and the settlements in Indiana
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> Illinois, all of which depended largely on the fur trade.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> But
+in spite of the government the traffic also produced the beginnings of
+settlement in Wisconsin. About the middle of the century, Augustin de
+Langlade had made Green Bay his trading post. After Pontiac's war,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a>
+Charles de Langlade<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> made the place his permanent residence, and a
+little settlement grew up. At Prairie du Chien French traders annually
+met the Indians, and at this time there may have been a stockaded
+trading post there, but it was not a permanent settlement until the
+close of the Revolutionary war. Chequamegon bay was deserted<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> at the
+outbreak of the French war. There may have been a regular trading post
+at Milwaukee in this period, but the first trader recorded is not until
+1762.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Doubtless wintering posts existed at other points in
+Wisconsin.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic feature of French occupancy of the Northwest was the
+trading post, and in illustration of it, and of the centralized
+administration of the French, the following account of De Repentigny's
+fort at Sault Ste. Marie (Michigan) is given in the words of Governor La
+Jonqui&egrave;re to the minister for the colonies in 1751:<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p>
+
+<p>"He arrived too late last year at the Sault Ste. Marie to fortify
+himself well; however, he secured himself in a sort of fort large enough
+to receive the traders of Missilimakinac.... He employed his hired men
+during the whole winter in cutting 1100 pickets of fifteen feet for his
+fort, with the doublings, and the timber necessary for the construction
+of three houses, one of them thirty feet long by twenty wide, and two
+others twenty-five feet long and the same width as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> first. His fort
+is entirely furnished with the exception of a redoubt of oak, which he
+is to have made twelve feet square, and which shall reach the same
+distance above the gate of the fort. His fort is 110 feet square.</p>
+
+<p>"As for the cultivation of the lands, the Sieur de Repentigny has a
+bull, two bullocks, three cows, two heifers, one horse and a mare from
+Missilimakinac.... He has engaged a Frenchman who married at Sault Ste.
+Marie an Indian woman to take a farm; they have cleared it and sowed it,
+and without a frost they will gather 30 to 35 sacks of corn. The said
+Sieur de Repentigny so much feels it his duty to devote himself to the
+cultivation of these lands that he has already entered into a bargain
+for two slaves<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> whom he will employ to take care of the corn<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>
+that he will gather upon these lands."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>While they had been securing the trade of the far Northwest and the
+Illinois country, the French had allowed the English to gain the trade
+of the upper Ohio,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> and were now brought face to face with the
+danger of losing the entire Northwest, and thus the connection of Canada
+and Louisiana. The commandants of the western posts were financially as
+well as patriotically interested. In 1754, Green Bay, then garrisoned by
+an officer, a sergeant and four soldiers, required for the Indian trade
+of its department thirteen canoes of goods annually, costing about 7000
+livres each, making a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> total of nearly $18,000.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> Bougainville
+asserts that Marin, the commandant of the department of the Bay, was
+associated in trade with the governor and intendant, and that his part
+netted him annually 15,000 francs.</p>
+
+<p>When it became necessary for the French to open hostilities with the
+English traders in the Ohio country, it was the Wisconsin trader,
+Charles de Langlade, with his Chippeway Indians, who in 1752 fell upon
+the English trading post at Pickawillany and destroyed the center of
+English trade in the Ohio region.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> The leaders in the opening of the
+war that ensued were Northwestern traders. St. Pierre, who commanded at
+Fort Le B&oelig;uf when Washington appeared with his demands from the
+Governor of Virginia that the French should evacuate the Ohio country,
+had formerly been the trader in command at Lake Pepin on the upper
+Mississippi.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> Coulon de Villiers, who captured Washington at Fort
+Necessity, was the son of the former commandant at Green Bay.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>
+Beaujeau, who led the French troops to the defeat of Braddock, had been
+an officer in the Fox wars.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> It was Charles de Langlade who
+commanded the Indians and was chiefly responsible for the success of the
+ambuscade.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> Wisconsin Indians, representing almost all the tribes,
+took part with the French in the war.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> Traders passed to and from
+their business to the battlefields of the East. For example, De
+Repentigny, whose post at Sault Ste. Marie has been described, was at
+Michillimackinac in January, 1755, took part in the battle of Lake
+George in the fall of that year,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> formed a partnership to continue the
+trade with a trader of Michillimackinac in 1756, was at that place in
+1758, and in 1759 fought with Montcalm on the heights of Abraham.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+It was not without a struggle that the traders yielded their beaver
+country.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE ON DIPLOMACY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the meantime what was the attitude of the English toward the
+Northwest? In 1720 Governor Spotswood of Virginia wrote:<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> "The
+danger which threatens these, his Maj'ty's Plantations, from this new
+Settlement is also very considerable, for by the communication which the
+French may maintain between Canada and Mississippi by the conveniency of
+the Lakes, they do in a manner surround all the British Plantations.
+They have it in their power by these Lakes and the many Rivers running
+into them and into the Mississippi to engross all the Trade of the
+Indian Nations w'ch are now supplied from hence."</p>
+
+<p>Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of New York, says in 1724: "New
+France (as the French now claim) extends from the mouth of the
+Mississippi to the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, by which the French
+plainly shew their intention of enclosing the British Settlements and
+cutting us off from all Commerce with the numerous Nations of Indians
+that are everywhere settled over the vast continent of North
+America."<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> As time passed, as population increased, and as the
+reports of the traders extolled the fertility of the country, both the
+English and the French, but particularly the Americans, began to
+consider it from the standpoint of coloniza<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>tion as well as from that of
+the fur trade.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> The Ohio Company had both settlement and the fur
+trade in mind,<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> and the French Governor, Galissoni&egrave;re, at the same
+period urged that France ought to plant a colony in the Ohio
+region.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> After the conquest of New France by England there was still
+the question whether she should keep Canada and the Northwest.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
+Franklin, urging her to do so, offered as one argument the value of the
+fur trade, intrinsically and as a means of holding the Indians in check.
+Discussing the question whether the interior regions of America would
+ever be accessible to English settlement and so to English manufactures,
+he pointed out the vastness of our river and lake system, and the fact
+that Indian trade already permeated the interior. In interesting
+comparison he called their attention to the fact that English commerce
+reached along river systems into the remote parts of Europe, and that in
+ancient times the Levant had carried on a trade with the distant
+interior.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<p>That the value of the fur trade was an important element in inducing the
+English to retain Canada is shown by the fact that Great Britain no
+sooner came into the possession of the country than she availed herself
+of the fields for which she had so long intrigued. Among the western
+posts she occupied Green Bay, and with the garrison came traders;<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+but the fort was abandoned on the outbreak of Pontiac's war.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> This
+war was due to the revolt of the Indians of the Northwest against the
+transfer of authority, and was fostered by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> the French traders.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> It
+concerned Wisconsin but slightly, and at its close we find Green Bay a
+little trading community along the Fox, where a few families lived
+comfortably<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> under the quasi-patriarchal rule of Langlade.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> In
+1765 trade was re-established at Chequamegon Bay by an English trader
+named Henry, and here he found the Chippeways dressed in deerskins, the
+wars having deprived them of a trader.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1766 some Scotch merchants more extensively reopened the fur
+trade, using Michillimackinac as the basis of their operations and
+employing French voyageurs.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> By the proclamation of the King in 1763
+the Northwest was left without political organization, it being reserved
+as crown lands and exempt from purchase or settlement, the design being
+to give up to the Indian trade all the lands "westward of the sources of
+the rivers which fall into the sea from the West and Northwest as
+aforesaid." In a report of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and
+Plantations in 1772 we find the attitude of the English government
+clearly set forth in these words:<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The great object of colonization upon the continent of North America
+has been to improve and extend the commerce and manufactures of this
+kingdom.... It does appear to us that the extension of the fur trade
+depends entirely upon the Indians being undisturbed in the possession of
+their hunting grounds, and that all colonization does in its nature and
+must in its consequence operate to the prejudice of that branch of
+commerce.... Let the savages enjoy their deserts in quiet. Were they
+driven from their forests the peltry trade would decrease."</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the English government attempted to adopt the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> western policy
+of the French. From one point of view it was a successful policy. The
+French traders took service under the English, and in the Revolutionary
+war Charles de Langlade led the Wisconsin Indians to the aid of Hamilton
+against George Rogers Clark,<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> as he had before against the British,
+and in the War of 1812 the British trader Robert Dickson repeated this
+movement.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> As in the days of Begon, "the savages took the part of
+those with whom they traded." The secret proposition of Vergennes, in
+the negotiations preceding the treaty of 1783, to limit the United
+States by the Alleghanies and to give the Northwest to England, while
+reserving the rest of the region between the mountains and the
+Mississippi as Indian territory under Spanish protection,<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> would
+have given the fur trade to these nations.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> In the extensive
+discussions over the diplomacy whereby the Northwest was included within
+the limits of the United States, it has been asserted that we won our
+case by the chartered claims of the colonies and by George Rogers
+Clark's conquest of the Illinois country. It appears, however, that in
+fact Franklin, who had been a prominent member and champion of the Ohio
+Company, and who knew the West from personal acquaintance, had persuaded
+Shelburne to cede it to us as a part of a liberal peace that should
+effect a reconciliation between the two countries. Shelburne himself
+looked upon the region from the point of view of the fur trade simply,
+and was more willing to make this concession than he was some others. In
+the discussion over the treaty in Parliament in 1783, the Northwestern
+boundary was treated almost solely from the point of view of the fur
+trade and of the desertion of the Indians. The question was one of
+profit and loss in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> traffic. One member attacked Shelburne on the
+ground that, "not thinking the naked independence a sufficient proof of
+his liberality to the United States, he had clothed it with the warm
+covering of our fur trade." Shelburne defended his cession "on the fair
+rule of the value of the district ceded,"<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> and comparing exports and
+imports and the cost of administration, he concluded that the fur trade
+of the Northwest was not of sufficient value to warrant continuing the
+war. The most valuable trade, he argued, was north of the line, and the
+treaty merely applied sound economic principles and gave America "a
+share in the trade." The retention of her Northwestern posts by Great
+Britain at the close of the war, in contravention of the treaty, has an
+obvious relation to the fur trade. In his negotiations with Hammond, the
+British ambassador in 1791, Secretary of State Jefferson said: "By these
+proceedings we have been intercepted entirely from the commerce of furs
+with the Indian nations to the northward&mdash;a commerce which had ever been
+of great importance to the United States, not only for its intrinsic
+value, but as it was the means of cherishing peace with these Indians,
+and of superseding the necessity of that expensive warfare which we have
+been obliged to carry on with them during the time that these posts have
+been in other hands."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></p>
+
+<p>In discussing the evacuation of the posts in 1794 Jay was met by a
+demand that complete freedom of the Northwestern Indian trade should be
+granted to British subjects. It was furthermore proposed by Lord
+Grenville<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> that, "Whereas it is now understood that the river
+Mississippi would at no point thereof be intersected by such westward
+line as is described in the said treaty [1783]; and whereas it was
+stipulated in the said treaty that the navigation of the Mississippi
+should be free to both parties"&mdash;one of two new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> propositions should be
+accepted regarding the northwestern boundary. The maps in American State
+Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 492, show that both these proposals
+extended Great Britain's territory so as to embrace the Grand Portage
+and the lake region of northern Minnesota, one of the best of the
+Northwest Company's fur-trading regions south of the line, and in
+connection by the Red river with the Canadian river systems.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> They
+were rejected by Jay. Secretary Randolph urged him to hasten the removal
+of the British, stating that the delay asked for, to allow the traders
+to collect their Indian debts, etc., would have a bad effect upon the
+Indians, and protesting that free communication for the British would
+strike deep into our Indian trade.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> The definitive treaty included
+the following provisions:<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> The posts were to be evacuated before
+June 1, 1796. "All settlers and traders, within the precincts or
+jurisdiction of the said posts, shall continue to enjoy, unmolested, all
+their property of every kind, and shall be protected therein. They shall
+be at full liberty to remain there, or to remove with all or any part of
+their effects; and it shall also be free to them to sell their lands,
+houses, or effects, or to retain the property thereof, at their
+discretion; such of them as shall continue to reside within the said
+boundary lines shall not be compelled to become citizens of the United
+States, or to take any oath of allegiance to the government thereof; but
+they shall be at full liberty to do so if they think proper, and they
+shall make and declare their election within one year after the
+evacuation aforesaid. And all persons who shall continue there after the
+expiration of the said year without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> having declared their intention of
+remaining subjects of his British Majesty shall be considered as having
+elected to become citizens of the United States." "It is agreed that it
+shall at all times be free to His Majesty's subjects, and to the Indians
+dwelling on either side of the said boundary line, freely to pass and
+repass by land or inland navigation into the respective territories and
+countries of the two parties on the continent of America (the country
+within the limits of the Hudson's Bay Company only excepted), and to
+navigate all the lakes, rivers and waters thereof, and freely to carry
+on trade and commerce with each other."</p>
+
+<p>In his elaborate defence of Jay's treaty, Alexander Hamilton paid much
+attention to the question of the fur trade. Defending Jay for permitting
+so long a delay in evacuation and for granting right of entry into our
+fields, he minimized the value of the trade. So far from being worth
+$800,000 annually, he asserted the trade within our limits would not be
+worth $100,000, seven-eighths of the traffic being north of the line.
+This estimate of the value of the northwestern trade was too low. In the
+course of his paper he made this observation:<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p>
+
+<p>"In proportion as the article is viewed on an enlarged plan and
+permanent scale, its importance to us magnifies. Who can say how far
+British colonization may spread southward and down the west side of the
+Mississippi, northward and westward into the vast interior regions
+towards the Pacific ocean?... In this large view of the subject, the fur
+trade, which has made a very prominent figure in the discussion, becomes
+a point scarcely visible. Objects of great variety and magnitude start
+up in perspective, eclipsing the little atoms of the day, and promising
+to grow and mature with time."</p>
+
+<p>Such was not the attitude of Great Britain. To her the Northwest was
+desirable on account of its Indian commerce. By a statement of the
+Province of Upper Canada, sent with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> the approbation of
+Lieutenant-General Hunter to the Duke of Kent, Commander-in-Chief of
+British North America, in the year 1800, we are enabled to see the
+situation through Canadian eyes:<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The Indians, who had loudly and Justly complained of a treaty [1783] in
+which they were sacrificed by a cession of their country contrary to
+repeated promises, were with difficulty appeased, however finding the
+Posts retained and some Assurances given they ceased to murmur and
+resolved to defend their country extending from the Ohio Northward to
+the Great Lakes and westward to the Mississippi, an immense tract, in
+which they found the deer, the bear, the wild wolf, game of all sorts in
+profusion. They employed the Tomahawk and Scalping Knife against such
+deluded settlers who on the faith of the treaty to which they did not
+consent, ventured to cross the Ohio, secretly encouraged by the Agents
+of Government, supplied with Arms, Ammunition, and provisions they
+maintained an obstinate &amp; destructive war against the States, cut off
+two Corps sent against them.... The American Government, discouraged by
+these disasters were desirous of peace on any terms, their deputies were
+sent to Detroit, they offered to confine their Pretensions within
+certain limits far South of the Lakes. if this offer had been accepted
+the Indian Country would have been for ages an impassible Barrier
+between us. twas unfortunately perhaps wantonly rejected, and the war
+continued."</p>
+
+<p>Acting under the privileges accorded to them by Jay's treaty, the
+British traders were in almost as complete possession of Wisconsin until
+after the war of 1812 as if Great Britain still owned it. When the war
+broke out the keys of the region, Detroit and Michillimackinac, fell
+into the British hands. Green Bay and Prairie du Chien were settlements
+of French-British traders and voyageurs. Their leader was Robert
+Dickson, who had traded at the latter settlement. Writing in 1814 from
+his camp at Winnebago<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> Lake, he says: "I think that Bony [Bonaparte]
+must be knocked up as all Europe are now in Arms. The crisis is not far
+off when I trust in God that the Tyrant will be humbled, &amp; the Scoundrel
+American Democrats be obliged to go down on their knees to
+Britain."<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> Under him most of the Wisconsin traders of importance
+received British commissions. In the spring of 1814 the Americans took
+Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin river, whereupon Col.
+M'Douall, the British commandant at Michillimackinac, wrote to General
+Drummond:<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> ... "I saw at once the imperious necessity which existed
+of endeavoring by every means to dislodge the American Genl from his new
+conquest, and make him relinquish the immense tract of country he had
+seized upon in consequence &amp; which brought him into the very heart of
+that occupied by our friendly Indians, There was no alternative it must
+either be done or there was an end to our connection with the Indians
+for if allowed to settle themselves by dint of threats bribes &amp; sowing
+divisions among them, tribe after tribe would be gained over or subdued,
+&amp; thus would be destroyed the only barrier which protects the great
+trading establishments of the North West and the Hudson's Bay Companys.
+Nothing could then prevent the enemy from gaining the source of the
+Mississippi, gradually extending themselves by the Red river to Lake
+Winnipic, from whense the descent of Nelsons river to York Fort would in
+time be easy."</p>
+
+<p>The British traders, voyageurs and Indians<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> dislodged the Americans,
+and at the close of the war England was practically in possession of the
+Indian country of the Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>In the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners asserted the
+sovereignty of the Indians over their lands, and their independence in
+relation to the United States, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> demanded that a barrier of Indian
+territory should be established between the two countries, free to the
+traffic of both nations but not open to purchase by either.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> The
+line of the Grenville treaty was suggested as a basis for determining
+this Indian region. The proposition would have removed from the
+sovereignty of the United States the territory of the Northwest with the
+exception of about two-thirds of Ohio,<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> and given it over to the
+British fur traders. The Americans declined to grant the terms, and the
+United States was finally left in possession of the Northwest.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE NORTHWEST COMPANY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The most striking feature of the English period was the Northwest
+Company.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> From a study of it one may learn the character of the
+English occupation of the Northwest.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> It was formed in 1783 and
+fully organized in 1787, with the design of contesting the field with
+the Hudson Bay Company. Goods were brought from England to Montreal, the
+headquarters of the company, and thence from the four emporiums,
+Detroit, Mackinaw, Sault Ste. Marie, and Grand Portage, they were
+scattered through the great Northwest, even to the Pacific ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the end of the eighteenth century ships<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> began to take part
+in this commerce; a portion of the goods was sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> from Montreal in
+boats to Kingston, thence in vessels to Niagara, thence overland to Lake
+Erie, to be reshipped in vessels to Mackinaw and to Sault Ste. Marie,
+where another transfer was made to a Lake Superior vessel. These ships
+were of about ninety-five tons burden and made four or five trips a
+season. But in the year 1800 the primitive mode of trade was not
+materially changed. From the traffic along the main artery of commerce
+between Grand Portage and Montreal may be learned the kind of trade that
+flowed along such branches as that between the island of Mackinaw and
+the Wisconsin posts. The visitor at La Chine rapids, near Montreal,
+might have seen a squadron of Northwestern trading canoes leaving for
+the Grand Portage, at the west of Lake Superior.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></p>
+
+<p>The boatmen, or "engag&eacute;s," having spent their season's gains in
+carousal, packed their blanket capotes and were ready for the wilderness
+again. They made a picturesque crew in their gaudy turbans, or hats
+adorned with plumes and tinsel, their brilliant handkerchiefs tied
+sailor-fashion about swarthy necks, their calico shirts, and their
+flaming worsted belts, which served to hold the knife and the tobacco
+pouch. Rough trousers, leggings, and cowhide shoes or gaily-worked
+moccasins completed the costume. The trading birch canoe measured forty
+feet in length, with a depth of three and a width of five. It floated
+four tons of freight, and yet could be carried by four men over
+difficult portages. Its crew of eight men was engaged at a salary<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>
+of from five to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> eight hundred livres, about $100 to $160 per annum,
+each, with a yearly outfit of coarse clothing and a daily food allowance
+of a quart of hulled corn, or peas, seasoned with two ounces of tallow.</p>
+
+<p>The experienced voyageurs who spent the winters in the woods were called
+<i>hivernans</i>, or winterers, or sometimes <i>hommes du nord</i>; while the
+inexperienced, those who simply made the trip from Montreal to the
+outlying depots and return, were contemptuously dubbed <i>mangeurs de
+lard</i>,<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> "pork-eaters," because their pampered appetites demanded
+peas and pork rather than hulled corn and tallow. Two of the crew, one
+at the bow and the other at the stern, being especially skilled in the
+craft of handling the paddle in the rapids, received higher wages than
+the rest. Into the canoe was first placed the heavy freight, shot, axes,
+powder; next the dry goods, and, crowning all, filling the canoe to
+overflowing, came the provisions&mdash;pork, peas or corn, and sea biscuits,
+sewed in canvas sacks.</p>
+
+<p>The lading completed, the voyageur hung his votive offerings in the
+chapel of Saint Anne, patron saint of voyageurs, the paddles struck the
+waters of the St. Lawrence, and the fleet of canoes glided away on its
+six weeks' journey to Grand Portage. There was the Ottawa to be
+ascended, the rapids to be run, the portages where the canoe must be
+emptied and where each voyageur must bear his two packs of ninety pounds
+apiece, and there were the <i>d&eacute;charges</i>, where the canoe was merely
+lightened and where the voyageurs, now on the land, now into the rushing
+waters, dragged it forward till the rapids were passed. There was no
+stopping to dry, but on, until the time for the hasty meal, or the
+evening camp-fire underneath the pines. Every two miles there was a stop
+for a three minutes' smoke, or "pipe," and when a portage was made it
+was reckoned in "pauses," by which is meant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> the number of times the men
+must stop to rest. Whenever a burial cross appeared, or a stream was
+left or entered, the voyageurs removed their hats, and made the sign of
+the cross while one of their number said a short prayer; and again the
+paddles beat time to some rollicking song.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Dans mon chemin, j'ai rencontr&eacute;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Trois cavali&egrave;res, bien mont&eacute;es;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">L'on, lon, laridon daine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lon, ton, laridon dai.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Trois cavali&egrave;res, bien mont&eacute;es,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">L'un &agrave; cheval, et l'autre &agrave; pied;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">L'on, lon, laridon daine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lon, ton, laridon dai.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Arrived at Sault Ste. Marie, the fleet was often doubled by newcomers,
+so that sometimes sixty canoes swept their way along the north shore,
+the paddles marking sixty strokes a minute, while the rocks gave back
+the echoes of Canadian songs rolling out from five hundred lusty
+throats. And so they drew up at Grand Portage, near the present
+northeast boundary of Minnesota, now a sleepy, squalid little village,
+but then the general rendezvous where sometimes over a thousand men met;
+for, at this time, the company had fifty clerks, seventy interpreters,
+eighteen hundred and twenty canoe-men, and thirty-five guides. It sent
+annually to Montreal 106,000 beaver-skins, to say nothing of other
+peltries. When the proprietors from Montreal met the proprietors from
+the northern posts, and with their clerks gathered at the banquet in
+their large log hall to the number of a hundred, the walls hung with
+spoils of the chase, the rough tables furnished with abundance of
+venison, fish, bread, salt pork, butter, peas, corn, potatoes, tea,
+milk, wine and <i>eau de vie</i>, while, outside, the motley crowd of engages
+feasted on hulled corn and melted fat&mdash;was it not a truly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> baronial
+scene? Clerks and engag&eacute;s of this company, or its rival, the Hudson Bay
+Company, might winter one season in Wisconsin and the next in the remote
+north. For example, Amable Grignon, a Green Bay trader, wintered in 1818
+at Lac qui Parle in Minnesota, the next year at Lake Athabasca, and the
+third in the hyperborean regions of Great Slave Lake. In his engagement
+he figures as Amable Grignon, <i>of the Parish of Green Bay, Upper
+Canada</i>, and he receives $400 "and found in tobacco and shoes and two
+doges," besides "the usual equipment given to clerks." He afterwards
+returned to a post on the Wisconsin river. The attitude of Wisconsin
+traders toward the Canadian authorities and the Northwestern wilds is
+clearly shown in this document, which brings into a line Upper Canada,
+"the parish of Green Bay," and the Hudson Bay Company's territories
+about Great Slave Lake!<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p>
+
+<p>How widespread and how strong was the influence of these traders upon
+the savages may be easily imagined, and this commercial control was
+strengthened by the annual presents made to the Indians by the British
+at their posts. At a time when our relations with Great Britain were
+growing strained, such a power in the Northwest was a serious
+menace.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> In 1809 John Jacob Astor secured a charter from the State
+of New York, incorporating the American Fur Company. He proposed to
+consolidate the fur trade of the United States, plant an establishment
+in the contested Oregon territory, and link it with Michillimackinac
+(Mackinaw island) by way of the Missouri through a series of trading
+posts. In 1810 two expeditions of his Pacific Fur Company set out for
+the Columbia, the one around Cape Horn and the other by way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of Green
+bay and the Missouri. In 1811 he bought a half interest in the Mackinaw
+Company, a rival of the Northwest Company and the one that had especial
+power in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and this new organization he called
+the Southwest Company. But the war of 1812 came; Astoria, the Pacific
+post, fell into the hands of the Northwest Company, while the Southwest
+Company's trade was ruined.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>AMERICAN INFLUENCES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Although the Green Bay court of justice, such as it was, had been
+administered under American commissions since 1803, when Reaume
+dispensed a rude equity under a commission of Justice of the Peace from
+Governor Harrison,<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> neither Green Bay nor the rest of Wisconsin had
+any proper appreciation of its American connections until the close of
+this war. But now occurred these significant events:</p>
+
+<p>1. Astor's company was reorganized as the American Fur Company, with
+headquarters at Mackinaw island.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. The United States enacted in 1816 that neither foreign fur traders,
+nor capital for that trade, should be admitted to this country.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>
+This was designed to terminate English influence among the tribes, and
+it fostered Astor's company. The law was so interpreted as not to
+exclude British (that is generally, French) interpreters and boatmen,
+who were essential to the company; but this interpretation enabled
+British subjects to evade the law and trade on their own account by
+having their invoices made out to some Yankee clerk, while they
+accompanied the clerk in the guise of inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>preters.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> In this way a
+number of Yankees came to the State.</p>
+
+<p>3. In the year 1816 United States garrisons were sent to Green Bay and
+Prairie du Chien.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p>
+
+<p>4. In 1814 the United States provided for locating government trading
+posts at these two places.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The system of public trading houses goes back to colonial days. At first
+in Plymouth and Jamestown all industry was controlled by the
+commonwealth, and in Massachusetts Bay the stock company had reserved
+the trade in furs for themselves before leaving England.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> The trade
+was frequently farmed out, but public "truck houses" were established by
+the latter colony as early as 1694-5.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> Franklin, in his public
+dealings with the Ohio Indians, saw the importance of regulation of the
+trade, and in 1753 he wrote asking James Bowdoin of Massachusetts to
+procure him a copy of the truckhouse law of that colony, saying that if
+it had proved to work well he thought of proposing it for
+Pennsylvania.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> The reply of Bowdoin showed that Massachusetts
+furnished goods to the Indians at wholesale prices and so drove out the
+French and the private traders. In 1757 Virginia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> adopted the system for
+a time,<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> and in 1776 the Continental Congress accepted a plan
+presented by a committee of which Franklin was a member,<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> whereby
+&pound;140,000 sterling was expended at the charge of the United Colonies for
+Indian goods to be sold at moderate prices by factors of the
+congressional commissioners.<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> The bearing of this act upon the
+governmental powers of the Congress is worth noting.</p>
+
+<p>In his messages of 1791 and 1792 President Washington urged the need of
+promoting and regulating commerce with the Indians, and in 1793 he
+advocated government trading houses. Pickering, of Massachusetts, who
+was his Secretary of War with the management of Indian affairs, may have
+strengthened Washington in this design, for he was much interested in
+Indian improvement, but Washington's own experience had shown him the
+desirability of some such plan, and he had written to this effect as
+early as 1783.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The objects of Congressional policy in dealing with
+the Indians were stated by speakers in 1794 as follows:<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> 1.
