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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/20653-8.txt b/20653-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..75bcbd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/20653-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8125 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Checking the Waste, by Mary Huston Gregory + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Checking the Waste + A Study in Conservation + +Author: Mary Huston Gregory + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + + + + + + + + +CHECKING THE WASTE + +A STUDY IN CONSERVATION + +_By_ + +MARY HUSTON GREGORY + +* * * + +_What you would weave into the life of the nation, +put into the public schools._ + +--EMPEROR WILLIAM I. + +* * * + +INDIANAPOLIS +THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY +PUBLISHERS +COPYRIGHT 1911 +PRESS OF +BRAUNWORTH & CO. +BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS +BROOKLYN, N. Y. + +* * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER PAGE + +I WHAT IS CONSERVATION? 1 + +II SOIL 10 + +III FORESTS 42 + +IV WATER 86 + +V COAL 124 + +VI OTHER FUELS 144 + +VII IRON 164 + +VIII OTHER MINERALS 181 + +IX ANIMAL FOODS 198 + +X INSECTS 217 + +XI BIRDS 236 + +XII HEALTH 265 + +XIII BEAUTY 302 + +XIV IN CONCLUSION 312 + + + + +PREFACE + + +Much has been said and written on the subject of conservation and many +excellent ideas have been advanced, but as yet too little has been +accomplished in the way of practical results. Probably this is due +largely to the fact that most people think of conservation as a problem +for the federal and state governments, mine owners, great lumber +companies, owners of vast tracts of land, and large corporations; and +have not realized how much the responsibility for the care of our +natural resources and the penalty for their waste rest with the whole +people, that every one has a part in this work which has been called +"the greatest question before the American people." + +One cause of the failure to realize this personal responsibility is that +while there have been college text-books and scientific treatises on +various branches of the subject, such as Forestry, there has been no +book treating of the entire problem of our natural resources, their +extent, the amount and nature of their use, their waste, and what may be +done to conserve them, prepared in a way that can be readily understood +by the ordinary reader, and dealing with the practical, rather than the +technical, side. + +It is to supply the need for such general knowledge, and to show how +such saving may be accomplished, that this book has been written. It is +designed as a short but complete statement of the entire conservation +question, and should be of service for study in teachers' reading +circles, farmers' institutes, women's clubs, the advanced grades in +schools, and for general library purposes. + +Every statement of fact bears the weight of authority, for no facts or +figures are given that have not been verified by government reports, +reports of scientific societies, etc. + +Information has been gathered from many sources, chief among them being +the Report of the Conference of Governors at the White House, in May, +1908; the Report of the National Conservation Commission, the Report on +National Vitality, the Report of the Inland Waterways Commission, of the +Geological Survey, the Census Reports, and many government departmental +pamphlets. + +M. H. G. + +Indianapolis, November 24, 1910. + +* * * + + + + +CHECKING THE WASTE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WHAT IS CONSERVATION? + + +A Nation's Riches lie both in its people and in its natural resources. +Neither can exist in its highest estate without the other. Goldsmith +predicted the certain downfall of lands "where wealth accumulates and +men decay," but, in the truest, broadest definition, there can be no +national wealth unless the men and women of the nation are healthy, +intelligent, educated and right-minded. On the other hand it is equally +true that if the people of a country are to make the most of themselves +in mind and body; if they are to get the most comfort and happiness out +of life and to become in the highest degree useful, they must develop +its natural resources to the greatest possible degree. + +The United States is particularly fortunate in its abundant riches of +soil, forest and mine, and in the fact that from the beginning of the +nation these have been the inheritance not of a people slowly learning +the use of tools and materials, and emerging from ignorance and +savagery, but representing the most advanced and enlightened ideas and +spiritual ideals of the time. + +The result of these conditions has been inventions and discoveries that +have developed a great nation at home and have done much to better the +condition of the world. But the very magnitude of our natural wealth has +made us careless, even prodigal, in its use, and thoughtful men are +beginning to realize that with the natural increase of population which +is to be expected, we shall, if the present rates of use and waste +continue, find ourselves no longer rich, but facing poverty and even +actual want. But it is not too late to save ourselves from the results +of our past extravagance. We are only beginning to see the danger into +which we have almost plunged, but we see enough to make us realize that +every one must do his part in checking the waste. Before this can be +intelligently accomplished we must understand something of the great +national movement for the conservation of our national resources. + +Let us go back for a moment to the beginning of our history as a nation, +the days of Washington. + +Invention at that time was little advanced over what it had been three +hundred years before. The same type of slow-sailing vessels carried all +the commerce. Wind and water were the only powers employed in running +the few factories. Only a little iron was used in this country, and in +fact almost its only use anywhere at that time was for tools. There was +little machinery, and that of the simplest description. + +Anthracite coal was known in this country only as a hard black rock. +Bituminous coal, gas, and oil were unknown. + +The forests stretched away in unbroken miles of wilderness. The wood was +used for the settlers' homes, their fuel, and their scanty furniture, +but they needed so little that it grew much faster than it could be +used. The man who cut down a tree was a public benefactor. The trees, +though so necessary to life, were regarded as a serious hindrance to +civilization, for they must be cleared away before crops could be +planted. + +To the pioneers as to us the soil was the most valuable of all +resources. The rivers were necessary to every community for carrying +their commerce, and turning the wheels of their saw and grist mills; +while the fish, game, and birds made a necessary part of their living. + +Under these conditions, with every resource to be found in such +abundance that it seemed impossible it could ever be exhausted, and with +a small scattered population to draw on all these riches, careless +habits of using were sure to spring up. Our forefathers took the best +that the land offered, and that which was easiest to get, and gave no +thought to caring for what remained. Their children, and the new +immigrants who came in such numbers, all practised the same wasteful +methods. + +In the century and a quarter that has passed since then, a great change +has come over the world. By the magic of the railroad, the telegraph, +and the telephone, all the nations of the earth are bound more closely +to one another now than were the scattered communities of a single +county in those days, or than the states of the Union before the Civil +War. + +The forests have been cut away and in place of endless miles of +wilderness there now stretch endless miles of fertile farms, yielding +abundant harvests. + +Slow-going sailing vessels have given place to steamboats which now +carry the river and lake commerce. But men are no longer dependent on +the rivers, for swift railway trains penetrate every part of the +country. The stage-coach is replaced by the trolley-car, and the +horseback rider, plodding over corduroy roads with his saddle-bags, is +succeeded by the automobile rider speeding over the most improved +highways. + +Farm machinery of all descriptions has revolutionized the old methods of +doing farm work. The fish, game, and birds are largely gone and in +their place are the animal foods raised by man. Modern houses, filled +with countless devices for labor-saving and comfort, have replaced the +simple homes of colonial days. + +What has brought about this change? The energy and industry of American +men and women, aided for the most part by American inventions, and made +possible by the wonderful natural resources of America. + +No one could wish to have had our country's development checked in any +way. These great results could be obtained only by using the materials +that could be had easiest and cheapest, even if it meant great waste in +the beginning. Labor was scarce and high in this country, abundant and +cheap in Europe. In order to make goods that could be sold at prices +even above those of European countries, it was absolutely necessary to +have cheap lumber, coal and iron. + +But the time has come when we can no longer continue this waste without +interfering with future development. Some of the resources have been so +exhausted that a few years will see the end of their use in large +commercial quantities. Others, such as coal and iron, will last much +longer, but when they are gone they can never be replaced; and so far as +we can now foresee, the country will cease to prosper when they can no +longer be had for use in manufacturing. The length of time they will +last at the present rate of use can be easily calculated. It is a long +time for us to look forward, for it is longer than the lifetime of any +man now living, or of his children, but it is within the life of his +grandchildren, and that is a very short time in the history of a nation. + +It may be said that while other nations have passed into decay, none has +ever exhausted its resources so early in its history, and surely this +great rich nation can not so soon face actual need. But we must remember +that no other nation has ever used its resources as we have used ours. +We are using in years what other nations have used in centuries. + +It is not possible now, it probably never will be possible, to use every +particle of a resource. This would be too expensive, would mean a labor +cost far beyond the value of the thing saved. + +In the beginning, as we have shown, the vast wastes were not wanton, but +absolutely necessary, and we have not yet reached the point where we can +afford to use the low-grade ores, to use all lumber waste and to +practise many other economies that may sometime become necessary. But in +the case of the forests we should provide enough trees for use in coming +years, and in the case of all minerals, the refuse should be left in +such condition that it can easily be ready for possible future use. + +If conservation meant leaving our resources untouched, and checking +development in order that there might be an abundance for future +generations, it would be both an unwise and unacceptable policy; but it +must be thoroughly understood that this is not what is desired. + +Conservation does not mean the locking up of our resources, nor a +hindrance to real progress in any direction. _It means only wise, +careful use._ + +It does not mean that we shall cease to cut our timber, but it does mean +that we shall not waste two-thirds of all that is cut, as we are doing +at present. It means, too, that we shall take better care of articles +manufactured from it, and most of all, it means that, when a tree is cut +down another shall, whenever possible, be planted in its stead to +provide for the needs of the future. + +It means that we shall not allow the farms of our country to lose five +hundred million dollars in value every year by letting the rich top-soil +drain off into our rivers, because we have cut away the trees whose +roots held the soil in place. It also means that we shall not steadily +rob the land of the elements that would produce good crops, and put +nothing back into the soil. + +It means that we shall not kill the birds that destroy harmful insects +and thus invite the insects to destroy the crops that we have cultivated +with such care. + +It does not mean that we shall let our mines of coal and iron lie +unused, as the miser does his gold, but that we shall, while taking what +we need, leave as little waste in the mine as possible, and shall use +what we take in the most economical way. This means a saving of money to +the user, as well as a conservation of resources. It means, too, that we +shall not allow our water-power to remain unused, while we burn millions +of tons of coal in doing the work that water-power would do better. + +It means that we shall not allow enough natural gas to escape into the +air every day to light all the large cities in the United States. It +means that we shall take better care of the life and health of the +people. + +This is the true conservation. + +In the following chapters we shall take up each of the great resources +in turn, shall see what we have used, what we have wasted, what remains +to us, how long it will continue at the present rate, how it may be used +more wisely, and how it may be replaced, if that be possible, or what +may be used instead of those which can not be renewed. + +We shall study how we may make the most of all that nature has given us +and develop our country to the highest possible point, how we may rise +far above our present level in comfort, convenience, and abundance, and +yet do all these things with much less waste than we now permit. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE SOIL + + +The soil is the greatest of our natural resources. We may almost say +that it is greater than all the others combined, for from it comes all +of our food; a large part of it directly as plants which grow in the +soil and which we eat in the form of roots, leaves, grains, berries, +fruits, and nuts; and a part of it indirectly as animals, which have +received their food supply from the plants. + +But this is not all. The soil supplies almost every known need. We build +our homes from the trees of the forest; combined with the iron that +comes from the soil they furnish our fuel, our ships, our cars, our +furniture, and countless other things. Our clothing is made from the +cotton or flax which grows from the soil, the wool from the sheep that +feed on the pastures, or from the silk-worms that feed on leaves. + +So it is to the earth that we turn for every need, and Mother Nature +supplies it. But it is of the soil as it gives us our food supply that +we shall speak in this chapter, and we must first learn the nature of +the soil, and the process of its making, in order to understand the need +of extraordinary care in its management, and also how to use it so that +it will not wear out, or become exhausted, but will increase in value +for years and even centuries, as it will if properly cared for. + +The earth's surface is constantly being renewed. Although the great +formative movements occurred ages ago, yet earthquakes, volcanic action, +wind, frost and water are working continual changes. Hills and mountains +have been thrown up, and nature has gone to work at once to shave down +the mountains and fill up the valleys. The whole earth is as carefully +adjusted and balanced as the wheels of a watch, but these adjustments +take place in long periods of time. In a lifetime, or even a century, +the changes of the earth's surface seem few and small, but they are none +the less sure. + +The soil or humus, that is, the upper layer of the earth's crust which +is used in farming, has an average depth of about four feet, and has +been formed by decay, first and most important of all by rock decay +which is constantly going on under the surface of the earth and in +exposed places everywhere, and is caused by the action of air and water. +This process is very slow. In places where the rock is already partly +ground up, or, disintegrated, as we sometimes say, it is more rapid, but +the average growth of the soil from beneath by rock decay is scarcely +more than a foot in ten thousand years. + +Some waste of this upper layer is constantly taking place from above, +caused by wind and floods, and considerable additions are made to it by +the decay of animal and vegetable matter, but in order to keep the soil +at its best, the average soil waste should not amount to more than an +inch every thousand years. + +When this humus is once exhausted there is no way to repair the damage +but to wait for the slow rock-decay. In the river valleys there is no +immediate danger of exhausting the entire body of the soil, but on the +hills and in the higher regions the soil-depth is very much less than +four feet, and the danger of waste much more serious. There are parts of +the earth that were once almost as fertile as ours where great cities +once stood, but where now nothing is left but the bare rock. + +So we know that the end is sure, even for the life of man upon earth, +unless we learn to conserve our soil. + +The value of our farm crops can not be overestimated. In food value they +are the life of the nation; in money value, our greatest national +wealth. For the year 1909 the total value of farm products was the +amazing sum of $8,760,000,000. It may give some idea of this vast amount +to say that if we could have it in the form of twenty-dollar gold +pieces, stacked in one pile, the column would reach seven hundred miles +high. If they were laid flat, edge to edge, they would extend from +Alaska to the Panama Canal, with enough left over to reach from New York +to San Francisco. If the money could be distributed, it would give us +all, every man, woman and child in the United States, one hundred +dollars apiece. The corn crop was worth $1,720,000,000; the cotton +$850,000,000; wheat comes third with a value of $725,000,000; then come +hay, oats, and other crops in vast amounts worth hundreds of millions of +dollars. The cotton alone was worth more than the world's output of gold +and silver combined. The corn would pay for the Panama Canal, for fifty +battleships, and for the irrigation projects in the West, with a hundred +million dollars left over. + +And this is all new wealth. If we build a house, we have gained the +house, but the trees of which we build it are gone. The same thing is +true of every article we manufacture. Something is taken from our store +in the making. But after we have taken these wonderful crops from our +farms the land is still there, and the soil is just as ready to produce +a good crop the next year, and the next, and the next, if we treat it +properly. + +This matter of soil conservation is of the greatest importance to every +one of us. If you are to own a farm, or rent a farm, or till a garden, +or plant an orchard ten years from now, it will make a great difference +to you whether the man who owns it from now until then knows how to care +for it so as to make it produce well, or whether, by neglect, he allows +it to become poorer each year. It will make a far greater difference if +twenty years elapse. + +It makes a difference to the farmer whether he gets twelve bushels of +wheat to the acre, or whether he gets twenty, for the cost of producing +the smaller amount is just as great as the cost of producing the larger, +and the extra bushels are all profit. It makes a difference whether a +garden furnishes all the fruit and vegetables needed by the family, or +whether it does not even pay for cultivation, and the food must be +bought at high prices. It makes even more difference to the dweller in +the city, who must buy all that he eats, whether food is abundant or +not. If food is abundant, prices are low, but when the yield is small +the demand is so great that prices become high. + +Not only the men, but the women and children as well, are affected by +these food values, because it is from the extra money left over after +the actual cost of living is taken out that the clothing, the +house-furnishings, books, pictures, music, travel and all the pleasures +of life must come. + +Great as are our harvests, we are not raising much more than enough for +our present needs. Each year we are using more of our food at home, and +have less to export to other countries. In a few years more the public +lands will all be taken, and there will be comparatively little more +land than we now cultivate to supply a population that will be many +times as great as at present. + +Men who watch the great movements of the world tell us that the time is +coming before many years when there will not be food enough to supply +all our people, when we shall be buying food from other countries +instead of selling to them, when we shall have famine instead of plenty +unless we realize the danger and at once set about to make the most of +every acre of our land. + +James J. Hill, the great railroad builder of the Northwest, and one of +the best informed men of the country on food production and the increase +of population, is doing a great work in pointing out these dangers to +the people on every possible occasion. + +Watching the great food-producing region of the country, he has noted +that each year the yield per acre is growing less, and the population +steadily more. He tells us that when our first census was taken only +four per cent. of the people lived in cities, that fifty years ago +one-third of the people lived in cities, and two-thirds in the country, +that is, two-thirds of the people were furnishing food to the remainder. +Now conditions are almost exactly reversed. Only one-third remain in the +country, and must supply the food, not only for themselves, but for all +the two-thirds who are not food producers, so that the food supply is +lagging far behind the demand. The price of corn has advanced from +twenty-five cents to sixty-five cents a bushel in ten years, and this in +turn raises the price of live stock. And so all along the line. Prices +are growing higher all the time because not enough food is being +produced to supply the demand. + +So we can see that it is absolutely necessary that the soil be properly +cared for if we are to continue to increase and prosper, for as +Secretary Wilson has said, "Upon the fertility of the soil depends the +whole business of agriculture." + +The soil is exhausted in two ways: (1) By erosion, or the carrying away +of the entire soil itself. (2) By so using the soil that one or more of +its principal elements are worn out. We shall consider this form of soil +exhaustion first, because it more directly concerns the work of every +farmer. + +By a fertile soil is meant one that has an abundance of plant food in +the proper proportions. The soil contains all the elements that are +needed to support life, but they are in an inorganic form, that is, they +are lifeless. Plants alone can take these inorganic substances from the +soil, and change them into starch, sugar, fats, and protein. All +animals, including man, must get these substances through plants, or +through other animals that have already absorbed them from plants. + +The soil contains ten elements that are absorbed or assimilated by +plants. These are: (1) lime, (2) magnesia, (3) iron, (4) sulphur, all of +which are found in most plants in very small proportions, and are +present in most soils in quantities far beyond the needs of crops for +ages to come; (5) carbon, which is obtained by plants through their +leaves directly from the air and the sunshine; (6) hydrogen and (7) +oxygen, which are taken from the water in the soil and carried to the +leaves, where they also help to take the carbon from the atmosphere. +With none of these elements, then, does the farmer need to concern +himself in regions where the water supply is abundant, as they are, and +will continue to be, plentifully supplied by nature. But the other +three, (8) nitrogen, (9) potassium, and (10) phosphorus, are needed by +plants in large quantities, and are taken from the soil far more rapidly +than nature can replace them. + +All these elements are necessary to plant life, but some plants require +a large amount of one element, others a small proportion of that, but a +large amount of some of the others. No two varieties of plants require +exactly the same proportions, so it is easy to see that the plant that +takes out of the soil any one element makes the soil less capable each +year of producing a good crop of the same kind. + +In the early days of farming in this country, it was the custom to grow +a single crop, which had been found to give good results, year after +year in the same field. In Virginia and other near-by states nearly all +the best land was given every year to the cultivation of tobacco, which +exhausts the soil rapidly. In the states farther north other crops were +planted in the same way. As a result, some of the most fertile soil in +Virginia, the Carolinas, Massachusetts, and other eastern states has +been so exhausted that it is no longer worth cultivating. Everywhere +throughout the New England states are to be found these worn-out farms, +and, while they were never so fertile as the lands of the Mississippi +Valley, each one was rich enough to support a family in comfort, with +something left to sell; but because they were required to produce the +same crops, and so take the same element from the soil, year after year, +they have become so lacking in one of the essential elements that they +are unfit for cultivation, and have been abandoned. + +It is wisdom and good business policy for farmers to study carefully +this question of plant food and to learn what each crop is taking from +the soil, so that it may be replaced. It has been found by long and +careful experiments, that when land has been "single cropped," as this +abuse of the land is called, for a long time, the soil has been almost +entirely deprived of its nitrogen. As you know, nitrogen is one of the +elements of the air, so that there is a never-ending supply, but most +plants are unable to take it from the air, and until the last few years +the task of replacing nitrogen in the soil was considered impossible. +Recent discoveries, however, have shown that there are two ways in which +it may be done. By means of electricity, nitrogen may be directly +combined with the other elements of the soil. The other method is +nature's own plan, and so is easier and cheaper. It has been found that +while most plants exhaust the nitrogen from the soil, one class of +plants, the legumes, of which beans, peas, clover, and alfalfa are the +best known, have the power of drawing large stores of nitrogen from the +air, and, by means of bacteria attached to their roots, restoring it to +the ground. + +So farmers have learned that if they plant corn one year, it is wiser +not to plant corn in the same field the next year, but to sow wheat, +which requires less nitrogen, and the following year to sow clover, so +that the nitrogen which the corn and wheat have taken from the soil, may +be put back into it. If the land be naturally fertile, and has been well +cared for, the soil is then ready to produce a good crop of corn again. + +If the soil has become worn-out and the farmer is trying to improve its +general condition, he can gain better results by keeping the field in +clover a second year, when a profitable crop of clover seed may be had +from the land. This system of changing each year, and alternating cereal +crops, which take the nitrogen from the soil, with leguminous plants, +which restore it to the soil again, is called "rotation of crops," and +if regularly followed will preserve a proper balance of nitrogen in the +soil. + +In some parts of the West there is a lack of decaying vegetable matter +in the soil, because the few plants which naturally grow there have +small roots, and leave little vegetable material behind when they decay. +For this condition one of the best crops to employ in rotation is +sugar-beets, because they strike many small roots deep into the earth. +As these decay, each leaves behind a tiny load of vegetable mold deep in +the earth, and also makes the soil more porous. As the principal +elements of the soil needed by sugar-beets are carbon and oxygen, which +are absorbed from the air and sunshine, and as the beets can be sold at +a good profit, it is an excellent crop to employ in rotation. In the +United States records in various states show that where sugar-beets are +used in rotation, the wheat and corn yield is increased from two to four +times, and in Germany they are largely used to restore the fertility of +the land, even if the sugar-beets themselves are sold at a loss. + +It is most important that farmers should understand the principle of +rotation of crops, because nothing is taken from the soil so quickly or +in such large quantities as nitrogen, and nothing is so easily put back; +while, if it is not so replaced, the land becomes worthless. + +A comparison of the results of single cropping and the rotation of crops +has been clearly shown at the Experiment Station of the Agricultural +College of the State of Minnesota, where for ten years they have planted +corn on one plot of ground. For the first five years it averaged a +little more than twenty bushels per acre, and for the last five years, +eleven bushels. + +On another plot, where corn was planted in rotation, the average yield +was more than forty-eight bushels, the difference in average in the two +plots being thirty-two bushels, or twice the value of the entire average +yield on the exhausted ground. The corn grown at the end of the ten +years was only about three feet high, the ears were small, and the +grains light in weight. But it cost just as much to cultivate the land +that produced it as it did to cultivate the land that produced +forty-eight bushels. + +Of the other two elements, potassium is found abundantly in most soils. +It is also found in a readily soluble form in various parts of the +United States and is sold at a very low price. But even if these +deposits were exhausted we could still use the rocks which are very rich +in potassium, and are very abundant, in a pulverized form, or potash +could be manufactured from them. + +The only remaining element of the soil is phosphorus. This element was +discovered in 1607, the year of the first English settlement at +Jamestown and was first noticed because of its property of giving off +light from itself. The name which was given it means light-bearer. It +was at first thought to be the source of all power, to heal all +diseases, and to turn the common minerals into gold. Although we have +long ago learned that these ideas are absurd, yet we have also learned +that its real value to man is far greater than was even dreamed of then. + +It is the most important element in every living thing, for no cell, +however small, in either animal or vegetable organisms can grow or even +live without phosphorus. It is found in the green of the leaves, and +helps to make the starch. It enters largely into the grain and seeds of +plants, and is necessary for their germination, or sprouting, as well as +their growth. Three-fourths of all the phosphorus in a crop of cereals +is in the grains, giving them size and weight. It will thus be seen how +necessary it is that the soil which feeds our plants, which in turn +become the food of animals and of man, should contain a sufficient +amount of phosphorus. + +Phosphorus is taken from the soil in large quantities by every kind of +crop. In parts of Wisconsin which have been farmed a little more than +fifty years without fertilizing, it is found that about one-third of the +phosphorus has been taken out of the soil, which would mean that in one +hundred and fifty years, or a hundred years from now, the soil would be +incapable of producing any living thing, and long before that time the +crops would not pay for the labor of producing them. Almost every acre +of land that has been farmed for ten years without fertilization is +deficient in phosphorus, that is, so much has been used that the soil +can no longer produce at its former rate. + +It may be asked, if this be true, why the soil of America, which before +it was cultivated had borne rich forests and fields of waving grass, has +not become exhausted long ago. We must remember that nature always +adjusts itself; that, in the wild state, all plants decay where they +grow, and the same elements are returned again to the soil. But when the +entire product of vast areas is removed year after year, the soil has +nothing except the slow rock-decay with which to renew itself. + +In tropical regions it is not necessary to feed domestic animals at any +season of the year, but in those countries where the natural food can be +found only during a part of the year, the need of artificial feeding is +seen at once, and it becomes a part of the regular expense of farming. + +It would be considered the height of folly for a man to allow his +valuable animals to starve to death because of the expense of feeding +them, but few people recognize the fact, which is also true, that it is +equally bad business policy to allow the valuable crops of wheat, oats, +and corn to starve for want of plant food. + +The phosphates (that is, phosphorus) are the only large items of +expense, and in a large measure this may be lessened by raising live +stock, for which high prices can be obtained either as meat or dairy +products, and returning the manure, which contains a large amount of +phosphate, to the soil. If all the waste animal products could be +returned to the land, Professor Van Hise says, three-fourths of the +phosphorus would be replaced. All animal products are rich in +phosphates. The packing houses manufacture large quantities from the +bones and blood of animals. + +The garbage of cities, when reduced to powder, yields large returns in +phosphorus. It is said that if the sewage of cities, which in this +country is often turned into rivers and streams, polluting them and +causing disease, was reduced to commercial fertilizer, it would supply +the equivalent of from six to nine pounds of rock phosphate per year for +every acre of cultivated land in the United States. And this valuable +product is now totally lost, and worse than lost, since it menaces the +life and health of great numbers of our people. + +There still remain to be considered the rock phosphates, the form in +which phosphorus is found in separate deposits. The only large deposits +that have been used are in Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee, and +from them about two and a quarter million tons were mined in 1907. +Unfortunately, however, there is no law that prevents its export from +this country, and almost half of this found its way to Europe, where it +is eagerly sought at high prices. + +Within a short time valuable phosphate beds, more extensive than any +before known to exist in this country, have been discovered in Utah, +Wyoming, and Idaho. Professor Van Hise, who is one of the highest +authorities on the subject, says of these deposits that with the +exception of our coal and iron lands, they are our most precious mineral +possession; that every ounce should be saved for the time which is +coming when the population will have outgrown the capacity of the land, +and means of increasing its fertility in order to prevent famine will be +sought from every possible source. + +The other great waste of the soil is by erosion, or the wearing away of +the soil by stream-flow. We can all see this in a small way by wandering +along the shore of any swift-running stream and noticing how the banks +are worn away, and what deep gullies and ravines are cut into them by +the water running down from the fields above. Another way in which we +can observe the effect of this waste is by noticing the muddy yellow +color of streams during floods and after heavy rains, and comparing it +with the clear blue of the same stream at ordinary times. + +When we realize that this muddy color always means that the water is +filled with soil, all that it will hold in solution, that it is carrying +away the top soil, which is best for agriculture, and, finally, that +every little streamlet and creek, as well as the mightiest river, is +carrying this rich soil-deposit downward toward the sea in its flow, we +begin to see how great a factor erosion is in the wasting of the land. + +The Missouri River, which drains a large area of wheat and corn land, is +notable as a muddy, yellow river at almost all seasons. Do you +understand what that means? It means that this great productive region +is growing poorer each year, and that as the population increases, and +the need of great harvests increases, the land is becoming less able to +produce them. The Mississippi River is said to tear down from its banks +more soil each year than is to be dredged from the Panama Canal. At the +mouth of the river is a delta many miles in extent, formed wholly of +land that has been carried down the river. The soil in lower Mississippi +and Louisiana is almost black, and is in many places seventy feet in +depth, and it has all been left there by the river, which took it from +the higher lands. + +It is estimated that our rivers carry out to sea one billion tons of our +richest soil each year. The ancient Egyptians worshiped the Nile because +each year the spring floods left behind the rich soil deposits that +fertilized their fields and gave them an abundant harvest. Entire fields +and even whole farms along the upper stretches of the Mississippi and +Missouri have been carried away, not the top soil only, but the land +itself, by the swift current of the springtime floods as they cut a new +channel for the river. + +Canaan, the "land of promise" of the Bible, was once an abundant region, +"flowing with milk and honey" in the language of Moses, with its grapes, +its vast forests of cedar, fir, and oak, its treasures of wheat, +olive-oil, and other rich agricultural products. Now all are gone. The +entire country seen by the traveler in the Holy Land to-day is one of +the most desolate regions on the globe, where the few inhabitants are +scarcely able to obtain a scanty living. + +We wonder what has brought about this change, and we have not far to +seek in answer to our questioning. The preservation of the forests means +the preservation of the soil, and the destruction of the forests means +the destruction of the soil. This is the universal law. First the +forests were cut down and the hillsides left bare. Then the streams wore +great ravines down the unprotected hillsides. Steadily the work of +destruction by erosion has gone on, until time beyond our possibility to +comprehend must pass before the land can be made productive again. The +hills and valleys of China have been devastated in the same way, and +many of the older regions of the earth that were once the sites of great +cities and extensive commerce are now marked only by the ruins of the +civilization that has passed away. They have almost ceased to support +life. + +In the days of Rome's greatness, Sicily was known as "the granary of +Rome" because from this little island came the grains to supply her vast +armies. 12,000,000 bushels of grain was the tribute that Rome claimed of +Sicily each year, and yet Sicily had enough left to make her rich. She +built splendid cities and became great. But the same story of +destruction is to be read in the history of Sicily. Now the entire +island does not raise a million and a half bushels of wheat altogether. +The soil is barren. The cities have nearly all fallen into ruin. The +people are scattered. Thousands have come to America, seeking a poor +living at the lowest wages because at home there was no chance to earn +even the little they require. They allowed the soil to become exhausted +by lack of fertilization and by erosion and it long ago ceased to +support the people. All the rest followed naturally. + +In many parts of our own country this same danger is coming on us. It is +only the beginning, but the end is as sure for us as for those far-off +Eastern countries. + +Millions of acres have already been destroyed in the East and South. The +Appalachian mountain system lies not far from the coast, and the rivers +on the eastern slopes are short and swift. It is necessary, then, to +exercise the greatest care of the forests in order to prevent the floods +in this region from carrying away the lands in their swift rush to the +sea. North Carolina was one of the richest states in the Union in +natural resources a hundred years ago. Now it is low on the list in +agricultural products. The forests on its mountain tops were valuable +for their lumber, their turpentine, pitch, and other products, and great +lumber companies have almost denuded the hillsides, regardless of the +fate of the lands they cut over. The people of the state are powerless +to prevent this except by buying all of these lands and replanting the +forests. They have been pleading with Congress for power to stop the +destruction of their forests and the wasting of their lands, but so far +have received no assistance and meanwhile the land grows poorer each +year. The same conditions are to be found in many other states that now +rank high agriculturally, but in North Carolina we are beginning to see +results. + +In order to understand exactly how the damage is done to the land, let +us suppose a case which has actually occurred in hundreds of places. A +farmer owned a farm on the mountain side. Much of it was good wheat +land, but the top was covered with forests. At last he decided to cut +and sell the timber, and use the land for raising more wheat. He did +so, but now there was no spreading foliage to check the dash of the +heavy rains as they fell to the ground. As they sank below the surface +there were no masses of tangled roots to hold the moisture in the soil +and to carry it up into the air again through the trees. + +As the water penetrated deeper, the soil became softened, and was +carried away down the hillside. It was only a muddy little stream, but +it took away some of the richest soil from the fields, and the next +year's crop was not quite so good. Every rain that fell carried more of +the fertile soil down the hillside, and the next year the farmer +wondered that the yield was still less. After a few years he ceased to +sow the field because it had never paid for its cultivation, and was +constantly growing poorer. But it was too late then to repair the damage +that had been done. There were no seeds of forest trees left in the +ground and the farmer did not plant them, so the ground lay idle and +desolate. The rain wore deep gullies down the hillside, which, as they +grew larger, became more of a menace to the lands below them. The +streams soon grew large enough to take the top-soil from the fields +lower down, and in a few years more the whole farm had grown so +unproductive that the farmer, tired of the struggle, left the farm and +went to the city to make a living. + +In the meantime the land in the valley below had been growing more +fertile, for each year the spring floods had left a rich soil deposit +behind them. The farmer down there had been innocently stealing the land +above him, but not all of it, for much had been carried out to sea. + +It is not possible to prevent this entirely, but much of the loss might +have been avoided by leaving the hilltops, which are never well fitted +for cultivation, covered with forests. In this way the soil-wash from +above is prevented and the streams run gently and with only a small +amount of muddy deposit, forming proper drainage for the soil. + +The preserving of the forests on the great mountain ranges of the +country, where nature has placed them, will mean in the one matter of +soil-wash, fruitful lands and bountiful harvests, instead of barren, +wasted lands, desolated by floods and seamed by great ravines, carrying +desolation to the lands below them. + +But in many cases the trees are already cut away. Here replanting +becomes necessary and should be done in every case where soil-wash is +beginning on the mountain tops. It is almost equally desirable to plant +small shrubs and bushes as an undergrowth, so that the roots may form a +thick mat below the ground to hold the water in the soil, and permit it +to filter through slowly. + +In Massachusetts, the tracks of the Boston and Albany Railroad are +depressed so that trains may pass below the level of the highways. In +order to protect the banks from erosion, the sloping sides of this +roadway have been planted with trailing rose-bushes and other vines +which have thickly matted roots. These serve a double purpose in +preventing landslides and washouts on the tracks, and in adding greatly +to the attractiveness of the scenery along the railway. + +The poorest land of a farm is always found on the hilltops, because even +with the greatest care there is always considerable waste of the +top-soil. This land, then, should never be used for field crops. It +should constitute the woodland, or if this is not possible, the +pasture-land of the farm, for the grass roots protect the soil and +prevent it from washing away, and the profits on the hay are at least as +great as any other crop which could be grown on hill land. + +But when erosion has been checked and the top-soil preserved, when the +soil is thoroughly fertilized, and a proper rotation of crops +established, there are still other lessons to be learned in order to +make our country as productive as it might be, as it will _need_ to be +to support the population that we shall have by the end of the century. + +As a nation we undertake to farm too much land and do it carelessly. +The invention of labor-saving machinery has made it possible to farm +hundreds and even thousands of acres together with little physical +labor. This has made farmers heedless of small amounts of land wasted. + +A man often only expects to make a comfortable living on one hundred and +sixty acres of land, while in Europe he would expect to grow rich on two +or three acres. It is often said that a French family would live off of +an American farmer's neglected fence-corners. In France, in England, in +Holland and Belgium every bit of land is tended and made useful. We have +the best natural soil in the world, the most fertile river valleys, +watered by abundant rains. The fertility of our lands is the envy of the +civilized world, and has drawn thousands to our shores in the hope of +finding comfort and plenty, and yet the total value of our farm products +was only eleven dollars and thirty-eight cents per cultivated acre +according to the last census, while in the little island of Jersey, just +off the English coast, the average annual value of products is over two +hundred and fifty dollars per acre. + +Germany has been cultivated nearly eighteen hundred years, the soil is +not naturally so productive nor the climate so favorable as ours, but +the wheat yield there averages more than twice as much as in this +country. + +When the most fertile land in the world produces so much less than +poorer lands elsewhere it plainly shows that we are robbing the soil in +order to get the largest cash returns in the shortest possible time and +with the least possible labor. + +The American farmer needs to cultivate a much smaller amount of land +thoroughly, to have a soil analysis made of his land in order to know +what crops are best suited to it and what elements are lacking to make +it produce the best. In Illinois more than half a million acres had +become unfit for cultivation. Analysis showed that the soil was too +acid. By mixing limestone dust with the soil the trouble was corrected +and the land reclaimed. + +Often it is only necessary to find the cause of some deficiency, or +lack, in the soil, and the remedy will be found to be simple and cheap, +while the result of its use will be to double the crop. Nothing else so +quickly and easily responds to proper treatment, no other resource is so +easily conserved. All the soil needs is proper treatment. + +Every bit of waste land should be cultivated for either use or beauty, +or both. If all the lanes and neglected places could be planted with +fruit and nut trees, berry vines, and bushes, herbs or flowers which +need little cultivation after they are planted, our food, in variety and +quantity, would be greatly increased. "The hedge-rows of Old England" +are famous for their beauty and the air of comfort and prosperity they +give. They take the place of the weeds that grow by the country +roadsides in America and which constitute one of the greatest nuisances +of the farmer. + +Another thing that should be considered is the marketing of farm +products. Near a city or near a canning factory the soil can be most +profitably used for the raising of vegetables, for which the cost of +cultivation is great, but which yield far larger profits than farm +crops. + +Within the last few years a new system of farming has been developed in +the West, which is of great interest to all of us, both because it is +opening up for production a large part of our country that has seemed +valueless, and because the lessons that have been learned there are of +the greatest advantage in every part of the country. + +West of the one-hundredth meridian, which crosses North and South +Dakota, the western part of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and +including the states west of them, lies a vast region that used to be +known as the "great American desert." It comprises almost half of the +United States. Here the noble forests of the eastern states and the +prairie grasses of the plains were replaced by sage-brush and cactus. +The soil was light in color and weight, and the rainfall very scanty. + +It seemed impossible that it could ever be fitted for agriculture. But +there were a few great rivers, rich mining districts, and excellent +grazing lands. These attracted settlers, and to them some cultivation of +the soil became almost a necessity. The waste waters of the rivers were +used for irrigation and the land when watered was found to produce +remarkably fine fruits and agricultural products. Yet there were +hundreds of thousands of acres that could not be irrigated for lack of +water, and the problem of finding a use for these barren, semi-arid +lands remained unsolved for many years. + +But here and there in different states and under varying conditions, +after many experiments and failures, men began without water to grow +successful crops on these semi-arid lands, where the rainfall was +scarcely more than ten inches per year. Others following this method +found success, and it began to seem possible that all this territory +might some day become a great farming region. + +By comparing the methods employed in different states, the few general +laws have been worked out which must be applied in order to farm +successfully in this region, though the details differ with local +differences in altitude, climate, soil, and rainfall. Here farming is +being reduced to a science. In other parts of the country a man sows his +seed and nature cares for it, and gives him his harvest; but here he +must wring from nature all that he gets, so it is only the man who farms +according to fixed laws who can hope to succeed. + +This system is usually called "dry farming," though "scientific farming" +would perhaps be a better name, for the same principles that are +absolutely necessary here will greatly increase the yield anywhere. The +most important principle is to conserve every particle of moisture in +the soil. It is necessary to go deep into the soil to find the +underlying moisture. The seed-bed is made very deep. Plowing is from +sixteen to nineteen inches deep, while in well-watered regions it is +only about six inches. This deep seed-bed is thoroughly cultivated to +make the soil porous, the soil being reduced to a fine powder. After +sowing the seed, the ground is packed as solidly as possible. This is +done by especially designed machines. The surface of the soil is kept +broken all the time to prevent the escape of the moisture. This rule +applies equally to all soils in dry weather, and will often save a crop +of corn in any part of the country during a drought. + +These are simple rules, but the practice of them is opening up the great +semi-arid regions, not of the United States only, but of the whole +earth. Western Canada, a large part of Australia, the Kalahari Desert of +Africa, and many parts of Asia, which are all semi-arid, will in time +become productive instead of barren. + +It must be remarked that the grains of the East could not +withstand the severe winters in a large part of the Northwest, so +the Department of Agriculture sent men all over the world to find +drought-and-cold-resisting grains. They found a hard winter wheat, the +most nutritious in existence, which is now growing all the way from the +Dakotas to the Pacific Ocean, producing crops far above the yield of the +eastern states. 50,000,000 bushels of this wheat was raised in 1907. + +The soil is the natural disintegrated rock, rich in the mineral +elements, but lacking in decayed vegetable matter. The crops soon +exhaust the nitrogen, and as clover and the common alfalfas can not grow +there, the problem of finding legumes has been the most serious one +facing this new region; but in Siberia the Agricultural Department has +recently found a new clover and three varieties of alfalfa that will +stand the cold, and Secretary Wilson believes that these will solve the +problem. + +Every acre brought under cultivation adds to the world's food supply. +Can we even dream of what it will mean when 200,000,000 acres are added +to the farm lands of this continent? It means prosperity for the farmers +themselves, homes for those who are now crowded in cities, work for the +idle, and food for the hungry. It means wealth and happiness for +thousands now living and millions yet to come. + + +REFERENCES + +Lands. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Soil Wastage. Chamberlain. Report White House Conference of Governors. + +Conservation of Soils. Van Hise. (Same.) + +Commercial Fertilizers. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 44.[A] + +[Footnote A: Department of Agriculture bulletins are free unless a price +is indicated, and may be obtained by application to The Department of +Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Postage is free in the United States. +These bulletins contain the latest scientific information and result of +research work by the government.] + +The Liming of Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 57. + +Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 245. + +Soil Fertility. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 257. + +Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +266. + +Fertilizers for Cotton Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin, 62. + +Work of the Bureau of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin. + +Exhaustion and Abandonment of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin. Whitney, +5c. + +Phosphorus. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin. + +The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 411. + +The Search for Leguminous Forage Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture +Reprint, 478. + +Leguminous Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 278. + +Progress in Legume Inoculation. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +315. + +A Grain for Semi-arid Lands. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +139. + +The Sugar-Beet. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 52. + +Dry-Land Problems in the Great Plains Area. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 461. + +Reports of Dry Farming Congress. + +The Natural Wealth of the Land. J. J. Hill, Report Governor's +Conference. + +National Wealth and the Farm. J. J. Hill. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORESTS + + +Aside from the soil itself, which supports all life, there is no other +resource so important to man as the forests, with their many uses +covering so wide a range. + +The beauty and restfulness of a forest, the grace and dignity of single +trees, the shade for man and animals, the shelter from storms--all these +things appeal to our love for the beautiful, and touch our higher +nature. The person who loves trees is a better person than the one who +does not. As the poet expresses it: + + "Ah, bare must be the shadeless ways, and bleak the path must be, + Of him, who, having open eyes, has never learned do see, + And so has never learned to love the beauty of a tree. + + "Who loves a tree, he loves the life that springs in star and clod, + He loves the love that gilds the clouds, and greens the April sod, + He loves the wide Beneficence; his soul takes hold on God." + +Trees have played an important part in the history of our country: The +"Charter Oak," in the hollow of which the original charter of +Connecticut remained hidden from the agents of the king; "Eliot's Oak," +under which the gospel was first preached to the Indians; the +wide-spreading elm under which William Penn signed his treaty of peace +with the Indians. + +But no tree has held so dear a place in the hearts of the people, or +been so watchfully cared for as the old "Washington Elm" still standing +in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Under it Washington took command of the +continental army. It is visited every year by hundreds of persons, who +stand with uncovered heads beneath its spreading branches. Many years +ago it was struck by lightning and the upper part torn off, but all the +broken edges have been sealed with pitch to stop decay. It has been +covered with fine wire netting to prevent the bark being chipped off by +relic hunters. It is carefully guarded from damage by insects, and the +boughs are stayed by strong wires. + +And so we might name many instances of trees that are loved and cared +for on account of their beauty, stateliness or some event connected with +them, but it is the usefulness of trees that we shall mention in this +chapter. + +In the larger use of forests is included their effect on climate and +rainfall. It is generally believed that clouds, passing over the damp, +cool air that rises from a forest, are more likely to be condensed into +rain, and so we can establish the general rule that the country which is +well wooded will probably have a larger rainfall than the one which has +few trees. + +Twenty-five years ago Kansas was a prairie state with few trees, and the +semi-arid plains extended half-way across the state, but thousands of +acres of trees have been planted, and crops have been cultivated, and +the more forests and crops the farmer plants the more rain comes to +water them. The great droughts which used to ruin their crops year after +year no longer disturb them. The hot winds which could undo a whole +season's hard work in a day are seldom heard of now. Kansas is no longer +in the semi-arid region. It is one of the most productive states in the +Union, and this has come, not by dry-farming, but by the cultivation of +the soil and by the planting of trees. + +Though rainfall increases, destructive floods become fewer, for the +humus and the leaves on the ground in the forests hold the water as in +a vast sponge, and, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, they keep +the waters in check and distribute the rainfall gently and evenly on the +lands below. They thus prevent erosion of the hillsides and balance the +water supply of rivers. + +Trees supply us with food and medicine, and greatest of all their direct +uses, they furnish lumber for all kinds of manufacturing. + +We can not think of life without the comforts and conveniences that we +get from wood; but interior China affords a striking example of what it +means for a nation to have a very small supply. There is no wood for +manufacturing and the natives search the hillsides for even the tiniest +shrubs to burn and even for grass scratched from the soil. Once this +part of China was a great forest region, but century by century the +forests have been used, not rapidly, as in this country, for China is +not a great industrial nation, but surely, until there is hardly a twig +left. + +China is not the only nation that has suffered in this way. Many of the +ancient peoples have entirely passed away; and the destruction of their +forests, as we have seen in the previous chapter, was the first cause +leading to their extinction. + +Denmark was originally almost covered with forests. These were cut down +for fuel, for lumber, and to make way for agriculture. For a long time +there was no attempt to restore them, and now a large area, once +productive, has become a sandy desert. In the same way, large parts of +Austria and Italy have become valueless because the growing forests were +cut down. + +In France the forests at the head-waters of the Rhone and the Seine were +cut down and fierce floods began to pour down the valleys each year, +bringing destruction to property and crops all along their way. But +France has long ago learned the lesson of forestry, and as soon as the +danger was seen, the mountain sides were replanted with trees, and since +then conditions have been gradually changing for the better. + +France has had another experience in forestry that has taught her what +can be done to save her waste lands. Near the coast were great +sand-dunes. The winds drove them each year farther inland, and the sand +was gradually driving out the vineyards and farm crops. In 1793 the +planting of forests on these dunes was begun. Of 350,000 acres, 275,000 +have been planted in valuable pine forests. More than half of these +belong to private owners and there is no record of their value, but the +portion belonging to the government has yielded a large income above all +expenses, and is worth $10,000,000 as land; and this was not only +valueless but was a menace to the surrounding country. In the interior +of France a sandy marsh covering 2,000,000 acres has been changed into a +profitable forest valued at $100,000,000. + +A hundred years ago all the eastern part of the United States and the +Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast region were covered with thick +forests hundreds and hundreds of miles in extent. Evergreens--the pines, +hemlocks, cedars and spruces--grew near the coast in great abundance, +while farther inland were found the most magnificent hardwood forests in +the world. + +Unfortunately, the first needs of the early settlers required them to +cut down these mighty forests. The soil, which was very fertile, could +not, of course, be used for farming purposes until the land was cleared, +and so this was the first necessity. + +The wood was used to build the cabins, to make the rude furniture, the +wagons and ox-carts, and for fuel, but this disposed of only a small +amount of the wood that came from the clearing of a farm. No man could +give it to his neighbor when all had more than they could use, and there +was no market for its sale. The trees were burned in large quantities to +clear the land for the planting of crops. + +Wood was of the greatest value to the first settlers, but it was also +the greatest hindrance to their making homes, so they took no care +whatever of what they could not use. It was burned or left on the +ground to decay. As towns sprang up, there began to be a demand for +lumber for houses, for furniture, for vehicles and for fuel from those +who had no trees of their own. This made a market for the best grades of +lumber at a low price, but almost every farmer would give away trees of +the best hardwood to any person who would cut and haul them away. + +Conditions have changed very slowly, but very surely. In every state, in +every county and in every township there has been a steady clearing of +the land as it fills with new home-makers. At the same time the demand +has grown enormously each year from the dwellers in cities. + +The opening up of railroads and telegraph lines in the middle and latter +part of the century made a great demand for wood. The building of ships +and steamboats, the opening of mines, the establishing of telephone and +trolley systems, the building of great cities, all these have called +steadily and increasingly for wood. + +The time has long passed when wood was a hindrance to progress. For a +long time there has been a ready market at high prices and it is rapidly +reaching the point where we shall face an actual shortage of timber. +This is not true of all parts of the country, of course. Maine, +Washington, and parts of Oregon, Alabama, Arkansas, and Mississippi, +Wisconsin and some other states, still have vast quantities of lumber, +but trains and ships carry it to all parts of the world so there is no +lack of a market. + +The change from plenty, even great excess, to need, has come so +gradually that few persons, even those living in the forest regions, +have realized until within a very few years how general is their +destruction. Those who, riding about a small portion of the country +familiar to them, have been struck with the disappearance of the woods +and the cultivation of the lands, have looked upon it wholly as a sign +of progress, and have not realized that the same thing is going on in +every part of the country. + +The wholesale destruction of the forests, without replanting, has come +mostly from ignorance. We have had all our resources in such great +abundance that we have not hitherto needed to learn the lessons that the +Old World has learned, sometimes at the cost of whole nations, but the +time has come when we _do_ need to learn them. + +The first lesson is to study the various uses of the forests, to find +how they are being affected by present use, their wastes, and the best +means of preserving them. When all the people have learned these +lessons, they will, undoubtedly, gladly set about righting the wrongs +that have been done in the past. + +The original forests of this country covered an area of about +850,000,000 acres, with nearly five and a half trillion board feet of +"merchantable," that is, salable, timber according to present standards. +(A board foot is one foot long, one foot wide and one inch in +thickness.) Considerably more than half the original number of acres are +still forested, but most of the land has been cut or burned over, some +of it several times, and the amount remaining of salable timber, which +includes only the best part of the trunk, is from two to two and a half +trillion, that is from 1,400 to 2,000 billion, feet. The yearly cut for +all purposes, including waste, is now over two hundred billion board +feet;--some authorities place the amount as high as two hundred and +seventy-five billion feet. This, however, probably includes firewood, +one of the largest uses of wood, but taken very largely from worm-eaten +wood that could not be cut into lumber. It also probably includes +boughs, and other unsalable parts of the tree. + +The timber cut doubled from 1880 to 1905, is still increasing at almost +the same rate, and, if we had the timber, it would doubtless double +again by 1930. But even at the present rate, the forests now standing, +without allowance for growth, would be exhausted in from ten to sixteen +years. The yearly growth of timber in our present forests is estimated +at from forty-two to sixty billion feet, and the yearly cut at from +three to three and a half times the amount added for growth. + +That is, we are using in four months at least as much wood as will +naturally grow in a year. The other eight months we shall be using our +forest reserves, and each year there will be less forest land to produce +new growth, as well as less old wood to cut. + +Mr. R. A. Long, an expert lumberman who spoke before the first +Conservation Congress, estimated then that the forests, making allowance +for growth, would not last over thirty-five years. The government +figures indicate that they will last about thirty-three years, at the +present rate, but as the rate has been doubling every twenty-five years, +many persons who have studied the situation believe that the supply will +not continue in commercial quantities for manufacturing more than +twenty-five years. + +We must understand, must think, what the destruction of our forests +would mean to us. It would mean fierce droughts and fiercer floods. It +would mean the gradual drying up of our streams, a scarcity of water to +drink, as in China to-day. It would mean that the manufacture of wooden +articles would practically cease. The thousand conveniences that we +enjoy as a matter of course would become rare and costly. It would mean +that only the rich could build houses of wood, and this would force the +masses of people into crowded quarters, not only the poor, but the +well-to-do also. These are only a few of the many disasters that would +follow the loss of our forests, and all these things might come to pass +before we ourselves are old! + +If we knew that at a certain time a tidal wave would engulf our homes, +how we should work to save all that we could before the calamity +overtook us! And we should set about the saving of our forests with +equal care, for their destruction means distress for every one of us. + +Fortunately, this is only the dark possibility. The methods of +prevention are well known to those who have studied the history of the +nations that have fallen, and the nations that have risen to power. It +is only necessary that all the people should know these things and +realize their importance, in order to keep conditions as they are at +present or even to better them. + +The methods of prevention are five. They are: + +(1) To use the trees in the most careful and conservative way without +the great wastes now common. + +(2) To save the vast areas of forests that are now burned each year. + +(3) To prevent loss from insects. + +(4) To use substitutes: that is, to use other and cheaper materials to +take the place of wood whenever possible. + +(5) To plant trees and to replant where old ones have been cut, until +all land that is not fitted for agriculture is covered with forests. + +These are only the rules that good sense and good business would teach +us to follow, but we have not followed any of them in the past, and now +it will be necessary to do all these things if we are to continue to +have enough wood to use to keep pace with our progress in other +directions. + +As an example of the rapid rate at which we are consuming our forests, +we use nine times as much lumber for every man, woman and child as the +people of Germany use, and twenty-five times as much as the people of +England use. This is due to several causes, many of which we would not +wish changed. + +To begin with, this was a new and undeveloped country, a large part of +which had never been inhabited, and all the land, as fast as it was +occupied, must be built up with entirely new homes; and because wood is +the cheapest building material it is the one generally used. + +The growth of all European countries is mostly by the increase of their +own people, while this is only a small percentage of our growth, which +comes largely from immigration from other countries, so the increase of +population is much greater here and the proportion of new homes needed +is far greater. Improvements of all kinds, public buildings, churches +and bridges were built in almost every European community long ago, +while in this country these things are being done each year in thousands +of places. + +Wages are higher in this country, and more people are able to afford the +luxuries of life, vehicles, musical instruments, and the large variety +of small conveniences to be found in almost every American home but seen +in few homes of the poorer class in Europe. + +These are a few of the reasons why we use such a large amount of lumber +each year. They are all conditions that mean a larger, better nation +than we could otherwise have, with a higher standard of living, and +while in some particulars, as we shall show, there should be changes +that would conserve our forests, the great wastes do not lie in the +_use_, but in the _abuse_ of the forests. + +Now let us see what use is made of all the wood that is cut every year. +The greatest use of all is for firewood, but this is largely the +decaying or faulty trees from farmers' wood-lots, or the waste product +of a lumber region, so this does not constitute so heavy a drain on the +forests as the fact that 100,000,000 cords a year are used, would +indicate. + +Twenty times as much of the salable timber is sawed into lumber as is +used in any other way. Nearly 40,000,000,000 board feet are thus used, +but lumber is used in a variety of ways, while the other cuts are +confined to a single use. + +The first and greatest use of lumber is for building purposes, for +houses, barns, sheds, out-buildings, fences, and for window-sashes, +doors and inside finishings of all buildings, even those made of other +materials. + +Next comes furniture of all kinds,--chairs, tables, beds, and all other +house, office, and school furniture; musical instruments, pianos, etc., +vehicles of all kinds,--farm wagons, delivery wagons, carriages and +other pleasure vehicles, including parts of automobile bodies, +agricultural implements, plows, harrows, harvesters, threshing machines +and other farm implements. Though these are built largely of iron, yet +one-fourth of the implement factories report a use of 215,000,000 feet +of lumber a year, so the entire output of these factories calls for a +large amount of wood from our forests. + +Car building is the other really great use for lumber. Freight cars, +passenger cars, and trolley cars use each year an increasingly large +proportion of the product of our saw-mills. + +After these come the various smaller articles, which, though themselves +small, are used in every home and are turned out in such vast quantities +as to require a very large amount of lumber each year. + +An empty spool seems a trifle, but the making of all the spools requires +the cutting of hundreds of acres of New England's best birch woods. +Butter dishes, fruit crates, baskets, wooden boxes of all kinds, tools +and handles, kitchen utensils, toys and sporting goods, picture molding +and frames, grille and fretwork, excelsior, clothes-pins, matches, +tooth-picks,--all these are mowing down our forests by the thousands of +acres. + +The lumber cut includes all kinds of both hard and soft woods. A very +large percentage of this is of yellow or southern hard pine, of which +several billion feet a year are used. + +An almost equal amount is used for hewn cross-ties for railroads and +trolley lines. Many sawed cross-ties are included in the item of lumber. +The hewed cross-ties are made from young oak-trees, or from hard-pine, +cedar and chestnut. Without them no more railroad or trolley lines could +be built, and the present systems could not be kept in repair. Many +other materials have been tried, but wood is the only one that has ever +proved satisfactory and safe for this purpose. + +The next largest use of lumber is the grinding of it into pulp to be +used in making paper for our books, magazines and newspapers, wrapping +papers, etc. The woods used for this purpose are mostly spruce and +hemlock. The great sources of supply of pulp-wood are Maine and +Wisconsin, and large amounts are imported from Canada, which greatly +lessens the drain on our own forests. + +Next in importance comes cooperage stock for the making of barrels. When +we consider the many uses of barrels,--that vinegar, oil, and liquors +are all shipped in tight barrels, which are mostly made of the best +white oak, and that flour, starch, sugar, crackers, fruits and +vegetables, glassware, chemicals, and cement are shipped in what are +called slack barrels, made of various hardwoods, the hoops being always +of soft elm, a wood which is rapidly disappearing, we can see the size +and necessity of this industry. + +Round mine timbers, largely made of young hardwood trees, are used to +support the mines underground. Mining engineers say that on an average +three feet of lumber are used in mining every ton of coal taken out. +Assuming that 450,000,000 tons of coal are mined each year, this would +mean that almost a billion and a half feet a year are used in the coal +mines, and this is about the amount shown by the government report. + +After this comes wood for lath used in building. This product is usually +taken from lower class wood or logging camp waste. Then comes the wood +for distillation into wood-alcohol for use in manufacture and to furnish +power in engines. + +Next in quantity used comes veneer, which has two entirely different +uses. The highest grade woods are cut to about one-twentieth of an inch +and glued to cheaper woods as an outside finish in the making of +furniture. The other use is for veneer used alone, when a very thin wood +is desired. This is employed for butter dishes, berry baskets, crates, +boxes and barrels. + +Next on the list come poles--electric railway, electric light, +telegraph, and telephone poles. Every pole that is erected for any of +these purposes, every extension of the service, and all replacing caused +by wind or decay, means the cutting of a tall, straight, perfect tree, +usually cedar or chestnut. If we think of each pole of the network that +covers the entire continent, as a tree, we shall better realize what our +forests have done in binding the nation together. + +Leather is stained by soaking the hides in a solution containing the +bark of oak or hemlock. Sometimes an extract is made from chestnut +wood. This has caused one of the most criminal wastes of trees, for a +great deal of timber was cut down solely for the bark, and the wood left +to decay in the forest. But now, as the price of lumber advances, more +of it is used each year and less left to waste. + +The bark and extract of the quebracho, a South American tree, are being +imported for use in tanning, and are still further reducing the drain on +our own forests. + +Turpentine and rosin do not in themselves destroy the forests any more +than does tapping the maple trees for their sap, but in the making of +turpentine trees that are too small are often "boxed" and the trees are +easily blown down by heavy winds or are attacked by insects and fungi. +Many destructive fires also follow turpentining, so that on the whole +the turpentine industry is responsible for the destruction each year of +large areas of the southern pine forests. The methods of turpentining +introduced by the government result in the saving of thirty per cent. +more turpentine, and also protect the trees so that they may be used +fifteen or twenty years and still be almost as valuable as ever for +timber. + +Twenty millions of posts are cut each year in the Lake States alone, and +the entire number used is probably two or three times as great. + +These constitute the greater uses of wood, not a full and detailed list; +but it plainly shows that all the uses are not only desirable, but +necessary for our comfort and happiness, and that we would not willingly +sacrifice one of them, and in order that this shall not become +necessary, let us see what abuses we can find in the management of our +forests. And here we find the most startling figures of all. + +Great and important as is our list of products made from wood, we are +surprised to learn that of all wood cut fully two-thirds is wasted in +the forests, left to decay or burned. The largest forests are now all +located far from the great manufacturing regions, and that means far +from the lumber market. The cost of transportation must be added to +every car of lumber sold. The freight on a car-load of lumber from the +South to Chicago or other points in the middle West is not less than a +hundred dollars, and from the Pacific coast it is very much higher. + +It does not pay to send low-grade lumber when the cost is so great, and +as there is no local market a large part of each tree is burned. All the +upper end of the trunk and all branches are thus destroyed, although +much valuable timber is contained in them. + +At one mill in Alabama a pile of waste wood and branches as high as a +two-story house burns night and day throughout the year, and that is +probably true of all the larger mills. + +If the timber could be conservatively managed as are live-stock +products, so that all the waste could be utilized, all the small +articles, shingles, lath, posts, tan-bark and extract, pulp-wood, wood +for distillation and small manufactured articles would be made +by-products of the larger cuts. + +Much has been said of the greed of large lumber companies in causing +wholesale and reckless destruction of the forests, and much of it is +doubtless true, but the lumber companies cite the fact that no farmer +will gather a crop of corn which will not pay for the labor cost of +gathering, and say that at the present prices of lumber they can not pay +the present freight rates to the factories. It seems therefore that a +certain amount of waste is unavoidable unless wood-working plants are +established near the forest regions. + +The first great step in conserving our forests is to stop the +unnecessary wastes in use. The next step is to take measures to prevent +the great destruction of our forests by fire. + +Those who have never lived in a great forest region can have little idea +of the extent of the damage caused by these great forest fires. The loss +of life of both man and animals, the sweeping away of houses and crops, +the homelessness and misery of those who have lost everything they had +saved, are not to be taken into account here, but only the loss of the +forests themselves. + +It is estimated that the loss by fire is as great as the entire amount +cut for use in the entire United States. The National Conservation +Committee reports that 50,000,000 acres of woodland are burned over +yearly. This probably includes all burned-over lands, in much of which +the standing timber is not destroyed, but the saplings and seedlings are +killed as well as the grass for grazing and for the protection of the +roots. Much land is burned over in this way year after year until hope +of future growth is gone, though the damage to the large trees has not +been great. In one way this loss is even more serious, as it shuts off +the hope of future forests, but the loss of our full-grown standing +forests is grave. + +In 1891 this loss amounted to 15,000,000 acres, or nearly forty thousand +acres every day in the year. Since then the work of the Forest Service +in fighting fires and the great clearing of the forests, has reduced +this somewhat, but it still amounts to no less than 30,000 acres of our +best salable timber a day. This is the really great and serious loss of +the forests. + +All the wood that is used goes to make our country a better place to +live in, to make its people more comfortable and happy, but all that is +lost by fire is a loss to all the nation in comforts for the future, and +in the present it means high prices for lumber because our forests are +disappearing so rapidly. + +And we are letting them burn at the rate of thirty thousand acres every +day! More than enough to supply all our needs. If any one could gather +together in one vast pile our houses and barns, our furniture, our +wagons and carriages, our farm implements, all our home conveniences, +our railroad cross-ties, our trolley and telephone poles, our papers and +magazines, and burn them all, the whole world would be roused by the +fearfulness of the loss. But we sit idly by and see the materials of +which all these things are made and must be made in the future, and with +them our shade, our water-sheds, the soil of the forest-lands itself +destroyed, with never a word of protest. + +In a paper prepared for the National Conservation Congress, it was +stated that in some years government survey parties were unable to work +in the Rocky Mountains for whole seasons on account of the dense smoke, +and the fires were allowed to burn till the snows of winter put them +out. The writer further stated that he believed from observation that +the Forest Service, by checking fires in their beginning, has in the +last few years saved more timber than has been used for commercial +purposes. + +Private owners of large tracts should be compelled to use the same care +in preventing fires that is exercised by the government. This care, and +the breaking up of the forests into smaller tracts by clearing the land +in alternate sections would soon reduce the fire loss so greatly as +almost to save us from anxiety for the future of our timber lands. + +The next great loss to the forests is from insects. When insects have +bored into wood it becomes honey-combed by the canals cut by the little +insects and is utterly valueless. The loss to fruit and forest trees +will be taken up more fully in the chapter on insects. At present it is +only necessary, in order to show how much our forests suffer in this +way, to state that the yearly loss from this cause is placed at no less +than $100,000,000 a year, and the loss to fruits is counted at one-fifth +of the entire crop. Some slight idea of the danger to our forests will +be seen by the simple statement that forty-one different species of +insects infest the locust tree, eighty the elm, one hundred and five the +birch, one hundred and sixty-five the pine, one hundred and seventy the +hickory, one hundred and eighty-six the willow, while oak trees are +attacked by over five hundred! + +This is exceedingly difficult to control and can perhaps never be +entirely checked. Some remedies will be suggested later, and by having +smaller forests, more carefully watched, some personal care can be given +to the trees. In Germany the trees are as closely watched as are other +crops, and the saving in value well repays this extra care and expense. + +A much smaller loss comes from the winds that sometimes level all the +trees over many square miles. This can not, of course, be prevented, +except possibly in the turpentine forests, but care should be taken to +use all the wood, never allowing it to decay where it fell, and also to +replant the land with trees, unless it is fitted for agriculture. + +A great saving of the forests may be effected by what is called +preservative treatment, which consists of treating railroad ties, +piling, mine timbers, poles, and posts with creosote or zinc chlorid to +prevent decay from the moisture of the ground or from injury by +salt-water borers. The use of creosote is almost double the cost of zinc +chlorid, but it is much more effective and durable. A fence post can be +treated with creosote for about ten cents, a railroad tie for twenty +cents, and a telephone pole for from seventy-five cents to a dollar. In +every case the timber treated will last twice as long as it would +without such treatment and in view of the present high prices it is bad +business policy to use timber in such a way that it will need replacing +soon. It is estimated that if all timbers which could be profitably +treated were so cared for, it would mean a money saving to the owners of +$47,000,000, and an annual saving in wood equal to 4,000,000,000 board +feet of lumber. + +The next point in the conservation of the forests is to seek substitutes +to take the place of wood. There are many uses of wood which nothing +else will satisfactorily supply. For example, no railroad cross-tie has +ever been designed of other material that does not increase the danger +of railway accidents, though over two hundred kinds have been patented. + +There is nothing that will take the place of wood in furniture, and in +many small articles. Some articles might be replaced in metal, but it +makes them too heavy or too expensive. But in certain lines there is an +excellent opportunity to use other materials to great advantage. + +Cars are now being built of steel, and of combinations of metal with +asbestos. These are not yet entirely satisfactory, but it is hoped that +they can be perfected soon. Cement and concrete are taking the place of +wood to a great extent in building, and their use will doubtless +increase rapidly. + +When veneer is used for barrels and boxes it affords a saving of nearly +two-thirds in the amount of wood required. This is a line of use where +cheaper substitutes should always be used if possible, because a package +is usually used only once, never more than twice, and then discarded, so +that the wood is put to little real service compared with other wooden +articles. + +When possible, small articles of wood should be made only in a forest +region or near saw-mills to use the scraps and save an unnecessary drain +on the more valuable grades of lumber. + +One of the most important lines in which substitutes are practicable is +in the making of paper and box-board or pasteboard. The latter is +sometimes called strawboard, because it is made from wheat straw, and +where it is manufactured, uses a large amount of straw that would +otherwise be wasted, but the great wheat fields of the West still have +immense quantities of unused straw, which, if made into strawboard, +would not only bring more prosperity to that region but would lessen the +drain on the forests. + +A box bound with wire and made of corrugated paper now takes the place +for many light articles of the wooden packing-case. The strawboard also +takes the place of wood-pulp for smaller paper boxes. Rice-straw, hemp, +flax-straw, cotton fiber and peat have all been tested in a small way +and found to make excellent paper, and it is thought corn-stalks can +also be used, but none of these is now manufactured in the United States +on a large scale. This is largely because the price of pulp-wood is low, +and the cost of experimenting with new materials is great with the +results uncertain. + +This brings us to the last one of our preventive measures for the +decline of our forests, the one which needs the most careful attention +of all--the replanting of the lands that are not fitted for agriculture, +and planting trees about houses and unoccupied spaces. + +Many farmers have planted orchards on a part of their farm-lands and +many trees have been planted in town and country, but until a few years +ago there was no organized effort to plant trees. + +Now many states have set apart a day which is called Arbor Day, for this +purpose, but in no state does it hold so important a place as it should. +It is observed by the schools but not by the general public. + +In Germany there are regular tree-planting days in which all the people +take part. Every one who is not too poor--and he must be poor +indeed--plants a tree in his own garden, or in front of his home, in the +forest or in the highway; for himself or for the general good. + +Each child plants a tree on his or her birthday every year, and watches +and cares for it as it grows. The roadsides are lined with fruit or nut +or flowering trees which have been planted in neat, orderly rows. These +things are in striking contrast to the observance of Arbor Day in this +country, where one tree suffices for an entire school, or at best each +class has a tree of its own. It is all a matter of enthusiasm and +education. + +In considering the best trees for planting we come to the last great use +of trees of which we have not spoken. Fruit and nut trees supply us with +large quantities of the most wholesome and delicious food. The apple, +pear, peach, plum, and cherry grow in the central part of the United +States, and oranges, lemons, figs, olives and apricots in the warmer +parts. + +By planting these trees in suitable places one may have a rich harvest +for many years to come. If a small fraction of the seeds of fruit trees +which are wasted each year were planted, the general food supply would +be greatly increased, and many benefits would be derived from the trees +themselves. + +Have you ever heard the story of "Apple-seed John," the man who, +according to tradition, went through what is now western Pennsylvania, +Ohio and Indiana while the country was still a wilderness and planted +orchards for the settlers who, he was sure, would come later? + +So many stories have been told of him that it is hard to discover how +much of the tale is really true. At least one poem has been written +about him, and the Reverend Newell Dwight Hillis has woven the facts and +fancies of his career into a charming book, _The Quest of John Chapman_. + +The story is that he spent his winters in the settlements near the +Atlantic coast teaching the children or working at small tasks about the +farms, and taking his pay always in the seeds of apples, peaches, pears, +plums, and grapes. The farmers and their families saved all their seeds +for him and when spring came he filled his boat with seeds and started +down the Ohio River. When he reached a suitable landing-place he took +his bags of seeds on his back and trudged through the forest. + +Whenever he came to an open space he planted an orchard, built a fence +of boughs about it, and started on again. And so he traveled on and on, +through all the spring and summer months, year after year, planting his +seeds for those who would come after him, until he grew too old to work. + +The first settlers in those states found the orchards and vineyards +awaiting them, and a few trees are still standing that are said to have +been planted by Apple-Seed John. The story of this man who in his humble +way devoted his life to others is one that may well be told and +imitated, for while none of us can do the work he did, it may inspire +us with a wish to make some spot on earth better by planting our few +seeds or plants. + +In carrying on this work in the schools as well as by the general +public, a regular plan should be followed. Much can be accomplished with +no expense at all, even in cities. In all cases the expense will be very +small compared to the good accomplished. + +Seeds may be planted and later transplanted. This will require no +expense and little labor. Every child, large and small, in city and +country, can learn to do this work and can thus perform a real service. +Small saplings which are growing close together, where they can never +develop, may each be planted in a place where it will have a chance to +grow into a thrifty tree. Most farmers would be entirely willing to +allow the pupils to take such saplings from their wood-lots if the work +were properly done. This is an excellent work for country schools to +undertake, both for the good it will accomplish and for the training of +the pupils themselves in practical work. + +Fruit trees of suitable size for planting may be had for about twenty +cents each. Most American children could easily save that amount from +money spent on candy, sweetmeats or toys so as to have a tree ready for +planting on Arbor Day which would yield them fruit as they grow older, +and be a source of pride and pleasure. Such trees will of course usually +be planted at the children's own homes, but it would be an excellent +idea to follow the German plan of planting public orchards just outside +the town. When the trees are old enough to bear, the children are +allowed on certain days to go and gather and eat the fruit and carry it +home in baskets. + +The older boys in every school, whether city or country, should be +taught to plant and transplant trees in the best way. The following +directions for the work are sent out by the Department of Agriculture at +Washington: + +"The proper season for planting is not everywhere the same. When the +planting is done in the spring, the right time is when the frost is out +of the ground and before budding begins. + +"The day to plant is almost as important as the season. Sunny, windy +weather is to be avoided. Cool, damp days are the best. Trees can not be +thrust carelessly into a rough soil and then be expected to flourish. +They should be planted in properly worked soil, well enriched. If they +can not be planted immediately after they are taken up the first step is +to prevent their roots drying out in the air. This may be done by piling +fresh dirt deep about the roots or setting the roots in mud. + +"In planting they should be placed from two to three inches deeper than +they stood originally. Fine soil should always be pressed firmly--not +made hard--about the roots, and two inches of dry soil at the top should +be left very loose to retain the moisture." + +The reading of such poems as Lucy Larcom's "He who plants a tree plants +a hope," or William Cullen Bryant's, "Come, let us plant the apple +tree," and suitable talks or papers on trees, dealing with their kinds +and uses, on the benefits of forests, and on practical forestry, should +be a part of the Arbor Day exercises. + +In many communities a tract of land which is not well suited for general +agriculture may be obtained for the benefit of the school, and some +simple work in forestry may be undertaken by the pupils. Sometimes a +farmer may be induced to give a small bit of waste land where the +experiment may be tried. Sometimes such land can be bought by the school +in one of the following ways: + +A series of entertainments may be given by the pupils, the proceeds to +be applied to the buying of the land, and the pupils may also obtain +money in other outside ways to bring to the general fund. If only one +acre can be bought and cleared by the pupils, and properly planted, a +little at a time, a tree for each child's birthday, or by obtaining +small seedlings and saplings from the forest, it will be a source of +keen interest, and will give an added pleasure to the school work. +Watching the growth of the trees and caring for them will keep this +interest alive year after year, and in time it will become a valuable +property belonging to the school. Sometimes the school officials will +set aside a sum from the public money to purchase the land. In one High +School, one acre is thus bought each year, and every pupil in the senior +year gives and plants a tree. Sometimes the farmers or the merchants of +a community may unite in buying the land, which will, of course, become +public property, and set it aside for improvement after the manner of a +city park. + +Sometimes women's clubs become interested in such a movement and will +raise the funds necessary for beginning it. It then becomes the duty of +the school, year after year, to plant and care for the land. After a +time the school will have a valuable property to sell, or can have a +yearly income from the sale of timber. + +Such plans may be carried out in many schools. Every school can and +should do something to forward this great work. All school yards should +be well planted and care taken that the boy with a new knife does not +try it on the bark or that the bark is not rubbed from the trees in +careless play. Many trees planted in school yards have been destroyed +in this way. + +But we shall not be safe if only the schools plant trees. Farmers and +lot owners should take up the work in earnest, adding as many trees as +possible each year. In this way they could insure an abundant supply of +fruit, nuts and timber for the future, could increase the value of their +property, and provide a steady income besides. + +Farmers' institutes would find this a most important work to undertake, +arranging for a common plan to be carried out in an entire neighborhood, +and setting aside days in which all the members may work together to set +out trees by the roadsides. This brings us to the question of what kinds +of trees are best to plant. + +For town or city lots, fruit trees should always be chosen, because they +bear in a short time and will add to the family food supply, and so +lessen the cost of living and increase the variety of food. Every farm +should have a good assortment of fruit. Any nurseryman's catalogue will +furnish lists of kinds so that a wise choice may be made. In selecting +fruit trees, great care should be taken to choose the best varieties. + +For streets and roadsides, nut or wild fruit trees are best, for the +trees are generally graceful in appearance and will yield some return, +as the more popular maples and poplars will not. The chestnut is one of +the best trees for such planting, though it is of a rather slow growth. +English or American walnuts, pecans, mulberry and persimmon trees can be +grown in most parts of the United States. + +One town in Kansas is planting fruit trees on all its streets, so that +in a few years there will be an abundance of fruit free to every +passer-by. This is a most excellent plan, but individuals would be +likely to find the fruit molested if only a few trees are planted in a +community. + +Barn-lots and lanes should be planted with wild cherry, haws, elder, +dogwood, mountain-ash, and other wild fruits to serve as food for birds, +poultry, and hogs. + +Where the banks of streams need to be protected from erosion, probably +the best tree for planting is the basket willow, which thrives well near +the water, has a heavy network of roots, and is valuable for weaving +into baskets and furniture. + +For all hillsides and rocky places, as well as wood-lots, the hardwoods +which sell best for timber should be planted in the North and West, and +the evergreens near the sea-coasts and in the South. Forests of oak, +hickory, walnut, maple (especially the sugar maple, which yields a +steady return during the lifetime of the tree), elm, chestnut, and +locust will sell for a good price, and are always salable. It requires +many years to grow large timber, but by proper management several years +can be gained in its growth, and it is always a valuable investment for +a farmer to make for his children. + +Not individuals only, but states and the national government as well, +should provide forests for the future, and this is the greatest duty of +all, for much of the most important work can only be done by a power +that can control the entire watershed at the head-waters of a +river-system. + +For example, the Appalachian Mountains are the source of hundreds of +streams which flow east, west and south, and pass through many states. +These mountains were originally covered with a heavy forest growth, but +they belong largely to private companies who are cutting the forests at +a rapid rate. + +The effect of this is seen in bare hillsides, washed by mountain +torrents which are causing disastrous floods on the lowlands, filling up +the streams, and carrying away much of the most fertile soil of some of +the southeastern states, and in the drying up of the small tributaries. + +This can not be remedied by single companies nor by the states that +suffer most. The only remedy is for the government to buy the land at +the head-waters of the rivers and reforest it. The same conditions on a +smaller scale are to be found in every mountainous region where the +forests are cut away. + +The United States owns a large amount of forest but not nearly enough to +insure a supply of wood for the future. The public forest lands are +nearly all in the West. They consist of national forests, national +parks, Indian and military reservations and land open to entry as timber +claims. In all they contain nearly 100,000,000 acres, or about half as +much as is contained in farmers' wood-lots and about one-fourth as much +as the amount owned by large lumber companies. + +The United States, on its public domain, is setting about a careful +system of cutting and replanting. This system is known as forestry. It +has been worked out by some of the more advanced nations of Europe who +saw that destruction was coming on them through the cutting away of +their forests. Now forestry is practised by every nation except Turkey +and China. The principles have been well proved and the results of +scientific care of the forests are known to be even more sure than in +farming or live-stock raising. + +The Department of Agriculture will send complete directions for planting +trees in rows at proper distances, will tell what kinds are best suited +to each region and condition, how to make them grow rapidly, and when to +cut. All these things should be thoroughly understood by every land +owner, large or small, but at present forestry is practised on only one +per cent. of all land in this country, owned by private persons or +companies, though it is practised on seventy per cent. of all public +lands. + +The countries that show the best results in forestry are some of the +German states, particularly Prussia and Saxony, and France. In Prussia +the rate of production is three times as great as it was seventy-five +years ago. There is three times as much saw timber in a tree as there +was at that time, and the money returns from an average acre of forest +are now nearly ten times what they were sixty years ago. In Saxony the +state forests are receiving two dollars and thirty cents per acre a year +above all expenses from forests on land not fitted for agriculture, and +the profit is increasing every year. + +France and Germany together spend $11,000,000 a year on their public +forests and receive from them an income of $30,000,000, or nearly three +times as much, while the United States spends for its public forests +more than ten times as much as it receives. + +Many of our states are taking an active interest in forestry and are +buying tracts of land of low value for state forests. New York is taking +the lead in the work of planting forests, but even here the amount done +is much less than it should be. The state forester says that one million +trees are planted each year while twenty millions should be planted. + +The National Conservation Commission reported that the entire United +States should plant an area larger than the states of Pennsylvania, +Ohio, and West Virginia, in order to supply our future needs, but that +we have actually planted an area less than the state of Rhode Island. + +This, then, is the lesson we should learn in regard to our forests: To +guard against waste in cutting and use, fire, and insects, and to plant +trees until our future supply of timber is assured, till the head-waters +of our streams are protected and our waste lands made into valuable +forest tracts; till every farm has its wood-lot, and every community its +fruit and shade. It is a work in which every one of us may take some +part and from which good results are certain to come. + + +ORCHARDS + +Another phase of tree-culture that does not, strictly speaking, come +under the head of forestry, but which should be considered here, is the +cultivation of orchards, either for home use or for commercial purposes. + +In a few sections, fruit is the most valuable of all crops. Oranges in +Florida and California, peaches in some of the southern states, and +apples in the northwest, are more profitable than any field crops, and +their cultivation is made the subject of careful scientific study. But +there are many other states where the raising of fruit in commercial +quantities is almost altogether neglected, and to which almost all fruit +is shipped from other sections. This is particularly true in the rich +corn and wheat producing states of the Mississippi Valley. + +The early settlers each planted an orchard for home use, and these +produced the finest quality of fruit in abundance; but usually, after +being planted, the trees were left to take care of themselves, while the +farmer's time and attention were given to his fields of grain. + +As time passed, plant diseases and insect pests increased, winds broke +down many of the unpruned trees, frosts often blighted the entire crop +of fruit, and the uncultivated, sod-choked trees produced fruit that was +less in quantity and poorer in quality each year. + +In recent years the highest grade of apples have all been shipped from +the West. These are grown on irrigated land; a high price being paid +both for the land itself and for the water-privilege, and the orchards +are seldom more than ten acres in extent. Wind and frost may cause as +much damage here as in the eastern states and plant diseases and insect +enemies are equally liable to injure the crop. + +But here orcharding is carried on in a scientific manner. The small size +of the orchard makes it possible for the owner properly to care for +every tree, and each one must be made a source of profit. Every +condition that tends to affect the crop is carefully studied, and the +remedy found and applied. + +There is no reason why the same care and labor should not produce +equally good results with far less expense in the well-watered regions +of the eastern and central part of the United States. The neglected +orchard will prove a failure anywhere, as surely as will a neglected +garden, and success will come only by giving to fruit the same +intelligent care that would be bestowed upon any other crop. + +The cultivation of apples should receive particular attention in the +north central states, because they have great food value, are not +perishable, can be shipped long distances, and the demand, both at home +and abroad, is always greater than the supply. The home orchard, +however, should contain many kinds of fruit, and the same general rules +in regard to the care of the orchard apply to all of them. + +First, the orchard should not be located on land that is fitted to +produce the best farm crops, but it must not be too steep and hilly to +be cultivated. A sunny sloping hillside is best suited to orchard crops. + +In most cases little fertilization is needed except the planting of +clover or some other leguminous crop. If corn be planted in young +orchards, as is often the case, potash should be used as a fertilizer +after the crop is gathered, since both corn and fruit trees draw very +heavily on the potash in the soil. + +Old orchards sometimes need a single application of a general fertilizer +containing all the principal soil elements. All fertilizers should be +applied not merely around the base of the trunk, but as far from it as +the tree spreads its branches in all directions. + +The trees should be carefully pruned and special attention paid to +trimming the tops low to prevent damage from winds, and also to make +spraying easy. + +The soil should be deeply cultivated the first few years in order to +make the roots strike deep into the ground, and afterward the soil +should receive some surface cultivation every year. + +When there is danger of frost after the trees have bloomed, brushwood +fires are lighted and a dense smoke is raised over the orchard by +burning pots of crude oil. This smoke is helpful in preventing the +formation of frost, and will often be the means of saving the crop. + +The other great causes of failure to grow large quantities of perfect +fruit, if the varieties are well chosen, are plant diseases and damage +by insects. The methods of their control are given in the chapter on +Insects, and include principally the disposal of all decayed fruit, the +raking up and burning of all leaves in infected orchards, arsenical and +lime sprays, and, above all, such attention to pruning and cultivation +as will keep the trees in good condition. + +Lastly, the keeping of bees in the orchard will pay well, not only for +the honey they produce, but because they assist greatly in carrying the +pollen from flower to flower, and so increasing the crop of fruit. + + +REFERENCES + +Forests. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Forest Conservation, Papers and Discussions, Report Governor's +Conference. + +Arbor Day, Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 96. + +Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 134. + +Practical Assistance to Tree Planters. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 22. + +How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 61. + +Forest Planting on Coal Lands. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 41. + +Forestry in the Public Schools. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 130. + +Primer of Forestry. (Pinchot). Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 173. + +The Use of the National Forests. (Pinchot.) + +What Forestry Has Done. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 140. + +Forest Preservation and National Prosperity. Forest Service Department +of Agriculture Circular, 35. + +Forest Planting and Farm Management. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 228. + +Facts and Figures Regarding our Forest Resources. Forest Service +Department of Agriculture Circular, 11. + +Drain Upon the Forests. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129. + +The Waning Hardwood Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129. + +Timber Supply of the United States. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 116. + +Forestry and the Lumber Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 97. + +How to Cultivate and Care for Forests in Semi-arid Regions. + +Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 54. + +Paper-making Materials and their Conservation. Bureau of Chemistry, 41. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +WATER + + +Water is an absolute necessity to man, as much as the air he breathes or +the food he eats. Water comes to us in the form of rain or snow. We +usually think of it as unlimited, but we must come to think of it as a +resource that can be abused and wasted or made useful and profitable as +is the soil itself. + +The amount of water is fixed and passes in an endless round from cloud +to river or land and back to the clouds again. The average yearly +rainfall of the United States is estimated at thirty inches, about forty +inches in the eastern half, an average of eighteen inches in the western +part, and in many places not more than ten or twelve inches. One inch of +rain would amount to nearly one hundred and one tons per acre, or on a +roof twenty feet long by twenty feet wide, one inch of rain would be two +hundred and fifty gallons. With a rainfall of forty inches, this would +amount to 10,000 gallons in a year, or an average, over every bit of +land twenty feet square, of twenty-seven gallons for every day in the +year. This is about the quantity that falls in the eastern part of the +United States. + +It varies slightly from year to year, but there is no more--there is no +possible way of adding to it, though we may lessen it by allowing it to +rush out to sea, giving no service to the land. As the land waters +diminish the rainfall also grows less. + +This two hundred trillions cubic feet of water which falls on our land +every year constitutes our entire water resource, is the source of all +our rivers and streams, of the moisture in the air, of our rains and +snows, and our water for plant and animal growth. + +To understand how much this is, we may say that it is about equal to ten +times the amount of water that flows through the Mississippi River +system. The water of the Mississippi and its branches is nearly half of +all the water in the United States that flows through waterways to the +sea. This water that flows through our streams is sometimes called the +run-off. The run-off is increasing every year as we cut our forests and +cultivate our land. It is used for navigation, irrigation and power, but +the increase is not an advantage for these purposes as might be +supposed, because it comes in disastrous floods, tearing away dams, +ruining power sites, and not only preventing navigation during the flood +season, but by filling up the rivers and changing the channels, making +navigation difficult and dangerous throughout the year. The run-off is +controlled to some extent and may be brought under almost as complete +control as may be desired. + +As much as the water of five or six Mississippis, or a little more than +half of our supply, is evaporated to moisten and temper the air, to fall +as rain or snow, or to form dews. This is sometimes called the fly-off, +and except for some changes caused by management of the land, is +entirely beyond control. + +A part of the remainder sinks into the soil below the surface. A large +portion of this helps to cause the slow rock-decay that forms the soil, +and which is known as ground water. It is estimated that within the +first hundred feet below the surface of the earth there is a quantity of +water that has seeped down; and that would form, if it were collected, a +vast reservoir sixteen or seventeen feet in depth spreading over all the +3,000,000 square miles of the area of our country. This is equal to +about seven years' rainfall and is a very important part of our water +resources. In many places it forms into underground streams or lakes. It +feeds all the springs and many of the lakes. Our wells are dug or +drilled into this underground water system. It carries away the excess +of salts and mineral matter from the soil, the trees strike their roots +deep into the earth and draw from it, and last and most important of +all, that which sinks immediately below the surface supplies all our +plant growth. So that it is this last portion, that which sinks below +the ground, and which is sometimes termed the cut-off, amounting to +about one-tenth of all our water resource, or about the quantity that +flows through the Mississippi River system, that forms the really +important part. + +On this depends all that makes a land habitable, the water for drinking +purposes and for plant and animal growth. On it depends the rate of +production of every acre of farm and forest land and the life of every +animal. Every full-grown man of one hundred and fifty pounds takes into +his system not less than a ton of water each year, and every bushel of +corn requires for its making fifteen or twenty tons of water. + +Of the importance of this Professor Chamberlain says: "The key to the +problem of soil conservation lies in due control of the water that falls +on every acre. This water is an asset of great value. It should be +counted by every land owner as a possible value, saved if turned where +it will do good, lost if permitted to run away, doubly lost if it also +carries away the soil and does destructive work below." + +The uses of rainfall are given thus: + +A due portion should go through the soil to its bottom to promote rock +decay. Some of it should go into the underdrainage to carry away harmful +matter, another portion goes up to the surface carrying solutions needed +by the plants. A portion goes into the plants to nourish them, and still +another part runs off the surface, carrying away the worn-out parts of +the soil. + +Crops can use to advantage all the rain that falls during the growing +season; and in most cases crops are all the better for all the water +that can be carried over from the winter. There are many local +exceptions, but in general crops are best when the soil can be made to +absorb as much of the rainfall and snowfall as possible. This also +causes the least possible amount of wash from the land. + +Doctor N. J. McGee says: "Scarcely anywhere in the United States is the +rainfall excessive, that is, greater than is needed by growing plants, +living animals and men. Nearly everywhere it falls below this standard. +In the western part the average rainfall is only about eighteen inches; +in the extreme eastern part the fall averages forty-eight inches. In the +western part much of the land is unable to produce crops at all except +when artificially watered. The eastern part might produce more abundant +crops, develop greater industries and support a larger population with a +rainfall of sixty inches than it is able to do with a rainfall of +forty-eight inches." As may readily be seen, the fly-off can be +controlled only in a very small degree, by conserving the moisture that +is in the soil, and so preventing it from evaporating too rapidly. + +The cut-off can be controlled to a considerable extent through forestry +and scientific farming and it is very important that the supply should +be as carefully conserved as possible. + +But it is in the run-off that the great waste of water occurs, and also +that great saving is possible. It has been found by careful estimate +that from eighty-five per cent. to ninety-five per cent. of the water +that flows to the sea is wasted in freshets or destructive floods. + +We are not accustomed to think of the water as wasted, since it seems +beyond our control, but as we are taking a careful account of stock, and +seeing how our forests, our fuels and our minerals are disappearing, and +our soil being carried out to sea by the rushing waters, it is well to +consider, also, whether this great resource may not be so used as to +benefit mankind in many ways and at the same time lessen the drain on +other resources. + +The water of streams may be divided as to use into four great classes. +The most important is that used by cities for general supply, for +household and drinking purposes; next, that which is used for navigation +and the running of boats to carry commerce; third, that which is used +for artificial watering or irrigation, and lastly, that which is used +for power in manufacturing. + +In the past, when water has been used it has seldom been employed for +more than one of these purposes, but as we come to understand more the +nature, value and possibilities of this great resource, we shall learn +to make the money spent for one of these lines of activity supply +several other needs. + +As we study each of these separately we shall see this interrelation +among them. + +The cities of the United States have expended $250,000,000 in waterworks +and nearly as much more in land for reservoirs, and for canals for +conveying the water from these reservoirs to the cities. The better +managed systems protect the drained lands from erosion by planting +forests or grass and the water is completely controlled, so that all the +water, even the storm overflow, is saved. There is very little waste in +these city water systems until it comes to the consumer, where, except +when it is sold through meters, the waste is often great. + +The failure to provide the greatest good lies in the fact that the +water systems have been used for water supply only and have not been +made profitable in other ways. The drainage basins should be heavily +planted with trees, which will in time yield a large return, or with +hay, which can be marketed each year. Whenever possible, the canals +carrying the water supply should also be used to furnish power. + +The city of Los Angeles, when it had a population of only 150,000, +undertook to provide pure water from a point two hundred and fifty miles +distant. To do so it must take on itself a debt of $23,000,000, a large +sum for a city ten times its size. Yet the people were ready to assume +this great burden to insure an unending supply of pure water, for they +realized that without it their city could not continue to grow. It was +not until the plans for piping water to the city were almost completed +that the value of the water-power along the route was realized. It has +been disposed of at a rate that pays ten per cent. interest on the debt +each year, and has made what seemed a dangerous risk, a profitable +business arrangement. All these other uses of water which are +profitable, help to lower the price of water to the users. + +The matter of supreme importance in the water supply, however, is not +whether the water is cheap, but whether it is pure. If refuse from +factories is allowed to drain into a stream, the water becomes loaded +with poisonous chemicals, acids, or minerals. If city sewage or +barn-yards are allowed to drain into it, the germs of typhoid and other +fevers enter the water supply. To insure the purity of water supply from +a stream, no factory waste, city sewage or country refuse should be +allowed to enter any part of the stream. In addition to this it should +be carefully filtered. + +The disposal of waste is a serious problem, and the easiest way is to +divert it into the nearest water course and trust to the old maxim, +"Running water purifies itself." + +This, while true as a general fact, has so many exceptions that it is +not safe to trust to it. The Sanitary District Canal of Chicago has +proved positively that even the most heavily germ-laden water becomes +pure by running many miles at a regulated speed through the open +country, but the conditions are altogether different from those of an +ordinary river. First, in a river, sewage may enter at any point +down-stream to add to the germs already present in the water, while +nothing is allowed to enter the Drainage Canal after it leaves the city. +Second, some germs live for several days and may be carried many miles. +Only a microscopic test can prove whether water contains such germs. +Usually such tests are not made and water is used without people knowing +whether it is pure or not, but the water of the Sanitary Canal is tested +at many points to determine its purity. Each hour and each mile of its +journey it grows purer. This proves that although running water does +purify itself, a stream that is drained into all along its course is not +a fit source of water supply. + +Factory refuse, instead of being allowed to pollute the waters, should +be turned to good use by extracting the chemicals, which form valuable +by-products. All farm waste should be taken to a remote part of the +farm, placed in an open shed or vat with cement floor and screened from +flies to form a compost heap for fertilizers for the farm. This will +amply repay the extra trouble and expense by increasing the farm crops. +The sooner such refuse, especially manure, is returned to the land, the +more valuable it is as a fertilizer. + +In cities the sewage should be disposed of in such a way as to yield a +profit to the city, and also promote the health of the people. The +sewage of a city of 100,000 people is supposed to be worth, in Germany, +about $900,000 a year for fertilizer on account of the phosphorus it +contains. The city of Berlin operates large sewage farms, using as +laborers men condemned to the workhouse. The expense for land and sewer +system was $13,000,000, but it pays for the money invested, with $60,000 +yearly profit over all expenses. + +On the other hand the cost of impure water to the city of Pittsburg was +reckoned at $3,850,000, and in the city of Albany, New York, the annual +loss was estimated at $475,000. + +In the early settlement of our country all towns were built on streams, +and the ones which grew and flourished were all on rivers large enough +to carry commerce by boat. After the invention of steamboats, daily +packet lines were run on all the principal rivers. + +Albert Gallatin planned a complete system of improved waterways, +including many canals, that was intended to establish a great commercial +route. Many canals were built and put into actual operation and dozens +of others had been planned, when the building of railways began. This +new system of transportation at once became popular. Not only were no +more canals dug and no more steamboat lines built, but many of those +actually in operation were abandoned. + +In order to encourage railroad building and develop new regions, the +government has given land and money to the extent of hundreds of +millions of dollars, until now the railroads form one-seventh of all our +national wealth, having 228,000 miles of tracks and earning +$2,500,000,000 each year, while the waterways owned by the government +have fallen into disuse. + +Within the last four or five years another change has come about in the +general attitude toward the waterways. At the time that the crops are +moved in the fall, and when coal is needed for the winter supply, there +are not nearly enough cars in the country to handle the volume of +business, neither are there enough locomotives to move the necessary +cars, nor tracks, nor stations. In short, the railways are entirely +unable to handle the vast products of the country during the busiest +seasons. Many persons in the West have suffered for fuel, and commerce +has been greatly checked by the shortage; and the situation is growing +worse each year as production increases. + +James J. Hill estimates that the cost of equipping the railroads to +carry the commerce of the country would be from five to eight billion +dollars. This means a heavy tax on iron and coal and timber as well as +on the labor resources of the country, and it would then be only a +question of time until still further extensions were needed. + +With these facts in view, interest in the waterways of the country has +been revived. + +It is estimated that it will require five hundred million dollars, or +fifty million dollars a year for ten years completely to improve the +waterways of the country. This is not more than one-tenth of what would +be needed to equip the railroads. The cost of carrying freight by rail +is from four to five times that of carrying it by water. + +Much of the heavy freight of the country,--coal, iron, grain and +lumber,--should be carried in this way, in order to reduce freight rates +and so, indirectly, the cost to the people, and further to relieve the +burden on the railways. + +The railways, it might be added, would still have a large and increasing +package-freight business, besides the handling of heavy freight in parts +of the country where there are no navigable rivers. + +For these reasons it would seem clearly the only wise policy to adopt a +general plan for waterway improvement and carry it into effect at once. +But there are many things to be considered. + +Millions of dollars (in all about five hundred and fifty-two millions) +have been spent for the improvement of waterways. Some of it has +resulted in great gain, but a large part of it has been wasted through +lack of an organized plan. Work has been begun and not enough money +appropriated to finish it. In the course of a few years much of the +value of the work is destroyed by the action of the current or by +shifting sands, or if a stretch of river is finished in the most +approved manner, often it is not used much, in some cases actually less +after than before the work was begun, and these things have created a +prejudice against waterway improvements. + +The other reason is that in spite of the overcrowding of the railroads, +the traffic on many of our large rivers is steadily growing less. The +Inland Waterways Commission finds as a reason for the decrease, the +relations existing between the railways and the waterways. A railway, +they consider, has two classes of advantages. First, those that come +from natural conditions. A railroad line can be built in any direction +to any part of the country except the extremely mountainous parts, while +a river runs only in a single direction. + +If a new region distant from a large water course is opened up, as is +being done rapidly in the West through irrigation and dry farming, the +people are entirely dependent on the railways to develop it, to bring +them all the conveniences of the outside world, and to carry the +products of their land to the market. + +Branch lines and switches can be built to factories and warehouses, +while boats can reach only those situated along the water-front. + +Another advantage of the railroads is that they bill freight all the way +through, and that freight is much more easily transferred from one road +to another. It is much more difficult and expensive to load and reload +freight from boats and barges on account of the high and low water +stages of the river. This difference amounts to as much as sixty feet in +the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Railways make faster time, and the +distance between two points is usually shorter, though sometimes during +the busy season of the railways the river freight reaches its +destination much sooner. + +The other class of reasons relates to the railways themselves, which +have always been in open competition with the waterways, and to gain +traffic for themselves, usually charge lower rates to those points to +which boats also carry freight. In many cases they have bought the +steamboat lines so that rates might be kept up, and then, unable to +operate the two lines as cheaply as one, have abandoned the steamboat +lines. + +Another method by which the railroads have driven out the water traffic, +is by charging extremely heavy rates for freight hauled a short distance +to or from boats, making it quite as cheap as well as more convenient to +send freight all the way by rail. + +Lastly, railroad warehouses, terminals and machinery for handling +freight are all much better than those of inland steamboat lines, except +at some points on the Great Lakes where the traffic is very heavy. + +Some of these disadvantages might be overcome by law. In France, where +the waterways are managed better than in any other country, the law +requires that railroad rates be twenty per cent. higher on all heavy +freight than the rates on the same freight if carried by water, and in +several countries railroad companies are not permitted to own or manage +a steamboat line. + +These measures are suggestive of what may be done by law to correct +abuses, but laws alone can not accomplish everything. The rivers belong +to all the people, and every one who wishes may operate steamboat or +barge lines, but before these can become profitable, and before first +class warehouses and machinery are installed, there must appear on the +part of the people a desire to patronize them. The best results are +found in those cases where there is harmony between the railways and the +steamboat lines; those in which the steamboat lines relieve the railways +of much of the heavy freight which they are not able to handle without +greatly increasing their present equipment. + +There should be coöperation on the part of the people. The towns and +cities along the banks of many European rivers provide suitable +terminals, warehouses and wharves with free use of the service. In other +cases this is done by private capital with a charge for use to shippers. +Sometimes it is done by the steamboat companies themselves, but unless +one or the other method is assured all along the river it is not wise +for the government to undertake the improvement of a stream. + +Intelligent improvement of the waterways of the United States demands +first that a careful survey of the needs of the whole country be made, +then that a systematic plan be carried out providing for the improvement +of important streams first. + +The state and nation should work together, and any work that is begun +should be completed as promptly as possible so that its full benefit may +be realized. + +Certain work, such as the improvement of the channel, should be done by +the national government, since the waters belong to the nation; but the +expense of constructing levees or dykes should be borne by the land +owners along the banks, because the land thus protected is greatly +increased in value; or by the state, which gets the return in increased +taxes. + +In many instances, the improvement of a stream would be a great benefit +to one state or part of a state, but it would be impossible in many +years to improve all the desirable streams, so that the larger ones of +most general importance must be considered first. + +In such cases the improvement is often undertaken by the state. Some +navigable rivers have been thus improved and many canals are the +property of states or of private companies. + +Only a few rivers have a steady flow throughout the year at a depth +sufficient to carry large boats. On most streams destructive floods at +certain seasons and low waters at others interfere with navigation +during a considerable part of the year. Most rivers have sand-bars, +sunken rocks or logs in the channel, making the passage of boats +difficult and dangerous. Others are well suited for navigation, except +at points where rapids and falls make it impossible for boats to pass. +The Ohio, the Tennessee, the Missouri and the upper Mississippi abound +in such dangerous places and these should be canalized. It is the +improving of rivers in these ways, dredging harbors to make them safer, +and digging canals to provide a short passage between two bodies of +water, that constitute what is known as the Improvement of Inland +Waters. + +If you look at a map showing the navigable streams of the United States +you will see that nearly all of them lie in the eastern part. + +The Mississippi is like a great artery with branches extending in all +directions, east and west. The Great Lakes, with their outlet, the St. +Lawrence River, and the many important rivers emptying into the Atlantic +Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, such as the Merrimac, Hudson, Delaware, +Susquehanna, Potomac and Rio Grande, form great highways for all the +commerce of the eastern part of the country, while the Columbia, +Sacramento and Colorado Rivers, with their branches, are the only +navigable streams of any importance west of the Mississippi River +system. + +In some places a small portion of land divides two important water +areas, and canals dug through this neck of land change the commercial +routes of the whole world. Such are the Isthmus of Suez, eighty-seven +miles wide, through which a canal was cut that saves a sailing distance +of 3,700 miles from England to India. Only the Isthmus of Panama, +forty-nine miles in width, divides the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean. +When the canal across this narrow strip is completed, the sailing +distance from New York to San Francisco will be shortened 8,000 miles, +the entire distance around South America. + +The Sault Ste. Marie Canal, connecting Lakes Superior and Huron, is only +a little more than a mile and a half long, but it opens up the entire +iron, copper, lumber and wheat resources of the Northwest to cheap water +passage through the other lakes to the manufacturing region of the East. + +The Erie Canal, by connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson River from +Buffalo to Albany, New York, makes the only water passage from the Great +Lakes to the ocean that lies within the borders of the United States. + +If you will turn to the map again, you will see still other places where +a short canal may open up an entirely new and important water route. +From Chicago to Lockport, Illinois, is only thirty-seven miles, but +Chicago is on Lake Michigan, while Lockport is on the Illinois River, a +branch of the Mississippi. This canal, a large part of which is now in +operation, is a part of the Lakes to Gulf waterway. One plan is to +broaden and deepen the channel so that large vessels may pass, without +unloading, from the Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. + +Another proposed canal which would be undertaken largely by individual +states and a part of which is already completed, would afford a safe +inside passage connecting the many bays, channels and navigable rivers +of the Atlantic coast. + +Still another proposed measure is the cutting of a canal from the +southern end of Lake Michigan to the western end of Lake Erie at Toledo, +Ohio, to avoid the long haul up Lake Michigan and down Lake Huron again. + +The United States now has 25,000 miles of navigable rivers and a nearly +equal mileage of rivers not now navigable but which might be made +commercially important; five great lakes that have a combined length of +1,410 miles, 2,120 miles of operated canals, and 2,500 miles of sounds, +bays and bayous, that might be joined by tidewater canals easily +constructed, less than 1,000 miles long altogether, and making a +continuous passage from New England to the Gulf of Mexico. + +In all, our waterways at the present time are 55,000 to 60,000 miles +long, the greatest system in the world, but almost unused. + +The most important waterway improvement so far completed, is the Sault +Ste. Marie, or the "Soo" canal which cost $96,000,000. A depth of eight +feet was increased to twenty-one feet. The traffic has risen in sixteen +years from a million and a quarter tons to forty-one and a quarter +million tons. + +A large proportion of the United States is not naturally fitted to be +the home of man; at least, it is not fitted to produce his food, and +except on the lofty mountains the reason for this will almost always be +found to be either a lack or an excess of water. + +In some parts of the country, there is, as we have seen, little +rainfall. These arid or semi-arid lands must be provided with water for +drinking purposes and for agriculture. The diverting of water courses +into canals and ditches so that water can be carried to these waste +lands is called irrigation. + +In other parts of the country where rains are abundant, serious floods +occur every year, often many times in a year. Thousands of acres of +land thus subject to overflow are lost to use. The holding back of these +flood waters in the upper part of the rivers, and so preventing these +overflows, is termed storage of waters. + +In still other regions the rainfall is abundant, and the land low-lying. +Large areas are always covered with water. Such lands are called swamps +or bogs, and when drained, they become the richest of agricultural +lands. Irrigation, storage and drainage are the three methods employed +to make waste lands valuable and useful. The land is saved or reclaimed, +so all these methods of balancing and distributing the water supply are +called reclamation. + +In general it may be said that irrigation is more generally needed in +the West, storage of flood waters in the central and eastern states, and +drainage in the South. + +By thus distributing the rainfall, hundreds of millions of acres have +been or may be reclaimed, and large regions, formerly unfit to inhabit, +have been turned into profitable farms. Three-fourths of one per cent. +of our total rainfall, or two per cent. of all that falls in the West, +is used for irrigating 13,000,000 acres. + +There are several methods of irrigation which are adapted to different +regions and different crops. The rice fields of South Carolina, +Georgia, Louisiana and Texas are irrigated by allowing the land to +remain continually flooded to a depth of several inches. When the +irrigation season is over the levees are opened, and the water runs off +rapidly, and the crop is soon ready to be harvested. Tidal rivers are +used to supply water in most cases, but in Texas many flowing wells are +employed for irrigation. + +In Florida, where irrigation is used largely for intensive farming, +various means are employed, some of which are also used in the western +and southwestern states. Mechanical pumps, operated by turbine wheels, +pump the water from the rivers if a lift be required. Sometimes the +water is pumped direct to the fields in iron pipes and applied by means +of hydrants and hose, as in a city water system. + +Overhead pipe lines are now recognized as the most perfect and +satisfactory form of artificial watering. Two-inch pipes are run over +frames several feet in height. These are arranged in parallel lines all +over the fields about forty feet apart. At intervals of forty feet, a +small iron pipe, ending with a fine spraying attachment, extends upward. +The water is turned on in the evening and comes out of the sprayer in a +fine mist and falls upon the plants like a gentle rain. + +By another form of irrigation, the fields are divided at regular +intervals by wide wooden troughs from which water is directed between +the rows of plants. Main canals leading from the streams and intersected +by short canals extend in all directions through the fields and +orchards, and are distributed in various ways. This system is in general +use throughout the arid portions of the West. The methods are said to be +the most scientific and varied in southern California. + +When water for irrigation is supplied from wells some underground system +is generally used. One common method is to lay continuous pipes from the +wells all over the fields and distribute from hydrants, plugs and +standpipes. + +By still another system, the water is carried below the surface through +pipes which are broken every few inches and laid in beds of charcoal. + +In the eastern states irrigation is only employed in dry weather to +increase the yield of vegetable crops. In the arid western region it +transforms what would otherwise be a dreary desert into fertile valleys. + +William J. Bryan, speaking at the first Conservation Congress, said, +"Last September, I visited the southern part of Idaho and saw there a +tract that has been recently reclaimed. I had been there before. I had +looked upon these lands as so barren that it seemed as if it were +impossible that they could ever be made useful. + +"When I went back this time and found that in three years 1,700,000 +acres of land had been reclaimed, that where three years ago nothing but +sage-brush grew, they are now raising seven tons of alfalfa to the acre, +and more than a hundred bushels of oats; when I found that ten thousand +people are living on that tract, that in one town that has grown up in +that time there are more than 1,900 inhabitants, and in three banks they +had deposits of over half a million dollars, I had some realization of +the magic power of water when applied to these desert lands." + +The same thing might be said of other regions throughout the West. In +the Salton district of California a marvelous change has been brought +about by irrigation. A few years ago that was one of the most desolate +and forbidding regions on our continent. Now it is covered with several +thousands of acres of alfalfa and other crops, and it bids fair to be a +great fruit region. Of southern California it is said, "The irrigation +systems of this part of the state are known all over the world, and have +created a prosperous commonwealth in a region which would be a scene of +utter desolation without them." + +This locality presents a better opportunity for the scientific study of +farming by irrigation than exists anywhere else in the world. Here all +land values depend directly on ability to obtain a water supply. So +precious is the water and so abundant are the rewards that follow its +application to the soil that the most careful consideration is given to +the various sources of supply and distribution. + +As land becomes scarcer and the cost of living greater on account of the +increase in population, men are turning more and more to irrigation to +solve the problem of food supply. + +As showing what may be accomplished by irrigation, the report of the +last census says: "The construction of large irrigation works on the +Platte, Yellowstone and Arkansas Rivers would render fertile an area +equal to that of some eastern states. Engineers are grappling with the +great problems of conserving the flood waters of these streams, which +now are wasted and help to increase the destructive floods of the +Mississippi. The solving of these problems will change a vast area of +country, now practically worthless, into valuable farms." + +The "Great Bend" country, drained by the Columbia River, contains +several million acres of land which only requires water to make it of +great agricultural value. + +The Gila River basin contains more than 10,000,000 acres of fertile +land, capable of producing immense crops if irrigated, but without +irrigation it is a desert land where only sage-brush and cactus +flourish. + +From arid lands capable of producing excellent crops but lacking in the +magical element of water, we pass to the consideration of lands where +the richest of soils are shut off from productiveness because they are +covered with water. On the lower Mississippi the soil is richer than in +any other part of the United States, but much of it is overflowed so +frequently that it is unfit for cultivation. Dykes and levees have +reclaimed thousands of acres of such overflow land. Many states control +large marshy sections that have been or may be reclaimed. + +In southern Florida lie the Everglades, a vast country which has been +worse than valueless; a malarial region abounding in alligators, +rattlesnakes, scorpions and other dangerous animals and insects. The +state of Florida has undertaken the work of draining this great swamp, +and when the task is completed, Florida will have added to its resources +3,000,000 acres of the richest soil for the raising of winter vegetables +and fruits. + +Florida is engaged in another great project--the digging of an inside +passage connecting its inland tidal waters by a canal system which will +open to navigation a continuous inland waterway six hundred miles in +length. In digging these canals through the marshes bordering the +coast, thousands of acres of exceedingly fertile land have been +reclaimed and are now producing valuable crops. + +The Kankakee marshes in Indiana have been drained, adding many thousands +of acres of rich soil to the agricultural area of the state. + +In all, about 80,000,000 acres are so wet that they must be drained in +order to make them produce good farm crops, but which, while now covered +only with marsh grass or undergrowth, is capable of being made the most +fertile of all land. + +This swamp land is ten times the area of Holland, which supports a +population of 5,000,000 people. It is therefore easy to see how greatly +we may add to our productive territory and our national wealth by +reclamation through drainage. + +We now come to the use of water as power; and although in the last fifty +years this subject has received little attention, as manufacturing +increases and as fuel decreases and becomes higher, the value of water +becomes more evident, and water-power sites are being eagerly sought. + +Our age may come to be known in the future as the age of power, because +through the application of mechanical power man has gained such +marvelous control over the world about him. Wind and water led in the +production of power until about 1870, since which time they have +scarcely increased at all, the greater advantages of steam and +electricity having driven them out. + +As long as all factories had to be built by the side of streams having +suitable water-power, the number and size of factories were always +extremely limited. With the introduction of steam it became possible to +build factories at mines, in forests, in fruit or grain regions, +wherever the supply of raw material was plentiful, and to multiply +factories of all kinds in cities near the markets for their product, or +where labor was cheap and abundant. But power could only be used where +it was developed, and the size of the power plant depended on the amount +of business done by each individual user. + +Now a new era of power has again enlarged the possibilities of +manufacturing. By means of electricity the work, not only of factories, +but also of the home and the farm may be done in any place where +electricity can be installed. We must bear in mind that electricity is +never a source of power, but is only the agent that carries power to the +user. The source of all electric power is either steam or water, +produced by water-wheels, turbines, steam-engines or gas-engines. The +economical way to furnish electric power is to establish central power +plants, and electricity may be conveyed from them for many miles. An +electric railway, telegraph, or telephone system many miles in length +is operated from a single power plant. Electric light and power are +transmitted all over the largest cities. It is no longer necessary that +a factory be of any specified size nor that it have any waste power. If +it be within reach of the electrical current it may use as much or as +little as is needed. + +The cheapness of electric power must always depend on nearness to the +source of supply or to the market. Until a short time ago it was +customary to locate electric power-houses near the market, that is, in +cities. But the benefits to be derived from having the electric plant +near the source of power, so that the cost of production is greatly +lessened, are becoming better recognized. This will make water-power +increasingly valuable. + +It is even now practicable to develop water-power, wherever located, for +the production of electricity. Although the lowest grade coals are used +for electric power at the mines yet they can now be used for still other +purposes. Coal or other fuel once used can not be replaced, but when +electricity is derived from water-power only energy otherwise wasted is +used. This energy, if derived from water-power, is all added to our +assets instead of being lost. + +For many years the amount of power used for manufacturing and other +purposes has doubled about once in ten years, and the steady pace kept +by different lines of development shows how closely they are related. +Our power, our forest cut, the use of our iron and other minerals, our +coal and petroleum, the railroad earnings, freight and passenger +traffic, and our agricultural products all double themselves every ten +years. This means that in ten years we shall require twice as much power +as now, but will have far less coal to use. This raises the +question,--have we available water-power to conserve our coal supply? +Let us see. It is estimated that we are now using 26,000,000 horse-power +of energy derived from steam, 3,000,000 horse-power derived from water, +and 800,000 from gas or oil, a total of 29,800,000 horse-power. It is +also estimated that there is now running idly over dams, falls, and +rapids 30,000,000 horse-power of energy. In other words, we are wasting +every day enough water to run every factory and mill, and to turn every +wheel, to move every electric car and to supply every electric light or +power-station in the country. + +The amount of water-power is gauged solely by the low-water stage of the +stream. A river is considered to produce only as much power as it can +furnish at its season of lowest water. At other times factories may be +operated more actively, but usually most of the extra power is wasted +during a large part of the year. + +If these storm or flood waters can be stored in reservoirs, the +stream-flow throughout the year can be made fairly uniform and the power +possibilities greatly increased. The Geological Survey believes that by +storing the flood waters and regulating the flow of the streams, the +large rivers of the United States may be made to furnish 150,000,000 +horse-power, enough, if it could be utilized, to supply every power need +of our country for many years to come without using a ton of our coal, +and without in any way decreasing the water. + +Of course this can never be practicable. Much power will always be +needed where no stream for power is available. But the lesson is plain +that where water can be used it should be, both in order to save the +coal and because it can be produced more cheaply. The 30,000,000 +horse-power now available, if produced in our most modern electric +plants, would require the burning of nearly 225,000,000 tons of coal, +and if in the average plant run by steam-engines, more than 650,000,000 +tons of coal, which is fifty per cent. more than all the coal that is +now produced in this country. At three dollars per ton it would cost +$2,000,000,000 a year to supply the coal to furnish the power that we +might have, one might almost say, as a by-product from the improving of +the rivers for navigation. The development of the water-power +possibilities of the country is now going forward at a rapid rate, +however. + +Dams on the Susquehanna River will soon make 30,000 horse-power +available, which could be increased to 200,000 by building storage +reservoirs. + +A dam just begun at the rapids of the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa, +will, when completed, furnish 200,000 horse-power. Niagara is producing +56,000 horse-power on the United States side. The Muscle Shoals Falls +rapids in the Tennessee River is furnishing 188,000 horse-power. +Illinois will greatly increase its possibilities for offering cheap +power to factories, when the Lakes to Gulf Canal with 173,000,000 +horse-power worth $12,750,000 yearly, and the Chicago Drainage or +Sanitary Canal, which has nearly 60,000 horse-power, are complete. Both +of these projects were undertaken by the state. + +In California 250,000 horse-power is now in operation, and 5,000,000 +horse-power might easily be developed in that state alone, which at the +price of coal would be worth a billion dollars a year. + +New England has the oldest system of water-power control, because before +the era of steam it was the chief manufacturing region of the country. +The Merrimac, flowing through New Hampshire and Massachusetts, is the +most carefully conserved river in the world, and Governor Dingley of +Maine said that the water-power of Maine is equal to the working energy +of 13,000,000 men. + +The money value is counted at twenty dollars a year per horse power, but +it frequently brings as high as one hundred or even one hundred and +fifty dollars a year in a good manufacturing region, so that the value +of our water-power facilities can hardly be computed. + +An ideal picture of the harmonious development of our water resources +for all purposes is one that is not too difficult to realize. It is the +ideal that should be always before us in the improvement of our +waterways, and we should bear in mind that although the expense will be +heavy, it will not cost more than one-tenth as much to improve all the +important waterways as to equip the railways to carry the traffic they +will be called on to carry in the next ten years; and also that in the +past, for every dollar that has been spent on waterways, almost +twenty-five dollars has been spent on railways. The railways are a great +and important part of our national development, but the waterways should +not be neglected. Rather, the two should be so harmonized and adjusted +as to make one great commercial system that will furnish cheap and +abundant transportation for all our commerce. + +The most complete plan for conserving our waters is as follows: First, +build storage reservoirs along the upper stretches of the river to hold +the overflow waters of the flood season which are to be turned into the +main channel when the water becomes too low for ordinary navigation. + +These storage reservoirs should be on the lowest grade of land, that +which would be least productive. The reservoirs should be well stocked +with the best varieties of fish to make them profitable. The banks +should be planted with forest trees and made as attractive as they can +be made to form public parks and pleasure grounds for the people, where +boating, fishing and bathing may be enjoyed. + +The next point is to remove all obstructions from the river, to canalize +it at shallow places or rapids, so that the whole river will be +navigable, and, if necessary, to deepen the channel so that it will +carry large vessels between two important points. + +Dams should be built to take advantage of every opportunity for +water-power. One of the worst mistakes in the past has been the failure +to use the power that might have been developed in improving the streams +for navigation. + +Rivers should be made profitable still further by stocking with fish and +should be kept clear of factory refuse and sewage. Soil-wash should be +lessened by planting trees and shrubs along the banks; and where +overflow or erosion lowers the value of the land or repeatedly ruins the +crops, dykes and levees should be built. + +The rivers most important commercially should be improved first. Canals +should be cut between waterways where large benefits will result; +overflow and swamp land should be drained, and in arid regions every +particle of water conserved for irrigation purposes. + +The irrigation canals may also be used to supply water-power, and the +canals may be used as are other canals for towing barges. If electric +power is produced, electric towing is cheap and very desirable as a +means of transportation. + +In short, our water supply should be as carefully used and with as +little waste as the land of forests. The most important improvements +needed are, a Lakes to Gulf Waterway that shall be safe and practicable +at least for vessels of moderate size; the improvement of the Ohio, +Missouri, Tennessee and Upper Mississippi Rivers; an inner coast passage +from New England to Florida, and in navigable rivers dredging and +deepening if necessary, to make many outlets to the sea which will +afford cheap transportation. + +In the West, the Columbia, San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers with their +branches should be made navigable. Many western rivers have been almost +ruined by filling with rocks in hydraulic mining, but this is now +prohibited by law and if the channels were cleared they would again +become navigable. + +Appropriations for much of this work have already been made by Congress, +but the work is not systematically planned. The cost of all of it would +be about sixty-two and a half cents a year for each man, woman and child +in the country and every one would receive some benefit. + +The National Conservation Commission on Waterways found that the average +family pays for transportation or freight on all its food and clothing +and the necessities of life, nearly or quite one-third their actual +cost. "It is estimated that the direct benefits would be a yearly saving +in freight handling of $250,000,000, a yearly saving in flood damage of +$150,000,000, a saving in forest fires of at least $25,000,000, a +benefit through cheapened power of fully $75,000,000 and a yearly saving +in farm production of $500,000,000; a total of $1,000,000,000, or twelve +dollars and fifty cents for each person--twenty times the cost! And this +does not take into account the benefits from irrigation, drainage, and +the lessening of disease by a pure water supply." + + +REFERENCES + +Waters. Report of the National Conservation Commission. + +Report of Inland Waterways Commission, 1908. + +American Inland Waterways. H. Quick. + +Waterways and Water Transportation. J. S. Jeans. + +Waterway Transportation in Europe. L. G. McPherson. + +Highways of Progress. J. J. Hill. + +Navigation Resources of the United States. (Johnson.) Report, Governor's +Conference. + +Conservation of Power Resources. (H. St. Clair Putnam.) Report, +Governor's Conference. + +Florida's Waterways. (Miles.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Our Water Resources. (Lyman Cooley.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +The Lakes-to-Gulf Waterway. (Randolph.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Water Resources. (Kummel.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Necessity for Waterway Improvement. (Austin.) Report, Governor's +Conference. + +Report Congressional Committee on European Waterways. Senate Document, +1910. + +River and Harbor Bill. Senate Document. Burton, 1910. + +Forests, Water Storage, Power and Navigation. (Taylor.) Proceedings of +the Am. Hydrochemical Society. + +Our Inland Waterways. (McGee.) + +Outlines of Hydrology. (McGee.) + +Natural Movement of Water in Semi-arid Regions. (McGee.) + +Irrigation in the United States. Dept. Commerce and Labor Census Bureau. + +Irrigation Projects of the U. S. Reclamation Service. + +Reports of Irrigation in various states. Apply to Governor. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COAL + + +When we begin to study the mineral resources of the country we pass to +conditions altogether different from those which we have been +considering. Heretofore we have been dealing with resources that can be +renewed, the soil by proper management, the forests by replanting, the +waters by nature's own processes; but the fuels, the iron and many other +mineral resources once used are gone for ever. + +As to their importance Andrew Carnegie says: "Of all the world's metals +iron is in our day the most useful. The opening of the iron age marked +the beginning of real industrial development. To-day the position of +nations may almost be measured by its production and use. Iron and coal +form the foundation of our prosperity. The value of each depends upon +the amount and nearness of the other. In modern times the manufacturing +and transportation industries rest upon them, and with sufficient land +and a fertile soil, these determine the progress of any people." + +We are sometimes told that we need have no anxiety about the future, +that new discoveries and inventions will take the place of the present +fuels, and even substitutes for minerals will be devised long before the +supply is exhausted. This may be true, and in a way the future must take +care of itself, but until new inventions have actually been made it is +criminal to waste present resources and blindly trust that time will +make our folly appear good judgment and foresight. + +We have vast mineral resources unused; the present generation, even its +children and its children's children need have no fear of a shortage. +But in the use of those resources that are steadily and for ever +diminishing we must look a long way into the future. We are under the +most solemn obligation to take only our part of the store, and leave the +rest untouched and unspoiled for those who are to come after us. When we +consider what these mineral resources have done for our country in the +last fifty years, when we realize that it is only by having cheap and +abundant coal, iron, and copper that our railroads, our various electric +systems, and our great manufactories have been developed, we can realize +our duty to give the coming generations an equal opportunity to develop +their ideas. + +The yearly products of the mines of the United States are now valued at +more than $2,000,000,000. Sixty-five car-loads of freight out of every +hundred carried by our railroads are made up of mineral products. More +than a million men are employed at the mines, and more than twice that +number in handling and transporting mine products. + +Of every one hundred tons of coal mined in the whole world, the United +States produces forty-three tons. We supply forty-five tons out of every +hundred of iron ore, twenty-two tons of gold, thirty tons of silver, +thirty-three tons of lead, nearly twenty-eight tons of the zinc, about +fifty-five tons of the copper, and sixty-three tons of the petroleum +consumed by all civilized countries. + +This would be a cause for great national pride if we did not need also +to consider the shameful fact that our wastes or losses in the mining, +handling, and use of our mineral products are estimated at more than +$1,500,000 per day, or, for the year, the gigantic sum of $547,500,000. +That is, more than one-fourth of the entire output is wasted! + +Of all our minerals, the fuels which supply heat, light, and power for +domestic and manufacturing purposes, are the most necessary and +important. Other materials can not be manufactured without their aid. +Almost every particular of modern life would be changed if we no longer +had plenty of fuel. Its use means its immediate and complete +destruction, which is true of no other resource, and the use of fuels is +increasing and will increase so rapidly that their conservation is +becoming a serious problem. + +The principal fuels are coal, gas, oil, peat, alcohol, and wood, and of +these, coal is at present by far the most important. The first record of +coal mined in this country was in 1814, when twenty-two tons of +anthracite, or hard coal, were mined in Pennsylvania. An increasing +amount was mined each year, but until 1821 the production was less than +five hundred tons per year. In 1822 the production advanced to nearly +60,000 tons, and since that time has increased by leaps and bounds. + +During the seventy-five years from 1820 to 1895, nearly 4,000,000,000 +tons were mined by methods so wasteful that 6,000,000,000 tons were +destroyed or allowed to remain in the ground so that it could never be +recovered. Within the next ten years as much was produced as in the +entire seventy-five preceding years, and in this period 3,000,000,000 +tons were destroyed or left in the ground beyond the reach of future +use. Up to this time the actual amount of coal used has been over +7,500,000,000 tons; the waste 9,000,000,000 tons. + +Experts estimate that in the beginning there were somewhere about +2,000,000,000,000 tons of available coal, so that we have now, with all +our wastefulness, used less than two per cent. of our original +inheritance. But we must remember that in the ten years closing with +1905, we used as much as during the entire history of our country up to +that time, and the rate of consumption is still increasing. In 1907 the +amount mined was about 450,000,000 tons. Counting on a continuance of +the same rate of increase, in 1917 it will be 900,000,000 tons a year, +and if the same conditions should continue for twenty years we should be +using and wasting in one year as much as we have used in all our history +up to the present time. By that time more than one-eighth of our +original supply will be gone, and in less than two hundred years nearly +all of it will have for ever disappeared. + +That is a long time to look forward, but a short time in looking +backward. It carries us back only to the childhood of Benjamin Franklin +and others prominent in our early history; and if this nation could look +forward to only an equal period of prosperous development in the future +the time would seem short indeed. + +But the danger of our coal supply becoming exhausted lies not so much in +its present use as in the rapid increase in its consumption. Fifty years +ago (about the time of the Civil War) we were using an amount equal to a +little more than a quarter of a ton for every man, woman and child then +in the country. Now the rate is five tons, or twenty times that amount, +for each person of all our greatly increased population. + +The Pittsburg Coal Company owns about one-seventh of the great +Pennsylvania anthracite fields. From the amount it is now mining each +year and judging from the amount of coal it is able, with present +methods, to reclaim from an acre of coal land, the estimate is made that +this Pittsburg field will be exhausted in ninety-three years. A like +comparison of all the eastern fields indicates that by the beginning of +the next century there will be practically no cheap fuel left in the +entire Appalachian basin. + +The Geological Survey reports that, taking into account the available +coal which can be reached and mined by present methods, and supposing +the present conditions of use, waste, and increase to continue, the coal +supply will be exhausted by the year 2015 A. D., but taking into account +the probable improvements in its use, the year 2027 A. D. is estimated +as the time when the present coal fields will be exhausted, and the +middle of that century as the time when all coal fields in the United +States will be gone. + +This true story well illustrates the need of conservation and the folly +of careless waste. High in the hills of the Pittsburg region a thick +bed of excellent coal was found by the early settlers. It was impossible +for them to build roads up the steep cliffs, so some method of getting +the coal down to the valleys had to be devised. Buffaloes roamed the +western plains in countless millions, and were so abundant about +Pittsburg that the supply seemed inexhaustible. So the pioneers killed +the buffaloes, filled each skin with a few bushels of coal, sewed it up, +and tumbled it down the mountain side. + +This was the way they marketed their coal--by destroying their +buffaloes. For many years no one dreamed that there was any end to the +supply of buffaloes. And so both east and west they were killed for +their skins, which sold for a few cents, for their horns, for a supply +of steak, or for mere sport; and then one day people woke up to find +that the buffalo had disappeared, not in one settlement only, as they +had supposed, but everywhere. There are a few remaining, carefully cared +for by the government. They are among our most valued possessions, and +yet only a few years ago they were destroyed, wasted, by millions. + +This passing of the buffalo, the skins of which, as common then as +burlap bags are now, were used to market our first coal, carries with it +a deep lesson as to what will happen to the coal itself, even within +the present century, unless our people awake to the consequence of what +they are doing and make a determined effort to stop all unnecessary +waste. + +Let us see where and how these wastes occur. The first serious loss of +our coal occurs at the mines. There are three great wastes in mining. + +(1) A coal bed is not made up entirely of pure coal, especially if it be +very thick. Sometimes there are layers of shale or clay, which makes a +large amount of ash. This can never be sold as regular marketable coal; +but it is rich in carbon, and much of it might be used if it could be +marketed near the mines and sold as low-grade coal. In the past there +has been almost no market for it, and if it were either in the roof or +bottom of the coal bed, it has been left unmined. If mixed with pure +coal, the low-grade coal was thrown into great heaps at the mouth of the +mine. This refuse coal is called culm. The amount varies from one-tenth +to one-half of the coal in nearly every coal bed, and would probably +average one-fourth in all the mines of the country. + +This material is rich in carbon, and when used in gas-engines will +furnish more power than the best Pocahontas coal when steam-engines are +used. Thus one-fourth of all our coal is wasted at the mines simply +because steam-engines instead of gas-producer engines have been +employed. If in the future installation of power this fact is taken into +consideration, it will make the cost less to the user, and at the same +time utilize a large proportion of our impure coal and save the higher +grades for other purposes. + +(2) In the mining of coal it was formerly the unfailing custom to leave +supporting pillars of coal for the over-lying rocks to rest upon, to +make suitable working-rooms, etc. These pillars, twelve to eighteen +inches square, and higher than a man's head, are scattered throughout +the entire mines and are usually of the highest grade coal. In many +mines, also, a roof of coal a foot or more in thickness must be left +because the material above the coal is not solid enough to prevent +cave-ins. When the mine is abandoned and closed these pillars and +roofings remain untouched, because removing them constitutes one of the +greatest dangers to life, and is one of the frequent causes of mine +accidents. It is improbable that the coal thus left in abandoned mines +will ever be reclaimed, because not enough is left to make it profitable +at present prices to re-open the mines; and frequently the rocks cave in +about these pillars and make the task almost impossible. + +(3) By careless blasting an unnecessarily large amount of coal is blown +into powder,--the slack which has not been marketed at all until within +the last few years. Much of this slack, which is the best grade of coal +in a pulverized form, is left inside the mines. These wastes in +abandoned roofing, pillars, and small-sized coal, together make a total +which for all the mines in the country will average fully one-fourth +more of the coal that is in the ground. + +It is to be noted, however, that conditions are changing for the better. +The most modern mines use fewer supporting pillars of coal, and these +are of larger size, so that there is less danger of accidents. Wherever +possible they use timbers of wood instead of these smaller pillars of +coal. They also mine as near the top of the seam of coal as can be done +safely, and so regulate the blasting that much less slack is made than +by the heavy discharges. These changes in mining methods save a far +larger proportion of coal, and also prevent many accidents, which are +the most unfortunate feature of coal mining, and the one which should +receive most careful consideration. (See chapter on Health.) + +One large mining company in Kentucky raises its own timbers by planting +trees in straight, close rows on its coal land, thus making the land +produce its own mine timbers to conserve the coal below. This company +claims to have lost but one life in ten years, and to save seventy-five +per cent. of its coal. This is a striking illustration of what better +mining methods will do for both the miner and the mine owner and of how +forestry may be an aid to the conservation of coal and also of human +life in the mines. + +We have already shown how half of the coal is wasted, but there still +remains another source of waste at the mines. This is a large but +unknown quantity. Coal usually exists in beds or layers with shale or +rock between, much as a "layer-cake" is made, the layers of cake being +represented by the coal and the icing between by these "rock-partings," +as they are called. In rich fields, there are from three to ten of these +rich layers or beds of coal, one above another. It often happens that +the thickest and best layer is the lowest, and when this is the case, it +is usually mined first, regardless of the fact that some, and possibly +all, of the higher beds are dislocated and broken or filled with deadly +gases. Nearly all this loss could be avoided by simply mining the upper +stratum first. + +So much for waste at the mines. This is serious enough if it were all, +but it is not all, it is only the beginning. Let us see now what becomes +of the coal that is marketed. The railroads are the largest single users +of coal, and here we are confronted with the surprising statement that +our locomotives consume three tons of coal in doing the same work that +is performed by English locomotives with one ton. This difference is +said to be due to different construction of the engines themselves, and +to more careful stoking, or firing. Our locomotives use 100,000,000 tons +per year, and by even the best methods known a large proportion of the +heat units is wasted. Great effort should be made to improve the +locomotives so that they will consume less coal; but as long as the +railroad companies own the coal mines, as they do in many instances, +they can obtain coal so cheaply that the cost of the improved form of +engine is greater than the amount saved. + +Another great use lies in the manufacture of coke, which is used in the +making of steel, and here, too, we see where great wastes have existed. +The old form of coke-oven was called the bee-hive on account of its +shape. These old style ovens consume all the coal with the exception of +the fixed carbon which is left behind as coke. At the prices which +prevailed in 1907, the value of the by-products wasted in bee-hive +coke-ovens was a little over $55,000,000--surely a loss worth +considering. A different form of coke-ovens is much used abroad and is +coming into use in this country. This is the retort or by-product oven, +sometimes called the recovery oven. + +The bee-hive ovens are usually located near the mines where the cost of +coal is low, with small expense for transporting it. On the other hand, +the by-product ovens are established near the larger cities in order to +dispose of their gas and other by-products. Here the cost of +transportation must be added to that of the coal, but the products are +marketed near by instead of at a distance, as in the case of the +bee-hive ovens. The most improved by-product ovens produce not only coke +and gas, but coal-tar, pitch, ammonia, and creosoting oils, all +extremely valuable and adding greatly to the value of the output of the +ovens. + +Electricity is another form of light and power which involves a large +waste of the energy of coal; only one-fifth of one per cent., that is, +one-five hundredth of the value of the coal is used in electricity, and +there is at present no known remedy for this. + +There are methods, however, of lessening even this waste, and these are +constantly receiving