+Protection of the frontiersmen from the Indians, by means of the army.
+2. Protection of the Indians from the frontiersmen, by laws regulating
+settlement. 3. Detachment of the Indians from foreign influence, by
+trading houses where goods could be got cheaply. In 1795 a small
+appropriation was made for trying the experiment of public trading
+houses,<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> and in 1796, the same year that the British evacuated the
+posts, the law which established the system was passed.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> It was to
+be temporary, but by re-enactments with alterations it was prolonged
+until 1822, new posts being added from time to time. In substance the
+laws provided a certain capital for the Indian trade, the goods to be
+sold by salaried United States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> factors, at posts in the Indian country,
+at such rates as would protect the savage from the extortions of the
+individual trader, whose actions sometimes provoked hostilities, and
+would supplant British influence over the Indian. At the same time it
+was required that the capital stock should not be diminished. In the
+course of the debate over the law in 1796 considerable <i>laissez faire</i>
+sentiment was called out against the government's becoming a trader,
+notwithstanding that the purpose of the bill was benevolence and
+political advantage rather than financial gain.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> President Jefferson
+and Secretary Calhoun were friends of the system.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> It was a failure,
+however, and under the attacks of Senator Benton, the Indian agents and
+the American Fur Company, it was brought to an end in 1822. The causes
+of its failure were chiefly these:<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> The private trader went to the
+hunting grounds of the savages, while the government's posts were fixed.
+The private traders gave credit to the Indians, which the government did
+not.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> The private trader understood the Indians, was related to them
+by marriage, and was energetic and not over-scrupulous. The government
+trader was a salaried agent not trained to the work. The private trader
+sold whiskey and the government did not. The British trader's goods were
+better than those of the government. The best business principles were
+not always followed by the superintendent. The system was far from
+effecting its object, for the Northwestern Indians had been accustomed
+to receive presents from the British authorities, and had small respect
+for a government that traded. Upon Wisconsin trade from 1814 to 1822 its
+influence was slight.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>The goods used in the Indian trade remained much the same from the
+first, in all sections of the country.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> They were chiefly blankets,
+coarse cloths, cheap jewelry and trinkets (including strings of wampum),
+fancy goods (like ribbons, shawls, etc.), kettles, knives, hatchets,
+guns, powder, tobacco, and intoxicating liquor.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> These goods,
+shipped from Mackinaw, at first came by canoes or bateaux,<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> and in
+the later period by vessel, to a leading post, were there redivided<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>
+and sent to the various trading posts. The Indians, returning from the
+hunting grounds to their villages in the spring,<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> set the squaws to
+making maple sugar,<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> planting corn, watermelons, potatoes, squashes,
+etc., and a little hunting was carried on. The summer was given over to
+enjoyment, and in the early period to wars. In the autumn they collected
+their wild rice, or their corn, and again were ready to start for the
+hunting grounds, sometimes 300 miles distant. At this juncture the
+trader, licensed by an Indian agent, arrived upon the scene with his
+goods, without which no family could subsist, much less collect any
+quantity of furs.<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> These were bought on credit by the hunter, since
+he could not go on the hunt for the furs, whereby he paid for his
+supplies, without having goods and ammunition advanced for the purpose.
+This system of credits,<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> dating back to the French period, had
+become systematized so that books were kept, with each Indian's account.
+The amount to which the hunter was trusted was between $40 and $50, at
+cost prices, upon which the trader expected a gain of about 100 per
+cent, so that the average annual value of furs brought in by each hunter
+to pay his credits should have been between $80 and $100.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+amount of the credit varied with the reputation of the hunter for
+honesty and ability in the chase.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> Sometimes he was trusted to the
+amount of three hundred dollars. If one-half the credits were paid in
+the spring the trader thought that he had done a fair business. The
+importance of this credit system can hardly be overestimated in
+considering the influence of the fur trade upon the Indians of
+Wisconsin, and especially in rendering them dependent upon the earlier
+settlements of the State.</p>
+
+<p>The system left the Indians at the mercy of the trader when one nation
+monopolized the field, and it compelled them to espouse the cause of one
+or other when two nations contended for supremacy over their territory.
+At the same time it rendered the trade peculiarly adapted to monopoly,
+for when rivals competed, the trade was demoralized, and the Indian
+frequently sold to a new trader the furs which he had pledged in advance
+for the goods of another. When the American Fur Company gained control,
+they systematized matters so that there was no competition between their
+own agents, and private dealers cut into their trade but little for some
+years. The unit of trade was at first the beaver skin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> or, as the pound
+of beaver skin came to be called, the "plus."<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> The beaver skin was
+estimated at a pound and a half, though it sometimes weighed two, in
+which case an allowance was made. Wampum was used for ornament and in
+treaty-making, but not as currency. Other furs or Indian commodities,
+like maple sugar and wild rice, were bought in terms of beaver. As this
+animal grew scarcer the unit changed to money. By 1820, when few beaver
+were marketed in Wisconsin, the term plus stood for one dollar.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> The
+muskrat skin was also used as the unit in the later days of the
+trade.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> In the southern colonies the pound of deer skin had answered
+the purpose of a unit.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
+
+<p>The goods being trusted to the Indians, the bands separated for the
+hunting grounds. Among the Chippeways, at least, each family or group
+had a particular stream or region where it exclusively hunted and
+trapped.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Not only were the hunting grounds thus parcelled out;
+certain Indians were apportioned to certain traders,<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> so that the
+industrial activities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> of Wisconsin at this date were remarkably
+systematic and uniform. Sometimes the trader followed the Indians to
+their hunting grounds. From time to time he sent his engag&eacute;s (hired
+men), commonly five or six in number, to the various places where the
+hunting bands were to be found, to collect furs on the debts and to sell
+goods to those who had not received too large credits, and to the
+customers of rival traders; this was called "running a deouine."<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a>
+The main wintering post had lesser ones, called "jack-knife posts,"<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a>
+depending on it, where goods were left and the furs gathered in going to
+and from the main post. By these methods Wisconsin was thoroughly
+visited by the traders before the "pioneers" arrived.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p>
+
+<p>The kind and amount of furs brought in may be judged by the fact that in
+1836, long after the best days of the trade, a single Green Bay firm,
+Porlier and Grignon, shipped to the American Fur Company about 3600 deer
+skins, 6000 muskrats, 150 bears, 850 raccoons, besides beavers, otters,
+fishers, martens, lynxes, foxes, wolves, badgers, skunks, etc.,
+amounting to over $6000.</p>
+
+<p>None of these traders became wealthy; Astor's company absorbed the
+profits. It required its clerks, or factors, to pay an advance of 81-1/2
+per cent on the sterling cost of the blankets, strouds, and other
+English goods, in order to cover the cost of importation and the expense
+of transportation from New York to Mackinaw. Articles purchased in New
+York were charged with 15-1/3 per cent advance for transportation, and
+each class of purchasers was charged with 33-1/3 per cent advance as
+profit on the aggregate amount.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I estimate, from the data given in the sources cited on page 63, note,
+that in 1820 between $60,000 and $75,000 worth of goods was brought
+annually to Wisconsin for the Indian trade. An average outfit for a
+single clerk at a main post was between $1500 and $2000, and for the
+dependent posts between $100 and $500. There were probably not over 2000
+Indian hunters in the State, and the total Indian population did not
+much exceed 10,000. Comparing this number with the early estimates for
+the same tribes, we find that, if the former are trustworthy, by 1820
+the Indian tribes that remained in Wisconsin had increased their
+numbers. But the material is too unsatisfactory to afford any valuable
+conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>After the sale of their lands and the receipt of money annuities, a
+change came over the Indian trade. The monopoly held by Astor was broken
+into, and as competition increased, the sales of whiskey were larger,
+and for money, which the savage could now pay. When the Indians went to
+Montreal in the days of the French, they confessed that they could not
+return with supplies because they wasted their furs upon brandy. The
+same process now went on at their doors. The traders were not dependent
+upon the Indian's success in hunting alone; they had his annuities to
+count on, and so did not exert their previous influence in favor of
+steady hunting. Moreover, the game was now exploited to a considerable
+degree, so that Wisconsin was no longer the hunter's paradise that it
+had been in the days of Dablon and La Salle. The long-settled economic
+life of the Indian being revolutionized, his business honesty declined,
+and credits were more frequently lost. The annuities fell into the
+traders' hands for debts and whiskey. "There is no less than near
+$420,000 of claims against the Winnebagoes," writes a Green Bay trader
+at Prairie du Chien, in 1838, "so that if they are all just, the
+dividend will be but very small for each claimant, as there is only
+$150,000 to pay that."<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By this time the influence of the fur trader had so developed mining in
+the region of Dubuque, Iowa, Galena, Ill., and southwestern Wisconsin,
+as to cause an influx of American miners, and here began a new element
+of progress for Wisconsin. The knowledge of these mines was possessed by
+the early French explorers, and as the use of firearms spread they were
+worked more and more by Indians, under the stimulus of the trader. In
+1810 Nicholas Boilvin, United States Indian agent at Prairie du Chien,
+reported that the Indians about the lead mines had mostly abandoned the
+chase and turned their attention to the manufacture of lead, which they
+sold to fur traders. In 1825 there were at least 100 white miners in the
+entire lead region,<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> and by 1829 they numbered in the thousands.</p>
+
+<p>Black Hawk's war came in 1832, and agricultural settlement sought the
+southwestern part of the State after that campaign. The traders opened
+country stores, and their establishments were nuclei of settlement.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a>
+In Wisconsin the Indian trading post was a thing of the past.</p>
+
+<p>The birch canoe and the pack-horse had had their day in western New York
+and about Montreal. In Wisconsin the age of the voyageur continued
+nearly through the first third of this century. It went on in the Far
+Northwest in substantially the same fashion that has been here
+described, until quite recently; and in the great North Land tributary
+to Hudson Bay the <i>chanson</i> of the voyageur may still be heard, and the
+dog-sledge laden with furs jingles across the snowy plains from distant
+post to distant post.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We are now in a position to offer some conclusions as to the influence
+of the Indian trading post.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I. Upon the savage it had worked a transformation. It found him without
+iron, hunting merely for food and raiment. It put into his hands iron
+and guns, and made him a hunter for furs with which to purchase the
+goods of civilization. Thus it tended to perpetuate the hunter stage;
+but it must also be noted that for a time it seemed likely to develop a
+class of merchants who should act as intermediaries solely. The
+inter-tribal trade between Montreal and the Northwest, and between
+Albany and the Illinois and Ohio country, appears to have been commerce
+in the proper sense of the term<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> (<i>Kauf zum Verkauf</i>). The trading
+post left the unarmed tribes at the mercy of those that had bought
+firearms, and this caused a relocation of the Indian tribes and an
+urgent demand for the trader by the remote and unvisited Indians. It
+made the Indian dependent on the white man's supplies. The stage of
+civilization that could make a gun and gunpowder was too far above the
+bow and arrow stage to be reached by the Indian. Instead of elevating
+him the trade exploited him. But at the same time, when one nation did
+not monopolize the trade, or when it failed to regulate its own traders,
+the trading post gave to the Indians the means of resistance to
+agricultural settlement. The American settlers fought for their farms in
+Kentucky and Tennessee at a serious disadvantage, because for over half
+a century the Creeks and Cherokees had received arms and ammunition from
+the trading posts of the French, the Spanish and the English. In
+Wisconsin the settlers came after the Indian had become thoroughly
+dependent on the American traders, and so late that no resistance was
+made. The trading post gradually exploited the Indian's hunting ground.
+By intermarriages with the French traders the purity of the stock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> was
+destroyed and a mixed race produced.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> The trader broke down the old
+totemic divisions, and appointed chiefs regardless of the Indian social
+organization, to foster his trade. Indians and traders alike testify
+that this destruction of Indian institutions was responsible for much of
+the difficulty in treating with them, the tribe being without a
+recognized head.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> The sale of their lands, made less valuable by the
+extinction of game, gave them a new medium of exchange, at the same time
+that, under the rivalry of trade, the sale of whiskey increased.</p>
+
+<p>II. Upon the white man the effect of the Indian trading post was also
+very considerable. The Indian trade gave both English and French a
+footing in America. But for the Indian supplies some of the most
+important settlements would have perished.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> It invited to
+exploration: the dream of a water route to India and of mines was always
+present in the more extensive expeditions, but the effective practical
+inducement to opening the water systems of the interior, and the thing
+that made exploration possible, was the fur trade. As has been shown,
+the Indian eagerly invited the trader. Up to a certain point also the
+trade fostered the advance of settlements. As long as they were in
+extension of trade with the Indians they were welcomed. The trading
+posts were the pioneers of many settlements along the entire colonial
+frontier. In Wisconsin the sites of our principal cities are the sites
+of old trading posts, and these earliest fur-trading settlements
+furnished supplies to the farming, mining and lumbering pioneers. They
+were centers about which settlement collected after the exploitation of
+the Indian. Although the efforts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> the Indians and of the great
+trading companies, whose profits depended upon keeping the primitive
+wilderness, were to obstruct agricultural settlement, as the history of
+the Northwest and of British America shows, nevertheless reports brought
+back by the individual trader guided the steps of the agricultural
+pioneer. The trader was the farmer's pathfinder into some of the richest
+regions of the continent. Both favorably and unfavorably the influence
+of the Indian trade on settlement was very great.</p>
+
+<p>The trading post was the strategic point in the rivalry of France and
+England for the Northwest. The American colonists came to know that the
+land was worth more than the beaver that built in the streams, but the
+mother country fought for the Northwest as the field of Indian trade in
+all the wars from 1689 to 1812. The management of the Indian trade led
+the government under the lead of Franklin and Washington into trading on
+its own account, a unique feature of its policy. It was even proposed by
+the Indian Superintendent at one time that the government should
+manufacture the goods for this trade. In providing a new field for the
+individual trader, whom he expected the government trading houses to
+dispossess, Jefferson proposed the Lewis and Clarke expedition, which
+crossed the continent by way of the Missouri and the Columbia, as the
+British trader, Mackenzie, had before crossed it by way of Canadian
+rivers. The genesis of this expedition illustrates at once the
+comprehensive western schemes of Jefferson, and the importance of the
+part played by the fur trade in opening the West. In 1786, while the
+Annapolis convention was discussing the navigation of the Potomac,
+Jefferson wrote to Washington from Paris inquiring about the best place
+for a canal between the Ohio and the Great Lakes.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> This was in
+promotion of the project of Ledyard, a Connecticut man, who was then in
+Paris endeavoring to interest the wealthiest house there in the fur
+trade of the Far West. Jefferson took so great an interest in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> the plan
+that he secured from the house a promise that if they undertook the
+scheme the depot of supply should be at Alexandria, on the Potomac
+river, which would be in connection with the Ohio, if the canal schemes
+of the time were carried out. After the failure of the negotiations of
+Ledyard, Jefferson proposed to him to cross Russia to Kamschatka, take
+ship to Nootka Sound, and thence return to the United States by way of
+the Missouri.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> Ledyard was detained in Russia by the authorities in
+spite of Jefferson's good offices, and the scheme fell through. But
+Jefferson himself asserts that this suggested the idea of the Lewis and
+Clarke expedition, which he proposed to Congress as a means of fostering
+our Indian trade.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Bearing in mind his instructions to this party,
+that they should see whether the Oregon furs might not be shipped down
+the Missouri instead of passing around Cape Horn, and the relation of
+his early canal schemes to this design, we see that he had conceived the
+project of a transcontinental fur trade which should center in Virginia.
+Astor's subsequent attempt to push through a similar plan resulted in
+the foundation of his short-lived post of Astoria at the mouth of the
+Columbia. This occupation greatly aided our claim to the Oregon country
+as against the British traders, who had reached the region by way of the
+northern arm of the Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>In Wisconsin, at least, the traders' posts, placed at the carrying
+places around falls and rapids, pointed out the water powers of the
+State. The portages between rivers became canals, or called out canal
+schemes that influenced the early development of the State. When
+Washington, at the close of his military service, inspected the Mohawk
+valley and the portages between the headwaters of the Potomac and the
+Ohio, as the channels "of conveyance of the extensive and valuable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+trade of a rising empire,"<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> he stood between two eras&mdash;the era with
+which he was personally familiar, when these routes had been followed by
+the trader with the savage tribes,<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> and the era which he foresaw,
+when American settlement passed along the same ways to the fertile West
+and called into being the great trunk-lines of the present day.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> The
+trails became the early roads. An old Indian trader relates that "the
+path between Green Bay and Milwaukee was originally an Indian trail, and
+very crooked, but the whites would straighten it by cutting across lots
+each winter with their jumpers, wearing bare streaks through the thin
+covering, to be followed in the summer by foot and horseback travel
+along the shortened path."<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> The process was typical of a greater
+one. Along the lines that nature had drawn the Indians traded and
+warred; along their trails and in their birch canoes the trader passed,
+bringing a new and a transforming life. These slender lines of eastern
+influence stretched throughout all our vast and intricate water-system,
+even to the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, and the Arctic seas, and these
+lines were in turn followed by agricultural and by manufacturing
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In a speech upon the Pacific Railway delivered in the United States
+Senate in 1850, Senator Benton used these words: "There is an idea
+become current of late ... that none but a man of science, bred in a
+school, can lay off a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> road. That is a mistake. There is a class of
+topographical engineers older than the schools, and more unerring than
+the mathematics. They are the wild animals&mdash;buffalo, elk, deer,
+antelope, bears, which traverse the forest, not by compass, but by an
+instinct which leads them always the right way&mdash;to the lowest passes in
+the mountains, the shallowest fords in the rivers, the richest pastures
+in the forest, the best salt springs, and the shortest practicable
+routes between remote points. They travel thousands of miles, have their
+annual migrations backwards and forwards, and never miss the best and
+shortest route. These are the first engineers to lay out a road in a new
+country; the Indians follow them, and hence a buffalo-road becomes a
+war-path. The first white hunters follow the same trails in pursuing
+their game; and after that the buffalo-road becomes the wagon-road of
+the white man, and finally the macadamized or railroad of the scientific
+man. It all resolves itself into the same thing&mdash;into the same
+buffalo-road; and thence the buffalo becomes the first and safest
+engineer. Thus it has been here in the countries which we inhabit and
+the history of which is so familiar. The present national road from
+Cumberland over the Alleghanies was the military road of General
+Braddock; which had been the buffalo-path of the wild animals. So of the
+two roads from western Virginia to Kentucky&mdash;one through the gap in the
+Cumberland mountains, the other down the valley of the Kenhawa. They
+were both the war-path of the Indians and the travelling route of the
+buffalo, and their first white acquaintances the early hunters.
+Buffaloes made them in going from the salt springs on the Holston to the
+rich pastures and salt springs of Kentucky; Indians followed them first,
+white hunters afterwards&mdash;and that is the way Kentucky was discovered.
+In more than a hundred years no nearer or better routes have been found;
+and science now makes her improved roads exactly where the buffalo's
+foot first marked the way and the hunter's foot afterwards followed him.
+So all over Kentucky and the West; and so in the Rocky Mountains. The
+famous South Pass was no scientific<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> discovery. Some people think
+Fr&eacute;mont discovered it. It had been discovered forty years before&mdash;long
+before he was born. He only described it and confirmed what the hunters
+and traders had reported and what they showed him. It was discovered, or
+rather first seen by white people, in 1808, two years after the return
+of Lewis and Clark, and by the first company of hunters and traders that
+went out after their report laid open the prospect of the fur trade in
+the Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>"An enterprising Spaniard of St. Louis, Manuel Lisa, sent out the party;
+an acquaintance and old friend of the Senator from Wisconsin who sits on
+my left [General Henry Dodge] led the party&mdash;his name Andrew Henry. He
+was the first man that saw that pass; and he found it in the prosecution
+of his business, that of a hunter and trader, and by following the game
+and the road which they had made. And that is the way all passes are
+found. But these traders do not write books and make maps, but they
+enable other people to do it."<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></p>
+
+<p>Benton errs in thinking that the hunter was the pioneer in Kentucky. As
+I have shown, the trader opened the way. But Benton is at least valid
+authority upon the Great West, and his fundamental thesis has much truth
+in it. A continuously higher life flowed into the old channels, knitting
+the United States together into a complex organism. It is a process not
+limited to America. In every country the exploitation of the wild
+beasts,<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> and of the raw products gener<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>ally, causes the entry of the
+disintegrating and transforming influences of a higher civilization.
+"The history of commerce is the history of the intercommunication of
+peoples."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In this paper I have rewritten and enlarged an address
+before the State Historical Society of Wisconsin on the Character and
+Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin, published in the Proceedings of
+the Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting, 1889. I am under obligations to Mr.
+Reuben G. Thwaites, Secretary of this society, for his generous
+assistance in procuring material for my work, and to Professor Charles
+H. Haskins, my colleague, who kindly read both manuscript and proof and
+made helpful suggestions. The reader will notice that throughout the
+paper I have used the word <i>Northwest</i> in a limited sense as referring
+to the region included between the Great Lakes and the Ohio and
+Mississippi rivers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> On the trading colony, see Roscher und Jannasch, Colonien,
+p. 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Consult: M&uuml;llenhoff, Altertumskunde I., 212; Schrader,
+Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, New York, 1890, pp. 348
+ff.; Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xxvii., 11; Montelius, Civilization of
+Sweden in Heathen Times, 98-99; Du Chaillu, Viking Age; and the
+citations in Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, 466-7; Keary, Vikings in
+Western Christendom, 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In illustration it may be noted that the early Scandinavian
+power in Russia seized upon the trade route by the Dnieper and the Duna.
+Keary, Vikings, 173. See also <i>post</i>, pp. 36, 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Starcke, Primitive Family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Schrader, l.c.; see also Ihring, in <i>Deutsche Rundschau</i>,
+III., 357, 420; Kulischer, Der Handel auf primitiven Kulturstufen, in
+<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft</i>, X., 378.
+<i>Vide post</i>, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> W. Bosworth Smith, in a suggestive article in the
+<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, December, 1887, shows the influence of the
+Mohammedan trade in Africa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Smithsonian Report, 1872.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1889, VII.,
+59. See also Thruston, Antiquities of Tennessee, 79 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Mallery, in Bureau of Ethnology, I., 324; Clark, Indian
+Sign Language.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Shea, Discovery of the Mississippi, 34. Catilinite pipes
+were widely used, even along the Atlantic slope, Thruston, 80-81.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, I.,
+ch. ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Minnesota Historical Collections, V., 267.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World, 230, citing
+Menendez.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Neill, in Narrative and Critical History of America, IV.,
+164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Champlain's Voyages (Prince Society), III., 183.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Morton, New English Canaan (Prince Society), 159.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley,
+32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> For additional evidence see Radisson, Voyages (Prince
+Society), 91, 173; Massachusetts Historical Collections, I., 151;
+Smithsonian Contributions, XVI., 30; Jesuit Relations, 1671, 41;
+Thruston, Antiquities, etc., 79-82; Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi
+Valley, 25, 27; and <i>post</i> pp. 26-7, 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Reeves, Finding of Wineland the Good, 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> N.Y. Hist. Colls., I., 54-55, 59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Smith, Generall Historie (Richmond, 1819), I., 87-8, 182,
+199; Strachey's Travaile into Virginia, 157 (Hakluyt Soc. VI.); Parkman,
+Pioneers, 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Bradford, Plymouth Plantation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Bradford, 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, Plymouth Records, I., 50, 54, 62, 119; II., 10;
+Massachusetts Colonial Records, I., 55, 81, 96, 100, 322; II., 86, 138;
+III., 424; V., 180; Hazard, Historical Collections, II., 19 (the
+Commissioners of the United Colonies propose giving the monopoly of the
+fur trade to a corporation). On public truck-houses, <i>vide post</i>, p.
+58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Bradford, 108, gives the proceeds of the sale of these
+furs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Force, Collections, Vol. I., No. 5, p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Weeden, I., 132, 160-1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Winthrop, History of New England, I., 111, 131.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Connecticut Colonial Records, 1637, pp. 11, 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Weeden, I., 126.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> New York Colonial Documents, I., 181, 389, &sect;7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> 182; Collection de manuscrits relatifs &agrave; la
+Nouvelle-France, I., 254; Radisson, 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Radisson; Margry,
+D&eacute;couvertes et &Eacute;tablissemens, etc., IV., 586-598; Tailhan, Nicholas
+Perrot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Morgan, League of the Iroquois.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 408-9; V., 687, 726; Histoire et
+Commerce des Colonies Angloises, 154.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., III., 471, 474; IX., 298, 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> IX., 57. The same proposal was made in 1681 by Du
+Chesneau, <i>ibid.</i> IX., 165.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Parkman's works; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 165; Shea's
+Charlevoix, IV., 16: "The English, indeed, as already remarked, from
+that time shared with the French in the fur trade; and this was the
+chief motive of their fomenting war between us and the Iroquois,
+inasmuch as they could get no good furs, which come from the northern
+districts, except by means of these Indians, who could scarcely effect a
+reconciliation with us without precluding them from this precious
+mine."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Charter of 1606.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Ramsay, Tennessee, 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> On the Southwestern Indians see Adair, American Indians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Ramsay, 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Spottswood's Letters, Virginia Hist. Colls., N.S., I.,
+67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180. The reader will find a
+convenient map for the southern region in Roosevelt, Winning of the
+West, I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Spottswood's Letters, I., 40; II., 149, 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Ramsay, 64. Note the bearing of this route on the Holston
+settlement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Georgia Historical Collections, I., 180; II., 123-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Spottswood. II., 331, for example.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Ramsay, 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Boone, Life and Adventures.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Observations on the North American Land Co., pp. xv., 144,
+London, 1796.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Margry, VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Allen, Lewis and Clarke Expedition, I., ix.; <i>vide post</i>,
+pp. 70-71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Vide post</i>, p. 71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Century Magazine</i>, XLI., 759.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Jessie Benton Fr&eacute;mont in <i>Century Magazine</i>, XLI., 766-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <i>Century Magazine</i>, XLI., p. 759; <i>vide post</i>, p. 74.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Parkman's works, particularly Old R&eacute;gime, make any
+discussion of the importance of the fur trade to Canada proper
+unnecessary. La Hontan says: "For you must know that Canada subsists
+only upon the trade of skins or furs, three-fourths of which come from
+the people that live around the Great Lakes." La Hontan, I., 53, London,
+1703.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10-11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 224, n. 1; Margry, V.
+See also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., map and pp. 38-9, 128.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Mackinaw.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> See Doty's enumeration, Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 202.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1672, p. 37; La Hontan, I., 105 (1703).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> On these early locations, consult the authorities cited by
+Shea in Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 125 <i>et seq.</i>, and by Branson in his
+criticism on Shea, <i>ibid.</i> IV., 223. See also Butterfield's Discovery of
+the Northwest in 1634, and <i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, V., 468, 630; and Minn.
+Hist. Colls., V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Some early estimates were as follows: 1640, "Great
+numbers" (Margry, I., 48); 1718, 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX., 889); 1728, 60 or 80 warriors (Margry, VI., 553); 1736, 90 warriors
+(Chaurignerie, cited in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 282); 1761,
+150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Margry, I., 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1667, 1670.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> 1718, estimated at 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX.,889); 1762, estimated at 150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+I., 32).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1670.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> French leagues.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> 1670, Foxes estimated at 400 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1670);
+1667, Foxes, 1000 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1667); 1695, Foxes and
+Mascoutins, 1200 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633); 1718, Sauks 100
+or 120, Foxes 500 warriors (2 Penn. Archives, VI., 54); 1728, Foxes, 200
+warriors (Margry, V.); 1762, Sauks and Foxes, 700 warriors (Gorrell,
+Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32). This, it must be observed, was after the Fox
+wars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1670; Butterfield's Discovery of the
+Northwest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> In 1820 those in Wisconsin numbered about 600 hunters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> On these Indians consult, besides authorities already
+cited, Shea's Discovery, etc. lx.; Jes. Rels.; Narr. and Crit. Hist. of
+Amer., IV., 168-170, 175; Radisson's Voyages; Margry, IV., 586-598.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1666-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1670.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Histoire du Canada, 193-4 (edition of 1866).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Dablon, Jesuit Relations, 1671.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> See Parkman, Pioneers, 429 ff. (1890).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Margry, I., 50. The date rests on inference; see
+Bibliography of Nicolet in Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., and cf. Hebberd,
+Wisconsin under French Dominion, 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 160.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Margry, VI., 3; Coll. de Mamiscrits, I., 255, where the
+date is wrongly given as 1676. The italics are ours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Radisson, Voyages (Prince Soc. Pubs.); Margry, I., 53-55,
+83; Jes. Rels., 1660; Wis. Hist. Colls., X., XI; Narrative and Critical
+Hist. Amer., IV., 168-173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Cf. Radisson, 173-5, and Jes. Rels., 1660, pp. 12, 30;
+1663, pp. 17 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Pottawattomies in the region of Green Bay.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> XI., 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Radisson, 200, 217, 219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Suite, in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of
+Science, Arts and Letters, V., 141; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 153, 140,152;
+Margry, VI., 3; Parkman, Old R&eacute;gime, 310-315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Cf. Jes. Rels., 1670, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> History of United States, II., 138 (1884).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Harrisse, Notes sur la Nouvelle France, 174-181.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Parkman, Old R&eacute;gime, 328 ff., and La Salle, 98; Margry,
+II., 251; Radisson, 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> See Talon's report quoted in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+IV., 175.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Margry abounds in evidences of La Salle's commercial
+activity, as does Parkman's La Salle. See also Dunn, Indiana, 20-1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Margry, II., 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Margry, II., 251.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Tailhan's Perrot, 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Jes. Rels., 1670.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 159; Parkman,
+Old R&eacute;gime, 305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Margry, VI., 45.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Margry, I., 81.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 187. On the cost of such
+expeditions, see documents in Margry, I., 293-296; VI., 503-507. On the
+profits of the trade, see La Salle in 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18-19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> See Radisson, <i>ante</i>, p. 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> <i>Vide post</i>, p. 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Vide ante</i>, p. 14; Radisson, 154; Minn. Hist. Colls.,
+V., 427. Compare the effects of the introduction of bronze weapons into
+Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Margry, II., 234. On the power possessed by the French
+through this trade consult also D'Iberville's plan for locating
+Wisconsin Indians on the Illinois by changing their trading posts; see
+Margry, IV., 586-598.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8, 90; Narr. and Crit. Hist.
+Amer., IV., 182; Perrot, 327; Margry, VI., 507-509, 653-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 296, 308; IV., 735.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Quoted in Sheldon, Early History of Michigan, 310.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Tailhan's Perrot, 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., X., 54, 300-302, 307, 321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 186.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Margry, VI., 60. Near Ashland, Wis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Consult French MSS., 3d series, VI., Parl. Library,
+Ottawa, cited in Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422; Id., V., 425. In 1731 M.
+La Ronde, having constructed at his own expense a bark of forty tons on
+Lake Superior, received the post of La Pointe de Chagouamigon as a
+gratuity to defray his expenses. See also the story of Verenderye's
+posts, in Parkman's article in <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, June, 1887, and
+Margry, VI. See also 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18; La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y.
+Col. Docs., IX., 159; Tailhan, Perrot, 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> La Hontan, I., 105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Near Ashland, Wis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Tailhan, Perrot, 139, 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Frontenac, 315-316. Cf. Perrot, 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Perrot, 331; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IV., 732-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 673.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Shea, Early Voyages, 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Kingsford, Canada, II., 394; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 635.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Margry, V.,219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> IV., 597.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 149; Smith, Wisconsin, II.,
+315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Coll. de Manus., III., 622.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> See Hebberd's account, Wisconsin under French Dominion;
+Coll. de Manus., I., 623; Smith, Wisconsin, II., 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Margry, VI., 543.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Tailhan, Perrot, <i>passim</i>; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 570,
+619, 621; Margry, VI., 507-509, 553, 653-4; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422,
+425; Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 154.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> IV., 732, 735, 796-7; V., 687, 911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Margry, VI., 553, 563, 575-580; Neill in <i>Mag. Western
+History</i>, November, 1887.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Perrot, 148; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 42;
+Hebberd, Wisconsin under French Dominion, chapters on the Fox wars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 190-1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Oneida county.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Sawyer county.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Margry, VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84, and citations; <i>vide
+post</i>, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Fergus, Historical Series, No. 12; Breese, Early History
+of Illinois; Dunn, Indiana; Hubbard, Memorials of a Half Century;
+Monette, History of the Valley of the Mississippi, I., ch. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Henry, Travels, ch. x.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> See Memoir in Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.; III., 224; VII.,
+127, 152, 166.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Henry, Travels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 435-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Indians. Compare Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 256; VII., 158,
+117, 179.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> The French minister for the colonies expressing approval
+of this post writes in 1752: "As it can hardly be expected that any
+other grain than corn will grow there, it is necessary at least for a
+while to stick to it, and not to persevere stubbornly in trying to raise
+wheat." On this Dr. E.D. Neill comments: "Millions of bushels of wheat
+from the region west and north of Lake Superior pass every year ...
+through the ship canal at Sault Ste. Marie." The corn was for supplying
+the voyageurs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Margry, VI., 758.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Canadian Archives, 1886, clxxii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 433. Washington was guided to the
+fort along an old trading route by traders; the trail was improved by
+the Ohio Company, and was used by Braddock in his march (Sparks,
+Washington's Works, II., 302).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II., 425-6. He was
+prominently engaged in other battles; see Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.,
+123-187.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Neill, in <i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, VII., 17, and Minn. Hist.
+Colls., V., 434-436. For other examples see Wis. Hist. Colls., V.,
+113-118; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 430-1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Va. Hist. Colls., N.S., II, 329.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Indian relations had a noteworthy influence upon colonial
+union; see Lucas, Appendiculae Historicae, 161, and Frothingham, Rise of
+the Republic, ch. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 59; Sparks, Washington's
+Works, II., 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> II., 403.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Bigelow, Franklin's Works, III., 43, 83, 98-100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26-38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Parkman, Pontiac, I., 185. Consult N.Y. Col. Docs., VI.,
+635, 690, 788, 872, 974.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Carver, Travels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Porlier Papers, Wis. Pur Trade MSS., in possession of
+Wis. Hist. Soc.; also Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 200-201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Henry, Travels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 61 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Sparks, Franklin's Works, IV., 303-323.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Jay, Address before the N.Y. Hist. Soc. on the Treaty
+Negotiations of 1782-3, appendix; map in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+VII., 148.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> But Vergennes had a just appreciation of the value of the
+region for settlement as well. He recognized and feared the American
+capacity for expansion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Hansard, XXIII., 377-8, 381-3, 389, 398-9, 405, 409-10,
+423, 450, 457, 465.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> American State Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 190.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> 487.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> As early as 1794 the company had established a stockaded
+fort at Sandy lake. After Jay's treaty conceding freedom of entry, the
+company dotted this region with posts and raised the British flag over
+them. In 1805 the center of trade was changed from Grand Portage to Fort
+William Henry, on the Canada side. Neill, Minnesota, 239 (4th edn.).
+Bancroft, Northwest Coast, I., 560. <i>Vide ante</i>, p. 20, and <i>post</i>, p.
+55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., I., p. 509.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> Treaties and Conventions, etc., 1776-1887, p. 380.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Lodge, Hamilton's Works, IV., 514.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Michigan Pioneer Colls., XV., 8; cf. 10, 12, 23 and XVI.,
+67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Wis. Fur Trade MSS., 1814 (State Hist. Soc.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 260. Mich. Pioneer Colls., XVI.,
+103-104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 255. Cf. Mich. Pioneer Colls.,
+XVI., 67. Rolette, one of the Prairie du Chien traders, was tried by the
+British for treason to Great Britain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., III., 705.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., L, 562. See map in
+Collet's Travels, atlas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> On this company see Mackenzie, Voyages; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., 378-616, and citations; <i>Hunt's Merch. Mag.</i>, III.,
+185; Irving, Astoria; Ross, The Fur Hunters of the Far West; Harmon,
+Journal; Report on the Canadian Archives, 1881, p. 61 et seq. This
+fur-trading life still goes on in the more remote regions of British
+America. See Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 123-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Mackenzie, Voyages, xxxix. Harmon, Journal, 36. In the
+fall of 1784, Haldimand granted permission to the Northwest Company to
+build a small vessel at Detroit, to be employed next year on Lake
+Superior. Calendar of Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Besides the authorities cited above, see "Anderson's
+Narrative," in Wis. Hist. Colls., IX., 137-206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> An estimate of the cost of an expedition in 1717 is given
+in Margry, VI., 506. At that time the wages of a good voyageur for a
+year amounted to about $50. Provisions for the two months' trip from
+Montreal to Mackinaw cost about $1.00 per month per man. Indian corn for
+a year cost $16; lard, $10; <i>eau de vie</i>, $1.30; tobacco, 25 cents. It
+cost, therefore, less than $80 to support a voyageur for one year's trip
+into the woods. Gov. Ninian Edwards, writing at the time of the American
+Fur Company (<i>post</i>, p. 57), says: "The whole expense of transporting
+eight thousand weight of goods from Montreal to the Mississippi,
+wintering with the Indians, and returning with a load of furs and
+peltries in the succeeding season, including the cost of provisions and
+portages and the hire of five engages for the whole time does not exceed
+five hundred and twenty-five dollars, much of which is usually paid to
+those engages when in the Indian country, in goods at an exorbitant
+price." American State Papers, VI., 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> This distinction goes back at least to 1681 (N.Y. Col.
+Docs., IX., 152). Often the engagement was for five years, and the
+voyageur might be transferred from one master to another, at the
+master's will.
+</p><p>
+The following is a translation of a typical printed engagement, one of
+scores in the possession of the Wisconsin Historical Society, the
+written portions in brackets:
+</p><p>
+"Before a Notary residing at the post of Michilimakinac, Undersigned;
+Was Present [Joseph Lamarqueritte] who has voluntarily engaged and doth
+bind himself by these Presents to M[onsieur Louis Grignion] here present
+and accepting, at [his] first requisition to set off from this Post [in
+the capacity of Winterer] in one of [his] Canoes or Bateaux to make the
+Voyage [going as well as returning] and to winter for [two years at the
+Bay].
+</p><p>
+"And to have due and fitting care on the route and while at the said
+[place] of the Merchandise, Provisions, Peltries, Utensils and of
+everything necessary for the Voyage; to serve, obey and execute
+faithfully all that the said Sieur [Bourgeois] or any other person
+representing him to whom he may transport the present Engagement,
+commands him lawfully and honestly; to do [his] profit, to avoid
+anything to his damage, and to inform him of it if it come to his
+knowledge, and generally to do all that a good [Winterer] ought and is
+obliged to do; without power to make any particular trade, to absent
+himself, or to quit the said service, under pain of these Ordinances,
+and of loss of wages. This engagement is therefore made, for the sum of
+[Eight Hundred] livres or shillings, ancient currency of Quebec, that he
+promises [and] binds himself to deliver and pay to the said [Winterer
+one month] after his return to this Post, and at his departure [an
+Equipment each year of 2 Shirts, 1 Blanket of 3 point, 1 Carot of
+Tobacco, 1 Cloth Blanket, 1 Leather Shirt, 1 Pair of Leather Breeches, 5
+Pairs of Leather Shoes, and Six Pounds of Soap.]
+</p><p>
+"For thus, etc., promising, etc., binding, etc., renouncing, etc.
+</p><p>
+"Done and passed at the said [Michilimackinac] in the year eighteen
+hundred [Seven] the [twenty-fourth] of [July before] twelve o'clock; &amp;
+have signed with the exception of the said [Winterer] who, having
+declared himself unable to do so, has made his ordinary mark after the
+engagement was read to him.
+</p>
+<p><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">his</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">"JOSEPH X LAMARQUERITTE. [SEAL]</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">mark.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 17em;">Louis GEIGNON. [SEAL]</span><br />
+"SAM<sup>L</sup>. ABBOTT,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Not. Pub."</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+Endorsed&mdash;"Engagement of Joseph Lamarqueritte to Louis Grignon."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> For Canadian boat-songs see <i>Hunt's Merch. Mag.</i>, III.,
+189; Mrs. Kinzie, Wau Bun; Bela Hubbard, Memorials of a Half-Century;
+Robinson, Great Fur Land.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (Wis. Hist. Soc.). Published in
+Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the State Hist. Soc.
+of Wis. 1889, pp. 81-82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> See Mich. Pioneer Colls., XV., XVI., 67, 74. The
+government consulted the Northwest Company, who made particular efforts
+to "prevent the Americans from ever alienating the minds of the
+Indians." To this end they drew up memoirs regarding the proper
+frontiers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> Reaume's petition in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of
+Wisconsin Historical Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> On this company consult Irving, Astoria; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., ch. xvi.; II., chs. vii-x; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>
+XIII., 269; Franchere, Narrative; Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers
+on the Oregon, or Columbia River (1849); Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (State
+Hist. Sec.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> U.S. Statutes at Large, III., 332. Cf. laws in 1802 and
+1822.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 103; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 9.
+The Warren brothers, who came to Wisconsin in 1818, were descendants of
+the Pilgrims and related to Joseph Warren who fell at Bunker Hill; they
+came from Berkshire, Mass., and marrying the half-breed daughters of
+Michael Cadotte, of La Pointe, succeeded to his trade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> See the objections of British traders, Mich. Pioneer
+Colls., XVI., 76 ff. The Northwest Company tried to induce the British
+government to construe the treaty so as to prevent the United States
+from erecting the forts, urging that a fort at Prairie du Chien would
+"deprive the Indians of their 'rights and privileges'", guaranteed by
+the treaty.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> Mass. Coll. Recs., I., 55: III., 424.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Acts and Resolves of the Prov. of Mass. Bay, I., 172.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Bigelow, Franklin's Works, II., 316, 221. A plan for
+public trading houses came before the British ministry while Franklin
+was in England, and was commented upon by him for their benefit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> Hening, Statutes, VII., 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Journals of Congress, 1775, pp. 162, 168, 247.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 1776, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Ford's Washington's Writings, X., 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Annals of Cong., IV., 1273; cf. <i>ibid.</i>, V., 231.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 583.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Annals of Cong., VI., 2889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Annals of Congress, V., 230 ff., 283; Abridgment of
+Debates, VII., 187-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684; II., 181.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, VI., Ind. Affs., II., 203; Ind.
+Treaties, 399 <i>et seq.</i>; Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 269; <i>Washington
+Gazette</i>, 1821, 1822, articles by Ramsay Crooks under signature
+"Backwoodsman," and speech of Tracy in House of Representatives,
+February 23, 1821; Benton, Thirty Years View; <i>id.</i>, Abr. Deb., VII.,
+1780.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> To understand the importance of these two points see
+<i>post</i>, pp. 62-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> In an address before the State Historical Society of
+Wisconsin, on the Character and Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin
+(Proceedings, 1889, pp. 86-98), I have given details as to Wisconsin
+settlements, posts, routes of trade, and Indian location and population
+in 1820.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377. Compare the articles used by
+Radisson, <i>ante</i>, p. 29. For La Salle's estimate of amount and kind of
+goods needed for a post, and the profits thereon, see Penna. Archives,
+2d series, VI., 18-19. Brandy was an important item, one beaver selling
+for a pint. For goods and cost in 1728 see a bill quoted by E.D. Neill,
+on p. 20, <i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, Nov., 1887, Cf. 4 Mass. Hist. Colls.,
+III., 344; Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180 ff.; Minn. Hist. Colls., II., 46;
+Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 42 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Wis. Fur Trade MSS. Cf. Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377, and
+Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 360. The amount of liquor taken to
+the woods was very great. The French Jesuits had protested against its
+use in vain (Parkman's Old R&eacute;gime); the United States prohibited it to
+no purpose. It was an indispensable part of a trader's outfit. Robert
+Stuart, agent of the American Fur Company at Mackinaw, once wrote to
+John Lawe, one of the leading traders at Green Bay, that the 56 bbls. of
+whiskey which he sends is "enough to last two years, and half drown all
+the Indians he deals with." See also Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 282;
+McKenney's Tour to the Lakes, 169, 299-301; McKenney's Memoirs, I.,
+19-21. An old trader assured me that it was the custom to give five or
+six gallons of "grog"&mdash;one-fourth water&mdash;to the hunter when he paid his
+credits; he thought that only about one-eighth or one-ninth part of the
+whole sales was in whiskey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> A light boat sometimes called a "Mackinaw boat," about 32
+feet long, by 6-1/2 to 15 feet wide amidships, and sharp at the ends.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> See Wis. Hist. Colls., II., 108.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 263.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> See Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 220, 286; III., 235;
+McKenney's Tour, 194; Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, II., 55. Sometimes a
+family made 1500 lbs. in a season.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> Lewis Cass in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II., 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> See D'Iberville's plans for relocating Indian tribes by
+denying them credit at certain posts, Margry, IV., 597. The system was
+used by the Dutch, and the Puritans also; see Weeden, Economic and
+Social Hist. New Eng., I., 98. In 1765, after the French and Indian war,
+the Chippeways of Chequamegon Bay told Henry, a British trader, that
+unless he advanced them goods on credit, "their wives and children would
+perish; for that there were neither ammunition nor clothing left among
+them." He distributed goods worth 3000 beaver skins. Henry, Travels,
+195-6. Cf. Neill, Minnesota, 225-6; N.Y. Col. Docs., VII., 543; Amer.
+State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 64, 66, 329, 333-5; <i>North American
+Review</i>, Jan., 1826, p. 110.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> Biddle, an Indian agent, testified in 1822 that while the
+cost of transporting 100 wt. from New York to Green Bay did not exceed
+five dollars, which would produce a charge of less than 10 percent on
+the original cost, the United States factor charged 50 per cent
+additional. The United States capital stock was diminished by this
+trade, however. The private dealers charged much more. Schoolcraft in
+1831 estimated that $48.34 in goods and provisions at cost prices was
+the average annual supply of each hunter, or $6.90 to each soul. The
+substantial accuracy of this is sustained by my data. See Sen. Doc., No.
+90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 45; State Papers, No. 7, 18th Cong., 1st
+Sess., I.; State Papers, No. 54, 18th Cong., 2d Sess., III.;
+Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 599; Invoice Book, Amer. Fur Co., for
+1820, 1821; Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of Wisconsin Historical
+Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> The following is a typical account, taken from the books
+of Jacques Porlier, of Green Bay, for the year 1823: The Indian Michel
+bought on credit in the fall: $16 worth of cloth; a trap, $1.00; two and
+a half yards of cotton, $3.12-1/2; three measures of powder, $1.50;
+lead, $1.00; a bottle of whiskey, 50 cents, and some other articles,
+such as a gun worm, making in all a bill of about $25. This he paid in
+full by bringing in eighty-five muskrats, worth nearly $20; a fox,
+$1.00, and a mocock of maple sugar, worth $4.00.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> A.J. Vieau, who traded in the thirties, gave me this
+information.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> For the value of the beaver at different periods and
+places consult indexes, under "beaver," in N.Y. Col. Docs,; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast; Weeden, Economic and Social Hist. New Eng.; and see
+Morgan, American Beaver, 243-4; Henry, Travels, 192; 2 Penna. Archives,
+VI., 18; Servent, in Paris Ex. Univ. 1867, Rapports, VI., 117, 123;
+Proc. Wis. State Hist. Soc., 1889, p. 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls. II., 46, gives the following table for
+1836:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan="3"><i>St. Louis Prices.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2"><i>Minn. Price.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2"><i>Nett Gain.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Three pt. blanket</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>$3 25</td>
+  <td align='right'>60 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>$12 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>$8 75</td>
+  <td align='right'>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1-1/2 yds. Stroud</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>2 37</td>
+  <td align='right'>60 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>12 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>9 63</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 N.W. gun</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>6 50</td>
+  <td align='right'>100 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>20 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>13 50</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 lb. lead</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>06</td>
+  <td align='right'>2 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+  <td align='right'>34</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 lb. powder</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>28</td>
+  <td align='right'>10 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>2 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 72</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 tin kettle</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>2 50</td>
+  <td align='right'>60 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>12 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>9 50</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 knife</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>20</td>
+  <td align='right'>4 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 lb. tobacco</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>12</td>
+  <td align='right'>8 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 60</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 38</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 looking glass</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>04</td>
+  <td align='right'>4 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+  <td align='right'>76</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1-1/2 yd. scarlet cloth</td>
+  <td align='left'>=</td>
+  <td align='right'>3 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>60 rat skins at 20 cents =</td>
+  <td align='right'>12 00</td>
+  <td align='right'>9 00</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>See also the table of prices in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st
+Sess.; II., 42 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Douglass, Summary, I., 176.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Morgan, American Beaver, 243.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc., 1889, pp. 92-98.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 66.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 220, 223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> The centers of Wisconsin trade were Green Bay, Prairie du
+Chien, and La Pointe (on Madelaine island, Chequamegon bay). Lesser
+points of distribution were Milwaukee and Portage. From these places, by
+means of the interlacing rivers and the numerous lakes of northern
+Wisconsin, the whole region was visited by birch canoes or Mackinaw
+boats.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Schoolcraft in Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II,. 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> Lawe to Vieau, in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. See also U.S.
+Indian Treaties, and Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> House Ex. Docs., 19th Cong., 2d Sess., II., No. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> For example see the Vieau Narrative in Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+XI., and the Wis. Fur Trade MSS.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> Butler, Wild North Land; Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Notwithstanding Kulischer's assertion that there is no
+room for this in primitive society. <i>Vide</i> Der Handel auf den primitiven
+Culturstufen, in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie und
+Sprachwissenschaft</i>, X., No. 4, p. 378. Compare instances of
+inter-tribal trade given <i>ante</i>, pp. 11, 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> On the "<i>metis</i>," <i>bo&iacute;s-brul&eacute;s</i>, or half-breeds, consult
+Smithsonian Reports, 1879, p. 309, and Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 135; Biddle to Atkinson, 1819, in
+Ind. Pamphlets, Vol. I, No. 15 (Wis. Hist. Soc. Library).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Parkman, Pioneers of France, 230; Carr, Mounds of the
+Mississippi, p. 8, n. 8; Smith's Generall Historie, I., 88, 90, 155
+(Richmond, 1819).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Jefferson, Works, II., 60, 250, 370.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> Allen's Lewis and Clarke Expedition, p. ix (edition of
+1814. The introduction is by Jefferson).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Jefferson's messages of January 18, 1803, and February
+19, 1806. See Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> See Adams, Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to
+U.S., J.H.U. Studies, 3d Series, No. I., pp. 80-82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> <i>Vide ante</i>, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10. Compare Adams, as
+above. At Jefferson's desire, in January and February of 1788,
+Washington wrote various letters inquiring as to the feasibility of a
+canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio, "whereby the fur and peltry of the
+upper country can be transported"; saying: "Could a channel once be
+opened to convey the fur and peltry from the Lakes into the eastern
+country, its advantages would be so obvious as to induce an opinion that
+it would in a short time become the channel of conveyance for much the
+greater part of the commodities brought from thence." Sparks,
+Washington's Works, IX., 303, 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Cong. Rec., XXIII., 57. I found this interesting
+confirmation of my views after this paper was written. Compare <i>Harper's
+Magazine</i>, Sept. 1890, p. 565.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> The traffic in furs in the Middle Ages was enormous, says
+Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, III., 62. Numerous cities in England and
+on the Continent, whose names are derived from the word "beaver" and
+whose seals bear the beaver, testify to the former importance in Europe
+of this animal; see <i>Canadian Journal</i>, 1859, 359. See Du Chaillu,
+Viking Age, 209-10; Marco Polo, bk. iv., ch. xxi. "Wattenbach, in
+<i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, IX., 391, shows that German traders were
+known in the lands about the Baltic at least as early as the knights.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20643-h.htm or 20643-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/4/20643/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/20643.txt b/20643.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ebd0c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3256 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin
+
+Author: Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+Release Date: February 21, 2007 [EBook #20643]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES
+IN
+HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor
+
+    History is past Politics and Politics present History.--Freeman
+
+NINTH SERIES
+XI-XII
+
+
+The Character and Influence of the
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin
+
+_A Study of the Trading Post as an Institution_
+
+BY FREDERICK J. TURNER, PH.D.