more attention. One is for the electric plants +located in cities to sell their exhaust steam or water heated by the +coal as it is converted into electric power, as a by-product. The +electric power-house thus becomes a central heating plant to supply +stores, offices, and residences. Another system being tried abroad, +though scarcely past the experimental stage in this country, establishes +great electric power-houses at the coal mines to use the culm, +low-grade slack, and lignites, the lowest form of coal, in short, all +the waste of the mines. Still another plan is the manufacturing of +electricity by water-power, as we have seen in a previous chapter. + +The manufacturing industries of the country waste a large amount of fuel +annually, but here the waste is mostly due to expensive methods of +producing power, and to careless stoking, and is largely preventable. As +we have shown, gas-engines are a far more economical form of producing +power than are steam-engines. Steam uses from five to ten per cent. of +the heat-units of coal, gas-producer engines use fifty per cent. and +burn a lower grade of coal. + +One of the great problems of cities is the heavy volume of bituminous or +soft coal smoke that hangs over the entire surrounding region, levying a +heavy tax in cleaning and laundry work, making the air difficult to +breathe, and shutting out the daylight itself. Every residence adds its +mite, but the factories and public buildings are the worst offenders. +There are several good smoke-consuming devices on the market that have +been thoroughly tested by the government, which will furnish their names +on application. + +If factory owners who use steam power could realize that the gases, the +highest heat-producing part of the coal, escape with the smoke, and +that by using smoke consumers they not only prevent all the evils of +the smoke nuisance but save fully half of the value of their coal, they +would gladly put in this equipment. What manufacturer would not eagerly +welcome any device that would cut his fuel bills in half? + +The other cause of waste of coal in the manufacturing industries is +recklessness in the use of fuel, filling the furnaces with the drafts so +disposed that much of the heat is wasted. Every factory owner should +learn (from the government reports if he has no other means of learning) +the best methods of firing furnaces, and should employ them in his +factory. + +The last great waste of coal is in households. In stoves and furnaces, +and to a certain extent in kitchen ranges, this waste is through +carelessness in firing, as it is in factories. There still remains a +large amount of wasted energy in cooking that is unavoidable. The amount +of coal consumed before certain articles can be cooked, the heat +remaining after the meal is prepared, are wastes that it seems +impossible to prevent, though wise management will prevent undue waste +even here. Fireless cookers, an invention of recent years, go far toward +solving the problem of waste by long hours of cooking single articles, +and each year we see more prepared food bought in order to save the +cost of heat. Housekeepers find that it does not pay to bake their bread +themselves, since a dozen loaves can be baked in a large oven with the +fuel used in baking one at home. + +Briquettes are a new form of fuel made from coal, principally for +household use. They are made from the low-grade coals, culm, slack and +lignites, blended with coal-tar pitch. They are commonly used not only +in households, but for locomotives and ships, in several European +countries, especially Germany; but in this country the cost of making +them--about a dollar per ton--makes the retail price higher than the +cheaper grades of coal, and their general introduction at the price of +the higher grades is rather slow. + +Let it always be kept in mind that we must not check the careful use, +only the waste, and the best way to avoid an unnecessary drain on the +coal and at the same time increase our manufactures is to substitute +other power. Coal is only a form of energy that came originally from the +sun. The same causes that produced coal still exist. Scientists tell us +that coal is still being made, but it will take thousands of years to +perfect it. If we could only learn to take the sun's heat directly and +use it for our heat, light, and power, it would be one of the greatest +discoveries in the history of the world, greater even than the discovery +of electricity. + +Many attempts have been made to produce power directly from the sun +through solar engines, or by concentrating it in furnaces. At the St. +Louis Exposition a few years ago, a Portuguese priest exhibited a solar +engine called a heliophore, in which, by means of the sun's rays, the +temperature was raised to 6000 degrees F., and a cube of iron placed in +it melted like a snowball. The sun helps to raise the tides and some day +they may be used to produce power. Many experiments are being made with +both solar and tidal energy, some of them successful in a small way, but +nothing that is ready to stand the test of every-day use has been +devised. + +Doctor Pritchell says that on a clear day when the sun is high, it +delivers upon each acre of the earth's surface exposed to its rays, the +equal of 7,500 horse-power working continually. If the extra energy not +needed for the growth of plants and animals could be used, all the work +of the world could be done and the problem of fuel supply would be +solved for ever. + +But the greatest conservation of coal possible at present lies in the +use of the water-power which now goes to waste, and which, if employed, +would, as we have seen, give us 30,000,000 horse-power, or more than all +that is now produced from fuel by all our engines combined. + +Alabama offers a striking illustration of this failure to take advantage +of our opportunities, for Alabama has both coal and water-power. +Engineers estimate that the three principal rivers have power equal to +436,000 horse-power. At Muscle Shoals, on the Tennessee River, there is +now developed 188,000 horse-power, second only to Niagara--and if the +waters were conserved, the figures would reach 1,084,000 horse-power on +the three rivers. This means that, according to the amount of coal +required to produce each horse-power of energy, it would require +11,201,000 tons of coal each year to produce by steam as much power as +these streams might easily be made to produce. + +Alabama, as we have said, is also a great coal state. It is now mining +about 14,000,000 tons per year and only four states produce a larger +amount. It will be seen that four tons out of five mined in this state +will be needed to produce by steam the power that is going to waste in +its rivers. The Honorable W. P. Lay, of the Alabama Conservation +Commission, in calling attention to this fact, says: + +"Suppose for a moment that the coal fields of Alabama were sliding down +an incline and pouring off over a precipice at the rate of 11,201,000 +tons per year, how long would it take the people of the United States +to do something to try to stop such a waste? Yet what else are we doing +when we sit idly by and let the water of these streams go to waste over +a precipice while we ourselves burn up the coal?" + +And what is true in Alabama is true to a lesser extent in most of the +states. Wherever water-power is going to waste, coal is being used to +take its place, and that coal is needed in some place where there is no +water-power. + +On a certain stream in one of the central states was a fine waterfall. +The early settlers built a mill there. The water turned the mill-wheel +and then passed on to water the valley and turn other mill-wheels. But +one night the old mill was destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt, but +some distance from the stream a new steam mill was built, the motive +power of which was natural gas. When, after a few years, the natural gas +was all gone, the miller began to use coal, and he still uses +coal--hundreds of tons of it--while the water which once turned the +wheels, runs idly over the falls. This is an example of wholly useless +waste of coal, and just such waste is to be found in hundreds of places +in our country. + +If wise mining methods be put into operation, if proper care be taken in +its use, particularly in manufacturing, if the low-grade coals be +utilized, and if other power be substituted wherever practicable, there +need be no question of shortage. There is enough coal in the ground, if +used rightly, to last for ages to come. But because we have wasted vast +quantities of it in the past, and are still wasting it, so that if the +same conditions continue we can distinctly see the end in sight, it is +important that every one understands what these conditions of use and +waste are, and how the abuse may be corrected, so that mine owners and +consumers may all work together to preserve this most necessary +resource. + + +REFERENCES + +Coal is King. Hewette. + +Economical Burning of Coal Without Smoke. Bement. + +Coal and Coal Mines. H. Green. + +International Library of Technology. Vols. 37 and 38. + +Reports of Geological Survey. + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Report.) + +Production of Coals in the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +OTHER FUELS + +WOOD + + +Wood, which was formerly the only fuel used in this country, has now +largely given place to other fuels. In rural districts and in lumber +regions it is still used extensively; but in the cities, larger towns, +and manufacturing regions, it is not used in commercial quantities. Its +use for power production is limited to the wood-working factories which +have a large amount of waste lumber and which employ this by-product to +furnish heat for steam boilers. + +The wood used for fuel or for power usually represents what would +otherwise be lost, the dead trees and the unmarketable timber of the +farmer's wood-lot, the refuse of lumber regions or the waste of +wood-working factories. So that the use of wood as fuel now generally +means the conservation of our coal supply, and a use for the low-grade +parts of the forest. + +In some cases, however, farmers cut for fuel fine young trees that +would grow into excellent timber. Liberal planting of trees so that wood +shall become plentiful in all parts of the country will tend to bring +about again a larger use of wood as fuel, which will thus once more +become a factor in the saving of our coal. Every farmer should learn to +save all valuable trees for lumber, and to use only undesirable ones for +fuel. + + +PEAT + +Peat is said by geologists to be only "coal in the making," carbon that +is in the state of changing from vegetable matter to coal. It is +probable that in the course of centuries this would become coal, and in +its present state it has many of the properties of coal, though it has +not nearly so high a heating value. + +In this country we have had such a wealth of fuel resources--coal, wood, +oil, and gas--that up to the present time we have done little to develop +our peat beds, although in European countries ten million tons are used +annually for fuel, as well as large quantities for other purposes. From +the earliest times peat has been the principal fuel of the common people +of Ireland and some of the countries of northern Europe. + +Now, however, people are trying to make the best of many resources not +heretofore developed, coal prices are steadily advancing and the two +causes combine to turn people's attention to the peat beds of America. +One point that is worthy of notice is that peat is found mostly in +regions where there is no coal, oil, or natural gas. The development of +peat beds in those regions, it will be seen, would give them a great +advantage in the matter of cheap fuel. + +Large peat beds are found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, +New England, New Jersey, Florida, the Dakotas, northern Iowa, Illinois, +Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, eastern Virginia, the Carolinas and +Georgia; and near the coast in the gulf states, and a narrow strip along +the Pacific coast, from southern California to the Canadian border. They +cover an area of about 11,000 square miles and are supposed to contain +not less than 14,000,000,000 tons of air-dried peat. At the rate of +three dollars per ton, which is a reasonable price in the states having +no coal, this peat would have a value of more than $40,000,000,000. + +Peat is prepared for use as common fuel in two ways: (1) By cutting it +into blocks or bricks, which are air-dried by exposure to sun and wind +for a few weeks. This is called "cut peat," is bulky and easily +breakable, and can be used only for local consumption. (2) By digging +either by hand or machine, and grinding it in a mill. It is put in wet, +ground, cut with rapidly turning knives, and passed out of the machine +as a thick pulp that is cut into bricks as it comes out. It is then +stored several weeks until thoroughly dried. This is called "machine +peat," "pressed peat," or "condensed peat." + +Peat is being used in many ways. (1) Air-dried peat is used for fuel +only. (2) Dry peat without a binder, or mixed with coal dust and tar or +pitch is used for the same purpose. (3) Machine peat is used for many +purposes, among them making into briquettes, peat charcoal, and peat +coke. + +It has been found practical to make illuminating gas of peat, but a far +more general use is for running gas-engines and producer-gas furnaces. +This is a practical use for it, since it will conserve the coal now used +for that purpose, furnish satisfactory power without smoke or dirt, +provide cheap power in regions that have no coal mines, and lastly may +be made to yield valuable by-products: ammonia, acetic acid, paraffin, +tar, creosote, and wood-alcohol. If all the peat in the United States +could be used in producer-gas engines the ammonia yielded would alone +have a value of $36,000,000,000. + +Peat is also used for packing material, as a fertilizer, for +manufacturing paper, for coarse cloth and mattress filling. By mixing +wet machine peat with cement it may be made into blocks for paving and +other construction work. The most promising uses are for fuel, as +bedding for stock, as a disinfectant, in briquettes for burning lime, +brick, and pottery, in which it is finding a large use, and for which it +is said to be particularly well fitted; and most satisfactory of all, +its use in gas-producer engines. In Florida an immense plant is being +built to manufacture electric power, using air-dried peat as fuel, the +power to be transmitted to Jacksonville. + +Machine peat is supposed to have sixty-five per cent. the value of the +same weight of Pocahontas coal, but on account of the lack of waste in +peat its real value is higher than would appear from the comparison. +From two to two and a half pounds will produce one horse-power per hour +in gas-producer engines. By this estimate, we can see that the peat beds +of this country, if properly used, may be largely employed, either now +or in the future, as a substitute for the vanishing coal. + + +NATURAL GAS + +Of all the fuels, natural gas may be said to be the ideal one. Coming +from the ground, it is piped a greater or less distance and distributed +to the home or factory for light, heat, or power; for all of which it is +equally desirable. It is ready for our use at the turn of a key, is +absolutely clean, having neither dust, ash, nor unconsumed portions. It +requires no kindling other than a lighted match. + +Natural gas is found over an area which, if combined, would cover almost +10,000 square miles. It exists in twenty-two states--Alabama, +California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, +New York, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, +Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, +Wyoming. In some of them the area has been large and the production very +heavy, in others the field is small and unproductive. Until the last two +or three years there have been no statistics as to the quantity of gas +piped, but an account of its value has been kept for many years. For the +twenty years beginning with 1888 the value is given at nearly +$500,000,000. + +It must be remembered that much of this represents extremely low prices, +only the amount actually paid for its use. When gas is newly discovered +in a region it is not considered an opportunity for the residents of the +community to have cheap light, power and fuel for themselves, but +instead as an opportunity to develop the country, to increase the +population and attract new factories. In order to advertise and boom +their communities free gas is usually offered to factories. So in +dozens of instances large factories have been operated for years without +a cent having been paid for fuel. For this reason no proper estimate can +be made of the quantity of gas consumed, nor of its value even at a +nominal price. In 1907, (the last year for which complete returns have +been published in government reports) the amount of gas consumed was +given at 404,000,000 cubic feet, which at present prices is valued at +$63,000,000. + +It is impossible to determine in any way the future production of +natural gas, or to guess at the quantity remaining in the earth. It may +be much less or much more than present conditions would indicate; but +the present known fields are limited, and the pressure is growing +steadily less in all of them. + +The Conservation Commission reports, "It is safe to predict that the +known fields will be exhausted in twenty-five years." The decrease of +natural gas is strikingly illustrated in Indiana. This state, perhaps +more than any other, profited directly by the discovery of its natural +gas about twenty years ago. Here, the mineral maps show, is by far the +greatest natural gas region in the United States. With the discovery of +natural gas, established towns grew to ten times their former size and +new ones sprang up everywhere. Indiana, which had been chiefly an +agricultural state, bade fair to become one of the foremost +manufacturing states on account of its cheap and abundant fuel. In 1902 +Indiana produced nearly $8,000,000 worth of natural gas, but for 1908 +the State Geologist's report contained no figures for this product. It +had ceased to be a prominent factor in the wealth of the state! There is +no resource that has been so shamefully, so hopelessly wasted as our +natural gas. + +With even more recklessness than characterizes the waste of our forests +and our coal, we have allowed this perfect fuel to escape. To the +dwellers in each region where natural gas is found, it seems that the +supply is inexhaustible. The roar of the wells, which makes the very +earth tremble; the flames springing high into the air; the undiminished +pressure after months of use, appearing to indicate a boundless +reservoir below; the opportunity for whole communities to grow rich by +its use; all these things tend to promote recklessness on the part of +all who handle it. In the beginning the wells are usually not tightly +cased, and there is a considerable quantity of gas escaping about every +well. New wells are frequently lighted to show the volume of gas. In +some cases the well has become uncapped on account of heavy pressure and +to prevent the escape of unconsumed gas into the air it is kept burning +night and day. The strongest wells are often kept burning for months in +order to advertise a new gas field. In this way immense quantities of +the most perfect fuel in the world have been wantonly wasted. From a +single well in eastern Kentucky there flowed a steady stream of gas for +twenty years which at present prices would be worth $3,000,000, and the +same story of waste from burning wells comes from every natural gas +field. + +In a new region where gas is abundant there is also a great waste from +leaking pipe lines laid on the surface of the ground, from open +flambeaux, and from careless home and factory consumption. In many +communities the open flambeaux have been employed to light the streets, +and allowed to burn day and night to avoid the expense of a man to care +for them. Where natural gas is abundant, meters are not usually +installed; instead, gas is sold by the month. The consumer is under no +obligation to save the gas, in fact, he usually acts on the common +American principle of wanting to get all he can for the money and so +burns his open tip lights, and open burner stoves day and night. The +factories waste in the same way, using open furnaces which are never +banked during the season because it is easier and costs no more. + +This, it seems, should be the whole history of natural gas waste, but +the greatest source of loss still remains to be spoken of. In every gas +region of any importance oil is found sooner or later, usually after the +heaviest gas pressure has been exhausted; and the oil driller is the +greatest of all foes to the life of a natural gas region. He finds that +the gas interferes with the flow of oil, spraying it into the air and +causing loss, and that the danger of fire is much increased by its +presence. This frequently causes explosions, tearing out the side of the +well or blowing out the casing, and making the oil-well useless. The +surplus gas is usually piped to one side out of the reach of danger, and +then burned to get rid of it. Drillers often try to force the gas out in +the hope that it will be followed by a rush of oil. + +This is the heaviest drain on the gas. In the Caddo field in Louisiana +alone the loss is seventy million cubic feet per day, enough to light +ten cities the size of Washington, D. C., and equal to ten thousand +barrels of petroleum per day. In Indiana a few years ago fourteen wells, +all within a space of a few acres in extent, were burned by oil drillers +continuously for six months, the light being visible twenty miles away. + +Greater care in the management of the wells and slight additional +expense for casing are all that is required to stop the waste of gas +from oil wells and heavy pressure gas wells. + +All of these wastes taken together constitute a fearful loss. In 1907, +more than 400,000,000 cubic feet were used and an almost equal number +wasted. In other words, the daily waste is over a billion cubic feet, or +enough to supply every city in the United States of over one hundred +thousand population. + +The heating value of a billion feet of gas is equal to a million bushels +of coal. If some great conflagration were sweeping away our coal fields +steadily every day in the year, and destroying our best coal at the rate +of a million bushels per day, how quickly we should all arise to aid in +checking it! And yet this imaginary case is actually true in regard to +the best fuel in this country, which is burning uselessly an equal value +in coal, and our coal must some day be used to supply the loss. + +We are apt to ignore the greatness of this loss because the gas escapes +into the air and we can not see it, or it burns and we see only its +effect, not the loss of fuel, but if we could see it in the form of oil +we should find that a billion feet of gas is equal to more than a +hundred and sixty thousand barrels of petroleum. Think of it, the +equivalent of one hundred and sixty thousand barrels of oil, for which +no price is paid and of which no use is made, for ever destroyed every +day in every year! Would the oil companies permit it? Would we not all +assist them in saving their property from destruction, and shall we not +ask of them equal help in saving the fuel that in turn conserves our +coal supply? Little objection can be made to the present method of using +gas in the older regions. The waste in domestic use is comparatively +small. Much is used for lighting with incandescent burners, and asbestos +grates and gas ranges have replaced the open-burner stoves and grates. +These are all efficient methods of use, and but little could be done in +the way of further conservation. In factories the gas-engine is in many +instances replacing the open furnace, which requires many times as much +gas to produce an equal amount of power. They should be used in every +factory, and gas companies should also require the use of the best +devices for saving gas in places where meters are not used. + +Until last year but one state--Indiana--had an effective law preventing +the waste of natural gas by oil companies. This law says in substance +that a man can not take the oil from the ground where nature has safely +stored it, unless he also provide a market for the gas which accompanies +it. It also says that neither the producer nor the consumer shall be +allowed to waste this valuable fuel, as such waste is against public +policy. + +Mr. I. C. White, of West Virginia, in discussing this question at the +Conservation Congress said, "This Indiana statute should be enacted into +law in every state where these fuels exist." Since that time +Pennsylvania and Ohio have passed laws, which are said to be effective, +for the conservation of natural gas. + +Much has been accomplished by gas companies, who, since they became +alive to the danger of loss of their investment, have been extremely +watchful of their property. In West Virginia the gas companies buy the +gas which has been obtained in the drilling of oil wells, thus providing +a market for the waste gas and making it possible to continue the oil +business and at the same time to furnish cheap gas. + +Another hopeful sign is the pumping of all of the product of a well. +Formerly as soon as a well dropped greatly in production it was +abandoned, but now it is pumped until dry. + +One method by which the gas from oil wells may be utilized consists in +compressing it in steel cylinders for shipping. This in a small way has +been found to be successful. + +Experiments are being tried on a large scale in Ohio to prove that gas +may be returned to reservoirs within the earth which are tight enough to +hold it under heavy pressure. + +Fuel gas made from low-grade coal is a satisfactory substitute for +natural gas. Like the natural product it may be piped for long +distances. Some natural gas companies have bought up the culm banks and +heaps of refuse coal, so that if the natural gas becomes exhausted they +can manufacture cheap gas at the mines and pipe it to the cities they +now serve. + + +PETROLEUM + +Petroleum, or rock oil, is a dark greenish brown liquid which when +refined yields gasolene, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, lubricating oils, +and paraffin. The name petroleum applies only to the crude petroleum as +it comes from the ground, and the word oil is applied to the products +obtained by refining. + +The early history of the petroleum industry in this country is +interesting as showing what great results spring from small beginnings. +From salt wells in Pennsylvania there was an occasional flow of +petroleum, but it had had no commercial value. Samuel Kier, of +Pittsburg, had salt wells at Tarantum from which he had accumulated so +much petroleum (fifty barrels) that he decided to try to dispose of it, +but there was no market. No one knew what to do with it. He then partly +refined it, making a poor quality of kerosene, and introduced a lamp +with a chimney. This proved so popular that A. C. Ferris, also of +Pittsburg, undertook to sell this in other cities, and these two men +not only sold the fifty barrels and the other petroleum that accumulated +from the salt wells, but they had created such a demand for the new +light that they could not supply enough oil, and in 1859 Colonel Drake +drilled at Titusville the first well solely for petroleum. In the +half-century since that time nearly two billion barrels, or almost two +hundred and fifty million tons, worth one and three-quarter billion +dollars, have been produced. + +Petroleum is now mined, or drilled, in many countries besides the United +States, but the United States furnishes sixty-three barrels out of every +hundred produced in the world. Russia produces twenty-one barrels, +Austria four, and the East Indies three barrels, Roumania two, India and +Mexico one each, Canada, Japan, Germany, Peru, and Italy each less than +one barrel; so we can see that the United States is the one great +producer of petroleum, and that it is to this country that we must look +for the principal world supply for the present, and as far as known, for +the future. Let us see, then, what we may expect the United States to do +to supply this demand. + +The known petroleum lands cover an area of about 8,500 square miles and +are in six large fields and several smaller ones. The largest and best +is the Appalachian, of which the best known is the Pennsylvania field. +It has a grade of petroleum that differs from any other thus far found +in the world. It is most easily converted into kerosene or lamp oil, and +contains a larger proportion of such oil. It is the finest petroleum in +the world, except that found in Indiana and Ohio, and that costs more to +refine. + +The Appalachian field includes, besides Pennsylvania, western New York, +West Virginia, a narrow strip in eastern Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. +These southern oils are of a much lower grade, but are better than the +Russian or other foreign oils. + +The next great field is called the Lima-Indiana, and covers a +considerable portion of northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana. This +petroleum contains less gasolene and less lamp oils, and more sulphur, +which makes refining difficult. The Illinois field lies next. Here, in a +strip about thirty miles long and six miles wide on an average, an +enormous quantity of petroleum is produced. This oil is slightly lower +in quality and contains considerable asphalt. + +The mid-continent field lies in Kansas and Oklahoma. This petroleum also +contains asphalt and other chemical products. Such immense amounts are +produced here that it has not been possible to care for all of it, +either in the matter of storage tanks or cars for transporting it, and +as a result large amounts have been wasted. In Oklahoma within a space +of less than two square miles one million barrels of forty-two gallons +each of petroleum were wasted in the year 1906. + +The Gulf field lying in Texas and Louisiana has been developed entirely +since 1901. The first well was drilled near Beaumont, Texas, as an +experiment to determine whether oil could be found. Small storage tanks +were provided and it was hoped to find oil enough to make drilling +profitable. The well proved to be a "gusher" of such magnitude that +before sufficient tanks could be provided, or the flow checked, more +than half a million barrels were wasted on the ground. + +The Gulf petroleum contains a large amount of asphalt and a small amount +of gasolene and lamp oil. It has been used principally for burning as +crude oil in locomotives and has sold as low as ten cents per barrel; +but lately methods of refining have been perfected which produce good +lubricating oil and a gasolene of high value from these low-grade oils. + +The last great field is found in California. The oil is similar to the +Gulf oil, and investigation has shown that the quantity is greater in +this field than in any other. It is used largely for fuel and power on +account of lack of other fuels in that region. + +In addition to these fields there are small ones in Colorado and +Wyoming, and promises of fields in New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, Montana, +Oregon and Washington. + +Estimates of the amounts of petroleum yielded are made by computing the +amount usually produced per acre, which varies from eight hundred +barrels produced in Pennsylvania, to eight thousand barrels per acre +produced in Illinois. In most of the fields it is about a thousand +barrels per acre. Even then the amount is extremely difficult to +estimate. The Geological Survey concludes that the lowest probable +calculation of the entire amount stored in the rocks of the United +States is ten billion, and the highest a little less than twenty-five +billion barrels. The last report officially published shows that we are +producing one hundred and seventy million barrels per year. If the same +rate of production continues, we might expect our petroleum to last from +fifty-five to one hundred and thirty-five years, according to the amount +found; but tables of statistics show that throughout the life of the +petroleum industry, as much has been produced each nine years as the +entire product before that time. For example, up to the present, we have +produced one billion eight hundred million barrels and if the present +rate continues, in the next nine years alone we shall produce an equal +quantity again. The causes of such rapid growth are many. One is the +great increase in the use of some of the products, such as gasolene, +which has increased many fold since the automobile became popular. +Another, and the greatest cause, is the ease with which any quantity of +oil can be sold for cash at any time, and at prices much above the cost +of production. + +Another reason is based upon the nature of the product. In pumping from +one well oil is apt to flow in from other leases, under other farms, and +exhaust them without the holders of those leases having received any +compensating benefit. It is therefore necessary for each lessee to get +his share before it flows away. Under these circumstances, it is +impossible to prevent an entire field from being drilled over very +rapidly, unless there is a combination of all the interests; or unless +the law limits the amount that each producer shall extract per acre +within a given time. + +Pennsylvania and New York have declined to one-third their former value +and yet it is only seventeen years since they reached their highest +point. This would seem to indicate that the life of that field will not +exceed ten years. West Virginia is producing only a little more than +half its former yield and is rapidly declining. Ohio and Indiana are +declining more rapidly than Pennsylvania. Texas is also in the rapidly +declining class, and in Kansas the production is only a fraction of +what it was formerly. On the other hand, Illinois, Oklahoma, and +California can be expected to increase steadily for several years. + +Taking into account all these factors, it is estimated that the entire +supply now known to exist would be exhausted before the middle of the +present century. It appears more probable, however, that increasing +prices long before that time will help to conserve the supply; and that +petroleum will be produced for a long time to come, though not in +sufficient quantities for industrial and general use. + +The principal uses of petroleum are for burning as crude oil in furnaces +and under boilers, particularly in locomotives. The refined products +have various uses. Probably the most important is the lubricating oil. +This is necessary in the development of all kinds of power. At least +one-half pint of lubricating oil is used for every ton of coal consumed +for power. All engines, all street and steam railways, steamships, +sewing-machines, clocks, watches, and automobiles, in fact all operating +machinery requires its use; so that a large amount of oil must always be +conserved for lubricating purposes. + +Coal oil, or kerosene, may be regarded as absolutely necessary for the +lighting of houses or other establishments not connected with gas or +electric supply. + +Gasolene is sometimes used for lighting, though such use is not common. +It is largely used for cooking, and still more largely used in the +various types of gasolene engines. + +Naphtha is used for power, especially for motor-boats, and for cleaning, +in which it is very valuable by reason of its power to dissolve dirt. + +Paraffin is used in polishing, in laundry work, for waxing floors, and +as a covering to exclude air in preserving articles. + +Waste has been markedly absent in the petroleum industry. It is +necessary that oil drilling outfits shall contain steel storage tanks +for holding the oil when it is reached. Usually the supply is large +enough, but sometimes, as in the case of the big well at Beaumont, +Texas, the oil gushes forth in such volume that the drillers are not +prepared to take care of the overflow, and much is wasted before the +well can be capped. In general there is no waste in storage in this +country. In European countries where there is oil, the loss through lack +of tanks and by using wooden tanks which leak, is very great. + +Another form of waste which is common in foreign countries, but which +has been avoided in the United States, is evaporation of gasolene and +similar light products when the petroleum is exposed to the air in open +tanks. This is the most valuable part of petroleum, and if it be exposed +to the sun a single day it loses greatly in value. + +The refining processes of the petroleum industry are probably carried +out with better system and less waste than in any other resource, owing +to the fact that the business is controlled by large companies. There is +no waste material in its manufacture, except some slight residue that +might be used for oiling roads, instead of using the crude oil. The +principal waste lies in its use. In view of the fact that the supply is +not unending, is, indeed, rapidly disappearing, the uses should be +confined only to the necessary lines for which there are no substitutes +at similar prices. These are for lubricating oils and for the lighting +of homes. The unnecessary uses are for burning in locomotives and for +the development of power. + +Whenever new petroleum fields are opened up, there is a corresponding +drop in price. In order to dispose of it quickly such petroleum is +usually sold for the lowest grade uses, and the price for this crude +petroleum is not more than one hundredth as much as for high grade +petroleum products. The report of the National Conservation Commission +is so excellent that it is quoted almost word for word. + +"At present more petroleum is being produced than is necessary for the +demands of the industry. Within ten years the present fields will be +unable profitably to produce enough for these requirements. The only +direction in which production can be checked is with the petroleum +contained in public lands. + +"Offering such public lands for entry at a low price is nothing more +than temptation to the private citizen to waste petroleum by over +production, since lands yielding hundreds of dollars per acre in this +product can be obtained for a small sum. Every acre of public land, +believed to contain petroleum or natural gas, should be withdrawn from +public sale and leased under conditions that regulate production. + +"Its use for power is justified on the Pacific coast, if used in +gas-producer engines." + + +ALCOHOL + +As a substitute for other fuels, wood, or denaturated alcohol, will +probably come into greater use each year, and is regarded by many as the +great fuel of the future, because the materials of which it is made are +waste vegetable products and will always be plentiful. + +It is made from cellulose, the woody part of plants, and may be +manufactured from sawdust when freshly cut from live trees, from small, +and refuse potatoes, from inferior grain that is not worth marketing, +and from low-grade fruits and vegetables of all kinds. It is even said +that the hundreds of acres of sage-brush in the West that have always +been considered worse than useless can be made into wood-alcohol and +thus become a valuable product. + +It can be used for any purpose that gasolene can, although a different +style burner is required. It must be made much hotter before it is +changed into vapor, and on account of this it has been difficult to make +satisfactory burners for all the kinds of heating, lighting, and power +work; the machinery being far from perfect as yet. Wood-alcohol can not +yet be made cheaper than gasolene, and is not so easy to burn, so that +it is slow in reaching an important place in the industrial world; but +gas and gasolene prices will advance, and better methods of +manufacturing and burning alcohol will be found, and then we shall have +a fuel that can take the place of either coal or petroleum for lighting +or power. + +It is thought that wood-alcohol will be of especial use to the farmer, +since he has so many waste vegetable products, has so much need of power +in small quantities and is far from the sources of public service +power, such as electric and gas plants. Alcohol-driven motors can be +used to take the place of the labor of both horses and men on the farm. +On level farms they can run the heavy machines, such as mowers, reapers, +and binders, plows and cultivators. On any farm they may be used to run +stationary engines, to chop and grind food for live stock, to pump +water, churn, run sewing-machines, operate fans, drive carriages and +wagons and do many other things. + +Wood-alcohol produces ammonia as a by-product, is used in the +manufacture of dyes and coal-tar products, of smokeless powder, of +varnishes, and of imitation silks made from cotton. + + +REFERENCES + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Reports of Geological Survey. + +Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference. + +Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Government Report.) + +Industrial Alcohol and Its Uses. W. H. Wiley. Bulletin, 269. + +Production of Peat in the U. S. in 1908. U. S. Government Reports. + +Production of Oil in the U. S. in 1908. + +Production of Gas in the U. S. in 1908. + +Waste of Our Fuel Resources. (White.) Report Governor's Conference. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +IRON + + +We have already stated the importance of iron in our modern life. It can +not be overestimated. All the many articles of iron and steel, our +tools, our machinery, our vehicles, our bridges, our steel buildings, +and a thousand and one other things are dependent on our iron supply. + +Of all the elements that make up the earth's surface only three are more +plentiful than iron, so that we might think that we should always have +an abundant supply of it; but when it occurs in small quantities, as is +usually the case, it can not of course be profitably mined. It is only +when enough of it is found together to permit it to be mined to +advantage that it is called iron ore. + +Iron ore is found in only twenty-nine states of the Union, and eighty +per cent. of the present production is in two states, Minnesota and +Michigan. We can see that iron is very unevenly distributed, and it is +on a few regions that we must depend for all the future. + +Before we can calculate how much iron we have we must understand that +it is not found in pure form, but mixed with various other substances: +clay, shale, slate, quartz, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. These must all be +removed, some by washing, but most of them by roasting, or "smelting," +in blast furnaces, after which it is called pig iron. This of course +requires large quantities of fuel. + +It is these things and also the position of the ore that must be taken +into consideration in estimating the amount of iron in the country. If +ore yields a large per cent. of iron in smelting, with a small amount of +waste, it is, of course, far more valuable than if the amount of iron in +every ton of material taken from the ground is small. + +In all minerals, the relation of supply to price is marked. The cost of +labor and of power is exactly the same whether ore yields fifty-five +tons of pure iron to the hundred, or whether it yields only thirty tons, +but the price received is little more than half. + +So if the price is low, it may cost more to mine and smelt the one +hundred tons of earth than will be paid for the thirty tons of iron that +the low-grade ore would yield. So the lands that produce only thirty +tons to the hundred will never be mined till the price of iron is so +high that it is above the cost of producing--that is, till it can be +worked at a profit. + +The Lake Superior iron found in Minnesota is usually more than +fifty-five per cent. pure iron. That is, if a hundred tons of earth be +mined, more than fifty-five tons of pure iron would be obtained from it. +This is the highest grade of ore. Some ore is mined that yields only +forty tons or less. There are vast quantities, billions of tons, of iron +ore in the United States, that would yield less than thirty tons of iron +to the hundred. These low-grade ores and the ones known to lie so deep +in the earth that the cost of mining them is more than the finished +products of iron, are classed as "not available," that is, they can +never be profitably mined under present conditions. But we must remember +that as the higher grade ores are exhausted it will become necessary to +use the lower grades, and that prices will steadily advance as a result. + +Iron is sometimes found almost directly under the ground, at other times +deep in the earth. That which is found just below the surface is, of +course, mined much more easily, more safely, more cheaply, and with far +less loss than that which requires deep mining. Such conditions are +found in the Lake Superior region, and there is almost no loss at all, +the low-grade ores being piled up at one side where they can be easily +reached in case of need. + +On the other hand some iron mines now in operation are as much as two +thousand feet in depth. In these mines, as in coal mines, pillars are +left to support the rock above. A roof of the iron ore is often left +also. The low-grade ore is left in the ground and no effort is made to +preserve it for future use. These constitute the principal waste in iron +mining. + +The pure iron of the ore is separated by washing out the clays and soft +elements, but the harder substances must be smelted by means of heat. In +the beginning this was done by charcoal, which is still used in Sweden. +The latest method is to employ electricity manufactured by water-power, +but most of the iron smelting in this country has been done by coal. +Every ton of iron smelted requires its portion of coal for firing. If +low-grade fuels in gas-producer engines, or water-power can be used it +will be a great aid in conserving coal. + +If a limited supply of rather low-grade iron exists near a coal region, +it can often be mined profitably, when, if it be far from an abundant +fuel supply, it must be shipped to distant blast furnaces. The cost of +shipping causes ore containing a small percentage of iron to be classed +as "not available." + +Sometimes a large company with many mines has several varieties of ore +of different strength and hardness. If these can be mixed to produce a +medium grade by adding a small amount of high-grade ore to a large +amount of lower grade, the value of the product will be doubled. + +Sometimes, too, the by-products can be made extremely profitable by +manufacturing large amounts when the expense of undertaking the work is +too great to be attempted with a small amount. So if iron mines are +owned by a small company much ore may be classed as "not available" that +could be used by a large company. All these things must be considered in +estimating the iron resources. + +The first smelting of iron ore in this country was done at Lynn, +Massachusetts, in 1645, using the low-grade bog-ores and smelting with +charcoal from the surrounding forest. + +Now if we look over an iron map of the United States we shall find that +there are four hundred and eighty blast furnaces, but that only nine of +them are west of the Mississippi River and most of these are in +Missouri. The greatest of all the iron regions now lies in upper +Michigan and Minnesota. This furnishes eighty tons out of every one +hundred mined in the United States, but the smelting is done along the +southern shores of Lake Michigan. The reason for this is that the iron +region itself is far distant from a cheap fuel supply. Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, has been the great iron city of the United States on +account of its nearness to great supplies of both coal and iron. +Birmingham, Alabama, is the heart of the great smelting region of the +South. + +The iron is divided into districts as follows: + +(1) The Northeastern, comprising the states of Vermont, Massachusetts, +Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio, +supplies a little more than five per cent. of the iron mined in the +United States. + +(2) The Southeastern, containing Virginia, West Virginia, eastern +Kentucky, and Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, +gives us twelve per cent. of our iron. + +(3) The Lake Superior district, containing the northern parts of +Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin, supplies more than eighty per cent. + +(4) The Mississippi Valley district contains western Kentucky, and +Tennessee, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas. This region furnishes +less than half of one per cent. of the total supply. + +(5) The Rocky Mountain district contains Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, +Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, western Texas, Washington, +Oregon and California; and all this great region now supplies but a +little more than one per cent. + +The official report, which is as thorough as can be made but is +naturally subject to mistakes, gives the amount of available iron, that +is, that which can be mined under present conditions, as nearly five +billion tons. + +Let us see how long this may be expected to supply the demand. + +Before 1810 the amount of iron ore produced was so small as to be +scarcely worth considering. From 1810 to 1870 a little less than fifty +million tons were mined, from 1870 to 1889 nearly 154,000,000 tons, and +from 1889 to 1907, 475,000,000 tons, or altogether nearly 680,000,000 +tons. The production has been found to double itself about every nine +years. In 1907 alone it was 52,000,000 tons or about one-thirteenth of +all that has been mined. + +In 1880 we used 200 pounds of pig-iron for every man, woman, and child +in the country; in 1890, 320 pounds; in 1900, 390 pounds, and in 1907, +696 pounds. According to the rule of increase, by 1916 we shall be using +104,000,000 tons a year; by 1925, 208,000,000, and by 1934, 416,000,000 +tons, and if the same rate of increase should continue, by 1940 we +should have required for our use in the meantime, six billion tons. But +we have less than five billion tons of what is now classed as available +ore, which means that before that time (when the school-boys of to-day +are business men) we should have exhausted all our good and cheap ore, +and be obliged to depend only on the low-grade ores, the cost of which +will be very great. + +Unlike coal, the forests, and the soil, there is no great and entirely +useless waste of iron. But the uses of iron are so many and so varied, +and the supply of high-grade ores which can be cheaply mined is so small +in proportion to the needs of the future, that we should in all ways +lessen the drain on it by substituting other cheaper and more plentiful +materials when possible. + +The chief use of iron is for the carrying of freight. Here are some +figures given by Mr. Carnegie. Moving one thousand tons of freight by +rail requires an eighty-ton locomotive and twenty-five twenty-ton steel +cars, or five hundred and eighty tons of iron and steel to draw it +over--say an average of ten miles of double track with switches, frogs, +spikes, etc., which will weigh more than four hundred tons. Thus we see +that to move a thousand tons of freight requires the use of an equal +weight of iron. The same freight may be moved by water by means of from +one hundred to two hundred and fifty tons of metal, so that if freight +were sent by water instead of by rail the amount of iron needed for this +service would be reduced at least three-fourths, the amount of coal +would be reduced not less than half, and at the same time the coal used +in extra smelting would be saved. No single step open to us to-day would +do more to check the drain on both iron and coal than the use of our +rivers for carrying heavy freight. + +The next great use of iron is for buildings and bridges. The greatly +increasing use of cement and concrete is reducing this and will reduce +it still further. Cement is made from slag, or the refuse of iron +ore--the clays and shales--and the cost of this valuable product is +little more than the former cost of piling it away. By making the +useless slag into cement the cost of iron production is lowered and at +the same time the drain on the iron is lessened. + +A large use of steel of the highest quality is for battleships, cannon, +and war supplies. If the great nations of the world would agree to +reduce their armament, one of the great drains on the world's iron, +coal, and wood supply would cease, and these materials be put to +improving the world. + +The worst feature of it is that these war supplies are continually +changing. They must be of the latest pattern, or they are of small value +for fighting purposes. The construction of battleships differs greatly +year by year, and the older ships are discarded to make place for newer +and larger ones. It is said that our newest battleship alone could with +a few shots destroy all of Admiral Dewey's fleet. The following is from +a recent magazine article: + +"It is admitted by naval officers that the ships of ten years ago are of +obsolete type and would be useless against the new vessels. It is +admitted that within ten years or less the new types will in turn become +obsolete, and will be useless against the type of vessel certain to be +evolved. That is, as soon as a vessel costing millions of dollars leaves +the docks, she enters into active competition for a place on the junk +pile." + +The greatest improvement that can be imagined in the iron situation will +be in the discovery and use of alloys or mixtures of iron with other +materials. Steel, the strongest of all forms of iron, is an alloy of +iron and carbon, and for various purposes these are further mixed with +nickel and silicas. Many other alloys have been discovered within the +last few years, and each makes possible new uses for iron requiring +greater strength. One of the best of these is a mixture of iron and +silicon, called ferro-silicon. Silica is one of the cheapest and most +abundant materials of all the earth's products, so its combination with +iron will greatly lengthen the life of the iron supply; and it is +probable that in the future combinations of other materials will yield +better and cheaper metals than any thus far produced. + +The amount of metal which can be reworked is constantly increasing. Most +of the iron factories remelt large quantities of old iron, to be used +with the new, and this will lessen each year the demand on the ores. It +is also possible that new deposits of iron ore will be found and these +will greatly increase the supply. But from the whole iron situation we +may draw the following conclusions: + +First, the amount of iron remaining in the ground is very uncertain. It +may be more, or it may be less, than the present estimate. + +Second, if the estimates are nearly correct, and if the present rate of +increase continues, all the high-grade ores will be exhausted by the +time the small boys of to-day are the business men of the nation. + +Third, the best methods of reducing the drain on the supply are, (a) The +use of old iron as a mixture; (b) Carrying a part of the freight by +water to reduce the amount of iron required by the railroads; (c) The +larger use of concrete and cement to take the place of steel in +buildings; (d) Lessening the amount used for war; (e) The use of alloys. +This opens a large and promising field for invention. (f) More care in +preserving articles made of iron. This is a practical thing for every +person in our country to do. Every farm implement, or tool, that stands +out in the rain or is left without shelter during the winter, every +article carelessly lost or broken, has its part in making conditions +worse. All that are well cared for help to make the iron supply last a +little longer. + + +REFERENCES + +Iron and Steel at Home and Abroad. (Andrew Carnegie.) + +Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference. + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Reports Geological Survey. + +Mineral Resources of the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MINERALS + + +GOLD + +Iron, in its usefulness to man, stands in a class to itself; but there +are dozens of other minerals that have their part in the comfort and +convenience of our daily life. Most of these, however, are found in +comparatively small quantities and have few uses. + +The minerals which are in constant use by nearly all people and that are +found abundantly in the United States, are gold, silver, copper, lead, +zinc, and the elements used in manufacturing building materials. + +Gold is valuable chiefly because it has been made the standard of money +value of the world. Africa produces one-third of the world's supply, +next come the United States and Australia, producing almost equal +amounts, Russia and Canada each produce a limited amount, and various +other countries together produce about one-sixteenth of the whole. (In +the statements of the gold supply of the United States the territory of +Alaska is included.) + +Gold is not found alone but contained in quartz rock or sand. The method +of taking gold from the rock is first by blasting, and afterward +grinding the rock in a stamp mill, which reduces it to powder, after +which the gold is separated by refining processes. The gold which occurs +in the sand, gravel, or clay soil, is washed out. When done on a small +scale this is called "panning." The larger operations of this kind are +called "placer" and "dredge" mining. There is also a considerable amount +of gold obtained as a by-product from copper mining. + +Generally speaking, quartz mines are in the mountains and placer mines +in the river valleys. Placer mining by powerful water pressure, called +hydraulic mining, destroys the banks, and also fills up the river beds +with masses of rock and gravel. Some of the large rivers of California +have been made unfit for steamboat traffic, and serious damage has been +done to the harbor of San Francisco. For this reason hydraulic placer +mining has been stopped by law. This has greatly lessened the gold +production of California. + +In 1907, the United States produced $94,000,000 worth of gold. Of this, +Colorado produced more than any other state. Next in their order come +Alaska, California and Nevada. Each produced from $15,000,000 to +$20,000,000 worth. Together they furnished nearly four-fifths of the +entire supply. The remaining one-fifth comes from Utah, South Dakota, +Montana, Arizona, Idaho, and Oregon, with very small amounts from the +southeastern states, the two Carolinas and Georgia, New Mexico, +Washington, and Wyoming. South Dakota has the most profitable single +gold mine in the United States. It has produced nearly $60,000,000 in +gold, and is now turning out about $5,000,000 worth a year. + +The United States has many unworked gold mines, "gold reserves" they are +called, whose value can not in any way be exactly estimated. The value +of the placer mines can be better judged than that of the lode or quartz +mines. The placer mines are chiefly in Alaska and California. These +mines may yield gold to the amount of a billion dollars. There are +lesser, but important resources of placer gold in Montana, Idaho, and +Oregon. + +The placer gold mined in 1907 was valued at $24,000,000, and it is +thought that about this quantity can be supplied for a long time. + +The amount of gold yielded in the reduction of copper ores was about +$5,500,000. It is probable that this amount will be gradually increased, +and can be relied on to last many years. From the lead ores a little +over $2,000,000 worth of gold was taken. This will probably slowly +decrease for the next ten or twenty years. From gold and silver-bearing +quartz mines $55,000,000 was taken. + +No calculation can be made as to the amount of gold contained in quartz +mines. New discoveries are always probable and many new mines are opened +up each year, but their value can only be estimated as the work in them +progresses. + +Just how long they will last nobody knows, but it would seem that their +decline is far off. The government report says, "Unless very important +new discoveries are made it is thought unlikely that the production of +gold in the United States will rise much above $110,000,000; nor is it +likely that it will sink below $60,000,000 within a long period of +years." + +The amount of gold used in the United States is about equal to the +production. Nearly $80,000,000 is coined into money, and about half as +much is used in the arts,--that is, for jewelry, tableware, in +dentistry, in bookbinding, and various chemical processes. The quantity +used in the arts has doubled since 1900. In 1907 the stock of gold coin +in the United States, according to the Director of the Mint, was +$1,600,000,000, which is almost exactly one-fifth of the gold coin of +the world. + +The production of gold is rapidly increasing. Since 1850 we have mined +three times as much gold as in all the previous time since the +discovery of America. Such rapid production greatly shortens the life of +the gold supply. When the gold fields of southern Africa were first +opened they were said to be inexhaustible; but they have been mined so +rapidly, and the supply has proved so far short of the first excited +estimates that experts say that the entire region will be almost +exhausted within twenty years. The loss of gold in mining and refining +is comparatively small. In extracting gold from the cheaper ores the +percentage of loss is large; but as only a small part of the gold is +gained in this way the total loss is relatively small. By other methods +ninety-five per cent. or more is saved. In many cases the loss is too +small to be considered. + +Unlike other minerals little gold is destroyed by use. It is melted and +remelted, all scraps are used, even the sweepings from the mint and from +manufacturing goldsmiths' shops are saved and the gold used. The waste +of the world's gold and silver would be much greater but for the use of +paper money, bank checks, and notes. Their very general use keeps the +gold as a reserve, held in banks and storage vaults much of the time. If +it were in constant use, the continual rubbing together of the coins +would mean a no less steady, though slight, wearing away of their +surface. This is very noticeable in old silver coins, which are kept in +more constant circulation. + + +SILVER + +The conditions in regard to silver are entirely different from those of +the other resources. The production of silver is not increasing, in +fact, the mining of silver alone is decreasing and the reason is not +because the supply is lessening, but because the price is too low to +make a larger working of the mines profitable, and the supply is kept +down to the level of the demand. A great number of silver mines have +been closed for the last few years. The production could be greatly +increased at any time to meet an increased demand. + +The highest production was in 1902, but there have been only slight +changes since 1895; the production being a little less than 60,000,000 +ounces, or about one-third of the world's supply--Mexico being the only +other great producer. In many countries with a small supply the output +is growing less each year on account of the low price, and the +difficulty of competing with the United States. + +The states now producing the most silver are Colorado, Montana, and +Utah; each of these produces about one ounce out of every five ounces +mined. Most of the remainder was produced by Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, and +California. + +Although nearly 60,000,000 ounces were mined in 1907 only one and a half +million ounces were mined for the sake of the silver alone. The rest was +obtained as a by-product in the mining of gold, lead, copper and zinc, +or, as is often the case, it was distinctively silver ore, but could not +be profitably mined unless some other ore could be obtained at the same +time. + +The richer regions seem to have been exhausted, and as the process of +extracting the ore is expensive the lower grade ores will probably be +held for several years till prices advance. A great silver region has +recently been opened in northern Canada. This contains immense +quantities of very rich ore, and will probably keep the price down for +many years. + +So the care and conservation of silver is not an important issue for the +people of the present generation. As silver is now obtained largely as a +by-product, there is almost no waste. + +The United States sends considerably more than half of its silver to +other countries, principally to India and China, which use much silver +coin, but have little in the way of silver resources. The amount used at +home is divided between coinage and manufacture. The quantity coined +varies greatly from year to year, eight million ounces being about the +average. For manufacturing, jewelry, tableware, chemicals, etc., about +twenty million ounces, of which one-fifth is remelted silver, are used. +The demand for silver in manufacturing has doubled since 1898, and may +lead before many years to the reopening of the silver mines. + + +COPPER + +The conditions of copper mining are exactly opposite from those of +silver. The Indians used almost no metal except copper, and for three +hundred years white men used the old Indian mines and refined the copper +by Indian methods. Better methods of mining copper and extracting it +from the ores have been employed for the last fifty years, but within a +dozen years the refining of copper has been revolutionized by electric +methods. An enormous amount has been produced, but production has been +kept down on account of the high prices. It is said that if the price +could be reduced one-half, ten times as much copper would be used. Most +of the uses of copper have arisen in the last twenty-five years. Its +greatest use is for electric wiring. Nothing can take its place, and the +use is increasing astonishingly. + +Copper is used largely in alloys. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, +and its use has greatly increased in castings, fittings for buildings, +tablets, and statues. + +A much more useful alloy is brass, made from copper and zinc. Brass is +very extensively used for parts of machinery, engines, automobiles, and +also for fittings for buildings. Sheet copper is used for sheathing for +ships, for boilers, and for various chemical processes carried on by +electricity or by acids. Very many of these processes have been +discovered within ten or fifteen years, and have largely increased the +uses for copper. One of the older uses of copper which is less common +now was for cooking utensils. Copper is used by the government for +coining one-cent pieces. + +No single country compares at present with the United States in the +production of copper, but if reports be correct there is enough copper +in central Africa to supply the world for years to come. Next to the +United States, Spain mines the largest amount at present, and Japan +ranks next. + +For many years the rate of increase was enormous. In 1845, 224,000 +pounds were mined; in 1888, 226,000,000 pounds. Eight years later, in +1896, it had doubled; after another ten years, in 1906, it had doubled +that quantity, and reached 918,000,000 pounds. In 1890 we were using +three pounds of copper for every man, woman and child in the country. +And in 1907, six and one-half pounds. + +Michigan, Montana, and Arizona produce the bulk of the copper. Utah, +California, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Nevada each produce +copper in amounts ranging from the 66,000,000 pounds mined in Utah to +the 2,000,000 pounds mined in Nevada. It is probable that the use will +not increase so rapidly in the near future. Much old copper will be +remelted. + +There are large areas of copper lands which are now classed as +"available" with copper at about its present price of thirteen cents a +pound. If the world production should grow so great as to cause a +decided drop in the price, much that is now considered available could +not be mined at a profit, and the copper supply from this country would +be greatly reduced. If, on the other hand, copper should rise to fifteen +or twenty cents or higher, the amount of available copper land would be +vastly increased. The report on the Conservation of Mineral Resources +says in effect: "The copper resources of the United States are believed +to be large enough to allow for a number of years for a demand +increasing at the rate of 30,000,000 pounds a year. Should this demand +continue for a long period the scarcity would be felt and result in a +rising price, which would open up a market for these low-grade ores and +also cause the use of other metals, like aluminum, to take the place of +copper whenever possible." + +There is no great waste in the mining of copper, but in the extraction +of copper from the ore the waste is often as much as thirty per cent., +and it is not easy to avoid this on account of the chemical changes that +take place. + + +LEAD + +The United States produces about one-third of the lead in the world. The +remainder comes from Spain, where the production remains about the same +from year to year; from Germany, where in spite of higher prices +production is growing less; and from Australia and Mexico, in both of +which the supply is rapidly decreasing. + +These facts show that the lead resources of the United States will be +drawn on heavily in the future. The production of the United States +increased from about 70,000 tons in 1880 to 365,000 tons seventeen years +later, and if continued the yearly production by 1920 will amount to +580,000 tons, or more than a billion pounds. + +The principal lead-producing states are Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and +Colorado. In Missouri it is probable that the present rate of increase +could be kept up for at least fifty years. The other states could keep +up the present production for many years but could not greatly increase +it without exhausting the supply. + +As with most mineral resources in the United States, it is only the +richest ores that are now drawn upon (except where lead is a by-product +extracted with some other ore). If prices would advance, so as to make +the low-grade ores profitable, the amount of our resources would be +greatly increased. + +There is little waste in the mining or smelting of lead ores, and the +slag, the waste, is always ready to be used again. In the refining and +concentrating of lead the loss often amounts to as much as fifteen per +cent. or twenty per cent. The best way to prevent final loss is to store +all refuse until such time as the reworking becomes profitable. +Improvement in methods has been great in the last fifteen years but more +economical methods everywhere will be one of the necessities of the +future. We can see that the lead resources of the United States are not +large and that when our own supply is exhausted we can not turn to the +rest of the world. + +The waste in mining is not large, and most of it can not be avoided at +present prices; so that for the conservation, which we see is so +important, we must turn to the uses of lead. The most necessary of these +is for lead pipes in plumbing. Another use is for war supplies, which +not only makes heavy drains on our stores of coal and iron, but also on +lead, which is much less plentiful. + +One ton out of every three produced in the United States is used in the +manufacture of white lead and consumed as paint. This, of course, is +entirely lost, and it seems that some other material might be used, +instead of so valuable a mineral, especially when the resource is not +abundant. White lead is used more than any other substance for paint, +although zinc white has come into considerable use in the last few +years. No other nation uses lead paint to such an extent as does the +United States, partly because no other nation could afford so general a +use of such an expensive material, and partly because so many wooden +buildings are erected. By using brick, stone, or cement, of which we +have practically an unending supply, to take the place of wood, our +store of which is rapidly disappearing, we could avoid much of the drain +on our mineral resources which are used for paint. + +As production and price advance a greater quantity of lead is remelted. +About 25,000 tons are returned to use each year. + + +ZINC + +Zinc is a whitish metal. It is used in galvanizing iron to prevent its +rusting. It is used also in the manufacture of white paint, which +consumes about one ton out of every six tons mined. This, of course, is +permanently lost, but the price and its value as a resource is much +lower than lead. This takes more than half of the entire product. The +remainder of the output is about equally divided between brass and sheet +zinc. All these uses are extremely necessary and it is believed that the +production of zinc will rapidly increase for many years. + +The United States is the largest producer, Germany ranks second. Large +amounts are mined in Australia, and very large deposits, entirely +undeveloped, are said to exist in Africa. In 1880, the United States +produced 23,000 tons of zinc; in 1907, 280,000 tons. This indicates the +rapid rate at which we are increasing our use of zinc. + +If the same rate should continue, in 1920 we should be using 475,000 +tons, or almost a billion pounds, and if zinc oxide should take the +place of white lead in painting to the extent that now seems probable, +the quantity would be still further increased. + +Missouri is by far the heaviest producer of zinc, having a little more +than half of the output. New Jersey ranks next, then Colorado, Wisconsin +and Kansas. Some of the other western states each produce small amounts. +Most of the pure zinc ore is mined at a depth of from one hundred and +fifty to two hundred and fifty feet and occurs in sheets, but a large +part of the ore is a by-product obtained from the reduction of other +ores. In New Jersey the zinc alone is found in a single region, where it +was estimated a few years ago that there were eight million tons, of +which two and a half million tons have been mined since 1904. The zinc +in Missouri, Wisconsin and Kansas is found alone or underlying lead +deposits, while that of the western states is almost always found in +limestone, and is mixed with silver, copper, lead, and, more rarely, +gold. In these states there has been little attempt to discover zinc; in +fact, ores containing zinc have been rather shunned because of the +difficulty in extracting them. + +It is thought that our resources of zinc, especially in the West, have +just begun to be developed, and that the supply, even at the present +rate of increase and at present prices, will last many years. However, +with increasing use for the product, we can not be sure of supplies for +more than a generation; and in view of the importance of zinc it becomes +necessary to inquire into its wastes. + +In no mineral is the waste more startling than in zinc. In Missouri it +is necessary to leave supporting pillars as in coal mining. This can not +be remedied, as the use of timbers is too expensive, but it causes a +heavy loss. In the West, owing to the expensive treatment and shipment, +much of the low-grade ore is left in the ground. In refining the loss is +enormous, often as much as forty per cent. In order to produce zinc at a +low cost there must be a heavy loss of metal. Better plants and +equipment for refining, and the saving of all refuse for later use will +be necessary if we are to conserve the zinc supply for future +generations. + + +MISCELLANEOUS + +The supplies of many of the materials used in buildings and bridges, +such as stone, gravel, clay, cement and lime are so great that they +appear inexhaustible, and need of care in their use is not so much to be +considered as is their development to take the place of other resources. + +In the past they have not been used freely because wooden buildings have +been so much cheaper; but cement, concrete and brick are now +manufactured much more cheaply, on account of improved methods, while +the price of lumber has been increasing rapidly. Within the last ten +years, the value of cement manufactures has increased nearly six times. +In 1900 we used seventy pounds of cement for each person; in 1907, two +hundred and twenty-eight pounds. The value of brick and other products +made from clay has doubled in the same period and is now $160,000,000, +while the value of building-stone quarries is three times as great as it +was ten years ago. There are many reasons why these materials should +take the place of wood; as they are stronger, more durable, do not +require paint, and are so much less liable to loss by fire. + +The waste of minerals used in building is due to improper and reckless +methods of taking them from the ground and preparing them for market and +in careless methods in manufacturing. + +Of such minerals as quartz, grindstone, millstone, emery stone, mineral +paints, talc and salt, there seems to be enough to meet the needs of the +future as well as the present. Such supplies as sulphur, asphalt, +magnesia, borax, and asbestos, as well as coal and iron, are not very +plentiful. If used carelessly, they will be exhausted in a few years; if +wisely, they may be expected to last beyond the limits of the present +century. + +Our supplies of quicksilver, antimony, graphite, mica, tin, nickel, +platinum, and many minerals less well known, as well as our petroleum, +natural gas, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, and phosphate rock will +be almost exhausted well within the present century unless large new +deposits are discovered. + + +REFERENCES + +Report of National Conservation Commission. + +The Conservation of Mineral Resources. U. S. Government Reports. + +Report of the U. S. Geological Survey. + +Production of Gold in 1908. U. S. Government Reports. + +Production of Silver in 1908. + +Production of Lead in 1908. + +Production of Zinc in 1908. + +Production of Structural Materials. + +About twenty pamphlets on other minerals. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +ANIMAL FOODS + + +GRAZING + +Food is of two classes: vegetable, which comes directly from the earth, +and animal, which has fed on vegetable life. This is, of course, a more +concentrated form of food, and much less of it is needed to sustain +life. + +For the plentiful supply of vegetable food we must depend upon the +fertility of the soil, as we have seen. Our animal food can not be +classed among our natural resources, but as a product of them, and +requires the same care and wise use. + +In the early history of our country natural animal food was abundant. +Fishes swarmed in the sea, lakes, and streams. Wild turkeys and other +game birds, deer, and bison formed a large part of the food of our +forefathers. But these have been gradually disappearing. We have caught +and destroyed so many fish that we have only a fraction of our former +number. The game birds have disappeared either because they have been +killed in great numbers or because their nesting-places have been +destroyed. Of the big game nothing is now left except in a few remote +regions, and it is growing less plentiful each year. + +Although large quantities of fish and game are marketed every year at +certain seasons, they form a small fraction of the animal food required +in the country, and we must now depend for most of our animal food, not +on that which was at first given us for a natural resource but on that +raised by man. + +The poultry--the chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys; the cattle, beef +and dairy, the hogs and the sheep that are raised in such vast numbers +have taken the place of wild game. The cultivated varieties have higher +food value, and are far more satisfactory, since they are ready for use +at any time. + +The conservation of our animal food resources presents a different +problem from any other. It is true that we have wasted and exhausted our +natural food supplies, but we must remember that to a certain extent +their preservation was neither possible nor desirable. They have been +driven out by advancing civilization. + +Wild birds and animals leave as the forests are cut out, destroying +their natural homes. Many of them can not be kept in captivity, so this +supply never could have been regulated. It was necessary to destroy +some of them to insure man's safety, and others were needed for his use. +But we can take their places with other animals which are better fitted +for our food, and it is the task of keeping up a sufficient supply of +these on the most suitable land and under conditions that will yield the +best results, that constitutes the problem of the conservation of our +animal food resources. + +The raising of poultry and live stock on a large scale is a separate +occupation, usually followed in a scientific manner and it is not of +that industry that we need to speak, but rather of the benefit to every +farmer and to the dwellers in small communities, of raising at least a +part of the animal food used by the family. + +Every farm has some bits of unoccupied land that can be fenced off for +poultry. The gleanings from the fields will supply their food, and they +will furnish meat and eggs for the family throughout the year, with +enough left to sell to provide other comforts. + +Live stock, cattle, sheep and hogs, as well as goats, horses and mules, +are profitable to every farmer. Many farms have woodland; land that +overflows at some seasons, and so is unfit for raising crops; or some +rocky unproductive land where stock can be raised more profitably than +anything else, and if every farmer would use all the land not suitable +for farm crops for pasture land the problem of an abundant meat supply, +of dairy products and of fertilizers to enrich the soil would be largely +solved. Some farming experts advocate letting each field in turn be used +for pasture every five years, because the stock raised on it is equal in +value to any other farm crop, and because the rest and fertilization +almost double the value of the succeeding year's crop. + +In the West and Southwest there are large tracts of public land +untilled. Much of the land can never be used for agricultural purposes, +because it is arid or mountainous. + +This land is well adapted to grazing and the government has allowed free +use of it to stockmen as pasture lands. + +These public pasture lands are called "ranges." In the early years when +this part of the country belonged to Mexico, the ranges were traversed +by Indians and Mexicans who tended the herds of wild cattle and horses, +raised mostly for their hides. But in the last quarter of a century the +business has fallen into the hands of Americans who have introduced +better breeds of higher value. In California, Arizona, and New Mexico +there are now on the open ranges eight million sheep, nearly three +million cattle and nearly a million horses, worth much more than one +hundred million dollars. Wyoming and Utah have great sheep ranges and +do much to keep up the wool supply. On Texas, with its great cattle +ranges, we depend for a large part of our beef and leather. In all these +states where stock is fed on public land, there are many questions as to +ownership of animals, rights of rival rangers, and other points to +settle. + +In some of these states the government has set aside national forest +reserves. Within these is much good grazing land. In order that the +government may have some revenue from the land, a regular price has been +set on these forest lands. The charge is forty cents a year each for +horses, thirty-five cents a year for cattle, and twelve cents for sheep. +The land is properly divided, so that each kind of stock has suitable +pasture. Each person who pays this tax is given a certain range and no +one else is allowed to use it. There is sufficient pasture for each so +that it need not be too closely cropped. A man may lease the same range +year after year, may put down wells to supply his stock, live on it, and +do many things to improve it. + +The forest rangers who patrol the forest to watch for fires or for +timber thieves also protect these stockmen in their rights and prevent +trouble about grazing privileges. + +Outside the forest reserves the grazing is free, but the advantages +offered by this system are so great that nearly all rangers now wish to +use the forest reserves. + +As each ranger has his land assigned to him and no one else can use it, +the grass is not overcropped as it often is in regions outside the +forests. If pasture is good, so many herds are pastured there that soon +the grass is all trampled down and eaten off. Large areas are so badly +injured that it will not naturally resod itself. + +Cattle men are asking that the same rules that apply to the national +forests be applied to other public lands, so that the pasturage may be +improved and each man may have protection in his rights. + +If all grazing lands could be thus leased, it would give the business a +far more permanent character, better breeds of stock would be raised, +and individual owners would direct their efforts to improving both stock +and pasture, after the manner of stock raisers on private lands. + +So large a part of our animal food, our wool, our leather and many +smaller needs depend on this industry, that every effort should be made +to encourage it, and to provide the wisest laws and best methods both +for conserving and developing it. + +In conclusion it is interesting to note that the Department of +Agriculture is making a study of food birds and animals in various parts +of the world, and trying to domesticate them, to add to the variety of +our food supply. The quail, the golden pheasant and some species of +grouse among birds, and two or three species of deer, including the +reindeer, appear to be adapted to domestic life in this country, and +may, before many years, become a part of the animal industry of the +United States. + + +FISHERIES + +One who has never seen the big catches of fish brought in by a mackerel +fleet or visited a wholesale fish market can have little idea of the +importance of that industry, nor of the immense amount of food that is +taken from the waters of the United States every year. + +The word fish is made to include not only fish proper, but oysters, +clams, scallops, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and turtles. Fish is liked by +most persons, is more easily digested than meat and is nourishing. As a +food resource, it is different in many respects from any other. It does +not exhaust the soil, nor take from the earth anything of value, the +food of fishes consisting of water plants and animals that are not used +by man in any other way. Fish also purify the water in which they live, +and so cause a great, though indirect, benefit. + +It is so plainly the wise thing, then, to keep our rivers stocked with +fish and to use them for food only, that it seems that this valuable +resource has been more seriously and unnecessarily wasted than any +other. + +Fish are wasted on inland streams in the following ways: (1) By +dynamiting. If a charge of dynamite be exploded on the bed of the river, +great numbers of fish, killed by the shock, rise to the top of the water +and can be taken. This practice was quite common at one time, but is now +prohibited by law in several states. + +(2) By seining. A seine or net is placed entirely across the stream, and +all the fish which come down the stream are caught. In several states +seining is not allowed at all. In others it is allowed only at certain +seasons. And in still others the meshes of the seine must be large +enough to allow all fish below a certain size to slip through. + +(3) By catching with a hook, (angling) more fish than can be used or +catching small fish and then throwing them away. This is a very common +custom among sportsmen, but should be prohibited by law. From a certain +small inland lake, it is said that during the entire season an average +of five thousand fish a day is taken. These are almost all caught by +summer residents, and it is unlikely that a large per cent. of them are +eaten. In a few years the lake will be exhausted, and will cease to +furnish fish for the people of the community, and there will, of course, +be no more fishing for the sportsmen. Equal waste is going on all +through the summer at every resort where good fishing is to be had. Some +states have laws regulating the size of the fish that may be caught and +the number that one person may take in one day, and all states should +have such laws. + +(4) The worst waste of our fish is caused by turning large quantities of +sewage or refuse from factories into streams. All the fish for miles up +and down a river are often destroyed in this way. As we have seen, this +is only one of the bad results of allowing such refuse to drain into +streams; every state should have strict laws prohibiting it. + +From the waters of the New England states more than five hundred and +twenty-eight millions of fish are taken each year. Here are the great +cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. From the Middle Atlantic states, +the great region for oysters, lobsters and other sea food, come eight +hundred and twenty million more; one hundred and six million come from +the South Atlantic states; one hundred and thirteen million, including +the much sought tarpon and red snappers, come from the Gulf states; two +hundred and seventeen million are caught in the Pacific states, +including the great salmon catches; ninety-six millions are taken from +the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and one hundred and sixty-six +millions, largely salmon, from Alaska. The Great Lakes, with their +pickerel, and other fine fresh-water fish furnish one hundred and +thirteen millions and the small inland waters at least five millions +more. + +When they are taken from the waters the 2,169,000,000 pounds of fish +caught in the United States are worth $58,000,000, but by canning, +salting, and other processes of preserving, the value is greatly +increased. + +Fortunately, there is a method of conserving our supply of fish and not +only preventing it from growing less, but of greatly increasing the +number and improving the quality. The United States government has a +thoroughly well organized fish commission, and many states and counties +and even private clubs carry on the same work, which is a general +supervision of the fish supply. + +The government maintains stations which are regularly engaged in +hatching fish, keeping them until the greatest danger of their being +destroyed is past, and then placing them in various streams all over the +country. These fish are always of good food varieties, and are carefully +selected to insure the kind best suited to the stream, as to whether it +is warm or cold, deep or shallow, clear or muddy, fresh or salt, slow +and placid, or swift and turbulent, for each kind of stream has certain +varieties of fish that are especially adapted to it. + +With all these things taken into account, stocking only with the best +food varieties, if a state has laws which require that a stream be kept +free from sewage and refuse, that no tiny fish be taken from the water, +and that only a stated number can be taken in a day by a single person, +hundreds of small streams, ponds and reservoirs all over the country may +be made to yield food supplies for the entire community near by. + +Governor Deneen, of Illinois, in urging that streams be improved for +navigation, says, "No estimate of the benefits to flow from stream +development would be complete without allusion to the fisheries which +have been established on the Illinois River, largely by restocking with +fish from hatcheries. The fisheries located on that stream are second in +value only to those of the Columbia River. + +"Our experience thus far indicates that the food resources of the water +may be brought up in value to those of the land. The Illinois valley +contains 80,000 acres of water area and yields a fish product worth ten +dollars an acre each year, very nearly all profit. The average value of +the land product near by is a little less than twelve dollars an acre, +and the labor, cost of seeding, and exhaustion of fertilization of the +land must all be counted before there can be a profit." + +In 1908 the United States Fish Commission distributed nearly two and a +half billion of young fish and half a million fish eggs. These were such +excellent varieties as salmon, shad, trout, bass, white fish, perch, +cod, flat fish and lobsters. + +The Bureau of Fisheries has its fish-hatching stations, its boats for +catching fish in nets and its tank cars for carrying the young fish and +eggs to the streams that are to be stocked. + +Some of the most important work is interestingly described in a history +of the Bureau of Fisheries issued in 1908. Among other things it tells +of the lobster industry in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. +Lobsters are not found naturally in the Pacific, but shipments of +lobsters have been made from the Atlantic coast. At the last shipment, +after carrying them across the continent packed in seaweed, more than a +thousand lobsters were safely placed on the bed of the Pacific Ocean. + +On the Atlantic coast the lobsters were rapidly disappearing when the +work of artificial "planting" of young lobsters and eggs began. The +results can be seen now, for more lobsters are being caught each year, +and the price to users is growing less as the supply becomes more +plentiful. + +The shad and the salmon are considered the finest of all fish for +eating. Both are salt-water fish and both have the habit of going some +distance up fresh-water rivers to lay their eggs. No eggs are ever laid +in salt water. The mother fish goes up beyond where the tide comes in, +so that the baby fish may have fresh water, which is necessary for them. +Salmon and shad are never caught in the sea, but in the rivers, where +they go in large numbers to lay their eggs in the spring. This, of +course, means the destruction of both fish and eggs,--the present and +future supply. + +Shad eggs, or roe are sold in large quantities. The Bureau of Fisheries +has planted three thousand millions of young shad in streams along the +coast, and the eggs from which these fish were hatched were all taken +from fish that had been caught for market, and would have been totally +lost if the Bureau had not collected them from the fishermen. + +Shad have been planted in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers flowing +into the Pacific Ocean. From these two sources they have spread until +now they are found as far south as Los Angeles, and as far north as +Alaska, a coast line of 4,000 miles, and it is said that more shad could +now be caught in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers than in any other +water courses. + +In addition to supplying the streams with young fish, it is necessary to +leave a part of each river clear so that some of the fish may find their +way up-stream to deposit their eggs. The salmon have been almost driven +out from the waters of New England, except in the Penobscot River, where +they have been kept by the watchfulness of the Fisheries Bureau. It is +believed that the entire salmon industry in Maine would be wiped out in +five years if fish culture should cease, and in the West, where the +drain on the salmon for canning purposes is so heavy, artificial +planting is used very largely to keep up the supply. + +The experiments with oysters are full of interest. In Chesapeake Bay, +where the best natural oyster beds were found, the demands on them were +so great that the supply began to fail. In 1904 only a little more than +one-fourth as many were produced as in 1880. The natural oyster beds +were then marked and set aside as public fishing grounds. + +These are to be used by whoever wishes but under strict protective +rules. All other ocean beds may be planted with oysters by any one who +leases the privilege from the state, and the right to collect the +oysters from a certain bed belongs to the person who leases it as fully +as does property on land. + +Louisiana had a small number of natural beds. About ten years ago the +planting of oyster beds began, and soon 20,000 acres had been planted. +Conditions were particularly favorable, and within two years after the +eggs or spawn were placed it was found that oysters three and a half to +four inches in size had grown in quantities of 1,000 to 2,000 bushels +per acre. For a long time it has been the custom of fishermen to fatten +their oysters by transplanting them to new beds where the food is +abundant, and in a short time the oysters are much plumper, it takes +fewer of them to make a quart and they also sell at a higher price, +because they are of the finest quality. + +These rich food beds are not plentiful, and many dealers are compelled +to put small oysters on the market. The Bureau of Fisheries has made a +study of these food beds, and by using fertilizer, such as farmers use +on their land, have been able to make such beds of sea-plants grow where +they do not naturally exist. These experiments have been tried only a +short time, but the results have been entirely satisfactory, and it is +hoped that before long, rich oyster beds may be made to grow in any part +of the ocean where oysters will thrive. + +In the Great Lakes the fishing is so heavy that it is probable that the +supply of perch and white fish would be very low by this time if +fish-culture had not been carried on to so great an extent. White fish, +lake trout, pike and perch may be hatched in such large numbers as to +keep the fisheries up to their present yield. + +Another important work of the Fisheries Bureau is to keep up the supply +of cod for the great fisheries on the New England coast. For the last +twenty years profitable shore cod fishery has been kept up on grounds +that had been entirely exhausted before and also where cod had never +been found before. At the wharves, government officers from the +Fisheries Bureau board the fishing boats when they come in and take the +eggs from the fish. These are taken to the government hatchery and +either the eggs or the young fish are put back into the sea, and so keep +up an unending supply. + +Alaska is one of the most important fishing regions of the world. For +this entire Territory, the United States paid Russia $7,200,000 and many +thought that the money was practically thrown away, since it apparently +bought for us nothing but barren, ice-bound shores. But since it became +a part of the United States, Alaska has yielded fishery products alone +amounting in value to $158,000,000--twenty-two and a half times the +price paid. Of this, $49,000,000 came from the fur seal fishery, +$86,000,000 from salmon and $23,000,000 from other fish. + +About $1,500,000 worth of sponges are now taken from Florida waters each +year. Naturally the failure of the industry would be a serious loss to +the state. But the natural sponge beds are being rapidly exhausted, and +the Bureau of Fisheries is convinced that the continuation of the sponge +fisheries must depend on artificial planting. Sponges can be produced +from cuttings at a cost much less than that of taking them from the +natural beds. + +Rhode Island has been successful in cultivating soft-shell clams and in +increasing the area of its clam beds. + +The Mississippi and its branches are subject to great floods in the +early spring and occasionally in summer. After these floods millions of +fishes are left in small pools some distance back from the river. These +pools gradually dry up; the larger fishes are caught and the smaller +ones die. The state and National Fish Commissions are now collecting +these fishes in large numbers, and using them to stock ponds and rivers +in other parts of the country. + +They are used to supply many parts of the West and South and there is +much greater demand for them than the Commissions can meet. Not that +there is a lack of fish, for millions are left to waste because the +Commissions can not distribute them rapidly enough to save them. If +large storage ponds could be established to collect and keep the fish +during the flood season, so that all the time might be spent in +collecting fish during the overflow, and they could be sent out later, +the amount of fish saved would be increased many fold. + +The fish thus saved are being made to serve another useful purpose. +Pearl buttons are made from the shells of mussels or fresh-water clams. +This business, which is now worth $5,000,000, can not last many years +unless some means of increasing the supply of mussels can be devised. + +Now these men, who are always studying new plans, have thought of a +wonderful way in which to let the fish help in carrying on this work. +They obtain the mussel eggs, and when they are hatched place them in the +pools with the fish from the overflowed lands. The tiny mussel larvæ +attach themselves to the fish and are carried to the rivers and ponds +with the fish. Soon they are ready to drop to the bottom and find food +for themselves. + +In this way 25,000,000 mussels were carried last year to streams where +mussels are known to thrive. If these mussel-bearing fish can be +obtained by farmers having private fish ponds, the ponds can be drained +each year and the mussels gathered, thus adding considerably to the +owner's income, and also keeping up the pearl button industry, in +addition to the food supply which he gains from the fish. + +Enough has been said to show clearly how desirable and how possible it +is to conserve and increase our fish supplies. With the coöperation of +all who waste the fish at present, and those who might aid in stocking +the streams, we could add greatly to the food supply of the nation at a +less cost than in any other way. + + +REFERENCES + +Grazing Lands. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Grazing on the Public Lands. (Jastro.) Report Governor's Conference. + +The Grazing Lands and Public Forests of Arizona. (Heard.) Report +Governor's Conference. + +Grazing Problems in the Southwest and How to Meet Them. Bulletin, Dept. +of Agriculture, 5c. + +Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Dept. of Agriculture. + +Distribution of Fish and Fish Eggs. Dept. Commerce and Labor.[B] + +[Footnote B: All Bureau and Commission reports are free.] + +Reports of the Commission of Fisheries. + +National Fisheries Congress. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +INSECTS + + +If we look at a watch, we see that one wheel can not move until the one +next in order to it moves, and that, in turn, must be set in motion by +another wheel. In the same way nature adjusts itself in its various +parts. Before man enters a region, the balance is perfect. Plants crowd +each other out of the way, the weaker giving place to the stronger; then +insects come to destroy them. These insects are destroyed by birds, +small mammals or other insects. The birds are killed by animals and +other birds, which in turn are the food of larger animals. And so +through all nature runs this law of balance; nothing increases in too +great a proportion. + +But when man comes, he thinks only of his own needs and wishes and +begins at once to upset the delicate balance. Year after year, he plants +large fields of a single crop, and, calling other plants weeds, because +they hinder the growth of his grain, he drives them out entirely. The +insects that feed on these plants, finding no food, soon disappear, +while the ones which feed on the farmers' crops, finding food so +plentiful, are able to increase in great numbers. They increase all the +more rapidly because man, not knowing or not caring to know who his real +helpers are, has killed and driven away the birds that would feed on +them. + +In order to readjust matters, he must learn how to destroy the insects, +or he can not have crops. Both the plant enemies, the weeds, and the +insects are always trying to bring about nature's balance again by +driving out the over-abundant field crop, so he must constantly fight +them in order to secure his harvest. + +In no country is more harm done by insects than in the United States. +The losses to live stock and to plants, both growing and stored, +resulting from insects are greater than all the expenses of the National +Government, including the pension roll and the yearly maintenance of the +army and navy. + +Immense as is the value of our farm products, it would be much greater +if it were not for the work of these insects. Careful calculations +indicate that this loss will amount to not less than the enormous sum of +$1,100,000,000 annually and probably far more. The loss is usually +estimated at ten per cent. of the crop, but often is much heavier than +this, and many indirect losses are not taken into account in this table, +though we shall speak of them later. + +Most insects pass through four stages: (1) the egg; (2) the worm or +larvæ; (3) the chrysalis, cocoon, or pupa; (4) the full-grown insect or +imago. Butterflies, moths and beetles are examples of insects in this +last stage. + +As eggs, they are, of course, harmless, and during the chrysalis state +they lie perfectly inactive and are harmless, but many of them are very +destructive when they are worms or larvæ, others do most injury in the +full-grown state. + +The insects that man has most reason to dread are: (1) Plant-lice, tiny +insects with soft bodies, usually green. They attach themselves to the +stems and leaves of plants and suck their juices, leaving them to wilt +and die. They are found on many kinds of plants--on corn, wheat and +other grains. They also flourish on garden vegetables and flowers. + +(2) Scale insects. These are flat and appear to be only a scale on the +stem or fruit. They are usually covered with a hard crust-like covering +and are found on trees and bushes. They are usually the color of the +bark on which they are found. + +(3) Worms and caterpillars are soft-bodied, the bodies being in +segments, and either smooth or covered with short bristly hair. They +spend nearly all their time in eating, and do immense damage to the +foliage of trees and vegetables and to fruit. The adult is a moth or +caterpillar. This class is among the farmer's worst insect enemies. + +(4) Borers attack trees and tough-stemmed plants. The eggs are laid on +the stems, and after hatching, the larvæ bore into the stem or under the +bark, causing the foliage to wilt and die. We are all familiar with what +we call "worm-eaten" wood, with canals that have been eaten by these +borers running through it in all directions. This completely ruins some +of the best forest trees for lumber, and makes one of the greatest +losses of the forests. + +(5) Beetles are insects in the adult state. They have hard, shiny +wing-covers. Many of the borers are beetles, and there are other +varieties which do great damage, though other kinds are useful to man in +destroying harmful insects. + +(6) Bugs have their mouth parts prolonged into a sharp beak with which +they puncture the skin or bark, instead of chewing the leaves, as do +beetles. Flies, gnats, and other similar insects do not usually injure +vegetation so much as do some other classes of insects, the principal +damage being done to fruits; but they have been found to be the cause of +some of the most serious diseases in both man and the lower animals. + +The Department of Agriculture divides the injuries done by insects into +classes according to the products injured, and in the list they place +first the injury done to cereal crops. + +The insects which damage the corn crop most seriously are the corn-root +worm, which feeds on the roots of young corn, causing it to fall over +and die, and which sometimes takes the whole corn crop of a large +region. The next most important is the boll-worm or ear-worm. Most +persons have seen this worm in the ears of sweet corn; ninety ears out +of every hundred contain a worm which destroys from one-tenth to +one-half the corn. Some years every ear in large regions is infested. In +the South the field corn is attacked as badly as the sweet corn, but in +the great corn states the injury is much less. Even here, however, the +total loss is very great. + +Almost equally important is the damage wrought by the chinch-bug, which +is also one of the greatest pests in wheat and oats. + +Every year in different sections of the country, bill-bugs, wire-worms, +cutworms, cornstalk borers, locusts, grasshoppers, corn plant-lice and +other insects, destroy millions of bushels of corn. + +Of the cereal crops, wheat suffers most from insects. Of the large +number of insects that attack wheat, the three important species are the +Hessian fly, the chinch-bug and the grain plant-louse or green-bug. + +The Hessian fly has been known to destroy as much as sixty per cent. of +all the wheat acreage of a state. Fortunately, this damage is done early +in the year, so that when whole fields are destroyed they can be +replanted with other crops and only the cost of seed and labor is to be +counted as a loss. But more often the field is only partly destroyed by +the fly; it is not necessary to replant, but the yield is small, often +not more than one-third. Some years the loss from the Hessian fly is +very heavy, at other times comparatively light, yet there are few years +when the loss is less than ten per cent. of the total crop from this +insect alone,--which meant last year a loss of 72,500,000 bushels. + +The chinch-bug is responsible for the loss of five per cent., or one +bushel out of every twenty. It attacks the straw, causing the heads of +wheat to fall over and wither away. + +The injury done by the green-bug comes just as the wheat begins to +ripen, the tiny green creatures attaching themselves in great numbers to +the heads of the wheat. Other insects which prey on the wheat crop are +grasshoppers, the wheat midge, cutworms and army-worms. + +If it were not for the attacks of these various pests the wheat crop +would be at least one-fifth larger than it is. Instead of 725,000,000 +bushels, it would be 870,000,000; which, with wheat at a dollar a +bushel, amounts to a loss of nearly $150,000,000. Further, the world +loses all this valuable bread-stuff. + +Oats, rye and barley suffer far less than wheat from insect ravages but +they are all attacked by the same insects, and on the whole, much damage +is done to them each year. + +Hay, clover, and alfalfa have their enemies which destroy a considerable +part of the crops. The locusts and caterpillars, the army-worms and +cutworms are the best known, but the tiny leaf-hoppers, which spring up +at every step as we walk across the path or lawn, and the web-worms and +grass-worms and grubs which work about the roots of the plants all do +their part in lowering the production. + +The principal insect enemies of cotton are the cotton boll-weevil, the +boll-worm, the cotton red spider, and the cotton-leaf worm. The control +of the boll-weevil is considered one of the most serious problems +confronting the agricultural men of the country. In the first years +after its introduction, it reduced the cotton crop fully fifty per +cent., and was the cause, not only of serious loss to the farmers, but +of the closing of the cotton mills in New England, of a scarcity of +cotton cloth and a decided rise in its price. The boll-weevil is a +beetle about a quarter of an inch in length. This little beetle eats +into the heart of each boll, which soon falls to the ground. + +The cotton-leaf worm formerly caused heavy damage, as much as +$20,000,000 to $30,000,000 a year, but the loss has been greatly reduced +by the war which farmers have waged against it. It is still estimated at +from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000. + +The boll-worm is chiefly destructive in the Southwest and does damage to +the extent of $12,000,000. + +All in all no article of commerce is more seriously affected by insect +ravages than cotton, on account of its necessity, and the fact that it +can be raised only in certain regions. + +Tobacco is one of the principal crops in several states and it suffers +heavily from insect damage. The large, showy tobacco-worm and the tiny +tobacco-thrips cause serious injury to the leaves. + +Sugar-cane has its insect enemies which take on an average one stalk out +of every ten raised in this country, and reduce the crop in the same +proportion. + +The cranberry is another valuable commercial plant that has been greatly +affected by an insect known as the cranberry fruit worm, but by +spraying, growers have been able to reduce the damage from sixty per +cent. down to fourteen per cent. + +Garden vegetables suffer more than anything else from insects. Potatoes +are attacked by two species of insects, both destructive unless held in +check. One is the reddish brown blister-beetle. The eggs are laid on the +ground, and do not become adult insects until the second year. The other +is the striped Colorado beetle, the eggs of which are laid on the under +side of the leaves, and develop into adults in a short time. Two broods +of this beetle develop in a single season. Thus it may be seen that the +two are entirely different, though they are often supposed to be the +same. The Colorado beetle, by the immense damage it was doing to a +necessary food crop, first led to a regular method of fighting insects +in this country. This potato-bug is not feared as it was in the past, +since farmers have learned to control it in a great measure, but they +have only been able to lessen the evil, never to drive it out +completely. + +Other insects that destroy garden vegetables are the well-known green +cabbage-worm, the harlequin cabbage-bug, the cabbage hairworm, the +asparagus-beetle, the squash-bug, the squash-vine borer, the striped +cucumber or melon beetle, the melon aphis, the corn boll-worm, the +cornstalk borer and many others. + +In addition to these insects that attack special plants, all vegetables +are preyed on by the grub-worm, the cutworm, the aphis and various tiny +hoppers. + +The grub-worms which work about the roots of plants are, in the adult +state, the June-bugs or cock-chafers which fly about our lights in the +spring and early summer, and which themselves do considerable damage by +eating leaves of trees and bushes. + +Orchards and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests, both on +account of the direct loss and on account of the expensive treatment. +There are several hundred insects which ravage fruit trees, attacking +the roots, trunk, foliage and fruit. + +Among these are the scales, of which there are many species, but of +which the most widely known and dreaded is the San Jose scale, so called +because San Jose, California, was its starting place in America. It is +the only one of the scales which, if not checked, will, in two or three +years, completely destroy the tree on which it feeds. It attacks the +citrus fruits, orange, lemon, grape-fruit, and the apple, pear, and +peach as well as small fruits, particularly currants. + +Among the many varieties that do serious damage are the black olive +scale, plum scale, hickory scale, locust scale, frosted black scale, red +oak scale, the cottony maple scale, greedy scale and oyster shell +scale. + +The woolly aphis injures the roots of our fruit trees; the trunk and +limb borers, the peach tree borer, the apple borer, all stand ready to +assail the life of the entire tree. The various leaf worms attack the +life of the tree also. The grape-leaf skeletonizer eats every particle +of green from the leaves, leaving only the veins. The canker-worms and +the destructive tent-caterpillars also cause the death of many fruit +trees. + +Of insects which attack the fruit, the list is long. The codling-moth of +the apple causes a greater money loss than any other enemy of fruits. +Various estimates of the loss have been made, and in general it is +believed that it causes the loss of one-fourth to one-half of the apple +crop of the United States each year. + +The plum-curculio attacks nearly all stone fruits. Its natural food +plant is probably the native wild plum, and the plum continues to be its +favorite food, consequently this fruit suffers most from the attacks of +the insect. In years of short crops very little fruit remains on the +tree to ripen. But peaches, apricots and cherries also suffer heavily, +and apples and pears in a less degree. + +The insects which injure the hardwood forest trees are principally the +leaf-eaters, such as the gypsy and brown tail moths, which have almost +stripped the New England shade trees, and done great damage to the +forests; the elm leaf beetles and the numerous borers, both beetles and +grubs, which from eggs laid in or just beneath the bark, hatch into +larvæ which burrow into the wood, destroying its usefulness for lumber. +Among the borers which do most injury in destroying valuable timber are +the hickory-bark beetle, the bark-boring grubs which kill oak, chestnut, +birch and poplar trees, the locust borer, the chestnut timber-worm and +the Columbian timber beetle. + +All these represent the loss from insects to the growing product; but +when it is stored, there is seemingly no less danger of attack by a +different class of insects. These include grain weevils and beetles, +flour-moths, the small fruit and vinegar flies, buffalo-moths and dozens +of others. + +After these comes the loss to man and animals from insects. The cattle +tick alone, through the dreaded Texas fever, causes a loss of from +$10,000,000 to $35,000,000 in various years. The ox warble also preys on +cattle and causes a loss of probably $3,000,000 more. The buffalo-gnats, +gadflies, and other flies do on the whole a large amount of damage each +year. + +Man has only discovered in recent years how serious a factor in his own +health as well as comfort, is the insect life about him. This subject is +more fully treated under the subject of health, so for the present we +need only say that flies, mosquitos and other insects are supposed to +cause some of our most serious diseases, and to be the indirect cause of +the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars and many human lives each +year. + +Having thus summed up the damage done by insects, let us see what may be +done to prevent their spread and if possible drive out the most harmful +species entirely. Unfortunately, that seems almost impossible; so far +all man's efforts have only resulted in saving a larger or smaller +proportion of the various crops each year. + +In insect control we turn first to the natural means of destruction. +Chief among these means are birds,--of which we will speak in another +chapter,--snakes and toads. + +Toads live entirely on insects and catch large quantities of them. It is +estimated that a single toad is worth almost twenty dollars a year in a +field or garden. English gardeners are said to pay high prices for them +and to keep as many as possible in their gardens. Toads will eat almost +any kind of insect, are absolutely harmless, and should be carefully +protected. + +There is one class of insects which, so far from being an enemy to man, +combines with him to kill the harmful insects. Among these are the black +beetles which feed on cutworms and other larvæ which injure the roots +of plants. Lady-bird beetles destroy large numbers of plant-lice, and +the Asiatic lady-bird has been found to be the natural destroyer of the +San Jose scale. These little insects are now being hatched in this +country, and it is hoped through them to stamp out the pest. A number of +larger insects prey on the smaller ones. + +Other insects, such as the Hessian fly, the green-bug or spring grain +aphis, the army-worm and various species of grasshoppers are killed by +tiny parasitic insects whose eggs are laid in the bodies of the larger +insects, but which, after being hatched, feed on them. + +To these natural methods of control man has added others. Cultivation is +one of these methods. As insects flourish when given an unusually large +amount of food of a particular kind, and starve when that food is taken +away from them, so rotation of crops proves to be one of the best means +of getting rid of those insects which can not travel far for their food. +Farmers who practise rotation of crops are much less troubled with +insects that injure the roots of plants than those who do not. + +One of the best means of preventing damage from the Hessian fly is to +sow a narrow strip of wheat all around the edges of the field several +weeks before the main crop is to be sowed. The flies will gather in +this strip and lay all their eggs in the early wheat. Just before the +main crop is sowed, the narrow strip is plowed up and thoroughly +harrowed and the larvæ perish for want of food. + +The best known means of getting rid of grasshoppers is to destroy the +eggs. This should be done by plowing and harrowing all roadsides, ditch +banks, uncultivated fields and grassy margins around fields in the fall +or winter. + +Fall harrowing and deep spring plowing will prevent many of the bugs and +beetles which spend the larval state in the ground from hatching. This +method will also destroy the plum-curculio in orchards. + +In attempting to control the boll-weevil of the cotton fields, it has +been found that the best method to pursue is the simple one of planting +the crop very early, so that the cotton passes the danger stage before +the insects emerge, and removing all the plants in the fall. + +Worms that infest fruit can be checked for the following year by fall +plowing in the orchard and by destroying the decayed fruit as it falls. +The farmer who lets his decayed fruit lie on the ground is preparing for +a heavy crop of insects to eat his fruit the following summer. + +Fruit and forest trees are both protected by a burlap band or a band of +"sticky" fly-paper placed around the tree, to prevent insects from +crawling up. + +The use of poison in destroying insects is now the one most generally +and successfully employed by farmers and fruit growers. + +Poisons may be liquid or dry. The liquid is made by mixing with water, +and for large plants and trees is put on with a spray or force-pump that +carries the poison to every part of the plant. + +Some insects, such as beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers, chew the +leaves or stems of plants, and the poison may be applied to their food; +but others, such as plant-lice, scale insects and all bugs suck the +juice, usually from the stem or bark. Poisons must be applied to the +insect itself to be effectual in this case. + +These are some of the insect poisons most in use: + +Paris green, which will kill all insects that chew the leaves, may be +used in small quantities in gardens by mixing one-half teaspoonful to a +gallon of water, or in large quantities with one pound to one hundred +and fifty or two hundred gallons of water. + +White hellebore is used to destroy currant worms and is usually dusted +on dry. + +Pyrethrum is used as a spray, mixing one ounce to two gallons of water, +to destroy cabbage-worms and many other garden insects. If the dry +pyrethrum powder is blown from a bellows into a tightly closed room, it +is said to destroy all the flies. + +Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four pounds of copper sulphate in +hot water and mixing with an equal quantity of a solution made by mixing +four pounds of lime with water. This is then mixed with fifty gallons of +water. Paris green is sometimes added. This mixture is largely used in +orchards and for destroying insects on a large scale. It is also useful +for curing diseases of plants. + +An excellent spray for orchards both for removing fungous diseases and +scale insects is a home-made lime-and-sulphur solution. Enough for +spraying a large orchard is prepared as follows: + +Add three gallons of boiling water to fifteen pounds of lime. Then add +ten pounds of sulphur and three gallons more of hot water. Allow this to +boil about twenty minutes in its own heat, then add enough water to make +fifty gallons of the mixture. Dilute with water in the proportion of one +part of the solution to seventy-five of water. + +Small quantities are made by using a fractional part of this recipe. + +Whale-oil soap dissolved in water and used as a spray is an effective +remedy for the San Jose scale. + +Kerosene emulsion is used to kill the insects which suck the juices of +plants and trees. It is made by mixing a half-pound of hard soap with +one gallon of hot water and stirring into it, so as to mix thoroughly, +two gallons of kerosene oil. This may be kept on hand for use, and is +mixed with ten parts of water to one of the emulsion. + +For use in large orchards force-pumps operated by compressed air and +drawn by two horses are used. The spraying should be done as soon as the +blossoms drop, and many orchards are sprayed three times in a season, +but the work should never be done while the trees are in blossom. +Vegetables should be sprayed many times through the season. + +A careful study of these methods of control, adapted to the various +plants and the insects which prey on them, with the natural enemies of +insects encouraged and protected, would go far to prevent the +wide-spread and serious damage now affecting our crops, our vegetables, +our orchards, and our forests. + + +REFERENCES + +Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology. Dept. of Agriculture. List +furnished on application. + +Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects. Yearbook 1904.