+
+_Professor of History, University of Wisconsin_
+
+
+BALTIMORE
+THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS
+PUBLISHED MONTHLY
+November and December, 1891
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY N. MURRAY.
+
+ISAAC FRIEDENWALD CO., PRINTERS,
+BALTIMORE.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                           PAGE.
+   I. INTRODUCTION                                             7
+  II. PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE                            10
+ III. PLACE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN THE SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA  11
+      1. Early Trade along the Atlantic Coast                 11
+      2. In New England                                       12
+      3. In the Middle Region                                 18
+      4. In the South                                         16
+      5. In the Far West                                      18
+  IV. THE RIVER AND LAKE SYSTEMS OF THE NORTHWEST             19
+   V. WISCONSIN INDIANS                                       22
+  VI. PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE                   25
+ VII. FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN                         26
+VIII. FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN                               33
+  IX. THE FOX WARS                                            34
+   X. FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN                          38
+  XI. THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE             40
+ XII. THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE
+        INDIAN TRADE ON DIPLOMACY                             42
+XIII. THE NORTHWEST COMPANY                                   51
+ XIV. AMERICAN INFLUENCES                                     51
+  XV. GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES                               58
+ XVI. WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820                                 61
+XVII. EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST                             67
+
+
+
+
+THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.[1]
+
+
+The trading post is an old and influential institution. Established in
+the midst of an undeveloped society by a more advanced people, it is a
+center not only of new economic influences, but also of all the
+transforming forces that accompany the intercourse of a higher with a
+lower civilization. The Phoenicians developed the institution into a
+great historic agency. Closely associated with piracy at first, their
+commerce gradually freed itself from this and spread throughout the
+Mediterranean lands. A passage in the Odyssey (Book XV.) enables us to
+trace the genesis of the Phoenician trading post:
+
+"Thither came the Phoenicians, mariners renowned, greedy merchant-men
+with countless trinkets in a black ship.... They abode among us a whole
+year, and got together much wealth in their hollow ship. And when their
+hollow ship was now laden to depart, they sent a messenger.... There
+came a man versed in craft to my father's house with a golden chain
+strung here and there with amber beads. Now, the maidens in the hall and
+my lady mother were handling the chain and gazing on it and offering him
+their price."
+
+It would appear that the traders at first sailed from port to port,
+bartering as they went. After a time they stayed at certain profitable
+places a twelvemonth, still trading from their ships. Then came the
+fixed factory, and about it grew the trading colony.[2] The Phoenician
+trading post wove together the fabric of oriental civilization, brought
+arts and the alphabet to Greece, brought the elements of civilization to
+northern Africa, and disseminated eastern culture through the
+Mediterranean system of lands. It blended races and customs, developed
+commercial confidence, fostered the custom of depending on outside
+nations for certain supplies, and afforded a means of peaceful
+intercourse between societies naturally hostile.
+
+Carthaginian, Greek, Etruscan and Roman trading posts continued the
+process. By traffic in amber, tin, furs, etc., with the tribes of the
+north of Europe, a continental commerce was developed. The routes of
+this trade have been ascertained.[3] For over a thousand years before
+the migration of the peoples Mediterranean commerce had flowed along the
+interlacing river valleys of Europe, and trading posts had been
+established. Museums show how important an effect was produced upon the
+economic life of northern Europe by this intercourse. It is a
+significant fact that the routes of the migration of the peoples were to
+a considerable extent the routes of Roman trade, and it is well worth
+inquiry whether this commerce did not leave more traces upon Teutonic
+society than we have heretofore considered, and whether one cause of the
+migrations of the peoples has not been neglected.[4]
+
+That stage in the development of society when a primitive people comes
+into contact with a more advanced people deserves more study than has
+been given to it. As a factor in breaking the "cake of custom" the
+meeting of two such societies is of great importance; and if, with
+Starcke,[5] we trace the origin of the family to economic
+considerations, and, with Schrader,[6] the institution of guest
+friendship to the same source, we may certainly expect to find important
+influences upon primitive society arising from commerce with a higher
+people. The extent to which such commerce has affected all peoples is
+remarkable. One may study the process from the days of Phoenicia to
+the days of England in Africa,[7] but nowhere is the material more
+abundant than in the history of the relations of the Europeans and the
+American Indians. The Phoenician factory, it is true, fostered the
+development of the Mediterranean civilization, while in America the
+trading post exploited the natives. The explanation of this difference
+is to be sought partly in race differences, partly in the greater gulf
+that separated the civilization of the European from the civilization of
+the American Indian as compared with that which parted the early Greeks
+and the Phoenicians. But the study of the destructive effect of the
+trading post is valuable as well as the study of its elevating
+influences; in both cases the effects are important and worth
+investigation and comparison.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: In this paper I have rewritten and enlarged an address
+before the State Historical Society of Wisconsin on the Character and
+Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin, published in the Proceedings of
+the Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting, 1889. I am under obligations to Mr.
+Reuben G. Thwaites, Secretary of this society, for his generous
+assistance in procuring material for my work, and to Professor Charles
+H. Haskins, my colleague, who kindly read both manuscript and proof and
+made helpful suggestions. The reader will notice that throughout the
+paper I have used the word _Northwest_ in a limited sense as referring
+to the region included between the Great Lakes and the Ohio and
+Mississippi rivers.]
+
+[Footnote 2: On the trading colony, see Roscher und Jannasch, Colonien,
+p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Consult: Muellenhoff, Altertumskunde I., 212; Schrader,
+Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, New York, 1890, pp. 348
+ff.; Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xxvii., 11; Montelius, Civilization of
+Sweden in Heathen Times, 98-99; Du Chaillu, Viking Age; and the
+citations in Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, 466-7; Keary, Vikings in
+Western Christendom, 23.]
+
+[Footnote 4: In illustration it may be noted that the early Scandinavian
+power in Russia seized upon the trade route by the Dnieper and the Duna.
+Keary, Vikings, 173. See also _post_, pp. 36, 38.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Starcke, Primitive Family.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Schrader, l.c.; see also Ihring, in _Deutsche Rundschau_,
+III., 357, 420; Kulischer, Der Handel auf primitiven Kulturstufen, in
+_Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft_, X., 378.
+_Vide post_, p. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 7: W. Bosworth Smith, in a suggestive article in the
+_Nineteenth Century_, December, 1887, shows the influence of the
+Mohammedan trade in Africa.]
+
+
+
+
+PRIMITIVE INTER-TRIBAL TRADE.
+
+
+Long before the advent of the white trader, inter-tribal commercial
+intercourse existed. Mr. Charles Rau[8] and Sir Daniel Wilson[9] have
+shown that inter-tribal trade and division of labor were common among
+the mound-builders and in the stone age generally. In historic times
+there is ample evidence of inter-tribal trade. Were positive evidence
+lacking, Indian institutions would disclose the fact. Differences in
+language were obviated by the sign language,[10] a fixed system of
+communication, intelligible to all the western tribes at least. The
+peace pipe,[11] or calumet, was used for settling disputes,
+strengthening alliances, and speaking to strangers--a sanctity attached
+to it. Wampum belts served in New England and the middle region as money
+and as symbols in the ratification of treaties.[12] The Chippeways had
+an institution called by a term signifying "to enter one another's
+lodges,"[13] whereby a truce was made between them and the Sioux at the
+winter hunting season. During these seasons of peace it was not uncommon
+for a member of one tribe to adopt a member of another as his brother, a
+tie which was respected even after the expiration of the truce. The
+analogy of this custom to the classical "guest-friendship" needs no
+comment; and the economic cause of the institution is worth remark, as
+one of the means by which the rigor of primitive inter-tribal hostility
+was mitigated.
+
+But it is not necessary to depend upon indirect evidence. The earliest
+travellers testify to the existence of a wide inter-tribal commerce. The
+historians of De Soto's expedition mention Indian merchants who sold
+salt to the inland tribes. "In 1565 and for some years previous bison
+skins were brought by the Indians down the Potomac, and thence carried
+along-shore in canoes to the French about the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+During two years six thousand skins were thus obtained."[14] An
+Algonquin brought to Champlain at Quebec a piece of copper a foot long,
+which he said came from a tributary of the Great Lakes.[15] Champlain
+also reports that among the Canadian Indians village councils were held
+to determine what number of men might go to trade with other tribes in
+the summer.[16] Morton in 1632 describes similar inter-tribal trade in
+New England, and adds that certain utensils are "but in certain parts of
+the country made, where the severall trades are appropriated to the
+inhabitants of those parts onely."[17] Marquette relates that the
+Illinois bought firearms of the Indians who traded directly with the
+French, and that they went to the south and west to carry off slaves,
+which they sold at a high price to other nations.[18] It was on the
+foundation, therefore, of an extensive inter-tribal trade that the white
+man built up the forest commerce.[19]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: Smithsonian Report, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1889, VII.,
+59. See also Thruston, Antiquities of Tennessee, 79 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Mallery, in Bureau of Ethnology, I., 324; Clark, Indian
+Sign Language.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Shea, Discovery of the Mississippi, 34. Catilinite pipes
+were widely used, even along the Atlantic slope, Thruston, 80-81.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, I.,
+ch. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Minnesota Historical Collections, V., 267.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World, 230, citing
+Menendez.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Neill, in Narrative and Critical History of America, IV.,
+164.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Champlain's Voyages (Prince Society), III., 183.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Morton, New English Canaan (Prince Society), 159.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley,
+32.]
+
+[Footnote 19: For additional evidence see Radisson, Voyages (Prince
+Society), 91, 173; Massachusetts Historical Collections, I., 151;
+Smithsonian Contributions, XVI., 30; Jesuit Relations, 1671, 41;
+Thruston, Antiquities, etc., 79-82; Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi
+Valley, 25, 27; and _post_ pp. 26-7, 36.]
+
+
+
+
+EARLY TRADE ALONG THE ATLANTIC COAST.
+
+
+The chroniclers of the earliest voyages to the Atlantic coast abound in
+references to this traffic. First of Europeans to purchase native furs
+in America appear to have been the Norsemen who settled Vinland. In the
+saga of Eric the Red[20] we find this interesting account: "Thereupon
+Karlsefni and his people displayed their shields, and when they came
+together they began to barter with each other. Especially did the
+strangers wish to buy red cloth, for which they offered in exchange
+peltries and quite grey skins. They also desired to buy swords and
+spears, but Karlsefni and Snorri forbade this. In exchange for perfect
+unsullied skins the Skrellings would take red stuff a span in length,
+which they would bind around their heads. So their trade went on for a
+time, until Karlsefni and his people began to grow short of cloth, when
+they divided it into such narrow pieces that it was not more than a
+finger's breadth wide, but the Skrellings still continued to give just
+as much for this as before, or more."[21]
+
+The account of Verrazano's voyage mentions his Indian trade. Captain
+John Smith, exploring New England in 1614, brought back a cargo of fish
+and 11,000 beaver skins.[22] These examples could be multiplied; in
+short, a way was prepared for colonization by the creation of a demand
+for European goods, and thus the opportunity for a lodgement was
+afforded.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 20: Reeves, Finding of Wineland the Good, 47.]
+
+[Footnote 21: N.Y. Hist. Colls., I., 54-55, 59.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Smith, Generall Historie (Richmond, 1819), I., 87-8, 182,
+199; Strachey's Travaile into Virginia, 157 (Hakluyt Soc. VI.); Parkman,
+Pioneers, 230.]
+
+
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND INDIAN TRADE.
+
+
+The Indian trade has a place in the early history of the New England
+colonies. The Plymouth settlers "found divers corn fields and little
+running brooks, a place ... fit for situation,"[23] and settled down
+cuckoo-like in Indian clearings. Mr. Weeden has shown that the Indian
+trade furnished a currency (wampum) to New England, and that it afforded
+the beginnings of her commerce. In September of their first year the
+Plymouth men sent out a shallop to trade with the Indians, and when a
+ship arrived from England in 1621 they speedily loaded her with a
+return cargo of beaver and lumber.[24] By frequent legislation the
+colonies regulated and fostered the trade.[25] Bradford reports that in
+a single year twenty hhd. of furs were shipped from Plymouth, and that
+between 1631 and 1636 their shipments amounted to 12,150 _li_. beaver
+and 1156 _li_. otter.[26] Morton in his 'New English Canaan' alleges
+that a servant of his was "thought to have a thousand pounds in ready
+gold gotten by the beaver when he died."[27] In the pursuit of this
+trade men passed continually farther into the wilderness, and their
+trading posts "generally became the pioneers of new settlements."[28]
+For example, the posts of Oldham, a Puritan trader, led the way for the
+settlements on the Connecticut river,[29] and in their early days these
+towns were partly sustained by the Indian trade.[30]
+
+Not only did the New England traders expel the Dutch from this valley;
+they contended with them on the Hudson.[31]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 23: Bradford, Plymouth Plantation.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Bradford, 104.]
+
+[Footnote 25: _E.g._, Plymouth Records, I., 50, 54, 62, 119; II., 10;
+Massachusetts Colonial Records, I., 55, 81, 96, 100, 322; II., 86, 138;
+III., 424; V., 180; Hazard, Historical Collections, II., 19 (the
+Commissioners of the United Colonies propose giving the monopoly of the
+fur trade to a corporation). On public truck-houses, _vide post_, p.
+58.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Bradford, 108, gives the proceeds of the sale of these
+furs.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Force, Collections, Vol. I., No. 5, p. 53.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Weeden, I., 132, 160-1.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Winthrop, History of New England, I., 111, 131.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Connecticut Colonial Records, 1637, pp. 11, 18.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Weeden, I., 126.]
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN TRADE IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES.
+
+
+Morton, in the work already referred to, protested against allowing "the
+Great Lake of the Erocoise" (Champlain) to the Dutch, saying that it is
+excellent for the fur trade, and that the Dutch have gained by beaver
+20,000 pounds a year. Exaggerated though the statement is, it is true
+that the energies of the Dutch were devoted to this trade, rather than
+to agricultural settlement. As in the case of New France the settlers
+dispersed themselves in the Indian trade; so general did this become
+that laws had to be passed to compel the raising of crops.[32] New York
+City (New Amsterdam) was founded and for a time sustained by the fur
+trade. In their search for peltries the Dutch were drawn up the Hudson,
+up the Connecticut, and down the Delaware, where they had Swedes for
+their rivals. By way of the Hudson the Dutch traders had access to Lake
+Champlain, and to the Mohawk, the headwaters of which connected through
+the lakes of western New York with Lake Ontario. This region, which was
+supplied by the trading post of Orange (Albany), was the seat of the
+Iroquois confederacy. The results of the trade upon Indian society
+became apparent in a short time in the most decisive way. Furnished with
+arms by the Dutch, the Iroquois turned upon the neighboring Indians,
+whom the French had at first refrained from supplying with guns.[33] In
+1649 they completely ruined the Hurons,[34] a part of whom fled to the
+woods of northern Wisconsin. In the years immediately following, the
+Neutral Nation and the Eries fell under their power; they overawed the
+New England Indians and the Southern tribes, and their hunting and war
+parties visited Illinois and drove Indians of those plains into
+Wisconsin. Thus by priority in securing firearms, as well as by their
+remarkable civil organization,[35] the Iroquois secured possession of
+the St. Lawrence and Lakes Ontario and Erie. The French had accepted the
+alliance of the Algonquins and the Hurons, as the Dutch, and afterward
+the English, had that of the Iroquois; so these victories of the
+Iroquois cut the French off from the entrance to the Great Lakes by way
+of the upper St. Lawrence. As early as 1629 the Dutch trade was
+estimated at 50,000 guilders per annum, and the Delaware trade alone
+produced 10,000 skins yearly in 1663.[36] The English succeeded to this
+trade, and under Governor Dongan they made particular efforts to extend
+their operations to the Northwest, using the Iroquois as middlemen.
+Although the French were in possession of the trade with the Algonquins
+of the Northwest, the English had an economic advantage in competing for
+this trade in the fact that Albany traders, whose situation enabled them
+to import their goods more easily than Montreal traders could, and who
+were burdened with fewer governmental restrictions, were able to pay
+fifty per cent more for beaver and give better goods. French traders
+frequently received their supplies from Albany, a practice against which
+the English authorities legislated in 1720; and the _coureurs de bois_
+smuggled their furs to the same place.[37] As early as 1666 Talon
+proposed that the king of France should purchase New York, "whereby he
+would have two entrances to Canada and by which he would give to the
+French all the peltries of the north, of which the English share the
+profit by the communication which they have with the Iroquois by
+Manhattan and Orange."[38] It is a characteristic of the fur trade that
+it continually recedes from the original center, and so it happened that
+the English traders before long attempted to work their way into the
+Illinois country.[39] The wars between the French and English and
+Iroquois must be read in the light of this fact. At the outbreak of the
+last French and Indian war, however, it was rather Pennsylvania and
+Virginia traders who visited the Ohio Valley. It is said that some three
+hundred of them came over the mountains yearly, following the
+Susquehanna and the Juniata and the headwaters of the Potomac to the
+tributaries of the Ohio, and visiting with their pack-horses the Indian
+villages along the valley. The center of the English trade was
+Pickawillani on the Great Miami. In 1749 Celoron de Bienville, who had
+been sent out to vindicate French authority in the valley, reported that
+each village along the Ohio and its branches "has one or more English
+traders, and each of these has hired men to carry his furs."[40]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 32: New York Colonial Documents, I., 181, 389, Sec.7.]
+
+[Footnote 33: _Ibid._ 182; Collection de manuscrits relatifs a la
+Nouvelle-France, I., 254; Radisson, 93.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Radisson; Margry,
+Decouvertes et Etablissemens, etc., IV., 586-598; Tailhan, Nicholas
+Perrot.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Morgan, League of the Iroquois.]
+
+[Footnote 36: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 408-9; V., 687, 726; Histoire et
+Commerce des Colonies Angloises, 154.]
+
+[Footnote 37: N.Y. Col. Docs., III., 471, 474; IX., 298, 319.]
+
+[Footnote 38: _Ibid._ IX., 57. The same proposal was made in 1681 by Du
+Chesneau, _ibid._ IX., 165.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Parkman's works; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 165; Shea's
+Charlevoix, IV., 16: "The English, indeed, as already remarked, from
+that time shared with the French in the fur trade; and this was the
+chief motive of their fomenting war between us and the Iroquois,
+inasmuch as they could get no good furs, which come from the northern
+districts, except by means of these Indians, who could scarcely effect a
+reconciliation with us without precluding them from this precious
+mine."]
+
+[Footnote 40: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 50.]
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN TRADE IN THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.
+
+
+The Indian trade of the Virginians was not limited to the Ohio country.
+As in the case of Massachusetts Bay, the trade had been provided for
+before the colony left England,[41] and in times of need it had
+preserved the infant settlement. Bacon's rebellion was in part due to
+the opposition to the governor's trading relations with the savages.
+After a time the nearer Indians were exploited, and as early as the
+close of the seventeenth century Virginia traders sought the Indians
+west of the Alleghanies.[42] The Cherokees lived among the mountains,
+"where the present states of Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, and the
+Carolinas join one another."[43] To the west, on the Mississippi, were
+the Chickasaws, south of whom lived the Choctaws, while to the south of
+the Cherokees were the Creeks. The Catawbas had their villages on the
+border of North and South Carolina, about the headwaters of the Santee
+river. Shawnese Indians had formerly lived on the Cumberland river, and
+French traders had been among them, as well as along the
+Mississippi;[44] but by the time of the English traders, Tennessee and
+Kentucky were for the most part uninhabited. The Virginia traders
+reached the Catawbas, and for a time the Cherokees, by a trading route
+through the southwest of the colony to the Santee. By 1712 this trade
+was a well-established one,[45] and caravans of one hundred pack-horses
+passed along the trail.[46]
+
+The Carolinas had early been interested in the fur trade. In 1663 the
+Lords Proprietors proposed to pay the governor's salary from the
+proceeds of the traffic. Charleston traders were the rivals of the
+Virginians in the southwest. They passed even to the Choctaws and
+Chickasaws, crossing the rivers by portable boats of skin, and sometimes
+taking up a permanent abode among the Indians. Virginia and Carolina
+traders were not on good terms with each other, and Governor Spottswood
+frequently made complaints of the actions of the Carolinians. His
+expedition across the mountains in 1716, if his statement is to be
+trusted, opened a new way to the transmontane Indians, and soon
+afterwards a trading company was formed under his patronage to avail
+themselves of this new route.[47] It passed across the Blue Ridge into
+the Shenandoah valley, and down the old Indian trail to the Cherokees,
+who lived along the upper Tennessee. Below the bend at the Muscle Shoals
+the Virginians met the competition of the French traders from New
+Orleans and Mobile.[48]
+
+The settlement of Augusta, Georgia, was another important trading post.
+Here in 1740 was an English garrison of fifteen or twenty soldiers, and
+a little band of traders, who annually took about five hundred
+pack-horses into the Indian country. In the spring the furs were floated
+down the river in large boats.[49] The Spaniards and the French also
+visited the Indians, and the rivalry over this trade was an important
+factor in causing diplomatic embroilment.[50]
+
+The occupation of the back-lands of the South affords a prototype of the
+process by which the plains of the far West were settled, and also
+furnishes an exemplification of all the stages of economic development
+existing contemporaneously. After a time the traders were accompanied to
+the Indian grounds by _hunters_, and sometimes the two callings were
+combined.[51] When Boone entered Kentucky he went with an Indian trader
+whose posts were on the Red river in Kentucky.[52] After the game
+decreased the hunter's clearing was occupied by the _cattle-raiser_, and
+his home, as settlement grew, became the property of the _cultivator of
+the soil_;[53] the _manufacturing era_ belongs to our own time.
+
+In the South, the Middle Colonies and New England the trade opened the
+water-courses, the trading post grew into the palisaded town, and rival
+nations sought to possess the trade for themselves. Throughout the
+colonial frontier the effects, as well as the methods, of Indian traffic
+were strikingly alike. The trader was the pathfinder for civilization.
+Nor was the process limited to the east of the Mississippi. The
+expeditions of Verenderye led to the discovery of the Rocky
+Mountains.[54] French traders passed up the Missouri; and when the Lewis
+and Clarke expedition ascended that river and crossed the continent, it
+went with traders and voyageurs as guides and interpreters. Indeed,
+Jefferson first conceived the idea of such an expedition[55] from
+contact with Ledyard, who was organizing a fur trading company in
+France, and it was proposed to Congress as a means of fostering our
+western Indian trade.[56] The first immigrant train to California was
+incited by the representations of an Indian trader who had visited the
+region, and it was guided by trappers.[57]
+
+St. Louis was the center of the fur trade of the far West, and Senator
+Benton was intimate with leading traders like Chouteau.[58] He urged the
+occupation of the Oregon country, where in 1810 an establishment had for
+a time been made by the celebrated John Jacob Astor; and he fostered
+legislation opening the road to the southwestern Mexican settlements
+long in use by the traders. The expedition of his son-in-law Fremont was
+made with French voyageurs, and guided to the passes by traders who had
+used them before.[59] Benton was also one of the stoutest of the early
+advocates of a Pacific railway.
+
+But the Northwest[60] was particularly the home of the fur trade, and
+having seen that this traffic was not an isolated or unimportant matter,
+we may now proceed to study it in detail with Wisconsin as the field of
+investigation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 41: Charter of 1606.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Ramsay, Tennessee, 63.]
+
+[Footnote 43: On the Southwestern Indians see Adair, American Indians.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Ramsay, 75.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Spottswood's Letters, Virginia Hist. Colls., N.S., I.,
+67.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180. The reader will find a
+convenient map for the southern region in Roosevelt, Winning of the
+West, I.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Spottswood's Letters, I., 40; II., 149, 150.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Ramsay, 64. Note the bearing of this route on the Holston
+settlement.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Georgia Historical Collections, I., 180; II., 123-7.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Spottswood. II., 331, for example.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Ramsay, 65.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Boone, Life and Adventures.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Observations on the North American Land Co., pp. xv., 144,
+London, 1796.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Margry, VI.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Allen, Lewis and Clarke Expedition, I., ix.; _vide post_,
+pp. 70-71.]
+
+[Footnote 56: _Vide post_, p. 71.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Century Magazine_, XLI., 759.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Jessie Benton Fremont in _Century Magazine_, XLI., 766-7.]
+
+[Footnote 59: _Century Magazine_, XLI., p. 759; _vide post_, p. 74.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Parkman's works, particularly Old Regime, make any
+discussion of the importance of the fur trade to Canada proper
+unnecessary. La Hontan says: "For you must know that Canada subsists
+only upon the trade of skins or furs, three-fourths of which come from
+the people that live around the Great Lakes." La Hontan, I., 53, London,
+1703.]
+
+
+
+
+NORTHWESTERN RIVER SYSTEMS IN THEIR RELATION TO THE FUR TRADE.
+
+
+The importance of physical conditions is nowhere more manifest than in
+the exploration of the Northwest, and we cannot properly appreciate
+Wisconsin's relation to the history of the time without first
+considering her situation as regards the lake and river systems of North
+America.
+
+When the Breton sailors, steering their fishing smacks almost in the
+wake of Cabot, began to fish in the St. Lawrence gulf, and to traffic
+with the natives of the mainland for peltries, the problem of how the
+interior of North America was to be explored was solved. The
+water-system composed of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes is the key
+to the continent. The early explorations in a wilderness must be by
+water-courses--they are nature's highways. The St. Lawrence leads to the
+Great Lakes; the headwaters of the tributaries of these lakes lie so
+near the headwaters of the rivers that join the Mississippi that canoes
+can be portaged from the one to the other. The Mississippi affords
+passage to the Gulf of Mexico; or by the Missouri to the passes of the
+Rocky Mountains, where rise the headwaters of the Columbia, which brings
+the voyageur to the Pacific. But if the explorer follows Lake Superior
+to the present boundary line between Minnesota and Canada, and takes the
+chain of lakes and rivers extending from Pigeon river to Rainy lake and
+Lake of the Woods, he will be led to the Winnipeg river and to the lake
+of the same name. From this, by streams and portages, he may reach
+Hudson bay; or he may go by way of Elk river and Lake Athabasca to Slave
+river and Slave lake, which will take him to Mackenzie river and to the
+Arctic sea. But Lake Winnipeg also receives the waters of the
+Saskatchewan river, from which one may pass to the highlands near the
+Pacific where rise the northern branches of the Columbia. And from the
+lakes of Canada there are still other routes to the Oregon country.[61]
+At a later day these two routes to the Columbia became an important
+factor in bringing British and Americans into conflict over that
+territory.
+
+In these water-systems Wisconsin was the link that joined the Great
+Lakes and the Mississippi; and along her northern shore the first
+explorers passed to the Pigeon river, or, as it was called later, the
+Grand Portage route, along the boundary line between Minnesota and
+Canada into the heart of Canada.
+
+It was possible to reach the Mississippi from the Great Lakes by the
+following principal routes:[62]
+
+1. By the Miami (Maumee) river from the west end of Lake Erie to the
+Wabash, thence to the Ohio and the Mississippi.
+
+2. By the St. Joseph's river to the Wabash, thence to the Ohio.
+
+3. By the St. Joseph's river to the Kankakee, and thence to the Illinois
+and the Mississippi.
+
+4. By the Chicago river to the Illinois.
+
+5. By Green bay, Fox river, and the Wisconsin river.
+
+6. By the Bois Brule river to the St. Croix river.
+
+Of these routes, the first two were not at first available, owing to the
+hostility of the Iroquois.
+
+Of all the colonies that fell to the English, as we have seen, New York
+alone had a water-system that favored communication with the interior,
+tapping the St. Lawrence and opening a way to Lake Ontario. Prevented by
+the Iroquois friends of the Dutch and English from reaching the
+Northwest by way of the lower lakes, the French ascended the Ottawa,
+reached Lake Nipissing, and passed by way of Georgian Bay to the islands
+of Lake Huron. As late as the nineteenth century this was the common
+route of the fur trade, for it was more certain for the birch canoes
+than the tempestuous route of the lakes. At the Huron islands two ways
+opened before their canoes. The straits of Michillimackinac[63]
+permitted them to enter Lake Michigan, and from this led the two routes
+to the Mississippi: one by way of Green bay and the Fox and Wisconsin,
+and the other by way of the lake to the Chicago river. But if the trader
+chose to go from the Huron islands through Sault Ste. Marie into Lake
+Superior, the necessities of his frail craft required him to hug the
+shore, and the rumors of copper mines induced the first traders to take
+the south shore, and here the lakes of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota
+afford connecting links between the streams that seek Lake Superior and
+those that seek the Mississippi,[64] a fact which made northern
+Wisconsin more important in this epoch than the southern portion of the
+state.
+
+We are now able to see how the river-courses of the Northwest permitted
+a complete exploration of the country, and that in these courses
+Wisconsin held a commanding situation,[65] But these rivers not only
+permitted exploration; they also furnished a motive to exploration by
+the fact that their valleys teemed with fur-bearing animals. This is the
+main fact in connection with Northwestern exploration. The hope of a
+route to China was always influential, as was also the search for mines,
+but the practical inducements were the profitable trade with the Indians
+for beaver and buffaloes and the wild life that accompanied it. So
+powerful was the combined influence of these far-stretching rivers, and
+the "hardy, adventurous, lawless, fascinating fur trade," that the
+scanty population of Canada was irresistibly drawn from agricultural
+settlements into the interminable recesses of the continent; and herein
+is a leading explanation of the lack of permanent French influence in
+America.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 61: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10-11.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 224, n. 1; Margry, V.
+See also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., map and pp. 38-9, 128.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Mackinaw.]
+
+[Footnote 64: See Doty's enumeration, Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 202.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Jes. Rels., 1672, p. 37; La Hontan, I., 105 (1703).]
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN INDIANS.[66]
+
+
+"All that relates to the Indian tribes of Wisconsin," says Dr. Shea,
+"their antiquities, their ethnology, their history, is deeply
+interesting from the fact that it is the area of the first meeting of
+the Algic and Dakota tribes. Here clans of both these wide-spread
+families met and mingled at a very early period; here they first met in
+battle and mutually checked each other's advance." The Winnebagoes
+attracted the attention of the French even before they were visited.
+They were located about Green bay. Their later location at the entrance
+of Lake Winnebago was unoccupied, at least in the time of Allouez,
+because of the hostility of the Sioux. Early authorities represented
+them as numbering about one hundred warriors.[67] The Pottawattomies we
+find in 1641 at Sault Ste. Marie,[68] whither they had just fled from
+their enemies. Their proper home was probably about the southeastern
+shore and islands of Green bay, where as early as 1670 they were again
+located. Of their numbers in Wisconsin at this time we can say but
+little. Allouez, at Chequamegon bay, was visited by 300 of their
+warriors, and he mentions some of their Green bay villages, one of which
+had 300 souls.[69] The Menomonees were found chiefly on the river that
+bears their name, and the western tributaries of Green bay seem to have
+been their territory. On the estimates of early authorities we may say
+that they had about 100 warriors.[70] The Sauks and Foxes were closely
+allied tribes. The Sauks were found by Allouez[71] four leagues[72] up
+the Fox from its mouth, and the Foxes at a place reached by a four days'
+ascent of the Wolf river from its mouth. Later we find them at the
+confluence of the Wolf and the Fox. According to their early visitors
+these two tribes must have had something over 1000 warriors.[73] The
+Miamis and Mascoutins were located about a league from the Fox river,
+probably within the limits of what is now Green Lake county,[74] and
+four leagues away were their friends the Kickapoos. In 1670 the Miamis
+and Mascoutins were estimated at 800 warriors, and this may have
+included the Kickapoos. The Sioux held possession of the Upper
+Mississippi, and in Wisconsin hunted on its northeastern tributaries.
+Their villages were in later times all on the west of the Mississippi,
+and of their early numbers no estimate can be given. The Chippeways were
+along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Their numbers also are in
+doubt, but were very considerable.[75] In northwestern Wisconsin, with
+Chequamegon bay as their rendezvous, were the Ottawas and Hurons,[76]
+who had fled here to escape the Iroquois. In 1670 they were back again
+to their homes at Mackinaw and the Huron islands. But in 1666, as
+Allouez tells us, they were situated at the bottom of this beautiful
+bay, planting their Indian corn and leading a stationary life. "They are
+there," he says, "to the number of eight hundred men bearing arms, but
+collected from seven different nations who dwell in peace with each
+other thus mingled together."[77] And the Jesuit Relations of 1670 add
+that the Illinois "come here from time to time in great numbers as
+merchants to procure hatchets, cooking utensils, guns, and other things
+of which they stand in need." Here, too, came Pottawattomies, as we have
+seen, and Sauks.
+
+At the mouth of Fox river[78] we find another mixed village of
+Pottawattomies, Sauks, Foxes, and Winnebagoes, and at a later period
+Milwaukee was the site of a similar heterogeneous community. Leaving out
+the Hurons, the tribes of Wisconsin were, with two exceptions, of the
+Algic stock. The exceptions are the Winnebagoes and the Sioux, who
+belong to the Dakota family. Of these Wisconsin tribes it is probable
+that the Sauks and Foxes, the Pottawattomies, the Hurons and Ottawas and
+the Mascoutins, and Miamis and Kickapoos, were driven into Wisconsin by
+the attacks of eastern enemies. The Iroquois even made incursions as far
+as the home of the Mascoutins on Fox river. On the other side of the
+state were the Sioux, "the Iroquois of the West," as the missionaries
+call them, who had once claimed all the region, and whose invasions,
+Allouez says, rendered Lake Winnebago uninhabited. There was therefore a
+pressure on both sides of Wisconsin which tended to mass together the
+divergent tribes. And the Green bay and Fox and Wisconsin route was the
+line of least resistance, as well as a region abounding in wild rice,
+fish and game, for these early fugitives. In this movement we have two
+facts that are not devoid of significance in institutional history:
+first, the welding together of separate tribes, as the Sauks and Foxes,
+and the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos; and second, a commingling of
+detached families from various tribes at peculiarly favorable
+localities.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 66: On these early locations, consult the authorities cited by
+Shea in Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 125 _et seq._, and by Branson in his
+criticism on Shea, _ibid._ IV., 223. See also Butterfield's Discovery of
+the Northwest in 1634, and _Mag. West. Hist._, V., 468, 630; and Minn.
+Hist. Colls., V.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Some early estimates were as follows: 1640, "Great
+numbers" (Margry, I., 48); 1718, 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX., 889); 1728, 60 or 80 warriors (Margry, VI., 553); 1736, 90 warriors
+(Chaurignerie, cited in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 282); 1761,
+150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32).]
+
+[Footnote 68: Margry, I., 46.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Jes. Rels., 1667, 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 70: 1718, estimated at 80 to 100 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs.,
+IX.,889); 1762, estimated at 150 warriors (Gorrell, Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+I., 32).]
+
+[Footnote 71: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 72: French leagues.]
+
+[Footnote 73: 1670, Foxes estimated at 400 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1670);
+1667, Foxes, 1000 warriors (Jes. Rels., 1667); 1695, Foxes and
+Mascoutins, 1200 warriors (N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633); 1718, Sauks 100
+or 120, Foxes 500 warriors (2 Penn. Archives, VI., 54); 1728, Foxes, 200
+warriors (Margry, V.); 1762, Sauks and Foxes, 700 warriors (Gorrell,
+Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 32). This, it must be observed, was after the Fox
+wars.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Jes. Rels., 1670; Butterfield's Discovery of the
+Northwest.]
+
+[Footnote 75: In 1820 those in Wisconsin numbered about 600 hunters.]
+
+[Footnote 76: On these Indians consult, besides authorities already
+cited, Shea's Discovery, etc. lx.; Jes. Rels.; Narr. and Crit. Hist. of
+Amer., IV., 168-170, 175; Radisson's Voyages; Margry, IV., 586-598.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Jes. Rels., 1666-7.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+
+
+
+PERIODS OF THE WISCONSIN INDIAN TRADE.
+
+
+The Indian trade was almost the sole interest in Wisconsin during the
+two centuries that elapsed from the visit of Nicolet in 1634 to about
+1834, when lead-mining had superseded it in the southwest and land
+offices were opened at Green Bay and Mineral Point; when the port of
+Milwaukee received an influx of settlers to the lands made known by the
+so-called Black Hawk war; and when Astor retired from the American Fur
+Company. These two centuries may be divided into three periods of the
+trade: 1. French, from 1634 to 1763; 2. English, from 1763 to 1816; 3.
+American, from 1816 to 1834.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH EXPLORATION IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+Sagard,[79] whose work was published in 1636, tells us that the Hurons,
+who traded with the French, visited the Winnebagoes and the Fire Nation
+(Mascoutins),[80] bartering goods for peltries. Champlain, the famous
+fur-trader, who represented the Company of the Hundred Associates,[81]
+formed by Richelieu to monopolize the fur trade of New France and govern
+the country, sent an agent named Jean Nicolet, in 1634,[82] to Green bay
+and Fox river to make a peace between the Hurons and the Winnebagoes in
+the interests of inter-tribal commerce. The importance of this phase of
+the trade as late as 1681 may be inferred from these words of Du
+Chesneau, speaking of the Ottawas, and including under the term the
+Petun Hurons and the Chippeways also: "Through them we obtain beaver,
+and although they, for the most part, do not hunt, and have but a small
+portion of peltry in their country, they go in search of it to the most
+distant places, and exchange for it our merchandise which they procure
+at Montreal." Among the tribes enumerated as dealing with the Ottawas
+are the Sioux, Satiks, Pottawattomies, Winnebagoes, Menomonees and
+Mascoutins--all Wisconsin Indians at this time. He adds: "Some of these
+tribes occasionally come down to Montreal, but usually they do not do so
+in very great numbers because they are too far distant, are not expert
+at managing canoes, and because the other Indians intimidate them, in
+order to be the carriers of their merchandise and to profit
+thereby."[83]
+
+It was the aim of the authorities to attract the Indians to Montreal, or
+to develop the inter-tribal communication, and thus to centralize the
+trade and prevent the dissipation of the energies of the colony; but the
+temptations of the free forest traffic were too strong. In a memoir of
+1697, Aubert de la Chesnaye says:
+
+"At first, the French went only among the Hurons, and since then to
+Missilimakinak, where they sold their goods to the savages of the
+places, who in turn went to exchange them with other savages in the
+depths of the woods, lands and rivers. But at present the French, having
+licenses, in order to secure greater profit surreptitiously, pass all
+the 'Ottawas and savages of Missilimakinak in order to go themselves to
+seek the most distant tribes, which is very displeasing to the former.
+_It is they, also, who have made excellent discoveries;_ and four or
+five hundred young men, the best men of Canada, are engaged in this
+business.... They have given us knowledge of many names of savages that
+we did not know; and four or five hundred leagues more remote are others
+who are unknown to us."[84]
+
+Two of the most noteworthy of these _coureurs de bois_, or wood-rangers,
+were Radisson and Groseilliers.[85] In 1660 they returned to Montreal
+with 300 Algonquins and sixty canoes laden with furs, after a voyage in
+which they visited, among other tribes, the Pottawattomies, Mascoutins,
+Sioux, and Hurons, in Wisconsin. From the Hurons they learned of the
+Mississippi, and probably visited the river. They soon returned from
+Montreal to the northern Wisconsin region. In the course of their
+wanderings they had a post at Chequamegon bay, and they ascended the
+Pigeon river, thus opening the Grand Portage route to the heart of
+Canada. Among their exploits they induced England to enter the Hudson
+Bay trade, and gave the impetus that led to the organization of the
+Hudson Bay Company. The reports which these traders brought back had a
+most important effect in fostering exploration in the Northwest, and led
+to the visit of Menard, who was succeeded by Allouez, the pioneers of
+the Jesuits in Wisconsin.[86] Radisson gives us a good account of the
+early Wisconsin trade. Of his visit to the Ottawas he says:
+
+"We weare wellcomed & made of saying that we weare the Gods and devils
+of the earth; that we should fournish them, & that they would bring us
+to their enemy to destroy them. We tould them [we] were very well
+content. We persuaded them first to come peaceably, not to distroy them
+presently, and if they would not condescend then would wee throw away
+the hatchett and make use of our thunders. We sent ambassadors to them
+wth guifts. That nation called Pontonatemick[87] without more adoe
+comes and meets us with the rest, and peace was concluded." "The
+savages," he writes, "love knives better than we serve God, which should
+make us blush for shame." In another place, "We went away free from any
+burden whilst those poore miserable thought themselves happy to carry
+our Equipage for the hope that they had that we should give them a
+brasse ring, or an awle, or an needle."[88] We find them using this
+influence in various places to make peace between hostile tribes, whom
+they threatened with punishment. This early commerce was carried on
+under the fiction of an exchange of presents. For example, Radisson
+says: "We gave them severall gifts and received many. They bestowed upon
+us above 300 robs of castors out of wch we brought not five to the
+ffrench being far in the country."[89] Among the articles used by
+Radisson in this trade were kettles, hatchets, knives, graters, awls,
+needles, tin looking-glasses, little bells, ivory combs, vermilion,
+sword blades, necklaces and bracelets. The sale of guns and blankets was
+at this time exceptional, nor does it appear that Radisson carried
+brandy in this voyage.[90]
+
+More and more the young men of Canada continued to visit the savages at
+their villages. By 1660 the _coureurs de bois_ formed a distinct
+class,[91] who, despite the laws against it, pushed from
+Michillimackinac into the wilderness. Wisconsin was a favorite resort of
+these adventurers. By the time of the arrival of the Jesuits they had
+made themselves entirely at home upon our lakes. They had preceded
+Allouez at Chequamegon bay, and when he established his mission at Green
+bay he came at the invitation of the Pottawattomies, who wished him to
+"mollify some young Frenchmen who were among them for the purpose of
+trading and who threatened and ill-treated them."[92] He found fur
+traders before him on the Fox and the Wolf. Bancroft's assertion[93]
+that "religious enthusiasm took possession of the wilderness on the
+upper lakes and explored the Mississippi," is misleading. It is not true
+that "not a cape was turned, nor a mission founded, nor a river entered,
+nor a settlement begun, but a Jesuit led the way." In fact the Jesuits
+followed the traders;[94] their missions were on the sites of trading
+posts, and they themselves often traded.[95]
+
+When St. Lusson, with the _coureur de bois_, Nicholas Perrot, took
+official possession of the Northwest for France at the Sault Ste. Marie
+in 1671, the cost of the expedition was defrayed by trade in beaver.[96]
+Joliet, who, accompanied by Marquette, descended the Mississippi by the
+Fox and Wisconsin route in 1673, was an experienced fur trader. While Du
+Lhut, chief of the _coureurs de bois_, was trading on Lake Superior, La
+Salle,[97] the greatest of these merchants, was preparing his
+far-reaching scheme for colonizing the Indians in the Illinois region
+under the direction of the French, so that they might act as a check on
+the inroads of the Iroquois, and aid in his plan of securing an exit for
+the furs of the Northwest, particularly buffalo hides, by way of the
+Mississippi and the Gulf. La Salle's "Griffen," the earliest ship to
+sail the Great Lakes, was built for this trade, and received her only
+cargo at Green Bay. Accault, one of La Salle's traders, with Hennepin,
+met Du Lhut on the upper Mississippi, which he had reached by way of the
+Bois Brule and St. Croix, in 1680. Du Lhut's trade awakened the jealousy
+of La Salle, who writes in 1682: "If they go by way of the Ouisconsing,
+where for the present the chase of the buffalo is carried on and where I
+have commenced an establishment, they will ruin the trade on which alone
+I rely, on account of the great number of buffalo which are taken there
+every year, almost beyond belief."[98] Speaking of the Jesuits at Green
+Bay, he declares that they "have in truth the key to the beaver country,
+where a brother blacksmith that they have and two companions convert
+more iron into beaver than the fathers convert savages into
+Christians."[99] Perrot says that the beaver north of the mouth of the
+Wisconsin were better than those of the Illinois country, and the chase
+was carried on in this region for a longer period;[100] and we know from
+Dablon that the Wisconsin savages were not compelled to separate by
+families during the hunting season, as was common among other tribes,
+because the game here was so abundant.[101] Aside from its importance as
+a key to the Northwestern trade, Wisconsin seems to have been a rich
+field of traffic itself.
+
+With such extensive operations as the foregoing in the region reached by
+Wisconsin rivers, it is obvious that the government could not keep the
+_coureurs de bois_ from the woods. Even governors like Frontenac
+connived at the traffic and shared its profits. In 1681 the government
+decided to issue annual licenses,[102] and messengers were dispatched to
+announce amnesty to the _coureurs de bois_ about Green Bay and the south
+shore of Lake Superior.[103]
+
+We may now offer some conclusions upon the connection of the fur trade
+with French explorations:
+
+1. The explorations were generally induced and almost always rendered
+profitable by the fur trade. In addition to what has been presented on
+this point, note the following:
+
+In 1669, Patoulet writes to Colbert concerning La Salle's voyage to
+explore a passage to Japan: "The enterprise is difficult and dangerous,
+but the good thing about it is that the King will be at no expense for
+this pretended discovery."[104]
+
+The king's instructions to Governor De la Barre in 1682 say that,
+"Several inhabitants of Canada, excited by the hope of the profit to be
+realized from the trade with the Indians for furs, have undertaken at
+various periods discoveries in the countries of the Nadoussioux, the
+river Mississipy, and other parts of America."[105]
+
+2. The early traders were regarded as quasi-supernatural beings by the
+Indians.[106] They alone could supply the coveted iron implements, the
+trinkets that tickled the savage's fancy, the "fire-water," and the guns
+that gave such increased power over game and the enemy. In the course of
+a few years the Wisconsin savages passed from the use of the implements
+of the stone age to the use of such an important product of the iron age
+as firearms. They passed also from the economic stage in which their
+hunting was for food and clothing simply, to that stage in which their
+hunting was made systematic and stimulated by the European demand for
+furs. The trade tended to perpetuate the hunter stage by making it
+profitable, and it tended to reduce the Indian to economic
+dependence[107] upon the Europeans, for while he learned to use the
+white man's gun he did not learn to make it or even to mend it. In this
+transition stage from their primitive condition the influence of the
+trader over the Indians was all-powerful. The pre-eminence of the
+individual Indian who owned a gun made all the warriors of the tribe
+eager to possess like power. The tribe thus armed placed their enemies
+at such a disadvantage that they too must have like weapons or lose
+their homes.[108] No wonder that La Salle was able to say: "The savages
+take better care of us French than of their own children. From us only
+can they get guns and goods."[109] This was the power that France used
+to support her in the struggle with England for the Northwest.
+
+3. The trader used his influence to promote peace between the
+Northwestern Indians.[110]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 79: Histoire du Canada, 193-4 (edition of 1866).]
+
+[Footnote 80: Dablon, Jesuit Relations, 1671.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See Parkman, Pioneers, 429 ff. (1890).]
+
+[Footnote 82: Margry, I., 50. The date rests on inference; see
+Bibliography of Nicolet in Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., and cf. Hebberd,
+Wisconsin under French Dominion, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 83: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 160.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Margry, VI., 3; Coll. de Mamiscrits, I., 255, where the
+date is wrongly given as 1676. The italics are ours.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Radisson, Voyages (Prince Soc. Pubs.); Margry, I., 53-55,
+83; Jes. Rels., 1660; Wis. Hist. Colls., X., XI; Narrative and Critical
+Hist. Amer., IV., 168-173.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Cf. Radisson, 173-5, and Jes. Rels., 1660, pp. 12, 30;
+1663, pp. 17 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 87: Pottawattomies in the region of Green Bay.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8.]
+
+[Footnote 89: _Ibid._ XI., 90.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Radisson, 200, 217, 219.]
+
+[Footnote 91: Suite, in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of
+Science, Arts and Letters, V., 141; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 153, 140,152;
+Margry, VI., 3; Parkman, Old Regime, 310-315.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Cf. Jes. Rels., 1670, p. 92.]
+
+[Footnote 93: History of United States, II., 138 (1884).]
+
+[Footnote 94: Harrisse, Notes sur la Nouvelle France, 174-181.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Parkman, Old Regime, 328 ff., and La Salle, 98; Margry,
+II., 251; Radisson, 173.]
+
+[Footnote 96: See Talon's report quoted in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+IV., 175.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Margry abounds in evidences of La Salle's commercial
+activity, as does Parkman's La Salle. See also Dunn, Indiana, 20-1.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Margry, II., 254.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Margry, II., 251.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Tailhan's Perrot, 57.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Jes. Rels., 1670.]
+
+[Footnote 102: La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 159; Parkman,
+Old Regime, 305.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Margry, VI., 45.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Margry, I., 81.]
+
+[Footnote 105: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 187. On the cost of such
+expeditions, see documents in Margry, I., 293-296; VI., 503-507. On the
+profits of the trade, see La Salle in 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18-19.]
+
+[Footnote 106: See Radisson, _ante_, p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 107: _Vide post_, p. 62.]
+
+[Footnote 108: _Vide ante_, p. 14; Radisson, 154; Minn. Hist. Colls.,
+V., 427. Compare the effects of the introduction of bronze weapons into
+Europe.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Margry, II., 234. On the power possessed by the French
+through this trade consult also D'Iberville's plan for locating
+Wisconsin Indians on the Illinois by changing their trading posts; see
+Margry, IV., 586-598.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 67-8, 90; Narr. and Crit. Hist.
+Amer., IV., 182; Perrot, 327; Margry, VI., 507-509, 653-4.]
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH POSTS IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+In the governorship of Dongan of New York, as has been noted, the
+English were endeavoring to secure the trade of the Northwest. As early
+as 1685, English traders had reached Michillimackinac, the depot of
+supplies for the _coureur de bois_, where they were cordially received
+by the Indians, owing to their cheaper goods[111]. At the same time the
+English on Hudson Bay were drawing trade to their posts in that region.
+The French were thoroughly alarmed. They saw the necessity of holding
+the Indians by trading posts in their midst, lest they should go to the
+English, for as Begon declared, the savages "always take the part of
+those with whom they trade."[112] It is at this time that the French
+occupation of the Northwest begins to assume a new phase. Stockaded
+trading posts were established at such key-points as a strait, a
+portage, a river-mouth, or an important lake, where also were Indian
+villages. In 1685 the celebrated Nicholas Perrot was given command of
+Green Bay and its dependencies[113]. He had trading posts near
+Trempealeau and at Fort St. Antoine on the Wisconsin side of Lake Pepin
+where he traded with the Sioux, and for a time he had a post and worked
+the lead-mines above the Des Moines river. Both these and Fort St.
+Nicholas at the mouth of the Wisconsin[114] were dependencies of Green
+Bay. Du Lhut probably established Fort St. Croix at the portage between
+the Bois Brule river and the St. Croix.[115] In 1695 Le Sueur built a
+fort on the largest island above Lake Pepin, and he also asked the
+command of the post of Chequamegon.[116]
+
+These official posts were supported by the profits of Indian
+commerce,[117] and were designed to keep the northwestern tribes at
+peace, and to prevent the English and Iroquois influence from getting
+the fur trade.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 111: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 296, 308; IV., 735.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Quoted in Sheldon, Early History of Michigan, 310.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Tailhan's Perrot, 156.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Wis. Hist. Colls., X., 54, 300-302, 307, 321.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., IV., 186.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Margry, VI., 60. Near Ashland, Wis.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Consult French MSS., 3d series, VI., Parl. Library,
+Ottawa, cited in Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422; Id., V., 425. In 1731 M.
+La Ronde, having constructed at his own expense a bark of forty tons on
+Lake Superior, received the post of La Pointe de Chagouamigon as a
+gratuity to defray his expenses. See also the story of Verenderye's
+posts, in Parkman's article in _Atlantic Monthly_, June, 1887, and
+Margry, VI. See also 2 Penna. Archives, VI., 18; La Hontan, I., 53; N.Y.