[C] + +[Footnote C: Some of the Yearbooks of the Dept. of Agriculture contain +very instructive reports on Insects and on Birds. Reprints on various +subjects have been made from them which are available in pamphlet form, +or the entire Yearbook may be had in many cases.] + +Value of Insect Parasitism to the American Farmer. Yearbook 1907. + +House Flies. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 71. + +The Grasshopper Problem. Bulletin 84. + +The Boll-Weevil Problem. Bulletin 344. + +The Most Important Step in the Control of the Boll-Weevil. Bulletin 95. + +The San Jose Scale. Yearbook 1902. + +The Plum-Curculio. Bulletin 73. + +The Apple Codling-Moth. Bulletin 41. Price 20c. + +The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 275. + +The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 264. + +The Spring Grain Aphis or Green-Bug. Bulletin 93. + +The Army-Worm. Bulletin 4. + +The Hessian Fly. Bulletin 70. + +The Chinch-Bug. Bulletin 17. + +The Principal Household Insects of the U. S. Bulletin 4. + +Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin 5. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +BIRDS + + +Birds give us pleasure in three ways: by their beauty, by their song and +by their usefulness in destroying animals, insects or plants which are +harmful to man. + +But although they are among man's best friends they have been greatly +misunderstood, so that to the many natural enemies that are constantly +preying on birds, we must add the warfare that man himself wages on +them, and the cutting down of their forest homes. This work of bird +destruction has gone on until all the best species are greatly reduced +in numbers and some species have been almost entirely driven out. + +To see how serious a matter this is we must study the food habits of +birds, and we shall find that although the different species eat a large +variety of food, in almost every case their natural food is something +harmful to man. + +The large American birds, the eagles, hawks, owls and similar kinds, are +called birds of prey because they feed on small birds and animals. Some +of these are of the greatest benefit to the farmer, while others are +altogether harmful. Another large class of birds lives almost entirely +on injurious insects and this class is entitled to the fullest care and +protection from the farmer. + +Still another class lives largely on fruits, wild or cultivated, and on +seeds, which may be either the farmer's most valuable grains, or seeds +of the weeds that would choke out the grain. + +It can not be denied that birds often do serious damage through their +food habits; but the great mistake that has been made in man's treatment +of birds has been in hastily deciding that if birds are seen flitting +about fields of grain they are destroying the crop. A better knowledge +of their food habits will lead to proper measures for destroying the +harmful kinds and protecting the useful ones. + +Successful agriculture could hardly be practised without birds, and the +benefit to man, though amounting each year to millions of dollars, can +hardly be estimated in dollars and cents, since it affects so closely +the size of our crops, the amount of timber saved for use in +manufactures, and even the health of the people. + +Here again we see the careful balancing that runs through nature; how +carefully each thing is adjusted to its work. Naturally the balance +between birds, insects and plants would remain true, no one increasing +beyond its proper amount. But when man begins to destroy certain things, +and to cultivate others, this balance is seriously disturbed. The birds +that destroy weed seeds being killed, weeds flourish in such vast +numbers as to drive out the cultivated crops. The birds which destroy +mice, moles, gophers, etc., being killed, these animals become a +nuisance and cause serious losses. If insect-destroying birds are driven +out, the farmer will be at the mercy of the insects unless he employs +troublesome and expensive methods of getting rid of them. Certain +favorable conditions cause large numbers of birds to gather in a small +region and they become a pest. Very careful observation has shown that +in nearly every case the favorite food of the birds is something which +is not valued by man, and if this food is provided, the farm grains and +fruits will not be seriously molested. + +Few birds are altogether good, still fewer are altogether bad; most +species are of great benefit, even if at the same time they do some +harm. Some birds do serious damage at one season, and much good at +another. The most notable example of this is the bobolink, which in +northern wheat fields is loved no less for his merry song than for the +thousands of weed seeds and insects he destroys; while in the South he +is known as the reed-bird or rice-bird, the most dreaded of all foes to +the rice crop. + +Flying down on the fields by hundreds of thousands these birds often +take almost the entire crop of a district. The yearly loss to +rice-growers from bobolinks has been estimated at two million dollars. + +If crows or blackbirds are seen in large numbers about fields of grain +they are generally accused of robbing the farmer, but more often they +are busily engaged in hunting the insects that without their help would +soon have destroyed his crop; and even if they do considerable damage at +one season they often pay for it many times over. + +Whether a bird is helpful or the reverse, in fact, depends entirely on +the food it eats and often even farmers who have been familiar with +birds all their lives do not know what food a bird really eats. As an +example of the misunderstanding that is often found in regard to birds, +when hawks are seen searching the fields and meadows, or owls flying +about the orchards in the evening, the farmer always supposes that his +poultry is in danger, when in reality the birds are quite as likely to +be hunting for the animals which destroy grain, produce, young trees, +and eggs of birds. + +In order to correct such mistaken ideas the Department of Agriculture +has made a most careful and accurate study of the habits of birds, and +it is the results of these observations that are recorded here. + +Field workers from this Department who have observed the habits of the +principal birds that live among men, have watched them all day and from +one day to another as they fed their little ones, and, to be more +certain of their facts, they have examined the stomachs of hundreds of +birds, both old and young, to learn exactly what each bird had eaten. In +this way they have proved absolutely that many species that are supposed +to eat chickens, or fruit or grain, in reality never touch them, but are +among the farmer's best friends. + +Among other things they have learned that while they are feeding their +young, birds are especially valuable on a farm. Baby birds require food +with a large amount of nourishment in it that can be easily digested. +Almost all young birds have soft, tender stomachs, and must be fed on +insects; as they grow older, the stomach or gizzard hardens and is +capable of grinding hard grain or seeds. The amount of food required by +the baby birds is astonishing. At certain stages of their growth they +require more than their own weight in insects. And the young birds are +to be fed just at the season that insects do the most injury to growing +crops of grain and young fruit and vegetables. + +Birds vary so much in the kind of food eaten, not only by different +varieties of the same species, but by the same birds at different +seasons, that it is necessary to make a careful study of each bird to +know whether, if he is sometimes caught eating cultivated fruit and +grains, he helps in other ways enough to pay for it. + +When insects are unusually abundant, birds eat more than at other times +and confine themselves more strictly to an insect diet, so that at such +times the good they do is particularly valuable. + +Birds of prey may do harm in a particular place, because in that region +mice, rabbits and other natural food are scarce, and they are driven to +feed on things that are useful to man, while in places where their +natural food is plentiful the same birds are altogether helpful. + +In the same way, birds which naturally eat weed seeds frequently find +these almost altogether lacking where the farms are most carefully +cultivated, but in their place are fields of grain whose seed also +furnishes them desirable food. Is it any wonder, then, that, their +natural food being taken from them, they turn to the cultivated crops? +The fruit eating birds seem always to choose the wild fruits, but where +these are not to be had they enter the orchards and soon become known as +enemies of the farmer. + +A careful examination of the harm done by birds leads to the belief +that the damage is usually caused by a very large number of one species +of birds living in a small area. In such cases so great is the demand +for food of a particular kind that the supply is soon exhausted, and the +birds turn to the products of the field or orchard. The best conditions +exist when there are many varieties of birds in a region, but no one +variety in great numbers, for then they eat many kinds of insects and +weeds, and do not exhaust all the food supply of one kind. Under such +circumstances, too, the insect-eating birds would find plenty of insects +without preying on useful products, and the insects would be held in +check, so that the damage to crops would be slight. + +The following are examples of the food eaten by birds and the good that +they thus accomplish to man: + +During the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska, a scientific +observer watched a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to her +young in an hour and the same number was kept up regularly. At this +rate, for seven hours a day, a nest-ful of young wrens would eat two +hundred and ten locusts a day. From this he calculated that the birds of +eastern Nebraska would destroy daily nearly 163,000 locusts. + +A locust eats its own weight in grain a day. The locusts eaten by the +baby birds would therefore be able to destroy one hundred and +seventy-five tons of crops, worth at least ten dollars a ton, or one +thousand seven hundred and fifty dollars. + +So we see that birds have an actual cash value on the farm. The value of +the hay crop saved by meadow-larks in destroying grasshoppers has been +estimated at three hundred and fifty-six dollars on every township +thirty-six miles square. + +An article contributed to the New York _Tribune_ by an official in the +Department of Agriculture estimated the amount of weed seeds annually +destroyed by the tree sparrow in the state of Iowa on the basis of +one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird. Supposing there +were ten birds to each mile, in the two hundred days that they remain in +the region, we should have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or eight hundred +and seventy-five tons, of weed seed consumed in a single season by this +one species in the one state. In a thicket near Washington, D. C. was a +large patch of weeds where sparrows fed during the winter. The ground +was literally black with the seeds in the spring but on examining them +it was found that nearly all had been cracked and the kernels eaten. A +search was made for seeds of various weeds but not more than half a +dozen could be found, while many thousands of empty seed-pods showed how +the birds had lived during the winter. + +In no place are birds more important than in the forests, where they +save hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of valuable timber each +year. In forests there can be no rotation of crops and no cultivation, +and spraying, which keeps down the insect pests in the orchard, is +impossible here because of the expense. It would not pay to spray two or +three times a year a crop of timber that requires a lifetime to grow. So +in the forests the owner must depend entirely on birds for his +protection. How great the destruction of our forests would be is shown +by the fact that the damage at present is estimated at $100,000,000, in +spite of the fact that a vast army of birds is working tirelessly, +summer and winter, to devour the insects! The debt of the forester to +the birds can hardly be estimated. + +A full variety of birds will thoroughly protect a farm and orchard. The +sparrows will destroy the weed seeds; the hawks and kites, flying by +day, will catch the meadow mice and other small mammals, and the owls +will pounce on those that venture forth at night. Of the insect-eating +birds, the larks, wrens, thrushes and sparrows search the ground for +worms, eggs and insects under leaves and logs everywhere. The +nuthatches, vireos, warblers and creepers search every part of the tree, +while the woodpeckers tap beneath the bark for grubs and worms. The +fly-catching birds catch their insect food on the wing among the trees +and branches, and, last of all, the swallows skim high in the air and +catch the few insects that rise high above the tree-tops. + +Thus each family has its part of the work and the good they do is almost +too great to calculate. Without this check it would be impossible for +any green thing to flourish. So vast an amount of food is required to +feed the great army of insects that the task would be impossible in any +other way. + +A brief description of some of the common birds and their food habits is +given here that farmers may know their friends, and that people +everywhere may learn to protect the useful birds and drive out the few +that do the mischief. + +All of these observations have been made by field workers from the +Department of Agriculture, and no statement has been made that has not +been proved by the examination of many bird stomachs at different +seasons. + +Highest of all in the list come the bluebirds. They are among the most +beautiful of our native birds, with their bright blue coats and soft red +breasts. They are sweet singers, and are among the first to return in +the spring to tell us of the return of summer. In addition to this they +have many good habits and absolutely no bad ones. More than +three-fourths of their food consists of insects,--beetles, grasshoppers +and caterpillars. The remainder is weed seeds and fruit, but there were +no reports of cultivated fruits being eaten by bluebirds. On the +contrary they eat the most undesirable of the wild fruit, chokeberry, +pokeberry, Virginia creeper, bitter-sweet and sumac, as well as large +quantities of ragweed seeds. Other birds are equally useful but none +combines usefulness with so much beauty and sweetness of song. + +The tiny wrens are another class of wholly useful birds. Their food +consists almost entirely of insects with a very little grass-seed. They +search every tree, shrub, and vine for caterpillars, spiders and +grasshoppers. + +Sparrows are almost equally useful. The tree sparrow, song sparrow, +chipping sparrow, field sparrow and snowbird or junco are all great +weed-seed destroyers. Many of them remain throughout the winter, when +they feed entirely on the seeds of weeds. Each bird eats at least a +quarter of an ounce of seeds per day, and they are often found by +thousands in a region. At least a half dozen varieties of birds are +feeding in the same ratio all over the country, reducing the crop of +next year's weeds. During the summer they turn to a diet composed partly +of insects and here again they help the farmer by eating the weevils, +leaf-beetles, grasshoppers, bugs and wasps that infest his crops. + +The various species of swallows rank high as insect-eating birds. The +tree, bank, cliff and barn swallows and the purple martins all eat small +beetles, mosquitoes, flying ants and other high-flying insects, and the +number destroyed is almost beyond our power to imagine. + +The most important service performed by swallows, however, is in the +South, where they migrate for the winter. There they feed largely on the +cotton boll-weevil, one of the most destructive of all insects, as we +have seen. The Department of Agriculture is urging strongly that farmers +in the North protect the swallows so that they may winter in the South +in large numbers to feed on the boll-weevil, which, if allowed to +flourish, will affect not only the southern planters, but every user of +cotton goods, and every one who profits in any way by the sale and +manufacture of cotton goods. + +Among swallows, the beautiful and graceful purple martin is most worthy +of protection. Both North and South, the swallows are among the most +useful of all birds to the farmer and fruit grower, and should be +protected from English sparrows and encouraged in every possible way. + +The seventeen species of titmice which inhabit the United States, and +many of which remain all winter, are all insect eaters to a great +extent, eating large quantities of tent-caterpillars, moths and their +eggs, weevils, including the cotton boll-weevil, plum-curculio, ants, +spiders, plant-lice, bugs and beetles. They also eat small seeds, +particularly those of the poison ivy. + +The bush-tit feeds largely on insects that destroy grape-vines and on +the black olive scale. Other species eat most of the scales which infest +fruit and forest trees. + +The rose-breasted grosbeak, while it eats a few green peas, is to be +classed among the wholly beneficial birds, for it is the great natural +destroyer of the Colorado potato beetle. In fact, it eats enough +potato-bugs at a single meal to pay for all the peas eaten in a whole +season. One family of grosbeaks, nesting near the field, will keep an +entire patch cleared of potato-bugs throughout the season. In some parts +of the country the grosbeak feeds largely on the plum scale, the hickory +scale, the locust and oak scales and on the tulip scale, which is very +destructive to shade trees. The black grosbeak is another variety that +deserves encouragement in every way, for it eats the chrysalis of the +codling-moth that is so serious a foe to our apple crop. It eats also +many other injurious insects, such as wire-worms, many of the most +harmful of beetles, caterpillars, and scales. + +Among the most useful birds, we must mention the phoebe, which nests +near houses and lives almost entirely on harmful insects which it +catches on the wing. + +Night hawks eat flying ants in great numbers, as many as eighteen +hundred having been found in a single stomach. They eat insects that fly +by night and are classed among our most useful birds. + +Quails are almost unequalled as weed-destroyers. Throughout the fall and +winter they spend the time destroying weed seeds. In summer they eat +Colorado potato beetles, chinch-bugs, cotton boll-weevils, +squash-beetles, grasshoppers and cutworms. The mother quail, with her +family of twelve to twenty little ones, patrols the fields thoroughly +for insects. Quails should be prized as among a farmer's most valuable +helpers and protected at all seasons. + +Similar in the good work it does is the meadow-lark. Grasshoppers, +caterpillars and cutworms form a large part of its diet, and its +vegetable food consists of weed seeds or waste grain. + +King-birds are useful in protecting poultry and song birds from hawks, +and are also great fly catchers, taking many beetles on the wing. + +Doves eat great quantities of seeds of harmful weeds. They also eat some +grain, but almost altogether after the crop has been gathered. Old +damaged corn and single grains scattered along the roads are eaten, but +there is no complaint of doves doing injury to fields of growing grain. + +The orioles are beautiful, are sweet singers, and no exception can be +taken to their food habits. Caterpillars are their principal article of +food, but plant-and bark-lice, spiders and other insects are also eaten. +Orioles do not eat much vegetable food. They have been accused of eating +peas and grapes, but there seems no evidence to show that this habit is +general. + +The food habits of cuckoos render them very desirable, since they eat +hairy caterpillars, particularly tent-caterpillars, for which they seem +to have an especial fondness, fall web-worms and locusts, besides other +injurious insects, but they are accused of bad habits in relation to +other birds, and can therefore hardly be classed among the wholly useful +birds. Warblers and vireos are among the most helpful birds in an +orchard, devouring large quantities of insects. + +There is no class of birds concerning which it is more necessary that +the farmer should be well informed, than the hawks and owls, since some +of them are wholly good, and of the greatest possible benefit to him and +the fruit grower, while others are extremely harmful in their food +habits. + +The harmful varieties live almost entirely on poultry and wild birds, +and include the goshawk or partridge hawk and the Cooper hawk, which is +a true chicken-hawk and should be recognized by all farmers at sight. + +The goshawk and chicken-hawk, in the amount of damage done, far exceed +all other birds of prey. The sharp-shinned hawk rarely attacks +full-grown poultry, but preys heavily on young chickens and song birds. +In fact, it is known to eat nearly fifty species of our most useful +birds. There is no question that these birds are a serious pest and +should be destroyed, but they should not be confused with other members +of the family which are among the best friends that a farmer has in +keeping his farm clear of small enemies. + +Owls and hawks eat the same class of food, the hawks flying by day and +the owls by night. Owls remain North in winter, while hawks fly farther +south. + +The small species of both eat large quantities of insects, such as +grasshoppers, locusts and beetles. The larger ones are the farmer's +great protection against the meadow-mouse, the most destructive of all +animals to farm crops. It tunnels under fields and eats the roots of +grass, grain and potatoes, eats large amounts of grain and does even +more damage by girdling young trees in orchards. Rabbits injure trees in +the same way, often during the winter ruining an entire orchard in this +manner. + +Squirrels, ground-squirrels, gophers, prairie-dogs, and other small +animals do serious damage in the course of a year on almost every farm. + +The rough-leg hawk feeds entirely on meadow-mice, but if the supply +fails, it eats mice, rabbits and ground-squirrels, but in no instance +attacks birds. Its cousin, the ferruginous rough-leg, lives largely on +ground-squirrels, rabbits, prairie-dogs and pouched gophers. This +species also never attacks birds, and neither do any of the four members +of the kite family. + +Another large class of birds,--the marsh-hawk, Harris hawk, red-tailed +hawk, red-shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, +Swainson hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, +Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared +owl, great gray owl, barred owl, western owl, Richardson owl, +screech-owl, snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pigmy owl and elf +owl--live mostly on destructive mammals, insects, frogs and snakes, but +they eat some birds and some of them occasionally catch poultry. Young +ones do much more harm than the full-grown ones, probably because they +find poultry and birds easier to obtain than other food. These species +all do great good on the farm and in the orchard and if their natural +food is plentiful and the number of the birds of prey limited, they +should be allowed to remain, even though they occasionally do harm; but +they can not be allowed to increase greatly in a region without becoming +a nuisance. + +In another class the golden and bald eagles, pigeon and Richardson +hawks, prairie falcon and great horned owl do considerable harm, and the +good and bad qualities about balance. In a poorly settled region, where +there is plenty of natural food, a few of these birds will bring forth +little complaint, but in a section where there are few ground-squirrels, +prairie-dogs, gophers, rabbits and woodchucks, where poultry is raised +extensively, and useful birds are numerous they will do great harm and +farmers will usually want to keep them down entirely. + +The gyrfalcons, duck-hawks, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper hawk and goshawk +live almost entirely on food that is desired by man,--poultry, game +birds and many varieties of our best insect-destroying birds, and they +eat almost nothing that is harmful to man. The numbers of these birds +should be reduced as much as possible: but in general it may be said +that the birds of prey--the hawks and owls--are among the most, if not +the most, valuable birds that are engaged in helping the farmer by +destroying the natural enemies of agriculture. + +Among the smaller birds which do much good, but of which complaints are +made because they eat some fruit and grain are the woodpeckers, +including the flickers, cedar-birds, robins, cat-birds, thrashers, crows +and blackbirds. + +The woodpeckers are the great natural protection of the forests by +waging constant warfare on the wood-boring insects and ants beneath the +bark where no other birds can reach them. They are equally useful in an +orchard except that here man may only at great trouble and expense +partly hold them in check. Downy woodpeckers are also great eaters of +scales, and the fruit grower need not begrudge the red-headed woodpecker +a meal of cherries or apples, especially as it will usually be found +that it is the wormy fruit that is attacked. + +The flicker or gold-winged woodpecker lives largely on ants, of which he +eats immense quantities, seeking them not only in the trees but on the +ground. + +Robins are so well loved for their cheery song, for their friendliness +to man, and their red breasts coming as a touch of color in returning +spring, that except where they are present in great numbers, there is +little complaint of the fruit they eat, even without taking into account +the good work they accomplish as insect eaters. In fact only four per +cent. of a robin's food is cultivated and a little less than half of it +is wild fruit not prized by man. The remaining half consists of +caterpillars, beetles, spiders, snails and earth-worms. + +The cat-bird is also known as a cherry-eater and he frequently helps +himself from strawberry and raspberry patches. He eats a larger +proportion of cultivated fruit than the robin, but about twice as much +wild fruit, including the sumac and poison ivy. The cat-bird eats many +injurious insects, which constitute only a little less than half of his +food. + +The cedar-bird is sometimes called the cherry bird, and is accused of +being a great cherry-stealer, but an examination of stomachs showed that +only nine birds out of one hundred and fifty-two had eaten any cherries +and that cherries formed only five per cent. of the food of these few. +There is even evidence that this bird prefers wild fruits, which form +its principal food though it eats a few insects. + +The crows and blackbirds are accused of many bad habits, such as pulling +up young corn, destroying large quantities of grain and injuring much +fruit by pecking holes in it which are later entered by insects. Crows +eat fruit to some extent, but the greater part of it is wild. Both crows +and blackbirds are accused of robbing the nests of other birds. +Blackbirds are injurious chiefly because they gather in such large +flocks that when they descend on a field they can eat a large amount of +grain in a short space of time. The greatest good accomplished by the +blackbird is in the spring when it follows the plow in search of +grub-worms, of which it is extremely fond. It also does much good in +destroying insects in the early summer, the young birds being fed almost +entirely on insect food until they are grown. + +Of the crow, Doctor Merriam, who is at the head of this branch of work +in the Department of Agriculture, says, "Instead of being an enemy of +the farmer, as is generally believed, the crow is one of his best +friends and the protector of his crops. True, during corn-planting time, +the crow's bill is turned against the farmer during one month, and one +month only is he his enemy. But during the other eleven months the crow +is really working overtime for him. It eats thousands upon thousands of +destructive insects and bugs every week, and when it comes to feeding +its young, gives them a diet composed almost entirely of worms and +insects that prey upon the crops." + +Another government report says, "The crow should receive much credit for +the insects which it destroys. In the more thickly settled parts of the +country it probably does more good than harm, at least when ordinary +precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn +from it." It is probable that in many parts of the country some farmers +will find it desirable to reduce the number of crows and blackbirds on +their farms. + +The brown thrasher is a beautiful singer and eats many insects, mostly +injurious. It eats some cultivated fruits. It also eats a small amount +of newly planted corn, but at the same time clears the field of May +beetles. Altogether it is a useful bird but not one of the highest +benefit. + +There are a few species of birds of which but little good can be said, +and which it may be desirable to attempt to drive out in many parts of +the United States. Chief of these is the English sparrow. It is of a +quarrelsome disposition and is much given to driving other birds from +their nests. In some districts it has completely expelled some of the +most useful kinds of birds. It exists everywhere in such numbers as to +render it a nuisance, and it may be said to be the greatest pest among +American birds. Its favorite food is dandelion seeds, and it destroys +many thousands of seeds, but as the dandelion does no real injury this +habit does not offset all the harm done. It also eats other weed seeds +but the greatest thing to be said in its favor is that it feeds on the +cottony maple scale. It is probable that in small numbers the English +sparrow might be classed among the useful, or, at least, one of the only +partly harmful birds, but there is no bird whose numbers it is more +desirable to reduce. + +The common blue-jay is accused of some very bad habits, among them +eating the eggs and young of small birds. It is a fruit eater and also +a grain eater and frequently robs corn-cribs and injures newly planted +fields. However, it eats some insects, mice and other small enemies of +the farmer and as it is nowhere very plentiful, and does not live in +flocks, there is not much cause for complaint. However, its cousin, the +California jay, has an extremely bad record. It is a great fruit eater, +and devastates prune, apricot, and cherry orchards. It is a serious +robber of the nests of small birds and hens, and though it eats some +grasshoppers and a very few weed seeds, it is thoroughly disliked by +western fruit growers. It should be greatly reduced in numbers. Another +California bird that has gained a bad reputation is the house finch or +linnet. It does serious harm in the cherry and apricot orchards, not so +much by eating as by pecking at the fruit. It probably pecks, and thus +destroys, five times as much fruit as it eats. As the bird is very +abundant, it sometimes causes the loss of almost the entire crop of a +small fruit grower. It does not deserve protection, for it eats the buds +and blossoms of fruit trees and does little to compensate for all the +harm done. Its best habit is eating woolly plant-lice. + +No article on birds would be complete that does not dwell on the +enormous destruction of birds for trimming hats. As one writer puts it, +we pay eight hundred million dollars a year for hat trimmings, assuming +the insect ravages to be due to the killing of our birds for millinery +purposes. While this is exaggerated, it is undoubtedly true that this is +the largest cause of the destruction of the birds of America. + +The Audubon society says that we, as a nation, use 150,000,000 birds a +year for trimming hats alone and that this single item would save our +crops from insect destruction and largely rid our fields of weeds. + +If a few hundred dollars are stolen from a bank, the greatest efforts +are made to catch the thief, and if possible to get the money back; but +the great army of insects destroy each year, almost as much in money +value as all the national banks in the country have on deposit, and this +wholesale destruction might largely be prevented if every woman and girl +took (and kept) a pledge not to use wings, breasts, or birds on her +hats. There is no objection to the use of ostrich feathers, which are +carefully plucked from the live birds. The feathers grow again, just as +the wool grows on sheep that have been sheared. Neither is there any +objection to using the feathers of the barn-yard fowls which are killed +for food. + +Only a little less is the loss caused by so-called "sportsmen," men who +kill only for the pleasure of shooting, or who, because they like the +taste of quail, shoot as many as they can in a day instead of only +enough to satisfy hunger. Often a farmer sells for a very small amount +the privilege of hunting on his farm, thinking he is making money when +in fact he is losing ten dollars for every one he makes. + +The quail, sparrows and other birds on the farm are destroyed. As a +result the weed seeds are not eaten and a big crop comes up in the +spring. In the summer there are no quail on the farm to destroy insects. +The insects and the weeds together make the crop poorer, and the owner +feels that farming is growing less profitable, when in fact he has +failed to take ordinary precautions to obtain a good crop by protecting +the birds. + +With the huntsman and his bag of birds we may class the small boy with +his rifle or sling-shot. A single boy does little harm but all the boys +in the country taken together do a grave amount of damage. + +Last in the list comes the egg hunters, who by robbing nests can kill +four or five birds at a time, simply for mischief. A party of boys can, +by a day's sport, make a serious difference in the number of birds in a +region where they are not plentiful and thus have a large share in +damaging the crops. + +If, then, birds play so large a part in the welfare of the farm and in +turn in the prices of farm crops, fruit, lumber and cotton cloth, it is +most desirable that every effort be made to reduce the numbers of +harmful birds and to encourage the useful species. + +Many of the states now have excellent laws for the protection of birds; +but without a large number of game wardens, it is difficult to enforce +the laws closely unless the public sentiment is strongly against the +killing of birds. Laws should be made to protect birds against the egg +hunter, (except for the purpose of study, and then a license should be +required), sling-shots should be prohibited, as they already are in many +places. All hunters should be required to have a license, the number of +birds killed by a single person in a single day should be limited, and +certain birds should always be protected by law. These laws should be as +nearly uniform as possible in all the states and there must be a desire +on the part of all the people to see these laws obeyed. + +The boys and girls should be banded together in the schools or in +societies and pledged to protect birds and not to destroy them. The +girls should pledge themselves not to wear birds for ornament. + +Women's clubs might do much to popularize the movement for the +protection of birds, and to that end should try to establish a sentiment +among their members against their use for millinery. + +All these agencies working together will make a vast difference in the +number of birds, and as a result, in the good that they do, but the +great work must be done by farmers themselves. They will need to protect +themselves in certain ways against the harm done by many of the birds +that on the whole are extremely useful. + +To protect poultry from owls do not allow it to roost in the trees; to +protect from hawks, keep the young ones near the house, and if possible +cover their runways with wire netting. + +To protect against grain eating, use scarecrows or put up a dead crow as +a warning. Mixing seed corn with tar so as to coat it will prevent crows +from pulling it up at planting time. + +To protect against fruit eating, plant wild fruits. The best of all +trees for this purpose is the Russian mulberry, which ripens at the same +time that cherries do and is particularly relished by all fruit-eating +birds. If planted in barn-lots, chickens and hogs will eat all the fruit +that falls to the ground, making it serve a double purpose. The fruit of +wild cherry, elder, dogwood, haws, and mountain-ash are eaten by birds, +and if a farm be planted with such trees and bushes in the barn-yard, +along the lanes or in some of those unproductive spots that are to be +found on every farm, birds will be attracted to the farm and will pay +well for themselves, and the farmer's crop of cultivated fruit will be +protected. Birds themselves distribute many seeds, particularly of wild +fruits. + +The farmer who keeps several cats must pay for it in the loss of birds, +for birds will not nest where they are constantly watched by cats. Boxes +for martins and other birds, bits of hay, horse-hair and string +scattered about will often encourage birds to build about an orchard or +farm. A wood-lot, besides paying in other ways, will afford nesting +places for a large number of birds. To place a drinking and bathing +place near the house is one of the best methods of attracting birds, +which will use it constantly. + +By all these methods and a little winter feeding with crumbs, apple +peelings or waste fruit and grain, the farmer will be able to induce a +good variety of birds to nest on his farm, and will receive in return +great protection from the small mammals, insects and weeds that would +lessen the amount of his harvests. + + +REFERENCES + +Relation Between Birds and Insects. Yearbook 486. + +Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution. + +Annual Reports of the National Audubon Society. + +Bird Day. How to Prepare For It. C. C. Babcock. + +Bird Neighbors. John Burroughs. + +Bird enemies. John Burroughs. + +How to Attract the Birds. N. B. Doubleday. + +The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook 1900. + +Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? Yearbook 1907. + +Birds as Weed Destroyers. Yearbook 1898. + +How Birds Affect the Orchard. Yearbook 1900. + +Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers. Yearbook Reprint. + +Birds That Eat Scale Insects. Yearbook Reprint. + +Birds Useful for the Destruction of the Cotton Boll-Weevil. Dept. of +Agriculture Bulletins 57, 64. + +Hawks and Owls From the Standpoint of the Farmer. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 61. + +Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 54. + +Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. Yearbook 1895. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HEALTH + + +When we have improved our soil and replanted our forests and learned the +most economical methods of mining our great deposits of coal, iron, and +other minerals; when we have made the waters do our work and carry our +freight and water our waste places; when we have learned to care for our +birds and our fishes, and taken measures to stop the ravages of insects; +when we have preserved our natural beauties and increased them by +planting trees, shrubs, and flowers, and filling unsightly corners; +there still remains to be considered the greatest subject of all,--the +people who are to enjoy this wonderful inheritance. If they were to be +weak and sick, suffering from all kinds of diseases, dying in great +numbers, all these things would count for little. But men and women, as +they are learning how to conserve their natural resources, are thinking +far more than ever before of health and how to keep it. It is necessary +to think of these things, for as people crowd into cities, where they +live a life different from that which nature intended, sickness and the +death-rate increase greatly. + +Health, by which we mean the possession of a strong, well body, free +from pain, should bring with it great power to work and to think and to +benefit the world; and should also bring great happiness and enjoyment +to the person who possesses it, for though sick people may be happy, and +well people unhappy, yet it is a general rule that to be strong and well +is the first great step toward being happy. + +The question, "Is life worth living?" was once happily answered, "It +depends upon the liver;" and it is true in both senses, for not only +does happiness depend on what one gets out of life, but on good +digestion. It is only the person who feels well who really enjoys life. + +The person who can get up each morning able to do a day's work or have a +day's enjoyment, is the one on whom we must depend for the world's work +and invention. We seldom find a strong, vigorous mind in a weak body. + +On the other hand, the invalid is the idle member of the family or the +community. He can not find pleasure for himself nor do anything to help +others, and not only that, but he must be cared for by others, thus +taking the labor of the sick person himself and of his nurse. It is +coming to be seen that this is a great waste of time, of money, of +work, and of happiness, and people are determining that if these wastes +can be stopped, it is well worth all the time and thought and money +necessary to bring about the change. + +People everywhere are thinking about health, and because of this, +Christian Science, the Emmanuel Movement and the various sects which +practise faith or mental healing have sprung up. + +Hospitals and health officers are doing much for the public health. +Doctors themselves are changing their ideas and are teaching us not only +how to cure but how to prevent disease. + +Doctors are also seeking not only to prevent disease but to find new +ways of treating it. They are discarding drugs in as many cases as +possible, frequently using serums in which cultures from the disease +itself are used for its cure. + +Health means more ability to work, more means of learning, of +accomplishing great things, more pleasures in every day that is lived; +and so it is as important to preserve health, in order to enjoy life, as +it is to prevent death. We can realize how few persons have perfect +health by noting the common salutation "How do you do?" or "How are +you?" + +Serious sickness is such as renders a person entirely unable to work. +Benefit societies have found that the average number of days of sickness +per year from each person under seventy years of age is ten, of which +at least two are spent in bed. + +About a million and a half people die each year in the United States, +and it is estimated that twice that number, or three million persons, +are constantly unable even to care for themselves. The effect of this is +felt on the patient himself, in suffering, in loss of time in which he +is unable to earn money, and in the amount spent for doctors, medicine, +and nursing. It is felt on the family, in which the household machinery +is thrown out while the wife and mother nurses the sick members of the +family, or is herself too ill to work, or when the father's income stops +on account of sickness. + +The entire community suffers from the constant idleness of three million +persons, as well as from the deaths which withdraw a still larger number +of persons from actual work for a period of two to five days during the +time of death and burial of the bodies of members of the family. + +Then there is all the long train of small ailments, which do not make us +seriously ill, often do not even keep us from work, but which do take +away from the pleasure and enjoyment of life, which render work a burden +instead of a delight, and lessen our ability to work by many degrees. + +Not only this, but they all have within them the possibility of +developing into serious diseases. Such lesser troubles are colds, +headache, catarrh, dyspepsia, nervousness, neuralgia, sore throat, skin +eruptions, rheumatism, toothache, earache, affections of the eyes, +lameness, sprains, bruises, cuts, and burns. + +Civilization has brought us great blessings but it has also brought with +it many dangers to health. Professor Irving Fisher of Yale says: + +"The invention of houses has made it possible for mankind to spread all +over the globe but it is responsible for tuberculosis or consumption. +The invention of cooking has widened the variety of man's diet but has +led to the decay of his teeth. The invention of the alphabet and +printing has produced eye strain with all its attendant evils. The +invention of chairs has led to spinal curvature, etc., etc. Yet it would +be foolish even if it were possible to attempt to return to nature in +the sense of abolishing civilization. + +"The cure for eye strain is not in disregarding the invention of +reading, but in introducing the invention of glasses. The cure for +tuberculosis is not in the destruction of houses but in ventilation. It +is a little knowledge that is dangerous. Civilization can, with fuller +knowledge, bring its own cure, and make the 'kingdom of man' far larger +than the 'nature' people can ever dream of." + +Until within the last few years, sickness and death were regarded from +a religious standpoint. All sickness was to be borne with patience and +resignation because all our sufferings were sent by an all-wise +Providence. But since science has clearly proved that typhoid fever is +usually caused by an impure water supply, and that boiling the water +would prevent the suffering, expense and possible death; that the +dreaded yellow fever can be banished from communities that destroy the +eggs of certain mosquitoes; and many other facts in regard to health +have been learned, a great change has come over the popular belief. It +is seen that, to a great extent, man holds his own fate and is +responsible for his own suffering, and people are eager to learn more +about their own bodies, how to cure them and how to keep them well. + +This knowledge has already done much to prolong life. The average length +of life in India, where no attempt is made to check disease, is +twenty-five years. In England the length of life has doubled in a few +generations. In Sweden, where the people live a sanitary life, the +average is over fifty years, in this country, forty-five years. + +Insurance companies and benefit societies keep close watch of their +members and they report that a person ten years old may now count on +living to be sixty years of age. That is the average age, whereas a +hundred years ago the average expectation of life at that age was only +fifty-three years. + +And this is true in spite of the fact that people have been crowding +into cities, that they are living on richer foods, taking less exercise +in the open air, living in houses which shut out the fresh air, and +doing dozens of other things that have tended to lower rather than to +raise the average. + +We can scarcely realize the possibilities of life if, with all the +present scientific knowledge of disease and health, we could have a +generation of people living according to nature's laws. + +Life can be not only lengthened but strengthened. There are many +instances of frail, feeble children who have developed into +exceptionally strong men and women. One of the most noted is Von +Humboldt, the great scientist, who as a child was very weak physically, +and, he himself says, was mentally below the average, but who lived to +the age of ninety, and developed one of the greatest minds of his +century. + +Doctor Horace Fletcher, noted for his theories in regard to eating, was +rejected at the age of forty-six for life insurance but so strengthened +his constitution by careful living that by the time he was fifty he not +only obtained his life insurance but celebrated his birthday by riding +one hundred and ninety miles on his bicycle. + +If we could imagine a person who all his life had lived in a locality +where the air was pure; in a house where fresh air entered day and +night, and which was heated to a uniform temperature; whose food had +always consisted of the most pure and nutritious material prepared in +the most wholesome way, eaten slowly and in proper quantity; if bathing, +sleep, rest, exercise, brain work and pleasure had each its due +proportion; if he could be always guarded from contagion and accidents, +we can imagine that such a person would be free from disease and that +death might be long deferred. Of course, death can not be prevented, +only postponed, but disease can be prevented, and so we can increase the +chances of postponing death. Doctors tell us that under ideal conditions +there would be only one cause of death--old age. + +There is no question that under such conditions life could be prolonged +far beyond what is now usually considered its span. One hundred years or +more might easily, we imagine, become the average of life, instead of +the great exception. + +We can hope for these things in the future though it will take several +generations at least to bring them all about, but we need not wait so +long for some of the best results. There are many things that can be +done at once to prolong life and prevent illness. Since we know that +many diseases are preventable and we know the suffering and sorrow, as +well as expense, that come from sickness and premature death, we should +all eagerly unite in doing all that we can to stop these ravages. + +There are two agencies that will help to bring this about: individual or +private means, and general or public means. Both are absolutely +necessary if we are to be successful in stamping out disease. Professor +Fisher says: "Personal hygiene means the strengthening of our defenses +against disease. Public hygiene seeks to destroy the germs before they +reach our bodily defenses." + +In the first place, in order to learn what we may do to lengthen the +span of life we must learn something of the nature of disease. Doctors +tell us that diseases are of two classes. The first are hereditary, or +inherited; those which pass from parents to their children and often run +through an entire family. It is more often the _tendency_ to disease +that is inherited, rather than the disease itself, and so even these +inherited diseases may often be prevented by careful living. + +Diseases which may be inherited include rheumatism, gout, scrofula, +diabetes, cancer and insanity. This class of diseases is the most +difficult to prevent and to cure. For some of them no cure has been +found. + +The other class comprises the diseases of environment, or personal +surroundings,--that is, our manner of living both as regards our private +life and our relations to other people. These diseases are largely +preventable and it is with them that most of the work of prevention is +to be carried on. + +A disease is considered preventable if, by using the best known means of +treatment, it might be prevented or cured, so that either the disease or +the death usually resulting from it would be avoided. + +Of course, not all deaths from a given disease could be prevented even +with the best known means. Infant diseases constitute one class which is +considered most hopeful of betterment through a pure milk supply and +better hygiene; and yet many authorities believe that not more than half +the deaths could be prevented owing to the large part played by weather +conditions, feeble constitutions, and other unchangeable conditions. + +Preventable diseases may be divided into six classes: + +(1) Diseases caused by lack of proper hygiene. + +(2) Diseases caused by bad habits. + +(3) Contagious diseases. + +(4) Diseases caused by insects. + +(5) Accidents, wounds, or operations and their resulting diseases. + +(6) Diseases remedied by slight means. + +We will treat each of these in turn. + +(1) By proper hygiene is meant the proper treatment of the body as to +breathing, eating, drinking, sleeping, bathing and rest. This treatment +includes plenty of fresh air, both day and night, keeping outdoors as +much as possible, and in well-aired houses the rest of the time. +Vigorous but not violent exercise, brisk walking, regular physical +exercise, such as is practised in gymnasiums, will go far toward keeping +the body in good condition. + +The question of fresh air in the home is one of the most important +points to be considered. The bedrooms, the living-rooms, and the kitchen +should have the air changed constantly, not once or twice a day. In +order to prevent drafts, and that the house may not be kept at too low a +temperature in winter, a board, eight to twelve inches in height, may be +placed across the bottom of a window that is raised. + +Many diseases, not only of the throat and lungs, but of the other +organs, may be prevented by the constant introduction of fresh air into +our rooms day and night. + +Tuberculosis causes more deaths than any other single disease in +America, and the sickness and disability continue longer than with most +diseases. It is extremely contagious, being a germ disease, and not an +inherited one, as was formerly supposed. It increased very rapidly for +a few years but is now slightly decreasing, owing to better knowledge of +its cause and cure. + +Its prevention and its cure both lie largely in fresh air. Physicians +say that no one who lives an open-air life with plenty of fresh air +night and day will contract it. The cure which is restoring hundreds to +health is to find a place where the air is pure, and live and sleep +practically outdoors; to eat as much milk, raw eggs, and meat as can be +digested and to observe the other rules of hygiene. Incipient cases, +those in the earliest stages, may sometimes be cured while continuing at +work by following the other rules as nearly as possible. + +On account of the extremely contagious nature of tuberculosis, special +care should be taken to prevent its spread. The sputum coughed up from +the lungs is the principal carrier of the disease, and the person