+Col. Docs., IX., 159; Tailhan, Perrot, 302.]
+
+
+
+
+THE FOX WARS.
+
+
+In 1683 Perrot had collected Wisconsin Indians for an attack on the
+Iroquois, and again in 1686 he led them against the same enemy. But the
+efforts of the Iroquois and the English to enter the region with their
+cheaper and better goods, and the natural tendency of savages to plunder
+when assured of supplies from other sources, now overcame the control
+which the French had exercised. The Sauks and Foxes, the Mascoutins,
+Kickapoos and Miamis, as has been described, held the Fox and Wisconsin
+route to the West, the natural and easy highway to the Mississippi, as
+La Hontan calls it.[118] Green Bay commanded this route, as La Pointe de
+Chagouamigon[119] commanded the Lake Superior route to the Bois Brule
+and the St. Croix. One of Perrot's main objects was to supply the Sioux
+on the other side of the Mississippi, and these were the routes to them.
+To the Illinois region, also, the Fox route was the natural one. The
+Indians of this waterway therefore held the key to the French position,
+and might attempt to prevent the passage of French goods and support
+English influence and trade, or they might try to monopolize the
+intermediate trade themselves, or they might try to combine both
+policies.
+
+As early as 1687 the Foxes, Mascoutins and Kickapoos, animated
+apparently by hostility to the trade carried on by Perrot with the
+Sioux, their enemy at that time, threatened to pillage the post at Green
+Bay.[120] The closing of the Ottawa to the northern fur trade by the
+Iroquois for three years, a blow which nearly ruined Canada in the days
+of Frontenac, as Parkman has described,[121] not only kept vast stores
+of furs from coming down from Michillimackinac; it must, also, have kept
+goods from reaching the northwestern Indians. In 1692 the Mascoutins,
+who attributed the death of some of their men to Perrot, plundered his
+goods, and the Foxes soon entered into negotiation with the
+Iroquois.[122] Frontenac expressed great apprehension lest with their
+allies on the Fox and Wisconsin route they should remove eastward and
+come into connection with the Iroquois and the English, a grave danger
+to New France.[123] Nor was this apprehension without reason.[124] Even
+such docile allies as the Ottawas and Pottawattomies threatened to leave
+the French if goods were not sent to them wherewith to oppose their
+enemies. "They have powder and iron," complained an Ottawa deputy; "how
+can we sustain ourselves? Have compassion, then, on us, and consider
+that it is no easy matter to kill men with clubs."[125] By the end of
+the seventeenth century the disaffected Indians closed the Fox and
+Wisconsin route against French trade.[126] In 1699 an order was issued
+recalling the French from the Northwest, it being the design to
+concentrate French power at the nearer posts.[127] Detroit was founded
+in 1701 as a place to which to attract the northwestern trade and
+intercept the English. In 1702 the priest at St. Joseph reported that
+the English were sending presents to the Miamis about that post and
+desiring to form an establishment in their country.[128] At the same
+date we find D'Iberville, of Louisiana, proposing a scheme for drawing
+the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos from the Wisconsin streams to the
+Illinois, by changing their trading posts from Green Bay to the latter
+region, and drawing the Illinois by trading posts to the lower
+Ohio.[129] It was shortly after this that the Miamis and Kickapoos
+passed south under either the French or English influence,[130] and the
+hostility of the Foxes became more pronounced. A part of the scheme of
+La Motte Cadillac at Detroit was to colonize Indians about that
+post,[131] and in 1712 Foxes, Sauks, Mascoutins, Kickapoos,
+Pottawattomies, Hurons, Ottawas, Illinois, Menomonees and others were
+gathered there under the influence of trade. But soon, whether by design
+of the French and their allies or otherwise, hostilities broke out
+against the Foxes and their allies. The animus of the combat appears in
+the cries of the Foxes as they raised red blankets for flags and shouted
+"We have no father but the English!" while the allies of the French
+replied, "The English are cowards; they destroy the Indians with brandy
+and are enemies of the true God!" The Foxes were defeated with great
+slaughter and driven back to Wisconsin.[132] From this time until 1734
+the French waged war against the Foxes with but short intermissions. The
+Foxes allied themselves with the Iroquois and the Sioux, and acted as
+middlemen between the latter and the traders, refusing passage to goods
+on the ground that it would damage their own trade to allow this.[133]
+They fostered hostilities between their old foes the Chippeways and
+their new allies the Sioux, and thus they cut off English intercourse
+with the latter by way of the north. This trade between the Chippeways
+and the Sioux was important to the French, and commandants were
+repeatedly sent to La Pointe de Chagouamigon and the upper Mississippi
+to make peace between the two tribes.[134] While the wars were in
+progress the English took pains to enforce their laws against furnishing
+Indian goods to French traders. The English had for a time permitted
+this, and their own Indian trade had suffered because the French were
+able to make use of the cheap English goods. By their change in policy
+the English now brought home to the savages the fact that French goods
+were dearer.[135] Moreover, English traders were sent to Niagara to deal
+directly with "the far Indians," and the Foxes visited the English and
+Iroquois, and secured a promise that they might take up their abode with
+the latter and form an additional member of the confederacy in case of
+need.[136] As a counter policy the French attempted to exterminate the
+Foxes, and detached the Sioux from their alliance with the Foxes by
+establishing Fort Beauharnois, a trading post on the Minnesota side of
+Lake Pepin.[137]
+
+The results of these wars were as follows:
+
+1. They spread the feeling of defection among the Northwestern Indians,
+who could no longer be restrained, as at first, by the threat of cutting
+off their trade, there being now rivals in the shape of the English, and
+the French traders from Louisiana.[138]
+
+2. They caused a readjustment of the Indian map of Wisconsin. The
+Mascoutins and the Pottawattomies had already moved southward to the
+Illinois country. Now the Foxes, driven from their river, passed first
+to Prairie du Chien and then down the Mississippi. The Sauks went at
+first to the Wisconsin, near Sauk Prairie, and then joined the Foxes.
+The Winnebagoes gradually extended themselves along the Fox and
+Wisconsin. The Chippeways,[139] freed from their fear of the Foxes, to
+whom the Wolf and the Wisconsin had given access to the northern portion
+of the state, now passed south to Lac du Flambeau,[140] to the
+headwaters of the Wisconsin, and to Lac Court Oreilles.[141]
+
+3. The closing of the Fox and Wisconsin route fostered that movement of
+trade and exploration which at this time began to turn to the far
+Northwest along the Pigeon river route into central British America, in
+search of the Sea of the West,[142] whereby the Rocky Mountains were
+discovered; and it may have aided in turning settlement into the
+Illinois country.
+
+4. These wars were a part of a connected series, including the Iroquois
+wars, the Fox wars, the attack of the Wisconsin trader, Charles de
+Langlade, upon the center of English trade at Pickawillany,[143] Ohio,
+and the French and Indian war that followed. All were successive stages
+of the struggle against English trade in the French possessions.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 118: La Hontan, I., 105.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Near Ashland, Wis.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Tailhan, Perrot, 139, 302.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Frontenac, 315-316. Cf. Perrot, 302.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Perrot, 331; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 633.]
+
+[Footnote 123: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 124: N.Y. Col. Docs., IV., 732-7.]
+
+[Footnote 125: N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 673.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Shea, Early Voyages, 49.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Kingsford, Canada, II., 394; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 635.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Margry, V.,219.]
+
+[Footnote 129: _Ibid._ IV., 597.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 149; Smith, Wisconsin, II.,
+315.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Coll. de Manus., III., 622.]
+
+[Footnote 132: See Hebberd's account, Wisconsin under French Dominion;
+Coll. de Manus., I., 623; Smith, Wisconsin, II., 315.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Margry, VI., 543.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Tailhan, Perrot, _passim_; N.Y. Col. Docs., IX., 570,
+619, 621; Margry, VI., 507-509, 553, 653-4; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 422,
+425; Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 154.]
+
+[Footnote 135: N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 136: _Ibid._ IV., 732, 735, 796-7; V., 687, 911.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Margry, VI., 553, 563, 575-580; Neill in _Mag. Western
+History_, November, 1887.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Perrot, 148; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 42;
+Hebberd, Wisconsin under French Dominion, chapters on the Fox wars.]
+
+[Footnote 139: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 190-1.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Oneida county.]
+
+[Footnote 141: Sawyer county.]
+
+[Footnote 142: Margry, VI.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84, and citations; _vide
+post_, p. 41.]
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN WISCONSIN.
+
+
+Settlement was not the object of the French in the Northwest. The
+authorities saw as clearly as do we that the field was too vast for the
+resources of the colony, and they desired to hold the region as a source
+of peltries, and contract their settlements. The only towns worthy of
+the name in the Northwest were Detroit and the settlements in Indiana
+and Illinois, all of which depended largely on the fur trade.[144] But
+in spite of the government the traffic also produced the beginnings of
+settlement in Wisconsin. About the middle of the century, Augustin de
+Langlade had made Green Bay his trading post. After Pontiac's war,[145]
+Charles de Langlade[146] made the place his permanent residence, and a
+little settlement grew up. At Prairie du Chien French traders annually
+met the Indians, and at this time there may have been a stockaded
+trading post there, but it was not a permanent settlement until the
+close of the Revolutionary war. Chequamegon bay was deserted[147] at the
+outbreak of the French war. There may have been a regular trading post
+at Milwaukee in this period, but the first trader recorded is not until
+1762.[148] Doubtless wintering posts existed at other points in
+Wisconsin.
+
+The characteristic feature of French occupancy of the Northwest was the
+trading post, and in illustration of it, and of the centralized
+administration of the French, the following account of De Repentigny's
+fort at Sault Ste. Marie (Michigan) is given in the words of Governor La
+Jonquiere to the minister for the colonies in 1751:[149]
+
+"He arrived too late last year at the Sault Ste. Marie to fortify
+himself well; however, he secured himself in a sort of fort large enough
+to receive the traders of Missilimakinac.... He employed his hired men
+during the whole winter in cutting 1100 pickets of fifteen feet for his
+fort, with the doublings, and the timber necessary for the construction
+of three houses, one of them thirty feet long by twenty wide, and two
+others twenty-five feet long and the same width as the first. His fort
+is entirely furnished with the exception of a redoubt of oak, which he
+is to have made twelve feet square, and which shall reach the same
+distance above the gate of the fort. His fort is 110 feet square.
+
+"As for the cultivation of the lands, the Sieur de Repentigny has a
+bull, two bullocks, three cows, two heifers, one horse and a mare from
+Missilimakinac.... He has engaged a Frenchman who married at Sault Ste.
+Marie an Indian woman to take a farm; they have cleared it and sowed it,
+and without a frost they will gather 30 to 35 sacks of corn. The said
+Sieur de Repentigny so much feels it his duty to devote himself to the
+cultivation of these lands that he has already entered into a bargain
+for two slaves[150] whom he will employ to take care of the corn[151]
+that he will gather upon these lands."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 144: Fergus, Historical Series, No. 12; Breese, Early History
+of Illinois; Dunn, Indiana; Hubbard, Memorials of a Half Century;
+Monette, History of the Valley of the Mississippi, I., ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Henry, Travels, ch. x.]
+
+[Footnote 146: See Memoir in Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.; III., 224; VII.,
+127, 152, 166.]
+
+[Footnote 147: Henry, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 35.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 435-6.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Indians. Compare Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 256; VII., 158,
+117, 179.]
+
+[Footnote 151: The French minister for the colonies expressing approval
+of this post writes in 1752: "As it can hardly be expected that any
+other grain than corn will grow there, it is necessary at least for a
+while to stick to it, and not to persevere stubbornly in trying to raise
+wheat." On this Dr. E.D. Neill comments: "Millions of bushels of wheat
+from the region west and north of Lake Superior pass every year ...
+through the ship canal at Sault Ste. Marie." The corn was for supplying
+the voyageurs.]
+
+
+
+
+THE TRADERS' STRUGGLE TO RETAIN THEIR TRADE.
+
+
+While they had been securing the trade of the far Northwest and the
+Illinois country, the French had allowed the English to gain the trade
+of the upper Ohio,[152] and were now brought face to face with the
+danger of losing the entire Northwest, and thus the connection of Canada
+and Louisiana. The commandants of the western posts were financially as
+well as patriotically interested. In 1754, Green Bay, then garrisoned by
+an officer, a sergeant and four soldiers, required for the Indian trade
+of its department thirteen canoes of goods annually, costing about 7000
+livres each, making a total of nearly $18,000.[153] Bougainville
+asserts that Marin, the commandant of the department of the Bay, was
+associated in trade with the governor and intendant, and that his part
+netted him annually 15,000 francs.
+
+When it became necessary for the French to open hostilities with the
+English traders in the Ohio country, it was the Wisconsin trader,
+Charles de Langlade, with his Chippeway Indians, who in 1752 fell upon
+the English trading post at Pickawillany and destroyed the center of
+English trade in the Ohio region.[154] The leaders in the opening of the
+war that ensued were Northwestern traders. St. Pierre, who commanded at
+Fort Le Boeuf when Washington appeared with his demands from the
+Governor of Virginia that the French should evacuate the Ohio country,
+had formerly been the trader in command at Lake Pepin on the upper
+Mississippi.[155] Coulon de Villiers, who captured Washington at Fort
+Necessity, was the son of the former commandant at Green Bay.[156]
+Beaujeau, who led the French troops to the defeat of Braddock, had been
+an officer in the Fox wars.[157] It was Charles de Langlade who
+commanded the Indians and was chiefly responsible for the success of the
+ambuscade.[158] Wisconsin Indians, representing almost all the tribes,
+took part with the French in the war.[159] Traders passed to and from
+their business to the battlefields of the East. For example, De
+Repentigny, whose post at Sault Ste. Marie has been described, was at
+Michillimackinac in January, 1755, took part in the battle of Lake
+George in the fall of that year, formed a partnership to continue the
+trade with a trader of Michillimackinac in 1756, was at that place in
+1758, and in 1759 fought with Montcalm on the heights of Abraham.[160]
+It was not without a struggle that the traders yielded their beaver
+country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 152: Margry, VI., 758.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Canadian Archives, 1886, clxxii.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 84.]
+
+[Footnote 155: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 433. Washington was guided to the
+fort along an old trading route by traders; the trail was improved by
+the Ohio Company, and was used by Braddock in his march (Sparks,
+Washington's Works, II., 302).]
+
+[Footnote 156: Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.]
+
+[Footnote 157: _Ibid._, 115.]
+
+[Footnote 158: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II., 425-6. He was
+prominently engaged in other battles; see Wis. Hist. Colls., VII.,
+123-187.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 117.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Neill, in _Mag. West. Hist._, VII., 17, and Minn. Hist.
+Colls., V., 434-436. For other examples see Wis. Hist. Colls., V.,
+113-118; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 430-1.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ENGLISH AND THE NORTHWEST. INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN TRADE ON
+DIPLOMACY.
+
+
+In the meantime what was the attitude of the English toward the
+Northwest? In 1720 Governor Spotswood of Virginia wrote:[161] "The
+danger which threatens these, his Maj'ty's Plantations, from this new
+Settlement is also very considerable, for by the communication which the
+French may maintain between Canada and Mississippi by the conveniency of
+the Lakes, they do in a manner surround all the British Plantations.
+They have it in their power by these Lakes and the many Rivers running
+into them and into the Mississippi to engross all the Trade of the
+Indian Nations w'ch are now supplied from hence."
+
+Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of New York, says in 1724: "New
+France (as the French now claim) extends from the mouth of the
+Mississippi to the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, by which the French
+plainly shew their intention of enclosing the British Settlements and
+cutting us off from all Commerce with the numerous Nations of Indians
+that are everywhere settled over the vast continent of North
+America."[162] As time passed, as population increased, and as the
+reports of the traders extolled the fertility of the country, both the
+English and the French, but particularly the Americans, began to
+consider it from the standpoint of colonization as well as from that of
+the fur trade.[163] The Ohio Company had both settlement and the fur
+trade in mind,[164] and the French Governor, Galissoniere, at the same
+period urged that France ought to plant a colony in the Ohio
+region.[165] After the conquest of New France by England there was still
+the question whether she should keep Canada and the Northwest.[166]
+Franklin, urging her to do so, offered as one argument the value of the
+fur trade, intrinsically and as a means of holding the Indians in check.
+Discussing the question whether the interior regions of America would
+ever be accessible to English settlement and so to English manufactures,
+he pointed out the vastness of our river and lake system, and the fact
+that Indian trade already permeated the interior. In interesting
+comparison he called their attention to the fact that English commerce
+reached along river systems into the remote parts of Europe, and that in
+ancient times the Levant had carried on a trade with the distant
+interior.[167]
+
+That the value of the fur trade was an important element in inducing the
+English to retain Canada is shown by the fact that Great Britain no
+sooner came into the possession of the country than she availed herself
+of the fields for which she had so long intrigued. Among the western
+posts she occupied Green Bay, and with the garrison came traders;[168]
+but the fort was abandoned on the outbreak of Pontiac's war.[169] This
+war was due to the revolt of the Indians of the Northwest against the
+transfer of authority, and was fostered by the French traders.[170] It
+concerned Wisconsin but slightly, and at its close we find Green Bay a
+little trading community along the Fox, where a few families lived
+comfortably[171] under the quasi-patriarchal rule of Langlade.[172] In
+1765 trade was re-established at Chequamegon Bay by an English trader
+named Henry, and here he found the Chippeways dressed in deerskins, the
+wars having deprived them of a trader.[173]
+
+As early as 1766 some Scotch merchants more extensively reopened the fur
+trade, using Michillimackinac as the basis of their operations and
+employing French voyageurs.[174] By the proclamation of the King in 1763
+the Northwest was left without political organization, it being reserved
+as crown lands and exempt from purchase or settlement, the design being
+to give up to the Indian trade all the lands "westward of the sources of
+the rivers which fall into the sea from the West and Northwest as
+aforesaid." In a report of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and
+Plantations in 1772 we find the attitude of the English government
+clearly set forth in these words:[175]
+
+"The great object of colonization upon the continent of North America
+has been to improve and extend the commerce and manufactures of this
+kingdom.... It does appear to us that the extension of the fur trade
+depends entirely upon the Indians being undisturbed in the possession of
+their hunting grounds, and that all colonization does in its nature and
+must in its consequence operate to the prejudice of that branch of
+commerce.... Let the savages enjoy their deserts in quiet. Were they
+driven from their forests the peltry trade would decrease."
+
+In a word, the English government attempted to adopt the western policy
+of the French. From one point of view it was a successful policy. The
+French traders took service under the English, and in the Revolutionary
+war Charles de Langlade led the Wisconsin Indians to the aid of Hamilton
+against George Rogers Clark,[176] as he had before against the British,
+and in the War of 1812 the British trader Robert Dickson repeated this
+movement.[177] As in the days of Begon, "the savages took the part of
+those with whom they traded." The secret proposition of Vergennes, in
+the negotiations preceding the treaty of 1783, to limit the United
+States by the Alleghanies and to give the Northwest to England, while
+reserving the rest of the region between the mountains and the
+Mississippi as Indian territory under Spanish protection,[178] would
+have given the fur trade to these nations.[179] In the extensive
+discussions over the diplomacy whereby the Northwest was included within
+the limits of the United States, it has been asserted that we won our
+case by the chartered claims of the colonies and by George Rogers
+Clark's conquest of the Illinois country. It appears, however, that in
+fact Franklin, who had been a prominent member and champion of the Ohio
+Company, and who knew the West from personal acquaintance, had persuaded
+Shelburne to cede it to us as a part of a liberal peace that should
+effect a reconciliation between the two countries. Shelburne himself
+looked upon the region from the point of view of the fur trade simply,
+and was more willing to make this concession than he was some others. In
+the discussion over the treaty in Parliament in 1783, the Northwestern
+boundary was treated almost solely from the point of view of the fur
+trade and of the desertion of the Indians. The question was one of
+profit and loss in this traffic. One member attacked Shelburne on the
+ground that, "not thinking the naked independence a sufficient proof of
+his liberality to the United States, he had clothed it with the warm
+covering of our fur trade." Shelburne defended his cession "on the fair
+rule of the value of the district ceded,"[180] and comparing exports and
+imports and the cost of administration, he concluded that the fur trade
+of the Northwest was not of sufficient value to warrant continuing the
+war. The most valuable trade, he argued, was north of the line, and the
+treaty merely applied sound economic principles and gave America "a
+share in the trade." The retention of her Northwestern posts by Great
+Britain at the close of the war, in contravention of the treaty, has an
+obvious relation to the fur trade. In his negotiations with Hammond, the
+British ambassador in 1791, Secretary of State Jefferson said: "By these
+proceedings we have been intercepted entirely from the commerce of furs
+with the Indian nations to the northward--a commerce which had ever been
+of great importance to the United States, not only for its intrinsic
+value, but as it was the means of cherishing peace with these Indians,
+and of superseding the necessity of that expensive warfare which we have
+been obliged to carry on with them during the time that these posts have
+been in other hands."[181]
+
+In discussing the evacuation of the posts in 1794 Jay was met by a
+demand that complete freedom of the Northwestern Indian trade should be
+granted to British subjects. It was furthermore proposed by Lord
+Grenville[182] that, "Whereas it is now understood that the river
+Mississippi would at no point thereof be intersected by such westward
+line as is described in the said treaty [1783]; and whereas it was
+stipulated in the said treaty that the navigation of the Mississippi
+should be free to both parties"--one of two new propositions should be
+accepted regarding the northwestern boundary. The maps in American State
+Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 492, show that both these proposals
+extended Great Britain's territory so as to embrace the Grand Portage
+and the lake region of northern Minnesota, one of the best of the
+Northwest Company's fur-trading regions south of the line, and in
+connection by the Red river with the Canadian river systems.[183] They
+were rejected by Jay. Secretary Randolph urged him to hasten the removal
+of the British, stating that the delay asked for, to allow the traders
+to collect their Indian debts, etc., would have a bad effect upon the
+Indians, and protesting that free communication for the British would
+strike deep into our Indian trade.[184] The definitive treaty included
+the following provisions:[185] The posts were to be evacuated before
+June 1, 1796. "All settlers and traders, within the precincts or
+jurisdiction of the said posts, shall continue to enjoy, unmolested, all
+their property of every kind, and shall be protected therein. They shall
+be at full liberty to remain there, or to remove with all or any part of
+their effects; and it shall also be free to them to sell their lands,
+houses, or effects, or to retain the property thereof, at their
+discretion; such of them as shall continue to reside within the said
+boundary lines shall not be compelled to become citizens of the United
+States, or to take any oath of allegiance to the government thereof; but
+they shall be at full liberty to do so if they think proper, and they
+shall make and declare their election within one year after the
+evacuation aforesaid. And all persons who shall continue there after the
+expiration of the said year without having declared their intention of
+remaining subjects of his British Majesty shall be considered as having
+elected to become citizens of the United States." "It is agreed that it
+shall at all times be free to His Majesty's subjects, and to the Indians
+dwelling on either side of the said boundary line, freely to pass and
+repass by land or inland navigation into the respective territories and
+countries of the two parties on the continent of America (the country
+within the limits of the Hudson's Bay Company only excepted), and to
+navigate all the lakes, rivers and waters thereof, and freely to carry
+on trade and commerce with each other."
+
+In his elaborate defence of Jay's treaty, Alexander Hamilton paid much
+attention to the question of the fur trade. Defending Jay for permitting
+so long a delay in evacuation and for granting right of entry into our
+fields, he minimized the value of the trade. So far from being worth
+$800,000 annually, he asserted the trade within our limits would not be
+worth $100,000, seven-eighths of the traffic being north of the line.
+This estimate of the value of the northwestern trade was too low. In the
+course of his paper he made this observation:[186]
+
+"In proportion as the article is viewed on an enlarged plan and
+permanent scale, its importance to us magnifies. Who can say how far
+British colonization may spread southward and down the west side of the
+Mississippi, northward and westward into the vast interior regions
+towards the Pacific ocean?... In this large view of the subject, the fur
+trade, which has made a very prominent figure in the discussion, becomes
+a point scarcely visible. Objects of great variety and magnitude start
+up in perspective, eclipsing the little atoms of the day, and promising
+to grow and mature with time."
+
+Such was not the attitude of Great Britain. To her the Northwest was
+desirable on account of its Indian commerce. By a statement of the
+Province of Upper Canada, sent with the approbation of
+Lieutenant-General Hunter to the Duke of Kent, Commander-in-Chief of
+British North America, in the year 1800, we are enabled to see the
+situation through Canadian eyes:[187]
+
+"The Indians, who had loudly and Justly complained of a treaty [1783] in
+which they were sacrificed by a cession of their country contrary to
+repeated promises, were with difficulty appeased, however finding the
+Posts retained and some Assurances given they ceased to murmur and
+resolved to defend their country extending from the Ohio Northward to
+the Great Lakes and westward to the Mississippi, an immense tract, in
+which they found the deer, the bear, the wild wolf, game of all sorts in
+profusion. They employed the Tomahawk and Scalping Knife against such
+deluded settlers who on the faith of the treaty to which they did not
+consent, ventured to cross the Ohio, secretly encouraged by the Agents
+of Government, supplied with Arms, Ammunition, and provisions they
+maintained an obstinate & destructive war against the States, cut off
+two Corps sent against them.... The American Government, discouraged by
+these disasters were desirous of peace on any terms, their deputies were
+sent to Detroit, they offered to confine their Pretensions within
+certain limits far South of the Lakes. if this offer had been accepted
+the Indian Country would have been for ages an impassible Barrier
+between us. twas unfortunately perhaps wantonly rejected, and the war
+continued."
+
+Acting under the privileges accorded to them by Jay's treaty, the
+British traders were in almost as complete possession of Wisconsin until
+after the war of 1812 as if Great Britain still owned it. When the war
+broke out the keys of the region, Detroit and Michillimackinac, fell
+into the British hands. Green Bay and Prairie du Chien were settlements
+of French-British traders and voyageurs. Their leader was Robert
+Dickson, who had traded at the latter settlement. Writing in 1814 from
+his camp at Winnebago Lake, he says: "I think that Bony [Bonaparte]
+must be knocked up as all Europe are now in Arms. The crisis is not far
+off when I trust in God that the Tyrant will be humbled, & the Scoundrel
+American Democrats be obliged to go down on their knees to
+Britain."[188] Under him most of the Wisconsin traders of importance
+received British commissions. In the spring of 1814 the Americans took
+Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin river, whereupon Col.
+M'Douall, the British commandant at Michillimackinac, wrote to General
+Drummond:[189] ... "I saw at once the imperious necessity which existed
+of endeavoring by every means to dislodge the American Genl from his new
+conquest, and make him relinquish the immense tract of country he had
+seized upon in consequence & which brought him into the very heart of
+that occupied by our friendly Indians, There was no alternative it must
+either be done or there was an end to our connection with the Indians
+for if allowed to settle themselves by dint of threats bribes & sowing
+divisions among them, tribe after tribe would be gained over or subdued,
+& thus would be destroyed the only barrier which protects the great
+trading establishments of the North West and the Hudson's Bay Companys.
+Nothing could then prevent the enemy from gaining the source of the
+Mississippi, gradually extending themselves by the Red river to Lake
+Winnipic, from whense the descent of Nelsons river to York Fort would in
+time be easy."
+
+The British traders, voyageurs and Indians[190] dislodged the Americans,
+and at the close of the war England was practically in possession of the
+Indian country of the Northwest.
+
+In the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners asserted the
+sovereignty of the Indians over their lands, and their independence in
+relation to the United States, and demanded that a barrier of Indian
+territory should be established between the two countries, free to the
+traffic of both nations but not open to purchase by either.[191] The
+line of the Grenville treaty was suggested as a basis for determining
+this Indian region. The proposition would have removed from the
+sovereignty of the United States the territory of the Northwest with the
+exception of about two-thirds of Ohio,[192] and given it over to the
+British fur traders. The Americans declined to grant the terms, and the
+United States was finally left in possession of the Northwest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 161: Va. Hist. Colls., N.S., II, 329.]
+
+[Footnote 162: N.Y. Col. Docs., V., 726.]
+
+[Footnote 163: Indian relations had a noteworthy influence upon colonial
+union; see Lucas, Appendiculae Historicae, 161, and Frothingham, Rise of
+the Republic, ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 59; Sparks, Washington's
+Works, II., 302.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, I., 21.]
+
+[Footnote 166: _Ibid._ II., 403.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Bigelow, Franklin's Works, III., 43, 83, 98-100.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26-38.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Parkman, Pontiac, I., 185. Consult N.Y. Col. Docs., VI.,
+635, 690, 788, 872, 974.]
+
+[Footnote 170: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 26.]
+
+[Footnote 171: Carver, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Porlier Papers, Wis. Pur Trade MSS., in possession of
+Wis. Hist. Soc.; also Wis. Hist. Colls., III., 200-201.]
+
+[Footnote 173: Henry, Travels.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 61 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Sparks, Franklin's Works, IV., 303-323.]
+
+[Footnote 176: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI.]
+
+[Footnote 177: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 178: Jay, Address before the N.Y. Hist. Soc. on the Treaty
+Negotiations of 1782-3, appendix; map in Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer.,
+VII., 148.]
+
+[Footnote 179: But Vergennes had a just appreciation of the value of the
+region for settlement as well. He recognized and feared the American
+capacity for expansion.]
+
+[Footnote 180: Hansard, XXIII., 377-8, 381-3, 389, 398-9, 405, 409-10,
+423, 450, 457, 465.]
+
+[Footnote 181: American State Papers, Foreign Relations, I., 190.]
+
+[Footnote 182: _Ibid._ 487.]
+
+[Footnote 183: As early as 1794 the company had established a stockaded
+fort at Sandy lake. After Jay's treaty conceding freedom of entry, the
+company dotted this region with posts and raised the British flag over
+them. In 1805 the center of trade was changed from Grand Portage to Fort
+William Henry, on the Canada side. Neill, Minnesota, 239 (4th edn.).
+Bancroft, Northwest Coast, I., 560. _Vide ante_, p. 20, and _post_, p.
+55.]
+
+[Footnote 184: Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., I., p. 509.]
+
+[Footnote 185: Treaties and Conventions, etc., 1776-1887, p. 380.]
+
+[Footnote 186: Lodge, Hamilton's Works, IV., 514.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Michigan Pioneer Colls., XV., 8; cf. 10, 12, 23 and XVI.,
+67.]
+
+[Footnote 188: Wis. Fur Trade MSS., 1814 (State Hist. Soc.).]
+
+[Footnote 189: Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 260. Mich. Pioneer Colls., XVI.,
+103-104.]
+
+[Footnote 190: Wis. Hist. Colls., XL, 255. Cf. Mich. Pioneer Colls.,
+XVI., 67. Rolette, one of the Prairie du Chien traders, was tried by the
+British for treason to Great Britain.]
+
+[Footnote 191: Amer. State Papers, For. Rels., III., 705.]
+
+[Footnote 192: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., L, 562. See map in
+Collet's Travels, atlas.]
+
+
+
+
+THE NORTHWEST COMPANY.
+
+
+The most striking feature of the English period was the Northwest
+Company.[193] From a study of it one may learn the character of the
+English occupation of the Northwest.[194] It was formed in 1783 and
+fully organized in 1787, with the design of contesting the field with
+the Hudson Bay Company. Goods were brought from England to Montreal, the
+headquarters of the company, and thence from the four emporiums,
+Detroit, Mackinaw, Sault Ste. Marie, and Grand Portage, they were
+scattered through the great Northwest, even to the Pacific ocean.
+
+Toward the end of the eighteenth century ships[195] began to take part
+in this commerce; a portion of the goods was sent from Montreal in
+boats to Kingston, thence in vessels to Niagara, thence overland to Lake
+Erie, to be reshipped in vessels to Mackinaw and to Sault Ste. Marie,
+where another transfer was made to a Lake Superior vessel. These ships
+were of about ninety-five tons burden and made four or five trips a
+season. But in the year 1800 the primitive mode of trade was not
+materially changed. From the traffic along the main artery of commerce
+between Grand Portage and Montreal may be learned the kind of trade that
+flowed along such branches as that between the island of Mackinaw and
+the Wisconsin posts. The visitor at La Chine rapids, near Montreal,
+might have seen a squadron of Northwestern trading canoes leaving for
+the Grand Portage, at the west of Lake Superior.[196]
+
+The boatmen, or "engages," having spent their season's gains in
+carousal, packed their blanket capotes and were ready for the wilderness
+again. They made a picturesque crew in their gaudy turbans, or hats
+adorned with plumes and tinsel, their brilliant handkerchiefs tied
+sailor-fashion about swarthy necks, their calico shirts, and their
+flaming worsted belts, which served to hold the knife and the tobacco
+pouch. Rough trousers, leggings, and cowhide shoes or gaily-worked
+moccasins completed the costume. The trading birch canoe measured forty
+feet in length, with a depth of three and a width of five. It floated
+four tons of freight, and yet could be carried by four men over
+difficult portages. Its crew of eight men was engaged at a salary[197]
+of from five to eight hundred livres, about $100 to $160 per annum,
+each, with a yearly outfit of coarse clothing and a daily food allowance
+of a quart of hulled corn, or peas, seasoned with two ounces of tallow.
+
+The experienced voyageurs who spent the winters in the woods were called
+_hivernans_, or winterers, or sometimes _hommes du nord_; while the
+inexperienced, those who simply made the trip from Montreal to the
+outlying depots and return, were contemptuously dubbed _mangeurs de
+lard_,[198] "pork-eaters," because their pampered appetites demanded
+peas and pork rather than hulled corn and tallow. Two of the crew, one
+at the bow and the other at the stern, being especially skilled in the
+craft of handling the paddle in the rapids, received higher wages than
+the rest. Into the canoe was first placed the heavy freight, shot, axes,
+powder; next the dry goods, and, crowning all, filling the canoe to
+overflowing, came the provisions--pork, peas or corn, and sea biscuits,
+sewed in canvas sacks.
+
+The lading completed, the voyageur hung his votive offerings in the
+chapel of Saint Anne, patron saint of voyageurs, the paddles struck the
+waters of the St. Lawrence, and the fleet of canoes glided away on its
+six weeks' journey to Grand Portage. There was the Ottawa to be
+ascended, the rapids to be run, the portages where the canoe must be
+emptied and where each voyageur must bear his two packs of ninety pounds
+apiece, and there were the _decharges_, where the canoe was merely
+lightened and where the voyageurs, now on the land, now into the rushing
+waters, dragged it forward till the rapids were passed. There was no
+stopping to dry, but on, until the time for the hasty meal, or the
+evening camp-fire underneath the pines. Every two miles there was a stop
+for a three minutes' smoke, or "pipe," and when a portage was made it
+was reckoned in "pauses," by which is meant the number of times the men
+must stop to rest. Whenever a burial cross appeared, or a stream was
+left or entered, the voyageurs removed their hats, and made the sign of
+the cross while one of their number said a short prayer; and again the
+paddles beat time to some rollicking song.[199]
+
+    Dans mon chemin, j'ai rencontre
+    Trois cavalieres, bien montees;
+    L'on, lon, laridon daine,
+    Lon, ton, laridon dai.
+
+    Trois cavalieres, bien montees,
+    L'un a cheval, et l'autre a pied;
+    L'on, lon, laridon daine,
+    Lon, ton, laridon dai.
+
+Arrived at Sault Ste. Marie, the fleet was often doubled by newcomers,
+so that sometimes sixty canoes swept their way along the north shore,
+the paddles marking sixty strokes a minute, while the rocks gave back
+the echoes of Canadian songs rolling out from five hundred lusty
+throats. And so they drew up at Grand Portage, near the present
+northeast boundary of Minnesota, now a sleepy, squalid little village,
+but then the general rendezvous where sometimes over a thousand men met;
+for, at this time, the company had fifty clerks, seventy interpreters,
+eighteen hundred and twenty canoe-men, and thirty-five guides. It sent
+annually to Montreal 106,000 beaver-skins, to say nothing of other
+peltries. When the proprietors from Montreal met the proprietors from
+the northern posts, and with their clerks gathered at the banquet in
+their large log hall to the number of a hundred, the walls hung with
+spoils of the chase, the rough tables furnished with abundance of
+venison, fish, bread, salt pork, butter, peas, corn, potatoes, tea,
+milk, wine and _eau de vie_, while, outside, the motley crowd of engages
+feasted on hulled corn and melted fat--was it not a truly baronial
+scene? Clerks and engages of this company, or its rival, the Hudson Bay
+Company, might winter one season in Wisconsin and the next in the remote
+north. For example, Amable Grignon, a Green Bay trader, wintered in 1818
+at Lac qui Parle in Minnesota, the next year at Lake Athabasca, and the
+third in the hyperborean regions of Great Slave Lake. In his engagement
+he figures as Amable Grignon, _of the Parish of Green Bay, Upper
+Canada_, and he receives $400 "and found in tobacco and shoes and two
+doges," besides "the usual equipment given to clerks." He afterwards
+returned to a post on the Wisconsin river. The attitude of Wisconsin
+traders toward the Canadian authorities and the Northwestern wilds is
+clearly shown in this document, which brings into a line Upper Canada,
+"the parish of Green Bay," and the Hudson Bay Company's territories
+about Great Slave Lake![200]
+
+How widespread and how strong was the influence of these traders upon
+the savages may be easily imagined, and this commercial control was
+strengthened by the annual presents made to the Indians by the British
+at their posts. At a time when our relations with Great Britain were
+growing strained, such a power in the Northwest was a serious
+menace.[201] In 1809 John Jacob Astor secured a charter from the State
+of New York, incorporating the American Fur Company. He proposed to
+consolidate the fur trade of the United States, plant an establishment
+in the contested Oregon territory, and link it with Michillimackinac
+(Mackinaw island) by way of the Missouri through a series of trading
+posts. In 1810 two expeditions of his Pacific Fur Company set out for
+the Columbia, the one around Cape Horn and the other by way of Green
+bay and the Missouri. In 1811 he bought a half interest in the Mackinaw
+Company, a rival of the Northwest Company and the one that had especial
+power in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and this new organization he called
+the Southwest Company. But the war of 1812 came; Astoria, the Pacific
+post, fell into the hands of the Northwest Company, while the Southwest
+Company's trade was ruined.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 193: On this company see Mackenzie, Voyages; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., 378-616, and citations; _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, III.,
+185; Irving, Astoria; Ross, The Fur Hunters of the Far West; Harmon,
+Journal; Report on the Canadian Archives, 1881, p. 61 et seq. This
+fur-trading life still goes on in the more remote regions of British
+America. See Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch. xv.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 123-5.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Mackenzie, Voyages, xxxix. Harmon, Journal, 36. In the
+fall of 1784, Haldimand granted permission to the Northwest Company to
+build a small vessel at Detroit, to be employed next year on Lake
+Superior. Calendar of Canadian Archives, 1888, p. 72.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Besides the authorities cited above, see "Anderson's
+Narrative," in Wis. Hist. Colls., IX., 137-206.]
+
+[Footnote 197: An estimate of the cost of an expedition in 1717 is given
+in Margry, VI., 506. At that time the wages of a good voyageur for a
+year amounted to about $50. Provisions for the two months' trip from
+Montreal to Mackinaw cost about $1.00 per month per man. Indian corn for
+a year cost $16; lard, $10; _eau de vie_, $1.30; tobacco, 25 cents. It
+cost, therefore, less than $80 to support a voyageur for one year's trip
+into the woods. Gov. Ninian Edwards, writing at the time of the American
+Fur Company (_post_, p. 57), says: "The whole expense of transporting
+eight thousand weight of goods from Montreal to the Mississippi,
+wintering with the Indians, and returning with a load of furs and
+peltries in the succeeding season, including the cost of provisions and
+portages and the hire of five engages for the whole time does not exceed
+five hundred and twenty-five dollars, much of which is usually paid to
+those engages when in the Indian country, in goods at an exorbitant
+price." American State Papers, VI., 65.]
+
+[Footnote 198: This distinction goes back at least to 1681 (N.Y. Col.
+Docs., IX., 152). Often the engagement was for five years, and the
+voyageur might be transferred from one master to another, at the
+master's will.
+
+The following is a translation of a typical printed engagement, one of
+scores in the possession of the Wisconsin Historical Society, the
+written portions in brackets:
+
+"Before a Notary residing at the post of Michilimakinac, Undersigned;
+Was Present [Joseph Lamarqueritte] who has voluntarily engaged and doth
+bind himself by these Presents to M[onsieur Louis Grignion] here present
+and accepting, at [his] first requisition to set off from this Post [in
+the capacity of Winterer] in one of [his] Canoes or Bateaux to make the
+Voyage [going as well as returning] and to winter for [two years at the
+Bay].
+
+"And to have due and fitting care on the route and while at the said
+[place] of the Merchandise, Provisions, Peltries, Utensils and of
+everything necessary for the Voyage; to serve, obey and execute
+faithfully all that the said Sieur [Bourgeois] or any other person
+representing him to whom he may transport the present Engagement,
+commands him lawfully and honestly; to do [his] profit, to avoid
+anything to his damage, and to inform him of it if it come to his
+knowledge, and generally to do all that a good [Winterer] ought and is
+obliged to do; without power to make any particular trade, to absent
+himself, or to quit the said service, under pain of these Ordinances,
+and of loss of wages. This engagement is therefore made, for the sum of
+[Eight Hundred] livres or shillings, ancient currency of Quebec, that he
+promises [and] binds himself to deliver and pay to the said [Winterer
+one month] after his return to this Post, and at his departure [an
+Equipment each year of 2 Shirts, 1 Blanket of 3 point, 1 Carot of
+Tobacco, 1 Cloth Blanket, 1 Leather Shirt, 1 Pair of Leather Breeches, 5
+Pairs of Leather Shoes, and Six Pounds of Soap.]
+
+"For thus, etc., promising, etc., binding, etc., renouncing, etc.
+
+"Done and passed at the said [Michilimackinac] in the year eighteen
+hundred [Seven] the [twenty-fourth] of [July before] twelve o'clock; &
+have signed with the exception of the said [Winterer] who, having
+declared himself unable to do so, has made his ordinary mark after the
+engagement was read to him.
+
+                              his
+                    "JOSEPH X LAMARQUERITTE. [SEAL]
+                              mark.
+                                  Louis GEIGNON. [SEAL]
+"SAML. ABBOTT,
+  Not. Pub."
+
+Endorsed--"Engagement of Joseph Lamarqueritte to Louis Grignon."]
+
+[Footnote 199: For Canadian boat-songs see _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, III.,
+189; Mrs. Kinzie, Wau Bun; Bela Hubbard, Memorials of a Half-Century;
+Robinson, Great Fur Land.]
+
+[Footnote 200: Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (Wis. Hist. Soc.). Published in
+Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the State Hist. Soc.
+of Wis. 1889, pp. 81-82.]
+
+[Footnote 201: See Mich. Pioneer Colls., XV., XVI., 67, 74. The
+government consulted the Northwest Company, who made particular efforts
+to "prevent the Americans from ever alienating the minds of the
+Indians." To this end they drew up memoirs regarding the proper
+frontiers.]
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INFLUENCES.
+
+
+Although the Green Bay court of justice, such as it was, had been
+administered under American commissions since 1803, when Reaume
+dispensed a rude equity under a commission of Justice of the Peace from
+Governor Harrison,[202] neither Green Bay nor the rest of Wisconsin had
+any proper appreciation of its American connections until the close of
+this war. But now occurred these significant events:
+
+1. Astor's company was reorganized as the American Fur Company, with
+headquarters at Mackinaw island.[203]
+
+2. The United States enacted in 1816 that neither foreign fur traders,
+nor capital for that trade, should be admitted to this country.[204]
+This was designed to terminate English influence among the tribes, and
+it fostered Astor's company. The law was so interpreted as not to
+exclude British (that is generally, French) interpreters and boatmen,
+who were essential to the company; but this interpretation enabled
+British subjects to evade the law and trade on their own account by
+having their invoices made out to some Yankee clerk, while they
+accompanied the clerk in the guise of interpreters.[205] In this way a
+number of Yankees came to the State.
+
+3. In the year 1816 United States garrisons were sent to Green Bay and
+Prairie du Chien.[206]
+
+4. In 1814 the United States provided for locating government trading
+posts at these two places.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 202: Reaume's petition in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of
+Wisconsin Historical Society.]
+
+[Footnote 203: On this company consult Irving, Astoria; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast, I., ch. xvi.; II., chs. vii-x; _Mag. Amer. Hist._
+XIII., 269; Franchere, Narrative; Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers
+on the Oregon, or Columbia River (1849); Wis. Fur Trade MSS. (State
+Hist. Sec.).]
+
+[Footnote 204: U.S. Statutes at Large, III., 332. Cf. laws in 1802 and
+1822.]
+
+[Footnote 205: Wis. Hist. Colls., I., 103; Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 9.
+The Warren brothers, who came to Wisconsin in 1818, were descendants of
+the Pilgrims and related to Joseph Warren who fell at Bunker Hill; they
+came from Berkshire, Mass., and marrying the half-breed daughters of
+Michael Cadotte, of La Pointe, succeeded to his trade.]
+
+[Footnote 206: See the objections of British traders, Mich. Pioneer
+Colls., XVI., 76 ff. The Northwest Company tried to induce the British
+government to construe the treaty so as to prevent the United States
+from erecting the forts, urging that a fort at Prairie du Chien would
+"deprive the Indians of their 'rights and privileges'", guaranteed by
+the treaty.]
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNMENT TRADING HOUSES.
+
+
+The system of public trading houses goes back to colonial days. At first
+in Plymouth and Jamestown all industry was controlled by the
+commonwealth, and in Massachusetts Bay the stock company had reserved
+the trade in furs for themselves before leaving England.[207] The trade
+was frequently farmed out, but public "truck houses" were established by
+the latter colony as early as 1694-5.[208] Franklin, in his public
+dealings with the Ohio Indians, saw the importance of regulation of the
+trade, and in 1753 he wrote asking James Bowdoin of Massachusetts to
+procure him a copy of the truckhouse law of that colony, saying that if
+it had proved to work well he thought of proposing it for
+Pennsylvania.[209] The reply of Bowdoin showed that Massachusetts
+furnished goods to the Indians at wholesale prices and so drove out the
+French and the private traders. In 1757 Virginia adopted the system for
+a time,[210] and in 1776 the Continental Congress accepted a plan
+presented by a committee of which Franklin was a member,[211] whereby
+L140,000 sterling was expended at the charge of the United Colonies for
+Indian goods to be sold at moderate prices by factors of the
+congressional commissioners.[212] The bearing of this act upon the
+governmental powers of the Congress is worth noting.
+
+In his messages of 1791 and 1792 President Washington urged the need of
+promoting and regulating commerce with the Indians, and in 1793 he
+advocated government trading houses. Pickering, of Massachusetts, who
+was his Secretary of War with the management of Indian affairs, may have
+strengthened Washington in this design, for he was much interested in
+Indian improvement, but Washington's own experience had shown him the
+desirability of some such plan, and he had written to this effect as
+early as 1783.[213] The objects of Congressional policy in dealing with
+the Indians were stated by speakers in 1794 as follows:[214] 1.
+Protection of the frontiersmen from the Indians, by means of the army.
+2. Protection of the Indians from the frontiersmen, by laws regulating
+settlement. 3. Detachment of the Indians from foreign influence, by
+trading houses where goods could be got cheaply. In 1795 a small
+appropriation was made for trying the experiment of public trading
+houses,[215] and in 1796, the same year that the British evacuated the
+posts, the law which established the system was passed.[216] It was to
+be temporary, but by re-enactments with alterations it was prolonged
+until 1822, new posts being added from time to time. In substance the
+laws provided a certain capital for the Indian trade, the goods to be
+sold by salaried United States factors, at posts in the Indian country,
+at such rates as would protect the savage from the extortions of the
+individual trader, whose actions sometimes provoked hostilities, and
+would supplant British influence over the Indian. At the same time it
+was required that the capital stock should not be diminished. In the
+course of the debate over the law in 1796 considerable _laissez faire_
+sentiment was called out against the government's becoming a trader,
+notwithstanding that the purpose of the bill was benevolence and
+political advantage rather than financial gain.[217] President Jefferson
+and Secretary Calhoun were friends of the system.[218] It was a failure,
+however, and under the attacks of Senator Benton, the Indian agents and
+the American Fur Company, it was brought to an end in 1822. The causes
+of its failure were chiefly these:[219] The private trader went to the
+hunting grounds of the savages, while the government's posts were fixed.
+The private traders gave credit to the Indians, which the government did
+not.[220] The private trader understood the Indians, was related to them
+by marriage, and was energetic and not over-scrupulous. The government
+trader was a salaried agent not trained to the work. The private trader
+sold whiskey and the government did not. The British trader's goods were
+better than those of the government. The best business principles were
+not always followed by the superintendent. The system was far from
+effecting its object, for the Northwestern Indians had been accustomed
+to receive presents from the British authorities, and had small respect
+for a government that traded. Upon Wisconsin trade from 1814 to 1822 its
+influence was slight.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 207: Mass. Coll. Recs., I., 55: III., 424.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Acts and Resolves of the Prov. of Mass. Bay, I., 172.]
+
+[Footnote 209: Bigelow, Franklin's Works, II., 316, 221. A plan for
+public trading houses came before the British ministry while Franklin
+was in England, and was commented upon by him for their benefit.]
+
+[Footnote 210: Hening, Statutes, VII., 116.]
+
+[Footnote 211: Journals of Congress, 1775, pp. 162, 168, 247.]
+
+[Footnote 212: _Ibid._, 1776, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 213: Ford's Washington's Writings, X., 309.]
+
+[Footnote 214: Annals of Cong., IV., 1273; cf. _ibid._, V., 231.]
+
+[Footnote 215: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 583.]
+
+[Footnote 216: Annals of Cong., VI., 2889.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Annals of Congress, V., 230 ff., 283; Abridgment of
+Debates, VII., 187-8.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684; II., 181.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Amer. State Papers, VI., Ind. Affs., II., 203; Ind.
+Treaties, 399 _et seq._; Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 269; _Washington
+Gazette_, 1821, 1822, articles by Ramsay Crooks under signature
+"Backwoodsman," and speech of Tracy in House of Representatives,
+February 23, 1821; Benton, Thirty Years View; _id._, Abr. Deb., VII.,
+1780.]
+
+[Footnote 220: To understand the importance of these two points see
+_post_, pp. 62-5.]
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN TRADE IN 1820.[221]
+
+
+The goods used in the Indian trade remained much the same from the
+first, in all sections of the country.[222] They were chiefly blankets,
+coarse cloths, cheap jewelry and trinkets (including strings of wampum),
+fancy goods (like ribbons, shawls, etc.), kettles, knives, hatchets,
+guns, powder, tobacco, and intoxicating liquor.[223] These goods,
+shipped from Mackinaw, at first came by canoes or bateaux,[224] and in
+the later period by vessel, to a leading post, were there redivided[225]
+and sent to the various trading posts. The Indians, returning from the
+hunting grounds to their villages in the spring,[226] set the squaws to
+making maple sugar,[227] planting corn, watermelons, potatoes, squashes,
+etc., and a little hunting was carried on. The summer was given over to
+enjoyment, and in the early period to wars. In the autumn they collected
+their wild rice, or their corn, and again were ready to start for the
+hunting grounds, sometimes 300 miles distant. At this juncture the
+trader, licensed by an Indian agent, arrived upon the scene with his
+goods, without which no family could subsist, much less collect any
+quantity of furs.[228] These were bought on credit by the hunter, since
+he could not go on the hunt for the furs, whereby he paid for his
+supplies, without having goods and ammunition advanced for the purpose.
+This system of credits,[229] dating back to the French period, had
+become systematized so that books were kept, with each Indian's account.
+The amount to which the hunter was trusted was between $40 and $50, at
+cost prices, upon which the trader expected a gain of about 100 per
+cent, so that the average annual value of furs brought in by each hunter
+to pay his credits should have been between $80 and $100.[230] The
+amount of the credit varied with the reputation of the hunter for
+honesty and ability in the chase.[231] Sometimes he was trusted to the
+amount of three hundred dollars. If one-half the credits were paid in
+the spring the trader thought that he had done a fair business. The
+importance of this credit system can hardly be overestimated in
+considering the influence of the fur trade upon the Indians of
+Wisconsin, and especially in rendering them dependent upon the earlier
+settlements of the State.
+
+The system left the Indians at the mercy of the trader when one nation
+monopolized the field, and it compelled them to espouse the cause of one
+or other when two nations contended for supremacy over their territory.