who, +having tuberculosis, even in its earliest stages, spits in a public +place, is an enemy of mankind, for he endangers the lives of hundreds of +others. The only excuse for this is that he usually does it through +ignorance, but the knowledge of the danger should be so impressed on all +the people that no one could plead ignorance, and for a consumptive to +spit on the street should be counted as much a crime morally as for a +smallpox patient deliberately to expose others to the disease. + +Great care should of course be taken in the home of a consumptive +patient to prevent the infection from spreading through the family. +Separate sleeping-rooms, thorough disinfection, and the use of paper +napkins which are burned at once, to take the place of handkerchiefs, +should be some of the means employed. + +Pneumonia, pleurisy, bronchitis, grip, colds, and catarrh are some of +the other ailments which may be largely banished by living the outdoor +life. The method of treatment is medical, is different in each case, and +should be decided by the family physician. The constant habit of +breathing impurities, day after day and year after year, brings about a +gradual change in the tissue of the lungs. + +In the same way, simple food to take the place of the rich, heavy foods +eaten in large quantities, will prevent many of the diseases of the +stomach, liver, and kidneys, and improve the general health and +strength. A diet of less meat and more eggs has been tried by football +teams in training and found to give an equal amount of strength with +greater endurance. A diet of milk, cereals, vegetables, nuts, and +fruits, raw or simply cooked, with a small amount of animal foods, will +perhaps give the best results in this climate. Food fried in fats, rich +pastries and gravies are the hardest to digest, and better health will +usually follow discontinuing them. + +The purity of the food eaten should receive careful consideration. +Artificially preserved foods are usually more or less dangerous, for +although dealers urge that the poison contained in them is too small to +do harm we must remember that it is not the single dose that does harm, +but the many foods each containing a very small amount of poison, taken +day after day. + +Pure food laws, national and state, have done great good in driving +adulterated and impure foods out of the markets by requiring all foods +to be properly labeled. + +Thorough mastication or chewing of the food is only a little less +important than the character of the food itself. Rapid swallowing +without chewing in childhood lays the foundation for many of the +digestive diseases of later life. If food be thoroughly masticated much +that would otherwise be hard to digest can be eaten without bad results. +One of the best known examples of this is meat, which, while full of +nourishment, sets up in the large intestine a condition known as +"auto-intoxication," a species of digestive poison. If meat be eaten +slowly and chewed thoroughly, this condition is almost entirely absent. + +Pure drinking water is almost as necessary as pure food. We take water +into the body for three principal purposes: first, it is needed to +dissolve and dilute various substances and carry them from one part of +the body to another; second, it forms a large part of the blood and +other important fluids of the body, and is a part of many substances +formed in the body; third, it serves to carry from the body the worn-out +and useless tissues, the waste products of the body. + +These are extremely poisonous and must be promptly disposed of to +prevent sickness. This can not be done except by an ample supply of +water. Few persons, especially grown persons, drink enough water. Ten +glasses of pure water are needed properly to supply the body. +"Insufficient water drinking is perhaps the commonest cause of the +interruption of the normal life processes," says Doctor Theron C. +Stearns. + +But the common drinking cup in public places probably causes far more +disease than the drinking itself prevents. + +Particles of dead skin and disease-germs are left in the cup by each +drinker. Some of the most serious diseases may be carried in this way. A +cup made of heavy waterproof paper, cheap enough to be thrown away +after being used once, is a recent invention that is highly recommended +for use by school children and those who are obliged to drink away from +home. The water in a public drinking-fountain should come out in a small +steady stream so that those who have no cups may drink from the stream +itself as it rises. Many school-houses are so equipped. + +Sleep is a necessary part of good hygiene. It promotes health and +prevents disease. It is largely in sleep that the system renews itself, +that growth takes place, that waste products are thrown off, and the +body repairs its wastes. No less than eight hours for grown persons and +ten for children should be employed in sleep. Late hours and sleepless +nights are the frequent cause of nervousness, eye strain, nervous +prostration, and the beginning of brain troubles and insanity. + +Bathing is also necessary to good health. The pores of the skin play a +large part in carrying off the wastes of the body, through the +perspiration, and if these become clogged, this poisonous material +remains in the system. We have all noticed how a bath refreshes and +gives tone to the entire body by opening the pores. + +The skin is composed of minute scales, arranged in layers like fish +scales. The tiny crevices between these form a lodging place for dirt +and germs. If these remain, our own bodies are constantly exposed to +their infection, if they drop off, as some are constantly doing, we may +spread the contagion to others. This is strikingly illustrated by +scarlet fever, smallpox, and similar diseases where these minute scales +are the sole source of contagion. + +Exercise is another necessity of health. Regular physical culture in a +gymnasium will develop any muscle or part of the body almost at will, +but if this be not possible much can be accomplished in developing the +body by simple work. Gladstone found health in chopping wood, Roosevelt +in a daily tennis game, and President Taft in golf. Many find it in +gardening or farming. These all help to develop vigorous bodies. + +Anything which brings into moderate play any set of muscles, which +increases the circulation, or stimulates the secretion is beneficial. +House-work, which, in its various forms, brings into use all the muscles +of the body, is a wholesome exercise for women. Those who do no +house-work seldom substitute for it any other active exercise, and many +diseases which are caused by deposits of waste tissues that are not +thrown off by the body, are the result. + +Rest--recreation--pleasure--these are as necessary to health as +anything else, but the American people are slow to learn the need of +them. We hear much of nervous prostration as an American disease. It is +due to a variety of causes,--high living, late hours, ill-ventilated +rooms, and climate; but chief of all the causes is the long hours of +work under strong pressure. Work done in a hurry and without rest may +accomplish many things, but it invariably causes a corresponding loss of +nerve force. Fatigue, by checking bodily resistance, gives rise to all +kinds of poisons in the system. Every part of the body feels the ill +effect of continued exhaustion. + +Of the diseases caused by bad habits, it can only be said that all the +evils they cause, directly and indirectly, are entirely preventable; +that they are usually wrong morally, and that the suffering which +results is sure. + +Under this head come the effects of drinking, of the use of tobacco and +drugs, and of bad personal and social habits. It is only necessary to +refrain from these bad habits to prevent all the diseases that arise +from them, with all their train of suffering, poverty and crime. + +It is not the province of this book to deal with scientific temperance, +but merely to state a few of the most serious results of the use of +alcohol and other poisons. The white corpuscles of the blood have been +called our "standing army," because they are natural germ-destroyers. +One class of the white cells has the power of motion, and another class +has the power of absorbing outside matter, such as disease-germs. One +destroys the germs and the other moves them through the blood and +carries them off with the waste products of the body. + +The white corpuscles thus stand as the defenders of the body, ready to +destroy the germs as they enter, and are, for each individual, the best +of all preventives of germ diseases. The person whose blood is lacking +in white cells is always liable to "catch" contagious or infectious +diseases, and the one who has that element of the blood in proper +proportion is best fitted to withstand disease. + +Leading physicians believe that the greatest harm that comes from the +use of alcohol lies in the fact that nothing else so weakens the +resistance of the white corpuscles, and that therefore the person who is +an habitual user of alcohol lacks the power to repel all classes of +disease. English and American life insurance companies give us almost +exactly the same figures, which show that of insured persons, the death +rate is twenty-three per cent. higher among those who use alcohol than +among total abstainers. It is probable that the proportion of persons +carrying life insurance is much less among the drinking classes and that +if we had complete statistics the difference would be far greater than +appears in the life insurance tables. + +Of time lost by sickness, directly and through other diseases caused by +alcoholism, drugs and other bad habits, the percentage is very great, +according to all hospital records. + +The number of prominent persons who have died of "tobacco heart" +indicates that the rate of those whose heart action is weakened by the +use of tobacco is probably very large. + +Doctor Morrow says that if we could put an end at once to diseases +caused by bad habits it would result in closing at least one-half of our +institutions for defective persons, and almost all of our penal +institutions. + +There is another long list of diseases which are contagious, that is, +which one person may transmit to another. These are usually serious but +their spread may be largely prevented by keeping the sick person alone, +except for the necessary nurses, quarantining the house and disinfecting +everything when the period of infection is past. + +In this class are smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, mumps, +chicken-pox and whooping-cough. + +These latter are the so-called "childish diseases" which it was formerly +considered impossible to escape, and little attempt was made to guard +against them. Now they are recognized as serious, whooping-cough for its +close relation to brain and spinal trouble; measles for their effect on +the eyes and lungs; chicken-pox for its similarity to smallpox, and +mumps for its general lowering of the tone of the system, allowing other +diseases to gain a foothold. + +Special serum treatment for diphtheria and vaccination for smallpox have +greatly reduced the danger from these once greatly dreaded diseases. + +Of preventable diseases none should receive more attention than typhoid +fever, because it is a great scourge and yet it can be prevented by +simple means. If we understand that typhoid is a dirt disease, that it +comes only from dirt, we shall feel it a disgrace to have an epidemic of +typhoid, though one of the saddest features about it is that we must +suffer for the sins of others. The one who is attacked by typhoid fever +may not be the one who has left dirt for the disease to breed in. + +Typhoid fever germs are bred chiefly in manure piles, sewers, or +cess-pools, and would not be transmitted to man directly, but there are +several indirect ways in which they may be carried. Flies also breed in +the same places. Their legs become covered with typhoid germs, and then +they fly into houses directly on the food and cooking utensils. This is +one of the most common ways in which the disease is carried, and +doctors tell us that the common house-fly should be known as the +"typhoid fly" so that people may know the serious danger that lurks in +what was formerly considered as nothing worse than an annoying foe to +clean housekeeping. + +If houses are thoroughly screened, if cess-pools, manure piles and +garbage are kept tightly covered, screened, or, still better, +disinfected with chloride of lime, there will be no breeding-places left +for flies and this will remove one of the greatest dangers. + +The other danger lies in a polluted water or milk supply. Every sewer +that is carried into a stream, every manure pile that drains into a +water course is a menace to health. + +Very frequently the farm well for watering stock is near the barn,--near +the manure pile, which, as it drains, carries down millions of typhoid +germs to the water-level below. The well becomes infected, the family +drink from it, and soon there may be several cases of typhoid fever in +the home. + +Worst of all, the milk pails are rinsed at the well, and all the milk +that is poured into them spreads the germs wherever the milk may be +sold. In this way an epidemic may be carried to an entire town, and to +persons who themselves have taken every precaution against the disease. + +Drinking water should be boiled unless one is sure of the water-supply, +and surface wells are never safe unless we know that they drain only +from clean sources, and then the water should be analyzed frequently. +Boiling absolutely destroys typhoid and other germs, and well repays the +extra work it makes. One case of typhoid fever causes more work than +boiling the water for years, if we consider the work only. + +If you can not buy pasteurized milk, and are not sure of conditions +about the dairy, your milk should be boiled, or, still better, +sterilized at home by putting it in bottles or other containers, and +placing in a vessel of hot water, keeping the milk for several hours +about half-way to the boiling point, then cooling gradually. + +All these means of prevention are troublesome and require time and work, +but as the result in health for the family is sure, every housekeeper +should gladly take this extra burden on herself if it be necessary. In +some states and many cities, the laws governing dairies are now so +strict that there is no need of doing this work in the home. This care +in the dairies should be insisted on everywhere, even if it raises the +price of milk, because it means the saving of many doctor and drug bills +and also raises the standard of public health. + +Yellow fever was formerly dreaded more than any other single disease +because it was so wide-spread, so fatal, and was thought to be violently +contagious, but during the Spanish-American War it was proved that it is +not contagious at all, but comes only from the bite of a certain +mosquito, the stegomia, which is usually found only in hot climates. It +is conveyed in this way: the mosquito bites a yellow fever patient; for +twelve days it is harmless, but after that time it may infect every +person that it bites. + +If every yellow fever patient could be screened with netting to prevent +his being bitten, we could prevent the yellow fever mosquito from +becoming infected. Further, if we can prevent healthy people from being +bitten by fever-infected mosquitoes, they will escape the disease, and +still further, if we can destroy the eggs of mosquitoes, we can entirely +obviate all danger of yellow fever in a community. + +The mosquito breeds only in water; by having all cisterns, rain-water +barrels, and other water containers carefully covered, and by spreading +the surface of pools of standing water, especially dirty water, covered +with greenish scum, with a thick coating of kerosene oil, we can prevent +the eggs from hatching. This has been done in many communities in Cuba +and the southern part of the United States, and has resulted in +completely stamping out the disease in those places. + +Malaria is caused by another mosquito, called the anopheles and while +malaria is seldom fatal as is yellow fever, it causes much suffering and +loss of time, and strong efforts should be made to prevent it. The same +measures that are used to prevent yellow fever will banish malaria from +any community. They are the screening of patients to prevent spreading +the disease; screening all houses closely and keeping close watch for +mosquitoes in the house, and covering all ponds in the neighborhood with +oil. New Jersey mosquitoes were formerly known far and wide, but such an +active campaign has been waged against them, that they have been almost +completely driven from the state. + +The ordinary mosquito has never been found to do any harm beyond the +discomfort of its bite. + +Of other diseases caused by insects, an affection of the eyes called +pink-eye is carried by very tiny flies, and the dreaded bubonic plague +is supposed to be transferred from sick people to well ones by the bites +of fleas, which in turn are brought to this country by rats. + +The hook-worm which affects so many persons in the South is often called +"the lazy disease" since the persons afflicted with it are not totally +disabled, but are lacking in energy and vigor because the small insects +take from the blood the red corpuscles which should carry the digested +food all over the body. These insects can be destroyed by medicine, of +which only a few cents worth is required to cure a case and make the +patient fit for work and enjoyment. In Porto Rico almost 300,000 cases +have been treated by the United States government in the last six years. + +Another matter which should receive careful consideration is the large +number of preventable accidents. Mining accidents come in a few cases +from failure to provide the best appliances in the mines, but in many +cases are due to carelessness or ignorance of the operators themselves. +There still remain a large number of accidents which occur in the best +regulated mines, and when no instance of special carelessness can be +traced. For years these disasters have puzzled mining engineers, but +within the last few months it has been discovered that the minute +particles of coal dust in a dry mine completely fill the air, so that +the air itself is ready to burn. + +When a light is taken into this coal-filled atmosphere, it bursts into +flame, causing a violent explosion. Sprinkling the mines, forcing a fine +spray of water through the air of every part of the mines, it is +thought, will prevent this class of accidents, which have furnished long +lists of killed and injured each year. + +Reports show that one miner is killed and several injured for every one +hundred thousand tons of coal mined. The mining accidents of one year +total 2,500 killed and 6,000 seriously injured. + +Other industries do not cause such wholesale injuries, but there are +thousands of individual accidents each year where the injury varies from +mangled fingers to death. + +When the cause is failure to provide suitable safeguards to machinery, +or to warn employees of danger, the penalty to the employers should be +made severe, so that no consideration of money will prevent them from +taking precautions. More often, however, the injury is due to the +carelessness of the men or to the fact that they try to run machines +with which they are unfamiliar. + +Manual training schools, night schools for working-men, with a short +apprenticeship in the running of machinery and an explanation of the +dangers, will go far to prevent this class of accidents, but the fact +will still remain, that often those who are most familiar with machinery +become careless and are more liable to injury than beginners. + +The number of accidents that have been added to the world's list by +automobiles, both to those riding and to persons who are run over by +them, is great and is in a large measure due to carelessness in handling +the machine or to reckless driving. + +The entire number of accidents in the United States, including railway +accidents, reaches the immense total of sixty thousand killed and many +times that number injured. A most appalling waste of life and labor +value! + +Professor Ditman says, "Of 29,000,000 workers in the United States over +500,000 are yearly killed or crippled as a direct result of the +occupations in which they are engaged--more than were killed and wounded +throughout the whole Russo-Japanese War. More than one-half this +tremendous sacrifice of life is needless." + +Until the last quarter of a century there was a large addition to the +death rate each year from the blood poisoning following operations and +injuries making open wounds. It was not until the discovery of the germs +which cause septic poisoning that deaths from these causes could be +checked. The use of antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, alcohol, and +various other preparations, the boiling of all surgical instruments, and +the boiling or baking of all articles used in the treatment of open +wounds and sores has reduced the death rate at least one-half. + +The rate could be lowered much more if all sores were treated as +surgical cases and carefully sterilized from the beginning. About +eighty-five deaths out of every hundred from these causes might be +prevented. + +Every Fourth of July a great many entirely preventable deaths and minor +accidents occur. The toy pistol has come to be considered almost as +deadly as the larger variety. The tiny "caps" that are used in them are +fired back into the hand of the person shooting them, tiny particles of +powder enter the skin, burrowing into the flesh, and the skin closes +over them, shutting out the air. If these particles carry with them +tetanus germs, as is often the case, because these germs are found +chiefly in the dirt of the street where most of this shooting is done, +lock-jaw or tetanus, a severe form of blood-poisoning, results, and is +usually fatal. The same results come less frequently from fire-crackers +and other explosives, and in addition many accidents which injure hands, +eyes, and other parts of the body, are the result of the use of the +heavier explosives. + +The Pasteur Treatment is saving many lives each year by treating cases +of infection from "mad dogs" and other animals affected with +hydrophobia. + +Among the diseases which can be remedied by slight means are enlarged +tonsils and adenoid growths back of the nose, both of which can be +removed by a slight and almost painless operation, but which, if allowed +to develop, often cause serious throat and lung troubles, deafness, and +weakened minds. Slight defects of the eyes can be remedied by the +wearing of glasses, but which if unchecked give rise to various nerve +and spinal diseases as well as more serious eye troubles. It is believed +now that most of the blindness of later life could be prevented by +proper care of the eyes in early life and by prompt attention to slight +defects of the eyes when they begin. + +Doctor Walter Cornell, who has made a study of eye strain says, "Eye +strain is the chief cause of functional diseases. It is almost the sole +cause of headache, is the frequent cause of digestive diseases, of +spinal curvatures, and indirectly of neurasthenia and hysteria." + +Decayed teeth in children, slight in themselves, give rise to more +serious troubles in later life,--ill-shaped mouths and jaws and crooked +teeth result from teeth that have been drawn too early in life. Decayed +teeth lead also to many stomach and digestive troubles. + +Medical inspection in the schools shows a surprising number of children +suffering from these minor troubles. About 80,000 children were +examined, and the records show that out of every one hundred children +examined sixty-six needed the services of a doctor, surgeon, or dentist, +and some needed all three. + +Forty out of each hundred had badly neglected teeth. + +Thirty-eight had enlarged glands of the neck. + +Eighteen had enlarged tonsils. + +Ten had growths of the nose. + +Thirty-one needed glasses. + +Six needed more nourishing food. + +This meant that more than 52,000 of the number needed some medical care +that they would not have received at home because their parents had +never noticed the need of it. Every one of them could by prompt +attention, a small dentist's bill, a slight operation of the throat or +nose, or the use of glasses, (almost 25,000 needed glasses) be saved +great suffering or inability to work in later life. + +As we learn more of disease, and especially of germ diseases, we are +oppressed by the feeling that we are in constant danger, but we must +bear in mind that it is the weak and unfit that are attacked, and that +fitness, while partly inherited, is almost altogether a matter of proper +hygiene. Keeping our bodily defenses in good condition against disease +is as much a matter of necessity and good policy as keeping the defenses +of a city in fighting condition in time of war. + +That life may be prolonged and so strengthened that the average height, +weight, and endurance will be increased, admits of no doubt. The same +rule of cultivation runs through all nature. The original or natural +apple was a small, sour, bitter crab. The difference between that and +the finest products of western orchards, is altogether a matter of +cultivation, selection, and proper treatment. In 1710 the average weight +of dressed cattle did not exceed three hundred and seventy pounds. Now +it is not far from one thousand pounds. An equal change could be made in +the human race, but because we believe so fully in personal liberty to +live our lives as we choose, little has actually been done to raise the +human standard. + +The care and hygiene of children is receiving universal attention, with +the result of a wonderful reduction in the sickness and death of +children, but as yet comparatively few grown persons apply these lessons +to their own lives, and the rates for older persons remain almost +unchanged. + +When individuals have done all that they can, there still remains much +that must be done by the city, the state, and the nation. Boards of +health can do much toward controlling epidemics by placing infected +households under quarantine, by compelling householders who are ignorant +or careless to clean their premises and to take other precautions for +the public health. + +Hospitals, both public and private, have done excellent work, not only +in curing disease but in gaining more definite knowledge of the nature +of diseases through the study of large numbers of cases. + +The cleaning of streets and the removal of garbage regularly are among +the great factors in keeping a city in a sanitary condition. New Orleans +and some of the cities of Cuba and Porto Rico show strikingly what may +be done in that direction. + +Medical inspection of schools is a new and valuable aid to health. +Epidemics of childish diseases which sweep through the schools with a +fearful record of illness and a lesser one of death, may often be +checked entirely by the close watch of the medical inspector, who +removes the first patients from the schools when the disease is in its +beginning. + +Public playgrounds for children in cities have an influence that it is +as good for health as it is for morals, providing, as it does, fresh air +and active exercise for children. Open air schools for tubercular +children are being operated in several cities with excellent results in +health and school work. + +Many states are making an organized effort to fight tuberculosis by +establishing fresh-air colonies where, with pure air, rest and plenty of +the most nourishing food, patients are restored to health. + +Care of epileptics and the insane by the state, with proper hygiene and +treatment, accomplishes many cures. + +The nation is doing excellent work in a few lines, notably the Pure Food +Bureau and the Marine Hospital Corps, but perfected organization of all +the forces is lacking. The Department of Agriculture has done a +wonderful work in investigating and curbing insect pests that injure +farm crops and trees, and in stamping out disease among live stock. +Forty-six million dollars have been spent and well spent in the work in +the last few years, but it is a matter of reproach that more pains are +taken to save the lives of cattle and farm crops than human lives. + +There should be a strong central Bureau of Health with power and money +scientifically to investigate disease, to distribute information as the +Department of Agriculture does to farmers, and to carry out their ideas, +as do state and city boards of health. + +We have dealt with only one side of the question--the suffering and +sorrow; but in a work on conservation, we must consider also the money +question, the loss to the nation in time and money of these great wastes +of health and life. + +There are no trustworthy statistics as to wages. The average yearly +earnings of all persons, from day laborers to presidents, is estimated +at seven hundred dollars; but as not more than three-fourths of the +people are actual workers, three-fourths of this amount, or five +hundred and twenty-five dollars is taken as the average wage. + +From these figures the money value of a person under five years is given +at ninety-five dollars; from five to ten years, at nine hundred and +fifty dollars; from ten to twenty years at $2,000; from twenty to thirty +at $4,000; thirty to fifty years at $4,000; fifty to eighty at $2,900 +and over eighty at $700 or less. The average value of life at all ages +is $2,900 and the 93,000,000 persons living in this country would be +worth in earning power the vast sum of $270,000,000,000. This is +probably a low estimate but is more than double all our other wealth +combined. + +Now let us see how much of this vital wealth is wasted. As the average +death rate is at least eighteen out of each thousand, we have 1,500,000 +as the number of deaths in the United States each year. Of these, +forty-two per cent., or 630,000 are classed as preventable--so that a +number equal to the entire population of the city of Boston die each +year whose deaths are as unnecessary as is the waste of our forests by +fire. + +If some great plague should carry off all the people of Boston, not the +people of the United States only, but of the whole world would be roused +by the appalling calamity and every possible means would be employed to +prevent other cities from sharing such a fate; but because these +preventable deaths are not in one city, but are widely scattered, we +have long remained indifferent to this terrible and needless waste. + +Then there are always 3,000,000 persons ill, 1,000,000 of whom are of +working age. If, as before, we count only three-fourths of them as +actual workers, we find a yearly direct loss from sickness of +$500,000,000 in wages. The daily cost of nursing, doctor bills, and +medicine is counted at one dollar and fifty cents, which makes for the +3,000,000 sick, a yearly cost for these items of more than +$1,500,000,000. What should we think if nearly all of the people of the +city of New York were constantly sick, and were spending for doctors, +nurses, and medicine as much money as Congress appropriates to run every +department of the government! + +It is estimated that sickness and death cost the United States +$3,000,000,000 annually, of which at least a third, probably one-half, +is preventable. Is it not well worth while, then, from a money +standpoint alone, to use every effort to conserve our national health? +Conservation of health and life, going hand in hand with conservation of +national resources, will give us not only a better America, but better, +stronger, happier, more enlightened Americans. What a new world would be +opened to us if we could have a nation with no sickness or suffering! +That is the ideal, and everything that we can do toward realizing that +ideal is a great step in human progress. + + +REFERENCES + +Report on National Vitality. Committee of One Hundred. (Fisher.) + +The Nature of Man. Metchnikoff. + +The Prolongation of Life. Metchnikoff. + +The New Hygiene. Metchnikoff. + +Vital Statistics. Farr. + +The Kingdom of Man. Lankester. + +Cost of Tuberculosis. Fisher. + +School Hygiene. Keating. + +Economic Loss Through Insects That Carry Disease. Howard. + +Report of Associated Fraternities on Infectious, Contagious, and +Hereditary Diseases. + +Conservation of Life and Health by Improved Water Supply. Kober. + +Backward Children in the Public Schools. Davis. + +Dangers to Mine Workers. (Mitchell.) Report Governor's Conference. + +Tuberculosis in the U. S. Census Report 1908. + +Industrial Accidents. Bureau of Labor Pamphlet, 1906. + +Factory Sanitation and Labor Protection. Dept. of Labor, No. 44. + +How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. Dept. of Agriculture. +Bulletin 155. + +Public Health and Water Pollution. Bulletin 93. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +BEAUTY + + +America has another resource that differs from all the others, and yet +is no less valuable to us as a nation, for it is upon natural beauty +that we must depend to attract visitors and settlers from other +countries, and also to develop love of country in our own people, and to +arouse in them all the higher sentiments and ideals. + +The love of romance and poetry is awakened only by the sight of +beautiful objects, and that nation will produce the highest class of +citizens which has most within it to kindle these lofty ideas. The +savage cares only for the comfort of his body, but as civilization +advances, man devotes more and more thought to those pleasures that come +only through his mind and the cultivation of his tastes. + +The United States is particularly fortunate in this respect, for here is +everything to inspire a love of beauty. There is the beauty of changing +seasons, of our wonderful autumn forest coloring, of rivers, mountains, +lakes, sea, and shore. + +In addition to the beauty of our landscapes, which is everywhere to be +found, there are many special beauties which are among the world's +wonder-places, and which are visited yearly by thousands of sight-seers, +and each year they attract a greater number of visitors from other +lands. Some of the most remarkable of these are Niagara Falls, the +Yosemite Valley, with its crowning glory, the Yosemite Falls, the +Hetch-Hetchy Falls, Mammoth Cave, the Garden of the Gods, the Grand +Cañon of the Colorado, the Agatized Forests of Arizona, Yellowstone +Park, The Natural Bridge of Virginia, Great Salt Lake, and dozens of +others, less wonderful, but scarcely less beautiful, and equal to the +most talked-of beauties of Europe, such as the Palisades of the Hudson, +Lake Champlain, the Shenandoah Valley, the Dalles of Oregon, Pike's +Peak, Mount Rainier, Lookout Mountain, the Adirondacks, and the entire +Rocky Mountain region. + +To these must be added the relics of ancient civilization, the homes of +the Cliff Dwellers, the work of the Mound Builders, and such fragments +as still remain of the occupation in various times and places of certain +Indian tribes, and of the Norsemen and the Spaniards. + +All these are to be valued for their beauty or historic interest, and +are also valuable as a source of wealth to the community. + +The money spent on tourist-travel in Europe is said to be more than +half a billion dollars a year. This vast amount is spent because in +Europe there is so much to delight the eye, because the cities are made +beautiful with artistic buildings filled with art treasures, because +historic places are carefully preserved, because the villages are neat +and well-kept, and the intensive farming which is practised almost +everywhere leaves no waste places to grow up with weeds, and lie +neglected. + +There are parts of Europe, of course, where this is not true, but they +are not included in the line of tourist-travel, and in general it may be +said that Europe is visited almost solely because of its beauty:--the +natural beauty that man has preserved, the beauty that he has created, +or the relics of past greatness. + +Modern Greece would attract few visitors for its own sake. It is the +ruins of a mighty past,--the Acropolis at Athens and the places made +famous in mythology and literature draw thousands to its shores every +year, and add greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the country. + +The same thing is true of America wherever we have preserved and made +beautiful our natural scenery. During three months in the summer, the +New York Central Railroad derives about $200,000 in fares from its +Niagara business alone. Since it became a state reservation in 1885, +more than seventeen million persons have visited Niagara, and the +amount of money that has been spent there at hotels, for carriages, +automobiles, side-trips, souvenirs, etc., is almost beyond calculation. + +In the Adirondack Park there is between $10,000,000 and $15,000,000 +invested in hotels and cottages. The 15,000 clerks and helpers receive +about $1,000,000 in wages, the railroads receive another $1,000,000 in +fares, and hotel guests spend between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000. All of +these advantages to the region are entirely apart from the practical +uses of the forest. + +These are examples which show the great amount of wealth which can come +from preserving our natural beauties, and the same conditions exist +everywhere, not only in the state and national parks, but wherever some +beautiful spot has been set aside by a city, a railroad company, or some +private enterprise. People flock to these resorts in large numbers for +rest or recreation, and to satisfy their love for the beautiful, and the +result is a gain in health and morals, more desire on the part of those +who visit them to make their own surroundings beautiful, and at the same +time a great gain in money value to the city or company that promotes +such an enterprise. + +Most of the larger cities of the United States have given particular +attention to the subject of public parks during recent years. They are +the breathing places for the dwellers in the city, often the only place +where children can have fresh air and plenty of exercise, and the parks +constitute one of the greatest attractions to draw summer visitors to +the city. + +Nearly all steam and electric railway companies own some park or +pleasure resort from which they derive a large income in fares, and many +steamboat companies find their largest profit from their excursion +boats. + +All these facts show clearly that if we consider only the gain in money, +it is altogether a wise policy to include natural beauty among our +national resources, and to conserve it carefully, while if we look at it +from the larger standpoint of preserving for future generations the same +beauties that we enjoy, the need of such conservation is still more +urgent. + +In our future development the United States will largely be made over. +We shall no longer have the same natural conditions that we have had in +the early years of our history, and the physical appearance of the +country will grow better or worse each generation. + +It is possible for us to make America the most beautiful land the world +has ever seen, for we have the natural beauty, and greater knowledge in +setting about the work of building than has ever been possessed by any +other nation during its time of greatest growth. + +We shall go far toward realizing our ideal of a beautiful America if we +understand that the conservation of our resources means beauty, and that +waste means ugliness. Proper conservation of our mineral resources will +include the removal of the ugly, unsightly piles of culm, slag, and +other refuse that lie about the mouth of the mines, and disfigure some +of our most beautiful mountain scenery, for, as we have shown elsewhere, +this should be used and not wasted. The proper use of coal would solve +the smoke problem of cities, one of the worst foes of cleanliness and +beauty, and the use of water-power would serve the same purpose. The +complete utilization of our water resources that has been suggested +would make all our waterways contribute greatly to the beauty and +attractiveness of the landscape. + +In conserving our forests we not only increase our timber supply, but +add one of the greatest of all beauties, the trees which give variety +and tone to every picture that our eyes rest upon. We shall have the +shady roads, the long green hill-slopes, the quiet woodlands, the glory +of autumn coloring, the delight of blossoming orchards. + +Conservation of the soil, and utilization of every part of the land +mean even more. Picture the contrast between a country where the +hillsides are worn into gullies, where rocks are everywhere to be seen +cropping above the barren soil, where the crops are scanty, the +vegetation stunted; and one where every field yields a rich harvest, +where the grain hangs heavy and golden, where every wayside nook holds a +flower, where there are no neglected fence-corners, no piles of +rubbish,--what we truly call "a smiling landscape." Lastly, in +conserving health, we do more toward promoting personal beauty and +advancing the standard of the race than in any other way. + +We should not be content, however, with the beauty that comes only from +the conservation of our other resources, but should have a definite plan +for the conservation of beauty as a valuable resource in itself. + +The city of Washington should be made the center of this movement toward +national beauty. There is now an organized effort on the part of those +in charge of the erection of public buildings, to make Washington the +most beautiful capital in the world, and a model for other cities. + +The federal government should set aside as national parks all of our +greatest natural wonders, as Yellowstone Park is now held. + +The states should follow the same line and set apart in the same way +those objects of lesser interest, either natural or historic, which are +to be found in every state--those that are not of sufficient importance +to merit national recognition, but that will add interest to the state +as a place for tourists to visit. + +Few states are visited in this way more than is Massachusetts, and it is +largely because not only the state, but the various communities have +preserved historical places, buildings and objects so carefully, have +erected monuments to commemorate them; and have thrown these various +objects of interest open to the public free of charge. These communities +in turn have gained the original expenditure many times over from the +money spent by the steady stream of visitors. + +There has been a great movement toward the beautifying of cities and +villages in the past few years. Besides the good work done by park +boards in cities there has been a great improvement in the matter of +cleaner streets, better sidewalks, the planting of more shade trees, and +a far greater attention to the beautifying of private grounds. The +adorning of front yards and porches with vines and flowers is increasing +enormously every year. + +Many causes have been at work to produce this result: the broadening +influence of travel, which brings people in touch with what is being +done in other places to promote public beauty, the work of schools, +newspaper and magazine articles, and more time and money to spend on +luxuries,--even the post-card, which makes a souvenir view of every spot +of local beauty or interest; but probably no other one agency has +produced such good results in public beauty as has the woman's club +which has taken up this line of work. + +The "cleaning-up" movement, with a public house-cleaning day twice a +year when all refuse is carted away, and streets, alleys and back-yards +cleaned, had its origin in this way. The care and beautifying of +cemeteries is another branch of the work. + +In many places, flower and vegetable seeds are distributed free or at a +nominal cost among the school children, prizes are offered for the best +garden, the largest vegetables, the most attractive back-yard, the best +arranged flower-bed, and other good results; the work is examined by a +committee, and the prizes awarded at the end of the season either by the +club or by merchants who have become interested in the contest. + +This provides the children wholesome outdoor work and exercise +throughout the summer, and promotes a pleasant rivalry among them, +besides increasing their knowledge of plants, and the results have been +found to be far-reaching, for not only the pupils, but their parents as +well, are interested in neater, more orderly methods of living, and in +beautifying their homes. + +In the movement for public beauty, as in all other progress, it is the +work of individuals that counts most. Every house that is built with a +thought for its beauty, every home, farm-building and fence kept in good +repair, every neat back-yard and flower-surrounded home has its part in +making America more beautiful, and this influence in countless homes is +certain to count in the making of better citizens. + +A country where beauty meets the eye at every turn will invite the +tourist and the home-seeker, will be deeply loved by its own people, and +will be an inspiration to poetry and art. It rests largely with the +people of to-day to decide whether we shall make of our own land such an +ideal place. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +IN CONCLUSION + + +No one can read the record of facts presented in this book without being +impressed by two things: (1) How these resources depend on one another +and that proper care of one results in the saving of another, and, (2) +the fact that every one of our most valued resources is decreasing so +rapidly that its end is in sight, even though far in the distance. When +the end comes we know that it will mean the end of progress for our +country in that direction. + +It is also plain that the great, in fact the only, reason for this +scarcity lies not in use but in waste. And lastly we see that there is +yet time to prevent serious shortage in most directions if we set about +a general system of good management and thrift. + +In the meantime we are sure to have higher prices, for the supply is +growing less and the demand greater for almost every material. In many +lines, unless something be done to check this shortage, prices will rise +so high that only the rich can afford what are now considered the +necessities of life, and the lives of the poorer classes will become +like those of the peasants of Europe:--a scanty living on the plainest +food, poor homes, hard work, less opportunity to develop mind and body. + +Let us sum up how the various resources may be used to conserve one +another. + +The soil is saved from erosion by the planting of forests, and by the +storing of the flood waters of rivers. Waste land is made fertile by +proper control of the rivers through drainage, storage and irrigation. +Farm crops and also the forests are increased in value by insect +control. + +The insects are largely kept in check by encouraging the nesting and +increase of certain birds. Birds play a large part in the conservation +of the crops, by destroying insects, weeds, and small mammals. The birds +themselves are sheltered and thrive only where trees are abundant. + +The grazing lands are conserved by proper forest control, and the supply +of animal food depends largely on the grazing lands. + +Fisheries are dependent on proper care of the waters, which in turn +depend on forest control, and on proper care of the by-products of +factories. + +Coal is conserved by the use of lower-grade fuels, by using waste from +the forests, and by substituting water-power. + +Gas and oil will also be saved by the greater use of water-power. + +Coal-mining is made safer to human life and much saving in coal is +effected by the use of mine-timbers, which involves the planting of +forests. Forests regulate to a great extent the stream-flow of rivers. + +Beauty can only be conserved by the planting of trees, by keeping the +waters pure and clear, by using waste products so that there will be no +unsightly piles of refuse. + +Health depends, among other things, on pure water, air unpolluted by +coal smoke and poisonous gases which should be used as factory +by-products. + +And lastly, the life, happiness, and prosperity of man is conserved by +all of these things. + +The first step in this system of conservation must be education on this +subject, education not only of the children but of the men and women +also, on the need and methods of saving. There would be no danger of a +scarcity of coal if manufacturers all knew the value and economy of +electric water-power or low-grade fuels, and of smoke-consuming devices. +There is no reason why insect destruction should cost the nation so +dearly if the birds were protected, and a few simple methods of +prevention understood. All the various water problems could be met and +solved if one general plan were adopted and carried out, and so all +along the line. + +We have taken note of the great natural wastes: how two-thirds of the +wood cut is wasted, and how insects and fire destroy the standing +timber; how the soil is washed down into the valleys, taking the best +from the farms; how we are steadily robbing the soil of its most +necessary elements; how our waters are unused and we pay for this +non-use by the use of other resources that we can ill afford to spare; +how millions of acres of land which might be profitably farmed lie +useless for lack of water and other millions are useless because they +are covered with water. Consumers pay high freight rates and the +railroads are so overcrowded that they are unable to care for all the +business, while the rivers, the cheapest of all carriers, flow idly to +the sea. + +We have seen how one-fourth of the coal is left in the mines, and how +small a part of that which is mined is actually turned into heat, how +gas is allowed to escape unchecked into the air. And greatest and most +serious of all, the useless waste of human life and health. + +But there are scores of other wastes and extravagances that all growing +boys and girls should think of, so that when they enter active life, +they may do their part to prevent them. + +It is going to be necessary to learn to economize in every department of +life as all the European peoples do. We must learn, in this new +country, to do things more with the idea of the future in mind. In all +European cities, there are hundreds of houses that have lasted many +centuries, but there are few houses in America that are built in an +enduring way. This building up and tearing down taxes not one, but many, +resources heavily. As the housewife learns that a good kettle that costs +a dollar and lasts five years is cheaper than a poor one which costs +fifty cents but will wear out in one year, so people must learn the +lesson that in building poor light houses of wood which will last a +comparatively short time, they are really paying the higher price; that +in putting in poor roads, cheap bridges, badly-constructed public +buildings, that cost less heavily in the first place but that will need +to be renewed in a few years, they are really paying much more than if +these had been substantially built in the beginning. + +The fire loss of the United States amounts to over half a million +dollars a day, and all insurance men agree that most of this might be +prevented. + +The remedies are to build fewer wooden houses, especially in crowded +districts, to exercise greater care in the building and management of +chimneys, greater care in electric wiring, and general watchfulness in +handling matches and lighted cigars. + +For the forest fires which mean so much to all of us the remedy lies in +forest patrol. The amount usually set aside for fighting fires was not +allowed by some states in 1910, and the fires which cost hundreds of +millions of property and many lives were the result. + +Much of the most fertile land in our country is used for raising +tobacco, and grains that are made into alcoholic liquors. As these can +never be considered necessities it is well to think to what better uses +the land might be put. + +The yearly bill of the United States for pleasure is gigantic, and a +large proportion of the pleasure tends to lower rather than raise the +standard of American life and morals. + +The greatest of all wastes is the waste of time and labor. The waste of +time by drunkenness, by poor work that must be done over, and by +idleness, makes a large item of loss in every line of business. + +Proper education will teach every child to work neatly and with perfect +accuracy, will teach eye, hand and brain, will teach the value and +pleasure of work, careful management and economy and a regard for the +general good. + +A study of the great facts of our national possibilities that have been +gathered together in this book should arouse in the heart of every +American, old and young, the feeling that here is a work for every hand +and every brain, not only to save, but to use wisely; to develop all the +possibilities of our great resources no less than to conserve them. In +searching for new by-products or machinery for checking the waste and +adding to the usefulness of these resources there is a field for +invention that will not only bring wealth to the inventor, but +prosperity and length of life to the nation. + +THE END + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Checking the Waste, by Mary Huston Gregory + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + +***** This file should be named 20653-8.txt or 20653-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/5/20653/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Checking the Waste + A Study in Conservation + +Author: Mary Huston Gregory + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1>CHECKING THE WASTE</h1> + +<h2>A STUDY IN CONSERVATION</h2> + +<p class="c"><i>By</i></p> + +<h2>MARY HUSTON GREGORY</h2> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="c"><i>What you would weave into the life of the nation, put into the public +schools.</i></p> + +<p class="f"> +—<span class="smcap">Emperor William I.</span><br /></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="c">INDIANAPOLIS<br /> +THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY<br /> +PUBLISHERS<br /> +COPYRIGHT 1911<br /> +PRESS OF<br /> +BRAUNWORTH & CO.<br /> +BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS<br /> +BROOKLYN, N. Y.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="toc" id="toc"></a>CONTENTS</h2> +<table summary="toc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> +<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER</td><td> </td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">I</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I"> <span class="smcap">What Is Conservation?</span></a></td><td align="right"> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">II</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II"> <span class="smcap">Soil</span></a></td><td align="right"> 10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">III</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III"> <span class="smcap">Forests</span></a></td><td align="right"> 42</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IV</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"> <span class="smcap">Water</span></a></td><td align="right"> 86</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V"> <span class="smcap">Coal</span></a></td><td align="right"> 124</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VI</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"> <span class="smcap">Other Fuels</span></a></td><td align="right"> 144</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VII</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"> <span class="smcap">Iron</span></a></td><td align="right"> 164</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VIII</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"> <span class="smcap">Other Minerals</span></a></td><td align="right"> 181</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IX</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"> <span class="smcap">Animal Foods</span></a></td><td align="right"> 198</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">X</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X"> <span class="smcap">Insects</span></a></td><td align="right"> 217</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XI</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"> <span class="smcap">Birds</span></a></td><td align="right"> 236</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XII</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"> <span class="smcap">Health</span></a></td><td align="right"> 265</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIII</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"> <span class="smcap">Beauty</span></a></td><td align="right"> 302</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIV</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"> <span class="smcap">In Conclusion</span></a></td><td align="right"> 312</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>Much has been said and written on the subject of conservation and many +excellent ideas have been advanced, but as yet too little has been +accomplished in the way of practical results. Probably this is due +largely to the fact that most people think of conservation as a problem +for the federal and state governments, mine owners, great lumber +companies, owners of vast tracts of land, and large corporations; and +have not realized how much the responsibility for the care of our +natural resources and the penalty for their waste rest with the whole +people, that every one has a part in this work which has been called +"the greatest question before the American people."</p> + +<p>One cause of the failure to realize this personal responsibility is that +while there have been college text-books and scientific treatises on +various branches of the subject, such as Forestry, there has been no +book treating of the entire problem of our natural resources, their +extent, the amount and nature of their use, their waste, and what may be +done to conserve them, prepared in a way that can be readily understood +by the ordinary reader, and dealing with the practical, rather than the +technical, side.</p> + +<p>It is to supply the need for such general knowledge, and to show how +such saving may be accomplished, that this book has been written. It is +designed as a short but complete statement of the entire conservation +question, and should be of service for study in teachers' reading +circles, farmers' institutes, women's clubs, the advanced grades in +schools, and for general library purposes.</p> + +<p>Every statement of fact bears the weight of authority, for no facts or +figures are given that have not been verified by government reports, +reports of scientific societies, etc.</p> + +<p>Information has been gathered from many sources, chief among them being +the Report of the Conference of Governors at the White House, in May, +1908; the Report of the National Conservation Commission, the Report on +National Vitality, the Report of the Inland Waterways Commission, of the +Geological Survey, the Census Reports, and many government departmental +pamphlets.</p> + +<p class="r">M. H. G.</p> + +<p>Indianapolis, November 24, 1910.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHECKING_THE_WASTE" id="CHECKING_THE_WASTE"></a>CHECKING THE WASTE</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER I</a></h2> + +<h3>WHAT IS CONSERVATION?