+At the same time it rendered the trade peculiarly adapted to monopoly,
+for when rivals competed, the trade was demoralized, and the Indian
+frequently sold to a new trader the furs which he had pledged in advance
+for the goods of another. When the American Fur Company gained control,
+they systematized matters so that there was no competition between their
+own agents, and private dealers cut into their trade but little for some
+years. The unit of trade was at first the beaver skin, or, as the pound
+of beaver skin came to be called, the "plus."[232] The beaver skin was
+estimated at a pound and a half, though it sometimes weighed two, in
+which case an allowance was made. Wampum was used for ornament and in
+treaty-making, but not as currency. Other furs or Indian commodities,
+like maple sugar and wild rice, were bought in terms of beaver. As this
+animal grew scarcer the unit changed to money. By 1820, when few beaver
+were marketed in Wisconsin, the term plus stood for one dollar.[233] The
+muskrat skin was also used as the unit in the later days of the
+trade.[234] In the southern colonies the pound of deer skin had answered
+the purpose of a unit.[235]
+
+The goods being trusted to the Indians, the bands separated for the
+hunting grounds. Among the Chippeways, at least, each family or group
+had a particular stream or region where it exclusively hunted and
+trapped.[236] Not only were the hunting grounds thus parcelled out;
+certain Indians were apportioned to certain traders,[237] so that the
+industrial activities of Wisconsin at this date were remarkably
+systematic and uniform. Sometimes the trader followed the Indians to
+their hunting grounds. From time to time he sent his engages (hired
+men), commonly five or six in number, to the various places where the
+hunting bands were to be found, to collect furs on the debts and to sell
+goods to those who had not received too large credits, and to the
+customers of rival traders; this was called "running a deouine."[238]
+The main wintering post had lesser ones, called "jack-knife posts,"[239]
+depending on it, where goods were left and the furs gathered in going to
+and from the main post. By these methods Wisconsin was thoroughly
+visited by the traders before the "pioneers" arrived.[240]
+
+The kind and amount of furs brought in may be judged by the fact that in
+1836, long after the best days of the trade, a single Green Bay firm,
+Porlier and Grignon, shipped to the American Fur Company about 3600 deer
+skins, 6000 muskrats, 150 bears, 850 raccoons, besides beavers, otters,
+fishers, martens, lynxes, foxes, wolves, badgers, skunks, etc.,
+amounting to over $6000.
+
+None of these traders became wealthy; Astor's company absorbed the
+profits. It required its clerks, or factors, to pay an advance of 81-1/2
+per cent on the sterling cost of the blankets, strouds, and other
+English goods, in order to cover the cost of importation and the expense
+of transportation from New York to Mackinaw. Articles purchased in New
+York were charged with 15-1/3 per cent advance for transportation, and
+each class of purchasers was charged with 33-1/3 per cent advance as
+profit on the aggregate amount.[241]
+
+I estimate, from the data given in the sources cited on page 63, note,
+that in 1820 between $60,000 and $75,000 worth of goods was brought
+annually to Wisconsin for the Indian trade. An average outfit for a
+single clerk at a main post was between $1500 and $2000, and for the
+dependent posts between $100 and $500. There were probably not over 2000
+Indian hunters in the State, and the total Indian population did not
+much exceed 10,000. Comparing this number with the early estimates for
+the same tribes, we find that, if the former are trustworthy, by 1820
+the Indian tribes that remained in Wisconsin had increased their
+numbers. But the material is too unsatisfactory to afford any valuable
+conclusion.
+
+After the sale of their lands and the receipt of money annuities, a
+change came over the Indian trade. The monopoly held by Astor was broken
+into, and as competition increased, the sales of whiskey were larger,
+and for money, which the savage could now pay. When the Indians went to
+Montreal in the days of the French, they confessed that they could not
+return with supplies because they wasted their furs upon brandy. The
+same process now went on at their doors. The traders were not dependent
+upon the Indian's success in hunting alone; they had his annuities to
+count on, and so did not exert their previous influence in favor of
+steady hunting. Moreover, the game was now exploited to a considerable
+degree, so that Wisconsin was no longer the hunter's paradise that it
+had been in the days of Dablon and La Salle. The long-settled economic
+life of the Indian being revolutionized, his business honesty declined,
+and credits were more frequently lost. The annuities fell into the
+traders' hands for debts and whiskey. "There is no less than near
+$420,000 of claims against the Winnebagoes," writes a Green Bay trader
+at Prairie du Chien, in 1838, "so that if they are all just, the
+dividend will be but very small for each claimant, as there is only
+$150,000 to pay that."[242]
+
+By this time the influence of the fur trader had so developed mining in
+the region of Dubuque, Iowa, Galena, Ill., and southwestern Wisconsin,
+as to cause an influx of American miners, and here began a new element
+of progress for Wisconsin. The knowledge of these mines was possessed by
+the early French explorers, and as the use of firearms spread they were
+worked more and more by Indians, under the stimulus of the trader. In
+1810 Nicholas Boilvin, United States Indian agent at Prairie du Chien,
+reported that the Indians about the lead mines had mostly abandoned the
+chase and turned their attention to the manufacture of lead, which they
+sold to fur traders. In 1825 there were at least 100 white miners in the
+entire lead region,[243] and by 1829 they numbered in the thousands.
+
+Black Hawk's war came in 1832, and agricultural settlement sought the
+southwestern part of the State after that campaign. The traders opened
+country stores, and their establishments were nuclei of settlement.[244]
+In Wisconsin the Indian trading post was a thing of the past.
+
+The birch canoe and the pack-horse had had their day in western New York
+and about Montreal. In Wisconsin the age of the voyageur continued
+nearly through the first third of this century. It went on in the Far
+Northwest in substantially the same fashion that has been here
+described, until quite recently; and in the great North Land tributary
+to Hudson Bay the _chanson_ of the voyageur may still be heard, and the
+dog-sledge laden with furs jingles across the snowy plains from distant
+post to distant post.[245]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 221: In an address before the State Historical Society of
+Wisconsin, on the Character and Influence of the Fur Trade in Wisconsin
+(Proceedings, 1889, pp. 86-98), I have given details as to Wisconsin
+settlements, posts, routes of trade, and Indian location and population
+in 1820.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377. Compare the articles used by
+Radisson, _ante_, p. 29. For La Salle's estimate of amount and kind of
+goods needed for a post, and the profits thereon, see Penna. Archives,
+2d series, VI., 18-19. Brandy was an important item, one beaver selling
+for a pint. For goods and cost in 1728 see a bill quoted by E.D. Neill,
+on p. 20, _Mag. West. Hist._, Nov., 1887, Cf. 4 Mass. Hist. Colls.,
+III., 344; Byrd Manuscripts, I., 180 ff.; Minn. Hist. Colls., II., 46;
+Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 42 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 223: Wis. Fur Trade MSS. Cf. Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 377, and
+Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 360. The amount of liquor taken to
+the woods was very great. The French Jesuits had protested against its
+use in vain (Parkman's Old Regime); the United States prohibited it to
+no purpose. It was an indispensable part of a trader's outfit. Robert
+Stuart, agent of the American Fur Company at Mackinaw, once wrote to
+John Lawe, one of the leading traders at Green Bay, that the 56 bbls. of
+whiskey which he sends is "enough to last two years, and half drown all
+the Indians he deals with." See also Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 282;
+McKenney's Tour to the Lakes, 169, 299-301; McKenney's Memoirs, I.,
+19-21. An old trader assured me that it was the custom to give five or
+six gallons of "grog"--one-fourth water--to the hunter when he paid his
+credits; he thought that only about one-eighth or one-ninth part of the
+whole sales was in whiskey.]
+
+[Footnote 224: A light boat sometimes called a "Mackinaw boat," about 32
+feet long, by 6-1/2 to 15 feet wide amidships, and sharp at the ends.]
+
+[Footnote 225: See Wis. Hist. Colls., II., 108.]
+
+[Footnote 226: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 263.]
+
+[Footnote 227: See Wis. Hist. Colls., VII., 220, 286; III., 235;
+McKenney's Tour, 194; Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, II., 55. Sometimes a
+family made 1500 lbs. in a season.]
+
+[Footnote 228: Lewis Cass in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II., 1.]
+
+[Footnote 229: See D'Iberville's plans for relocating Indian tribes by
+denying them credit at certain posts, Margry, IV., 597. The system was
+used by the Dutch, and the Puritans also; see Weeden, Economic and
+Social Hist. New Eng., I., 98. In 1765, after the French and Indian war,
+the Chippeways of Chequamegon Bay told Henry, a British trader, that
+unless he advanced them goods on credit, "their wives and children would
+perish; for that there were neither ammunition nor clothing left among
+them." He distributed goods worth 3000 beaver skins. Henry, Travels,
+195-6. Cf. Neill, Minnesota, 225-6; N.Y. Col. Docs., VII., 543; Amer.
+State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 64, 66, 329, 333-5; _North American
+Review_, Jan., 1826, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 230: Biddle, an Indian agent, testified in 1822 that while the
+cost of transporting 100 wt. from New York to Green Bay did not exceed
+five dollars, which would produce a charge of less than 10 percent on
+the original cost, the United States factor charged 50 per cent
+additional. The United States capital stock was diminished by this
+trade, however. The private dealers charged much more. Schoolcraft in
+1831 estimated that $48.34 in goods and provisions at cost prices was
+the average annual supply of each hunter, or $6.90 to each soul. The
+substantial accuracy of this is sustained by my data. See Sen. Doc., No.
+90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., II., 45; State Papers, No. 7, 18th Cong., 1st
+Sess., I.; State Papers, No. 54, 18th Cong., 2d Sess., III.;
+Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, III., 599; Invoice Book, Amer. Fur Co., for
+1820, 1821; Wis. Fur Trade MSS. in possession of Wisconsin Historical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 231: The following is a typical account, taken from the books
+of Jacques Porlier, of Green Bay, for the year 1823: The Indian Michel
+bought on credit in the fall: $16 worth of cloth; a trap, $1.00; two and
+a half yards of cotton, $3.12-1/2; three measures of powder, $1.50;
+lead, $1.00; a bottle of whiskey, 50 cents, and some other articles,
+such as a gun worm, making in all a bill of about $25. This he paid in
+full by bringing in eighty-five muskrats, worth nearly $20; a fox,
+$1.00, and a mocock of maple sugar, worth $4.00.]
+
+[Footnote 232: A.J. Vieau, who traded in the thirties, gave me this
+information.]
+
+[Footnote 233: For the value of the beaver at different periods and
+places consult indexes, under "beaver," in N.Y. Col. Docs,; Bancroft,
+Northwest Coast; Weeden, Economic and Social Hist. New Eng.; and see
+Morgan, American Beaver, 243-4; Henry, Travels, 192; 2 Penna. Archives,
+VI., 18; Servent, in Paris Ex. Univ. 1867, Rapports, VI., 117, 123;
+Proc. Wis. State Hist. Soc., 1889, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 234: Minn. Hist. Colls. II., 46, gives the following table for
+1836:
+
+_St. Louis Prices._               _Minn. Price._             _Nett Gain._
+Three pt. blanket  = $3 25   60 rat skins at 20 cents = $12 00      $8 75
+1-1/2 yds. Stroud  =  2 37   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 63
+1 N.W. gun         =  6 50  100 rat skins at 20 cents =  20 00      13 50
+1 lb. lead         =    06    2 rat skins at 20 cents =     40         34
+1 lb. powder       =    28   10 rat skins at 20 cents =   2 00       1 72
+1 tin kettle       =  2 50   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 50
+1 knife            =    20    4 rat skins at 20 cents =     80         60
+1 lb. tobacco      =    12    8 rat skins at 20 cents =   1 60       1 38
+1 looking glass    =    04    4 rat skins at 20 cents =     80         76
+1-1/2 yd.
+scarlet cloth      =  3 00   60 rat skins at 20 cents =  12 00       9 00
+
+See also the table of prices in Senate Docs., No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st
+Sess.; II., 42 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 235: Douglass, Summary, I., 176.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Morgan, American Beaver, 243.]
+
+[Footnote 237: Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc., 1889, pp. 92-98.]
+
+[Footnote 238: Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., II., 66.]
+
+[Footnote 239: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 220, 223.]
+
+[Footnote 240: The centers of Wisconsin trade were Green Bay, Prairie du
+Chien, and La Pointe (on Madelaine island, Chequamegon bay). Lesser
+points of distribution were Milwaukee and Portage. From these places, by
+means of the interlacing rivers and the numerous lakes of northern
+Wisconsin, the whole region was visited by birch canoes or Mackinaw
+boats.]
+
+[Footnote 241: Schoolcraft in Senate Doc. No. 90, 22d Cong., 1st Sess.,
+II,. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 242: Lawe to Vieau, in Wis. Fur Trade MSS. See also U.S.
+Indian Treaties, and Wis. Hist. Colls., V., 236.]
+
+[Footnote 243: House Ex. Docs., 19th Cong., 2d Sess., II., No. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 244: For example see the Vieau Narrative in Wis. Hist. Colls.,
+XI., and the Wis. Fur Trade MSS.]
+
+[Footnote 245: Butler, Wild North Land; Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+xv.]
+
+
+
+
+EFFECTS OF THE TRADING POST.
+
+
+We are now in a position to offer some conclusions as to the influence
+of the Indian trading post.
+
+I. Upon the savage it had worked a transformation. It found him without
+iron, hunting merely for food and raiment. It put into his hands iron
+and guns, and made him a hunter for furs with which to purchase the
+goods of civilization. Thus it tended to perpetuate the hunter stage;
+but it must also be noted that for a time it seemed likely to develop a
+class of merchants who should act as intermediaries solely. The
+inter-tribal trade between Montreal and the Northwest, and between
+Albany and the Illinois and Ohio country, appears to have been commerce
+in the proper sense of the term[246] (_Kauf zum Verkauf_). The trading
+post left the unarmed tribes at the mercy of those that had bought
+firearms, and this caused a relocation of the Indian tribes and an
+urgent demand for the trader by the remote and unvisited Indians. It
+made the Indian dependent on the white man's supplies. The stage of
+civilization that could make a gun and gunpowder was too far above the
+bow and arrow stage to be reached by the Indian. Instead of elevating
+him the trade exploited him. But at the same time, when one nation did
+not monopolize the trade, or when it failed to regulate its own traders,
+the trading post gave to the Indians the means of resistance to
+agricultural settlement. The American settlers fought for their farms in
+Kentucky and Tennessee at a serious disadvantage, because for over half
+a century the Creeks and Cherokees had received arms and ammunition from
+the trading posts of the French, the Spanish and the English. In
+Wisconsin the settlers came after the Indian had become thoroughly
+dependent on the American traders, and so late that no resistance was
+made. The trading post gradually exploited the Indian's hunting ground.
+By intermarriages with the French traders the purity of the stock was
+destroyed and a mixed race produced.[247] The trader broke down the old
+totemic divisions, and appointed chiefs regardless of the Indian social
+organization, to foster his trade. Indians and traders alike testify
+that this destruction of Indian institutions was responsible for much of
+the difficulty in treating with them, the tribe being without a
+recognized head.[248] The sale of their lands, made less valuable by the
+extinction of game, gave them a new medium of exchange, at the same time
+that, under the rivalry of trade, the sale of whiskey increased.
+
+II. Upon the white man the effect of the Indian trading post was also
+very considerable. The Indian trade gave both English and French a
+footing in America. But for the Indian supplies some of the most
+important settlements would have perished.[249] It invited to
+exploration: the dream of a water route to India and of mines was always
+present in the more extensive expeditions, but the effective practical
+inducement to opening the water systems of the interior, and the thing
+that made exploration possible, was the fur trade. As has been shown,
+the Indian eagerly invited the trader. Up to a certain point also the
+trade fostered the advance of settlements. As long as they were in
+extension of trade with the Indians they were welcomed. The trading
+posts were the pioneers of many settlements along the entire colonial
+frontier. In Wisconsin the sites of our principal cities are the sites
+of old trading posts, and these earliest fur-trading settlements
+furnished supplies to the farming, mining and lumbering pioneers. They
+were centers about which settlement collected after the exploitation of
+the Indian. Although the efforts of the Indians and of the great
+trading companies, whose profits depended upon keeping the primitive
+wilderness, were to obstruct agricultural settlement, as the history of
+the Northwest and of British America shows, nevertheless reports brought
+back by the individual trader guided the steps of the agricultural
+pioneer. The trader was the farmer's pathfinder into some of the richest
+regions of the continent. Both favorably and unfavorably the influence
+of the Indian trade on settlement was very great.
+
+The trading post was the strategic point in the rivalry of France and
+England for the Northwest. The American colonists came to know that the
+land was worth more than the beaver that built in the streams, but the
+mother country fought for the Northwest as the field of Indian trade in
+all the wars from 1689 to 1812. The management of the Indian trade led
+the government under the lead of Franklin and Washington into trading on
+its own account, a unique feature of its policy. It was even proposed by
+the Indian Superintendent at one time that the government should
+manufacture the goods for this trade. In providing a new field for the
+individual trader, whom he expected the government trading houses to
+dispossess, Jefferson proposed the Lewis and Clarke expedition, which
+crossed the continent by way of the Missouri and the Columbia, as the
+British trader, Mackenzie, had before crossed it by way of Canadian
+rivers. The genesis of this expedition illustrates at once the
+comprehensive western schemes of Jefferson, and the importance of the
+part played by the fur trade in opening the West. In 1786, while the
+Annapolis convention was discussing the navigation of the Potomac,
+Jefferson wrote to Washington from Paris inquiring about the best place
+for a canal between the Ohio and the Great Lakes.[250] This was in
+promotion of the project of Ledyard, a Connecticut man, who was then in
+Paris endeavoring to interest the wealthiest house there in the fur
+trade of the Far West. Jefferson took so great an interest in the plan
+that he secured from the house a promise that if they undertook the
+scheme the depot of supply should be at Alexandria, on the Potomac
+river, which would be in connection with the Ohio, if the canal schemes
+of the time were carried out. After the failure of the negotiations of
+Ledyard, Jefferson proposed to him to cross Russia to Kamschatka, take
+ship to Nootka Sound, and thence return to the United States by way of
+the Missouri.[251] Ledyard was detained in Russia by the authorities in
+spite of Jefferson's good offices, and the scheme fell through. But
+Jefferson himself asserts that this suggested the idea of the Lewis and
+Clarke expedition, which he proposed to Congress as a means of fostering
+our Indian trade.[252] Bearing in mind his instructions to this party,
+that they should see whether the Oregon furs might not be shipped down
+the Missouri instead of passing around Cape Horn, and the relation of
+his early canal schemes to this design, we see that he had conceived the
+project of a transcontinental fur trade which should center in Virginia.
+Astor's subsequent attempt to push through a similar plan resulted in
+the foundation of his short-lived post of Astoria at the mouth of the
+Columbia. This occupation greatly aided our claim to the Oregon country
+as against the British traders, who had reached the region by way of the
+northern arm of the Columbia.
+
+In Wisconsin, at least, the traders' posts, placed at the carrying
+places around falls and rapids, pointed out the water powers of the
+State. The portages between rivers became canals, or called out canal
+schemes that influenced the early development of the State. When
+Washington, at the close of his military service, inspected the Mohawk
+valley and the portages between the headwaters of the Potomac and the
+Ohio, as the channels "of conveyance of the extensive and valuable
+trade of a rising empire,"[253] he stood between two eras--the era with
+which he was personally familiar, when these routes had been followed by
+the trader with the savage tribes,[254] and the era which he foresaw,
+when American settlement passed along the same ways to the fertile West
+and called into being the great trunk-lines of the present day.[255] The
+trails became the early roads. An old Indian trader relates that "the
+path between Green Bay and Milwaukee was originally an Indian trail, and
+very crooked, but the whites would straighten it by cutting across lots
+each winter with their jumpers, wearing bare streaks through the thin
+covering, to be followed in the summer by foot and horseback travel
+along the shortened path."[256] The process was typical of a greater
+one. Along the lines that nature had drawn the Indians traded and
+warred; along their trails and in their birch canoes the trader passed,
+bringing a new and a transforming life. These slender lines of eastern
+influence stretched throughout all our vast and intricate water-system,
+even to the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, and the Arctic seas, and these
+lines were in turn followed by agricultural and by manufacturing
+civilization.
+
+In a speech upon the Pacific Railway delivered in the United States
+Senate in 1850, Senator Benton used these words: "There is an idea
+become current of late ... that none but a man of science, bred in a
+school, can lay off a road. That is a mistake. There is a class of
+topographical engineers older than the schools, and more unerring than
+the mathematics. They are the wild animals--buffalo, elk, deer,
+antelope, bears, which traverse the forest, not by compass, but by an
+instinct which leads them always the right way--to the lowest passes in
+the mountains, the shallowest fords in the rivers, the richest pastures
+in the forest, the best salt springs, and the shortest practicable
+routes between remote points. They travel thousands of miles, have their
+annual migrations backwards and forwards, and never miss the best and
+shortest route. These are the first engineers to lay out a road in a new
+country; the Indians follow them, and hence a buffalo-road becomes a
+war-path. The first white hunters follow the same trails in pursuing
+their game; and after that the buffalo-road becomes the wagon-road of
+the white man, and finally the macadamized or railroad of the scientific
+man. It all resolves itself into the same thing--into the same
+buffalo-road; and thence the buffalo becomes the first and safest
+engineer. Thus it has been here in the countries which we inhabit and
+the history of which is so familiar. The present national road from
+Cumberland over the Alleghanies was the military road of General
+Braddock; which had been the buffalo-path of the wild animals. So of the
+two roads from western Virginia to Kentucky--one through the gap in the
+Cumberland mountains, the other down the valley of the Kenhawa. They
+were both the war-path of the Indians and the travelling route of the
+buffalo, and their first white acquaintances the early hunters.
+Buffaloes made them in going from the salt springs on the Holston to the
+rich pastures and salt springs of Kentucky; Indians followed them first,
+white hunters afterwards--and that is the way Kentucky was discovered.
+In more than a hundred years no nearer or better routes have been found;
+and science now makes her improved roads exactly where the buffalo's
+foot first marked the way and the hunter's foot afterwards followed him.
+So all over Kentucky and the West; and so in the Rocky Mountains. The
+famous South Pass was no scientific discovery. Some people think
+Fremont discovered it. It had been discovered forty years before--long
+before he was born. He only described it and confirmed what the hunters
+and traders had reported and what they showed him. It was discovered, or
+rather first seen by white people, in 1808, two years after the return
+of Lewis and Clark, and by the first company of hunters and traders that
+went out after their report laid open the prospect of the fur trade in
+the Rocky Mountains.
+
+"An enterprising Spaniard of St. Louis, Manuel Lisa, sent out the party;
+an acquaintance and old friend of the Senator from Wisconsin who sits on
+my left [General Henry Dodge] led the party--his name Andrew Henry. He
+was the first man that saw that pass; and he found it in the prosecution
+of his business, that of a hunter and trader, and by following the game
+and the road which they had made. And that is the way all passes are
+found. But these traders do not write books and make maps, but they
+enable other people to do it."[257]
+
+Benton errs in thinking that the hunter was the pioneer in Kentucky. As
+I have shown, the trader opened the way. But Benton is at least valid
+authority upon the Great West, and his fundamental thesis has much truth
+in it. A continuously higher life flowed into the old channels, knitting
+the United States together into a complex organism. It is a process not
+limited to America. In every country the exploitation of the wild
+beasts,[258] and of the raw products generally, causes the entry of the
+disintegrating and transforming influences of a higher civilization.
+"The history of commerce is the history of the intercommunication of
+peoples."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 246: Notwithstanding Kulischer's assertion that there is no
+room for this in primitive society. _Vide_ Der Handel auf den primitiven
+Culturstufen, in _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie und
+Sprachwissenschaft_, X., No. 4, p. 378. Compare instances of
+inter-tribal trade given _ante_, pp. 11, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 247: On the "_metis_," _bois-brules_, or half-breeds, consult
+Smithsonian Reports, 1879, p. 309, and Robinson, Great Fur Land, ch.
+iii.]
+
+[Footnote 248: Minn. Hist. Colls., V., 135; Biddle to Atkinson, 1819, in
+Ind. Pamphlets, Vol. I, No. 15 (Wis. Hist. Soc. Library).]
+
+[Footnote 249: Parkman, Pioneers of France, 230; Carr, Mounds of the
+Mississippi, p. 8, n. 8; Smith's Generall Historie, I., 88, 90, 155
+(Richmond, 1819).]
+
+[Footnote 250: Jefferson, Works, II., 60, 250, 370.]
+
+[Footnote 251: Allen's Lewis and Clarke Expedition, p. ix (edition of
+1814. The introduction is by Jefferson).]
+
+[Footnote 252: Jefferson's messages of January 18, 1803, and February
+19, 1806. See Amer. State Papers, Ind. Affs., I., 684.]
+
+[Footnote 253: See Adams, Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to
+U.S., J.H.U. Studies, 3d Series, No. I., pp. 80-82.]
+
+[Footnote 254: _Ibid._ _Vide ante_, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 255: Narr. and Crit. Hist. Amer., VIII., 10. Compare Adams, as
+above. At Jefferson's desire, in January and February of 1788,
+Washington wrote various letters inquiring as to the feasibility of a
+canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio, "whereby the fur and peltry of the
+upper country can be transported"; saying: "Could a channel once be
+opened to convey the fur and peltry from the Lakes into the eastern
+country, its advantages would be so obvious as to induce an opinion that
+it would in a short time become the channel of conveyance for much the
+greater part of the commodities brought from thence." Sparks,
+Washington's Works, IX., 303, 327.]
+
+[Footnote 256: Wis. Hist. Colls., XI., 230.]
+
+[Footnote 257: Cong. Rec., XXIII., 57. I found this interesting
+confirmation of my views after this paper was written. Compare _Harper's
+Magazine_, Sept. 1890, p. 565.]
+
+[Footnote 258: The traffic in furs in the Middle Ages was enormous, says
+Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, III., 62. Numerous cities in England and
+on the Continent, whose names are derived from the word "beaver" and
+whose seals bear the beaver, testify to the former importance in Europe
+of this animal; see _Canadian Journal_, 1859, 359. See Du Chaillu,
+Viking Age, 209-10; Marco Polo, bk. iv., ch. xxi. "Wattenbach, in
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, IX., 391, shows that German traders were
+known in the lands about the Baltic at least as early as the knights.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Character and Influence of the
+Indian Trade in Wisconsin, by Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN TRADE IN WISCONSIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20643.txt or 20643.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/4/20643/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Taavi Kalju and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20643.zip b/20643.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8766eb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20643.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f487251
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #20643 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20643)