</h3> + + +<p>A Nation's Riches lie both in its people and in its natural resources. +Neither can exist in its highest estate without the other. Goldsmith +predicted the certain downfall of lands "where wealth accumulates and +men decay," but, in the truest, broadest definition, there can be no +national wealth unless the men and women of the nation are healthy, +intelligent, educated and right-minded. On the other hand it is equally +true that if the people of a country are to make the most of themselves +in mind and body; if they are to get the most comfort and happiness out +of life and to become in the highest degree useful, they must develop +its natural resources to the greatest possible degree.</p> + +<p>The United States is particularly fortunate in its abundant riches of +soil, forest and mine, and in the fact that from the beginning of the +nation these have been the inheritance not of a people slowly learning +the use of tools and materials, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> emerging from ignorance and +savagery, but representing the most advanced and enlightened ideas and +spiritual ideals of the time.</p> + +<p>The result of these conditions has been inventions and discoveries that +have developed a great nation at home and have done much to better the +condition of the world. But the very magnitude of our natural wealth has +made us careless, even prodigal, in its use, and thoughtful men are +beginning to realize that with the natural increase of population which +is to be expected, we shall, if the present rates of use and waste +continue, find ourselves no longer rich, but facing poverty and even +actual want. But it is not too late to save ourselves from the results +of our past extravagance. We are only beginning to see the danger into +which we have almost plunged, but we see enough to make us realize that +every one must do his part in checking the waste. Before this can be +intelligently accomplished we must understand something of the great +national movement for the conservation of our national resources.</p> + +<p>Let us go back for a moment to the beginning of our history as a nation, +the days of Washington.</p> + +<p>Invention at that time was little advanced over what it had been three +hundred years before. The same type of slow-sailing vessels carried all +the commerce. Wind and water were the only powers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> employed in running +the few factories. Only a little iron was used in this country, and in +fact almost its only use anywhere at that time was for tools. There was +little machinery, and that of the simplest description.</p> + +<p>Anthracite coal was known in this country only as a hard black rock. +Bituminous coal, gas, and oil were unknown.</p> + +<p>The forests stretched away in unbroken miles of wilderness. The wood was +used for the settlers' homes, their fuel, and their scanty furniture, +but they needed so little that it grew much faster than it could be +used. The man who cut down a tree was a public benefactor. The trees, +though so necessary to life, were regarded as a serious hindrance to +civilization, for they must be cleared away before crops could be +planted.</p> + +<p>To the pioneers as to us the soil was the most valuable of all +resources. The rivers were necessary to every community for carrying +their commerce, and turning the wheels of their saw and grist mills; +while the fish, game, and birds made a necessary part of their living.</p> + +<p>Under these conditions, with every resource to be found in such +abundance that it seemed impossible it could ever be exhausted, and with +a small scattered population to draw on all these riches, careless +habits of using were sure to spring up. Our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> forefathers took the best +that the land offered, and that which was easiest to get, and gave no +thought to caring for what remained. Their children, and the new +immigrants who came in such numbers, all practised the same wasteful +methods.</p> + +<p>In the century and a quarter that has passed since then, a great change +has come over the world. By the magic of the railroad, the telegraph, +and the telephone, all the nations of the earth are bound more closely +to one another now than were the scattered communities of a single +county in those days, or than the states of the Union before the Civil +War.</p> + +<p>The forests have been cut away and in place of endless miles of +wilderness there now stretch endless miles of fertile farms, yielding +abundant harvests.</p> + +<p>Slow-going sailing vessels have given place to steamboats which now +carry the river and lake commerce. But men are no longer dependent on +the rivers, for swift railway trains penetrate every part of the +country. The stage-coach is replaced by the trolley-car, and the +horseback rider, plodding over corduroy roads with his saddle-bags, is +succeeded by the automobile rider speeding over the most improved +highways.</p> + +<p>Farm machinery of all descriptions has revolutionized the old methods of +doing farm work. The fish, game, and birds are largely gone and in +their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> place are the animal foods raised by man. Modern houses, filled +with countless devices for labor-saving and comfort, have replaced the +simple homes of colonial days.</p> + +<p>What has brought about this change? The energy and industry of American +men and women, aided for the most part by American inventions, and made +possible by the wonderful natural resources of America.</p> + +<p>No one could wish to have had our country's development checked in any +way. These great results could be obtained only by using the materials +that could be had easiest and cheapest, even if it meant great waste in +the beginning. Labor was scarce and high in this country, abundant and +cheap in Europe. In order to make goods that could be sold at prices +even above those of European countries, it was absolutely necessary to +have cheap lumber, coal and iron.</p> + +<p>But the time has come when we can no longer continue this waste without +interfering with future development. Some of the resources have been so +exhausted that a few years will see the end of their use in large +commercial quantities. Others, such as coal and iron, will last much +longer, but when they are gone they can never be replaced; and so far as +we can now foresee, the country will cease to prosper when they can no +longer be had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> for use in manufacturing. The length of time they will +last at the present rate of use can be easily calculated. It is a long +time for us to look forward, for it is longer than the lifetime of any +man now living, or of his children, but it is within the life of his +grandchildren, and that is a very short time in the history of a nation.</p> + +<p>It may be said that while other nations have passed into decay, none has +ever exhausted its resources so early in its history, and surely this +great rich nation can not so soon face actual need. But we must remember +that no other nation has ever used its resources as we have used ours. +We are using in years what other nations have used in centuries.</p> + +<p>It is not possible now, it probably never will be possible, to use every +particle of a resource. This would be too expensive, would mean a labor +cost far beyond the value of the thing saved.</p> + +<p>In the beginning, as we have shown, the vast wastes were not wanton, but +absolutely necessary, and we have not yet reached the point where we can +afford to use the low-grade ores, to use all lumber waste and to +practise many other economies that may sometime become necessary. But in +the case of the forests we should provide enough trees for use in coming +years, and in the case of all minerals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> the refuse should be left in +such condition that it can easily be ready for possible future use.</p> + +<p>If conservation meant leaving our resources untouched, and checking +development in order that there might be an abundance for future +generations, it would be both an unwise and unacceptable policy; but it +must be thoroughly understood that this is not what is desired.</p> + +<p>Conservation does not mean the locking up of our resources, nor a +hindrance to real progress in any direction. <i>It means only wise, +careful use.</i></p> + +<p>It does not mean that we shall cease to cut our timber, but it does mean +that we shall not waste two-thirds of all that is cut, as we are doing +at present. It means, too, that we shall take better care of articles +manufactured from it, and most of all, it means that, when a tree is cut +down another shall, whenever possible, be planted in its stead to +provide for the needs of the future.</p> + +<p>It means that we shall not allow the farms of our country to lose five +hundred million dollars in value every year by letting the rich top-soil +drain off into our rivers, because we have cut away the trees whose +roots held the soil in place. It also means that we shall not steadily +rob the land of the elements that would produce good crops, and put +nothing back into the soil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + +<p>It means that we shall not kill the birds that destroy harmful insects +and thus invite the insects to destroy the crops that we have cultivated +with such care.</p> + +<p>It does not mean that we shall let our mines of coal and iron lie +unused, as the miser does his gold, but that we shall, while taking what +we need, leave as little waste in the mine as possible, and shall use +what we take in the most economical way. This means a saving of money to +the user, as well as a conservation of resources. It means, too, that we +shall not allow our water-power to remain unused, while we burn millions +of tons of coal in doing the work that water-power would do better.</p> + +<p>It means that we shall not allow enough natural gas to escape into the +air every day to light all the large cities in the United States. It +means that we shall take better care of the life and health of the +people.</p> + +<p>This is the true conservation.</p> + +<p>In the following chapters we shall take up each of the great resources +in turn, shall see what we have used, what we have wasted, what remains +to us, how long it will continue at the present rate, how it may be used +more wisely, and how it may be replaced, if that be possible, or what +may be used instead of those which can not be renewed.</p> + +<p>We shall study how we may make the most of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> all that nature has given us +and develop our country to the highest possible point, how we may rise +far above our present level in comfort, convenience, and abundance, and +yet do all these things with much less waste than we now permit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER II</a></h2> + +<h3>THE SOIL</h3> + + +<p>The soil is the greatest of our natural resources. We may almost say +that it is greater than all the others combined, for from it comes all +of our food; a large part of it directly as plants which grow in the +soil and which we eat in the form of roots, leaves, grains, berries, +fruits, and nuts; and a part of it indirectly as animals, which have +received their food supply from the plants.</p> + +<p>But this is not all. The soil supplies almost every known need. We build +our homes from the trees of the forest; combined with the iron that +comes from the soil they furnish our fuel, our ships, our cars, our +furniture, and countless other things. Our clothing is made from the +cotton or flax which grows from the soil, the wool from the sheep that +feed on the pastures, or from the silk-worms that feed on leaves.</p> + +<p>So it is to the earth that we turn for every need, and Mother Nature +supplies it. But it is of the soil as it gives us our food supply that +we shall speak in this chapter, and we must first learn the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> nature of +the soil, and the process of its making, in order to understand the need +of extraordinary care in its management, and also how to use it so that +it will not wear out, or become exhausted, but will increase in value +for years and even centuries, as it will if properly cared for.</p> + +<p>The earth's surface is constantly being renewed. Although the great +formative movements occurred ages ago, yet earthquakes, volcanic action, +wind, frost and water are working continual changes. Hills and mountains +have been thrown up, and nature has gone to work at once to shave down +the mountains and fill up the valleys. The whole earth is as carefully +adjusted and balanced as the wheels of a watch, but these adjustments +take place in long periods of time. In a lifetime, or even a century, +the changes of the earth's surface seem few and small, but they are none +the less sure.</p> + +<p>The soil or humus, that is, the upper layer of the earth's crust which +is used in farming, has an average depth of about four feet, and has +been formed by decay, first and most important of all by rock decay +which is constantly going on under the surface of the earth and in +exposed places everywhere, and is caused by the action of air and water. +This process is very slow. In places where the rock is already partly +ground up, or, disintegrated, as we sometimes say, it is more rapid, but +the average<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> growth of the soil from beneath by rock decay is scarcely +more than a foot in ten thousand years.</p> + +<p>Some waste of this upper layer is constantly taking place from above, +caused by wind and floods, and considerable additions are made to it by +the decay of animal and vegetable matter, but in order to keep the soil +at its best, the average soil waste should not amount to more than an +inch every thousand years.</p> + +<p>When this humus is once exhausted there is no way to repair the damage +but to wait for the slow rock-decay. In the river valleys there is no +immediate danger of exhausting the entire body of the soil, but on the +hills and in the higher regions the soil-depth is very much less than +four feet, and the danger of waste much more serious. There are parts of +the earth that were once almost as fertile as ours where great cities +once stood, but where now nothing is left but the bare rock.</p> + +<p>So we know that the end is sure, even for the life of man upon earth, +unless we learn to conserve our soil.</p> + +<p>The value of our farm crops can not be overestimated. In food value they +are the life of the nation; in money value, our greatest national +wealth. For the year 1909 the total value of farm products was the +amazing sum of $8,760,000,000. It may give some idea of this vast amount +to say that if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> we could have it in the form of twenty-dollar gold +pieces, stacked in one pile, the column would reach seven hundred miles +high. If they were laid flat, edge to edge, they would extend from +Alaska to the Panama Canal, with enough left over to reach from New York +to San Francisco. If the money could be distributed, it would give us +all, every man, woman and child in the United States, one hundred +dollars apiece. The corn crop was worth $1,720,000,000; the cotton +$850,000,000; wheat comes third with a value of $725,000,000; then come +hay, oats, and other crops in vast amounts worth hundreds of millions of +dollars. The cotton alone was worth more than the world's output of gold +and silver combined. The corn would pay for the Panama Canal, for fifty +battleships, and for the irrigation projects in the West, with a hundred +million dollars left over.</p> + +<p>And this is all new wealth. If we build a house, we have gained the +house, but the trees of which we build it are gone. The same thing is +true of every article we manufacture. Something is taken from our store +in the making. But after we have taken these wonderful crops from our +farms the land is still there, and the soil is just as ready to produce +a good crop the next year, and the next, and the next, if we treat it +properly.</p> + +<p>This matter of soil conservation is of the greatest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> importance to every +one of us. If you are to own a farm, or rent a farm, or till a garden, +or plant an orchard ten years from now, it will make a great difference +to you whether the man who owns it from now until then knows how to care +for it so as to make it produce well, or whether, by neglect, he allows +it to become poorer each year. It will make a far greater difference if +twenty years elapse.</p> + +<p>It makes a difference to the farmer whether he gets twelve bushels of +wheat to the acre, or whether he gets twenty, for the cost of producing +the smaller amount is just as great as the cost of producing the larger, +and the extra bushels are all profit. It makes a difference whether a +garden furnishes all the fruit and vegetables needed by the family, or +whether it does not even pay for cultivation, and the food must be +bought at high prices. It makes even more difference to the dweller in +the city, who must buy all that he eats, whether food is abundant or +not. If food is abundant, prices are low, but when the yield is small +the demand is so great that prices become high.</p> + +<p>Not only the men, but the women and children as well, are affected by +these food values, because it is from the extra money left over after +the actual cost of living is taken out that the clothing, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +house-furnishings, books, pictures, music, travel and all the pleasures +of life must come.</p> + +<p>Great as are our harvests, we are not raising much more than enough for +our present needs. Each year we are using more of our food at home, and +have less to export to other countries. In a few years more the public +lands will all be taken, and there will be comparatively little more +land than we now cultivate to supply a population that will be many +times as great as at present.</p> + +<p>Men who watch the great movements of the world tell us that the time is +coming before many years when there will not be food enough to supply +all our people, when we shall be buying food from other countries +instead of selling to them, when we shall have famine instead of plenty +unless we realize the danger and at once set about to make the most of +every acre of our land.</p> + +<p>James J. Hill, the great railroad builder of the Northwest, and one of +the best informed men of the country on food production and the increase +of population, is doing a great work in pointing out these dangers to +the people on every possible occasion.</p> + +<p>Watching the great food-producing region of the country, he has noted +that each year the yield per acre is growing less, and the population +steadily more. He tells us that when our first census was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> taken only +four per cent. of the people lived in cities, that fifty years ago +one-third of the people lived in cities, and two-thirds in the country, +that is, two-thirds of the people were furnishing food to the remainder. +Now conditions are almost exactly reversed. Only one-third remain in the +country, and must supply the food, not only for themselves, but for all +the two-thirds who are not food producers, so that the food supply is +lagging far behind the demand. The price of corn has advanced from +twenty-five cents to sixty-five cents a bushel in ten years, and this in +turn raises the price of live stock. And so all along the line. Prices +are growing higher all the time because not enough food is being +produced to supply the demand.</p> + +<p>So we can see that it is absolutely necessary that the soil be properly +cared for if we are to continue to increase and prosper, for as +Secretary Wilson has said, "Upon the fertility of the soil depends the +whole business of agriculture."</p> + +<p>The soil is exhausted in two ways: (1) By erosion, or the carrying away +of the entire soil itself. (2) By so using the soil that one or more of +its principal elements are worn out. We shall consider this form of soil +exhaustion first, because it more directly concerns the work of every +farmer.</p> + +<p>By a fertile soil is meant one that has an abundance of plant food in +the proper proportions. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> soil contains all the elements that are +needed to support life, but they are in an inorganic form, that is, they +are lifeless. Plants alone can take these inorganic substances from the +soil, and change them into starch, sugar, fats, and protein. All +animals, including man, must get these substances through plants, or +through other animals that have already absorbed them from plants.</p> + +<p>The soil contains ten elements that are absorbed or assimilated by +plants. These are: (1) lime, (2) magnesia, (3) iron, (4) sulphur, all of +which are found in most plants in very small proportions, and are +present in most soils in quantities far beyond the needs of crops for +ages to come; (5) carbon, which is obtained by plants through their +leaves directly from the air and the sunshine; (6) hydrogen and (7) +oxygen, which are taken from the water in the soil and carried to the +leaves, where they also help to take the carbon from the atmosphere. +With none of these elements, then, does the farmer need to concern +himself in regions where the water supply is abundant, as they are, and +will continue to be, plentifully supplied by nature. But the other +three, (8) nitrogen, (9) potassium, and (10) phosphorus, are needed by +plants in large quantities, and are taken from the soil far more rapidly +than nature can replace them.</p> + +<p>All these elements are necessary to plant life, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> some plants require +a large amount of one element, others a small proportion of that, but a +large amount of some of the others. No two varieties of plants require +exactly the same proportions, so it is easy to see that the plant that +takes out of the soil any one element makes the soil less capable each +year of producing a good crop of the same kind.</p> + +<p>In the early days of farming in this country, it was the custom to grow +a single crop, which had been found to give good results, year after +year in the same field. In Virginia and other near-by states nearly all +the best land was given every year to the cultivation of tobacco, which +exhausts the soil rapidly. In the states farther north other crops were +planted in the same way. As a result, some of the most fertile soil in +Virginia, the Carolinas, Massachusetts, and other eastern states has +been so exhausted that it is no longer worth cultivating. Everywhere +throughout the New England states are to be found these worn-out farms, +and, while they were never so fertile as the lands of the Mississippi +Valley, each one was rich enough to support a family in comfort, with +something left to sell; but because they were required to produce the +same crops, and so take the same element from the soil, year after year, +they have become so lacking in one of the essential elements that they +are unfit for cultivation, and have been abandoned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is wisdom and good business policy for farmers to study carefully +this question of plant food and to learn what each crop is taking from +the soil, so that it may be replaced. It has been found by long and +careful experiments, that when land has been "single cropped," as this +abuse of the land is called, for a long time, the soil has been almost +entirely deprived of its nitrogen. As you know, nitrogen is one of the +elements of the air, so that there is a never-ending supply, but most +plants are unable to take it from the air, and until the last few years +the task of replacing nitrogen in the soil was considered impossible. +Recent discoveries, however, have shown that there are two ways in which +it may be done. By means of electricity, nitrogen may be directly +combined with the other elements of the soil. The other method is +nature's own plan, and so is easier and cheaper. It has been found that +while most plants exhaust the nitrogen from the soil, one class of +plants, the legumes, of which beans, peas, clover, and alfalfa are the +best known, have the power of drawing large stores of nitrogen from the +air, and, by means of bacteria attached to their roots, restoring it to +the ground.</p> + +<p>So farmers have learned that if they plant corn one year, it is wiser +not to plant corn in the same field the next year, but to sow wheat, +which requires less nitrogen, and the following year to sow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> clover, so +that the nitrogen which the corn and wheat have taken from the soil, may +be put back into it. If the land be naturally fertile, and has been well +cared for, the soil is then ready to produce a good crop of corn again.</p> + +<p>If the soil has become worn-out and the farmer is trying to improve its +general condition, he can gain better results by keeping the field in +clover a second year, when a profitable crop of clover seed may be had +from the land. This system of changing each year, and alternating cereal +crops, which take the nitrogen from the soil, with leguminous plants, +which restore it to the soil again, is called "rotation of crops," and +if regularly followed will preserve a proper balance of nitrogen in the +soil.</p> + +<p>In some parts of the West there is a lack of decaying vegetable matter +in the soil, because the few plants which naturally grow there have +small roots, and leave little vegetable material behind when they decay. +For this condition one of the best crops to employ in rotation is +sugar-beets, because they strike many small roots deep into the earth. +As these decay, each leaves behind a tiny load of vegetable mold deep in +the earth, and also makes the soil more porous. As the principal +elements of the soil needed by sugar-beets are carbon and oxygen, which +are absorbed from the air and sunshine, and as the beets can be sold at +a good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> profit, it is an excellent crop to employ in rotation. In the +United States records in various states show that where sugar-beets are +used in rotation, the wheat and corn yield is increased from two to four +times, and in Germany they are largely used to restore the fertility of +the land, even if the sugar-beets themselves are sold at a loss.</p> + +<p>It is most important that farmers should understand the principle of +rotation of crops, because nothing is taken from the soil so quickly or +in such large quantities as nitrogen, and nothing is so easily put back; +while, if it is not so replaced, the land becomes worthless.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the results of single cropping and the rotation of crops +has been clearly shown at the Experiment Station of the Agricultural +College of the State of Minnesota, where for ten years they have planted +corn on one plot of ground. For the first five years it averaged a +little more than twenty bushels per acre, and for the last five years, +eleven bushels.</p> + +<p>On another plot, where corn was planted in rotation, the average yield +was more than forty-eight bushels, the difference in average in the two +plots being thirty-two bushels, or twice the value of the entire average +yield on the exhausted ground. The corn grown at the end of the ten +years was only about three feet high, the ears were small, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +grains light in weight. But it cost just as much to cultivate the land +that produced it as it did to cultivate the land that produced +forty-eight bushels.</p> + +<p>Of the other two elements, potassium is found abundantly in most soils. +It is also found in a readily soluble form in various parts of the +United States and is sold at a very low price. But even if these +deposits were exhausted we could still use the rocks which are very rich +in potassium, and are very abundant, in a pulverized form, or potash +could be manufactured from them.</p> + +<p>The only remaining element of the soil is phosphorus. This element was +discovered in 1607, the year of the first English settlement at +Jamestown and was first noticed because of its property of giving off +light from itself. The name which was given it means light-bearer. It +was at first thought to be the source of all power, to heal all +diseases, and to turn the common minerals into gold. Although we have +long ago learned that these ideas are absurd, yet we have also learned +that its real value to man is far greater than was even dreamed of then.</p> + +<p>It is the most important element in every living thing, for no cell, +however small, in either animal or vegetable organisms can grow or even +live without phosphorus. It is found in the green of the leaves, and +helps to make the starch. It enters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> largely into the grain and seeds of +plants, and is necessary for their germination, or sprouting, as well as +their growth. Three-fourths of all the phosphorus in a crop of cereals +is in the grains, giving them size and weight. It will thus be seen how +necessary it is that the soil which feeds our plants, which in turn +become the food of animals and of man, should contain a sufficient +amount of phosphorus.</p> + +<p>Phosphorus is taken from the soil in large quantities by every kind of +crop. In parts of Wisconsin which have been farmed a little more than +fifty years without fertilizing, it is found that about one-third of the +phosphorus has been taken out of the soil, which would mean that in one +hundred and fifty years, or a hundred years from now, the soil would be +incapable of producing any living thing, and long before that time the +crops would not pay for the labor of producing them. Almost every acre +of land that has been farmed for ten years without fertilization is +deficient in phosphorus, that is, so much has been used that the soil +can no longer produce at its former rate.</p> + +<p>It may be asked, if this be true, why the soil of America, which before +it was cultivated had borne rich forests and fields of waving grass, has +not become exhausted long ago. We must remember that nature always +adjusts itself; that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> in the wild state, all plants decay where they +grow, and the same elements are returned again to the soil. But when the +entire product of vast areas is removed year after year, the soil has +nothing except the slow rock-decay with which to renew itself.</p> + +<p>In tropical regions it is not necessary to feed domestic animals at any +season of the year, but in those countries where the natural food can be +found only during a part of the year, the need of artificial feeding is +seen at once, and it becomes a part of the regular expense of farming.</p> + +<p>It would be considered the height of folly for a man to allow his +valuable animals to starve to death because of the expense of feeding +them, but few people recognize the fact, which is also true, that it is +equally bad business policy to allow the valuable crops of wheat, oats, +and corn to starve for want of plant food.</p> + +<p>The phosphates (that is, phosphorus) are the only large items of +expense, and in a large measure this may be lessened by raising live +stock, for which high prices can be obtained either as meat or dairy +products, and returning the manure, which contains a large amount of +phosphate, to the soil. If all the waste animal products could be +returned to the land, Professor Van Hise says, three-fourths of the +phosphorus would be replaced. All animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> products are rich in +phosphates. The packing houses manufacture large quantities from the +bones and blood of animals.</p> + +<p>The garbage of cities, when reduced to powder, yields large returns in +phosphorus. It is said that if the sewage of cities, which in this +country is often turned into rivers and streams, polluting them and +causing disease, was reduced to commercial fertilizer, it would supply +the equivalent of from six to nine pounds of rock phosphate per year for +every acre of cultivated land in the United States. And this valuable +product is now totally lost, and worse than lost, since it menaces the +life and health of great numbers of our people.</p> + +<p>There still remain to be considered the rock phosphates, the form in +which phosphorus is found in separate deposits. The only large deposits +that have been used are in Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee, and +from them about two and a quarter million tons were mined in 1907. +Unfortunately, however, there is no law that prevents its export from +this country, and almost half of this found its way to Europe, where it +is eagerly sought at high prices.</p> + +<p>Within a short time valuable phosphate beds, more extensive than any +before known to exist in this country, have been discovered in Utah, +Wyoming, and Idaho. Professor Van Hise, who is one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> of the highest +authorities on the subject, says of these deposits that with the +exception of our coal and iron lands, they are our most precious mineral +possession; that every ounce should be saved for the time which is +coming when the population will have outgrown the capacity of the land, +and means of increasing its fertility in order to prevent famine will be +sought from every possible source.</p> + +<p>The other great waste of the soil is by erosion, or the wearing away of +the soil by stream-flow. We can all see this in a small way by wandering +along the shore of any swift-running stream and noticing how the banks +are worn away, and what deep gullies and ravines are cut into them by +the water running down from the fields above. Another way in which we +can observe the effect of this waste is by noticing the muddy yellow +color of streams during floods and after heavy rains, and comparing it +with the clear blue of the same stream at ordinary times.</p> + +<p>When we realize that this muddy color always means that the water is +filled with soil, all that it will hold in solution, that it is carrying +away the top soil, which is best for agriculture, and, finally, that +every little streamlet and creek, as well as the mightiest river, is +carrying this rich soil-deposit downward toward the sea in its flow, we +begin to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> see how great a factor erosion is in the wasting of the land.</p> + +<p>The Missouri River, which drains a large area of wheat and corn land, is +notable as a muddy, yellow river at almost all seasons. Do you +understand what that means? It means that this great productive region +is growing poorer each year, and that as the population increases, and +the need of great harvests increases, the land is becoming less able to +produce them. The Mississippi River is said to tear down from its banks +more soil each year than is to be dredged from the Panama Canal. At the +mouth of the river is a delta many miles in extent, formed wholly of +land that has been carried down the river. The soil in lower Mississippi +and Louisiana is almost black, and is in many places seventy feet in +depth, and it has all been left there by the river, which took it from +the higher lands.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that our rivers carry out to sea one billion tons of our +richest soil each year. The ancient Egyptians worshiped the Nile because +each year the spring floods left behind the rich soil deposits that +fertilized their fields and gave them an abundant harvest. Entire fields +and even whole farms along the upper stretches of the Mississippi and +Missouri have been carried away, not the top soil only, but the land +itself, by the swift current<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> of the springtime floods as they cut a new +channel for the river.</p> + +<p>Canaan, the "land of promise" of the Bible, was once an abundant region, +"flowing with milk and honey" in the language of Moses, with its grapes, +its vast forests of cedar, fir, and oak, its treasures of wheat, +olive-oil, and other rich agricultural products. Now all are gone. The +entire country seen by the traveler in the Holy Land to-day is one of +the most desolate regions on the globe, where the few inhabitants are +scarcely able to obtain a scanty living.</p> + +<p>We wonder what has brought about this change, and we have not far to +seek in answer to our questioning. The preservation of the forests means +the preservation of the soil, and the destruction of the forests means +the destruction of the soil. This is the universal law. First the +forests were cut down and the hillsides left bare. Then the streams wore +great ravines down the unprotected hillsides. Steadily the work of +destruction by erosion has gone on, until time beyond our possibility to +comprehend must pass before the land can be made productive again. The +hills and valleys of China have been devastated in the same way, and +many of the older regions of the earth that were once the sites of great +cities and extensive commerce are now marked only by the ruins of the +civilization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> that has passed away. They have almost ceased to support +life.</p> + +<p>In the days of Rome's greatness, Sicily was known as "the granary of +Rome" because from this little island came the grains to supply her vast +armies. 12,000,000 bushels of grain was the tribute that Rome claimed of +Sicily each year, and yet Sicily had enough left to make her rich. She +built splendid cities and became great. But the same story of +destruction is to be read in the history of Sicily. Now the entire +island does not raise a million and a half bushels of wheat altogether. +The soil is barren. The cities have nearly all fallen into ruin. The +people are scattered. Thousands have come to America, seeking a poor +living at the lowest wages because at home there was no chance to earn +even the little they require. They allowed the soil to become exhausted +by lack of fertilization and by erosion and it long ago ceased to +support the people. All the rest followed naturally.</p> + +<p>In many parts of our own country this same danger is coming on us. It is +only the beginning, but the end is as sure for us as for those far-off +Eastern countries.</p> + +<p>Millions of acres have already been destroyed in the East and South. The +Appalachian mountain system lies not far from the coast, and the rivers +on the eastern slopes are short and swift.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> It is necessary, then, to +exercise the greatest care of the forests in order to prevent the floods +in this region from carrying away the lands in their swift rush to the +sea. North Carolina was one of the richest states in the Union in +natural resources a hundred years ago. Now it is low on the list in +agricultural products. The forests on its mountain tops were valuable +for their lumber, their turpentine, pitch, and other products, and great +lumber companies have almost denuded the hillsides, regardless of the +fate of the lands they cut over. The people of the state are powerless +to prevent this except by buying all of these lands and replanting the +forests. They have been pleading with Congress for power to stop the +destruction of their forests and the wasting of their lands, but so far +have received no assistance and meanwhile the land grows poorer each +year. The same conditions are to be found in many other states that now +rank high agriculturally, but in North Carolina we are beginning to see +results.</p> + +<p>In order to understand exactly how the damage is done to the land, let +us suppose a case which has actually occurred in hundreds of places. A +farmer owned a farm on the mountain side. Much of it was good wheat +land, but the top was covered with forests. At last he decided to cut +and sell the timber, and use the land for raising more wheat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> He did +so, but now there was no spreading foliage to check the dash of the +heavy rains as they fell to the ground. As they sank below the surface +there were no masses of tangled roots to hold the moisture in the soil +and to carry it up into the air again through the trees.</p> + +<p>As the water penetrated deeper, the soil became softened, and was +carried away down the hillside. It was only a muddy little stream, but +it took away some of the richest soil from the fields, and the next +year's crop was not quite so good. Every rain that fell carried more of +the fertile soil down the hillside, and the next year the farmer +wondered that the yield was still less. After a few years he ceased to +sow the field because it had never paid for its cultivation, and was +constantly growing poorer. But it was too late then to repair the damage +that had been done. There were no seeds of forest trees left in the +ground and the farmer did not plant them, so the ground lay idle and +desolate. The rain wore deep gullies down the hillside, which, as they +grew larger, became more of a menace to the lands below them. The +streams soon grew large enough to take the top-soil from the fields +lower down, and in a few years more the whole farm had grown so +unproductive that the farmer, tired of the struggle, left the farm and +went to the city to make a living.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the meantime the land in the valley below had been growing more +fertile, for each year the spring floods had left a rich soil deposit +behind them. The farmer down there had been innocently stealing the land +above him, but not all of it, for much had been carried out to sea.</p> + +<p>It is not possible to prevent this entirely, but much of the loss might +have been avoided by leaving the hilltops, which are never well fitted +for cultivation, covered with forests. In this way the soil-wash from +above is prevented and the streams run gently and with only a small +amount of muddy deposit, forming proper drainage for the soil.</p> + +<p>The preserving of the forests on the great mountain ranges of the +country, where nature has placed them, will mean in the one matter of +soil-wash, fruitful lands and bountiful harvests, instead of barren, +wasted lands, desolated by floods and seamed by great ravines, carrying +desolation to the lands below them.</p> + +<p>But in many cases the trees are already cut away. Here replanting +becomes necessary and should be done in every case where soil-wash is +beginning on the mountain tops. It is almost equally desirable to plant +small shrubs and bushes as an undergrowth, so that the roots may form a +thick mat below the ground to hold the water in the soil, and permit it +to filter through slowly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Massachusetts, the tracks of the Boston and Albany Railroad are +depressed so that trains may pass below the level of the highways. In +order to protect the banks from erosion, the sloping sides of this +roadway have been planted with trailing rose-bushes and other vines +which have thickly matted roots. These serve a double purpose in +preventing landslides and washouts on the tracks, and in adding greatly +to the attractiveness of the scenery along the railway.</p> + +<p>The poorest land of a farm is always found on the hilltops, because even +with the greatest care there is always considerable waste of the +top-soil. This land, then, should never be used for field crops. It +should constitute the woodland, or if this is not possible, the +pasture-land of the farm, for the grass roots protect the soil and +prevent it from washing away, and the profits on the hay are at least as +great as any other crop which could be grown on hill land.</p> + +<p>But when erosion has been checked and the top-soil preserved, when the +soil is thoroughly fertilized, and a proper rotation of crops +established, there are still other lessons to be learned in order to +make our country as productive as it might be, as it will <i>need</i> to be +to support the population that we shall have by the end of the century.</p> + +<p>As a nation we undertake to farm too much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> land and do it carelessly. +The invention of labor-saving machinery has made it possible to farm +hundreds and even thousands of acres together with little physical +labor. This has made farmers heedless of small amounts of land wasted.</p> + +<p>A man often only expects to make a comfortable living on one hundred and +sixty acres of land, while in Europe he would expect to grow rich on two +or three acres. It is often said that a French family would live off of +an American farmer's neglected fence-corners. In France, in England, in +Holland and Belgium every bit of land is tended and made useful. We have +the best natural soil in the world, the most fertile river valleys, +watered by abundant rains. The fertility of our lands is the envy of the +civilized world, and has drawn thousands to our shores in the hope of +finding comfort and plenty, and yet the total value of our farm products +was only eleven dollars and thirty-eight cents per cultivated acre +according to the last census, while in the little island of Jersey, just +off the English coast, the average annual value of products is over two +hundred and fifty dollars per acre.</p> + +<p>Germany has been cultivated nearly eighteen hundred years, the soil is +not naturally so productive nor the climate so favorable as ours, but +the wheat yield there averages more than twice as much as in this +country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the most fertile land in the world produces so much less than +poorer lands elsewhere it plainly shows that we are robbing the soil in +order to get the largest cash returns in the shortest possible time and +with the least possible labor.</p> + +<p>The American farmer needs to cultivate a much smaller amount of land +thoroughly, to have a soil analysis made of his land in order to know +what crops are best suited to it and what elements are lacking to make +it produce the best. In Illinois more than half a million acres had +become unfit for cultivation. Analysis showed that the soil was too +acid. By mixing limestone dust with the soil the trouble was corrected +and the land reclaimed.</p> + +<p>Often it is only necessary to find the cause of some deficiency, or +lack, in the soil, and the remedy will be found to be simple and cheap, +while the result of its use will be to double the crop. Nothing else so +quickly and easily responds to proper treatment, no other resource is so +easily conserved. All the soil needs is proper treatment.</p> + +<p>Every bit of waste land should be cultivated for either use or beauty, +or both. If all the lanes and neglected places could be planted with +fruit and nut trees, berry vines, and bushes, herbs or flowers which +need little cultivation after they are planted, our food, in variety and +quantity, would be greatly increased. "The hedge-rows of Old England"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +are famous for their beauty and the air of comfort and prosperity they +give. They take the place of the weeds that grow by the country +roadsides in America and which constitute one of the greatest nuisances +of the farmer.</p> + +<p>Another thing that should be considered is the marketing of farm +products. Near a city or near a canning factory the soil can be most +profitably used for the raising of vegetables, for which the cost of +cultivation is great, but which yield far larger profits than farm +crops.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years a new system of farming has been developed in +the West, which is of great interest to all of us, both because it is +opening up for production a large part of our country that has seemed +valueless, and because the lessons that have been learned there are of +the greatest advantage in every part of the country.</p> + +<p>West of the one-hundredth meridian, which crosses North and South +Dakota, the western part of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and +including the states west of them, lies a vast region that used to be +known as the "great American desert." It comprises almost half of the +United States. Here the noble forests of the eastern states and the +prairie grasses of the plains were replaced by sage-brush and cactus. +The soil was light in color and weight, and the rainfall very scanty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<p>It seemed impossible that it could ever be fitted for agriculture. But +there were a few great rivers, rich mining districts, and excellent +grazing lands. These attracted settlers, and to them some cultivation of +the soil became almost a necessity. The waste waters of the rivers were +used for irrigation and the land when watered was found to produce +remarkably fine fruits and agricultural products. Yet there were +hundreds of thousands of acres that could not be irrigated for lack of +water, and the problem of finding a use for these barren, semi-arid +lands remained unsolved for many years.</p> + +<p>But here and there in different states and under varying conditions, +after many experiments and failures, men began without water to grow +successful crops on these semi-arid lands, where the rainfall was +scarcely more than ten inches per year. Others following this method +found success, and it began to seem possible that all this territory +might some day become a great farming region.</p> + +<p>By comparing the methods employed in different states, the few general +laws have been worked out which must be applied in order to farm +successfully in this region, though the details differ with local +differences in altitude, climate, soil, and rainfall. Here farming is +being reduced to a science. In other parts of the country a man sows his +seed and nature cares for it, and gives him his harvest;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> but here he +must wring from nature all that he gets, so it is only the man who farms +according to fixed laws who can hope to succeed.</p> + +<p>This system is usually called "dry farming," though "scientific farming" +would perhaps be a better name, for the same principles that are +absolutely necessary here will greatly increase the yield anywhere. The +most important principle is to conserve every particle of moisture in +the soil. It is necessary to go deep into the soil to find the +underlying moisture. The seed-bed is made very deep. Plowing is from +sixteen to nineteen inches deep, while in well-watered regions it is +only about six inches. This deep seed-bed is thoroughly cultivated to +make the soil porous, the soil being reduced to a fine powder. After +sowing the seed, the ground is packed as solidly as possible. This is +done by especially designed machines. The surface of the soil is kept +broken all the time to prevent the escape of the moisture. This rule +applies equally to all soils in dry weather, and will often save a crop +of corn in any part of the country during a drought.</p> + +<p>These are simple rules, but the practice of them is opening up the great +semi-arid regions, not of the United States only, but of the whole +earth. Western Canada, a large part of Australia, the Kalahari Desert of +Africa, and many parts of Asia, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> are all semi-arid, will in time +become productive instead of barren.</p> + +<p>It must be remarked that the grains of the East could not withstand +the severe winters in a large part of the Northwest, so the Department +of Agriculture sent men all over the world to find +drought-and-cold-resisting grains. They found a hard winter wheat, the +most nutritious in existence, which is now growing all the way from the +Dakotas to the Pacific Ocean, producing crops far above the yield of the +eastern states. 50,000,000 bushels of this wheat was raised in 1907.</p> + +<p>The soil is the natural disintegrated rock, rich in the mineral +elements, but lacking in decayed vegetable matter. The crops soon +exhaust the nitrogen, and as clover and the common alfalfas can not grow +there, the problem of finding legumes has been the most serious one +facing this new region; but in Siberia the Agricultural Department has +recently found a new clover and three varieties of alfalfa that will +stand the cold, and Secretary Wilson believes that these will solve the +problem.</p> + +<p>Every acre brought under cultivation adds to the world's food supply. +Can we even dream of what it will mean when 200,000,000 acres are added +to the farm lands of this continent? It means prosperity for the farmers +themselves, homes for those who are now crowded in cities, work for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> the +idle, and food for the hungry. It means wealth and happiness for +thousands now living and millions yet to come.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> +<p class="d">Lands. Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Soil Wastage. Chamberlain. Report White House Conference of Governors.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Soils. Van Hise. (Same.)</p> + +<p class="d">Commercial Fertilizers. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 44.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> + +<p class="d">The Liming of Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 57.</p> + +<p class="d">Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 245.</p> + +<p class="d">Soil Fertility. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 257.</p> + +<p class="d">Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +266.</p> + +<p class="d">Fertilizers for Cotton Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin, 62.</p> + +<p class="d">Work of the Bureau of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin.</p> + +<p class="d">Exhaustion and Abandonment of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin. Whitney, +5c.</p> + +<p class="d">Phosphorus. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin.</p> + +<p class="d">The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 411.</p> + +<p class="d">The Search for Leguminous Forage Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture +Reprint, 478.</p> + +<p class="d">Leguminous Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 278.</p> + +<p class="d">Progress in Legume Inoculation. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +315.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> + +<p class="d">A Grain for Semi-arid Lands. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +139.</p> + +<p class="d">The Sugar-Beet. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 52.</p> + +<p class="d">Dry-Land Problems in the Great Plains Area. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 461.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports of Dry Farming Congress.</p> + +<p class="d">The Natural Wealth of the Land. J. J. Hill, Report Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">National Wealth and the Farm. J. J. Hill.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER III</a></h2> + +<h3>FORESTS</h3> + + +<p>Aside from the soil itself, which supports all life, there is no other +resource so important to man as the forests, with their many uses +covering so wide a range.</p> + +<p>The beauty and restfulness of a forest, the grace and dignity of single +trees, the shade for man and animals, the shelter from storms—all these +things appeal to our love for the beautiful, and touch our higher +nature. The person who loves trees is a better person than the one who +does not. As the poet expresses it:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ah, bare must be the shadeless ways, and bleak the path must be,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of him, who, having open eyes, has never learned do see,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And so has never learned to love the beauty of a tree.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Who loves a tree, he loves the life that springs in star and clod,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He loves the love that gilds the clouds, and greens the April sod,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He loves the wide Beneficence; his soul takes hold on God."<br /></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></div></div> + +<p>Trees have played an important part in the history of our country: The +"Charter Oak," in the hollow of which the original charter of +Connecticut remained hidden from the agents of the king; "Eliot's Oak," +under which the gospel was first preached to the Indians; the +wide-spreading elm under which William Penn signed his treaty of peace +with the Indians.</p> + +<p>But no tree has held so dear a place in the hearts of the people, or +been so watchfully cared for as the old "Washington Elm" still standing +in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Under it Washington took command of the +continental army. It is visited every year by hundreds of persons, who +stand with uncovered heads beneath its spreading branches. Many years +ago it was struck by lightning and the upper part torn off, but all the +broken edges have been sealed with pitch to stop decay. It has been +covered with fine wire netting to prevent the bark being chipped off by +relic hunters. It is carefully guarded from damage by insects, and the +boughs are stayed by strong wires.</p> + +<p>And so we might name many instances of trees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> that are loved and cared +for on account of their beauty, stateliness or some event connected with +them, but it is the usefulness of trees that we shall mention in this +chapter.</p> + +<p>In the larger use of forests is included their effect on climate and +rainfall. It is generally believed that clouds, passing over the damp, +cool air that rises from a forest, are more likely to be condensed into +rain, and so we can establish the general rule that the country which is +well wooded will probably have a larger rainfall than the one which has +few trees.</p> + +<p>Twenty-five years ago Kansas was a prairie state with few trees, and the +semi-arid plains extended half-way across the state, but thousands of +acres of trees have been planted, and crops have been cultivated, and +the more forests and crops the farmer plants the more rain comes to +water them. The great droughts which used to ruin their crops year after +year no longer disturb them. The hot winds which could undo a whole +season's hard work in a day are seldom heard of now. Kansas is no longer +in the semi-arid region. It is one of the most productive states in the +Union, and this has come, not by dry-farming, but by the cultivation of +the soil and by the planting of trees.</p> + +<p>Though rainfall increases, destructive floods become fewer, for the +humus and the leaves on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> ground in the forests hold the water as in +a vast sponge, and, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, they keep +the waters in check and distribute the rainfall gently and evenly on the +lands below. They thus prevent erosion of the hillsides and balance the +water supply of rivers.</p> + +<p>Trees supply us with food and medicine, and greatest of all their direct +uses, they furnish lumber for all kinds of manufacturing.</p> + +<p>We can not think of life without the comforts and conveniences that we +get from wood; but interior China affords a striking example of what it +means for a nation to have a very small supply. There is no wood for +manufacturing and the natives search the hillsides for even the tiniest +shrubs to burn and even for grass scratched from the soil. Once this +part of China was a great forest region, but century by century the +forests have been used, not rapidly, as in this country, for China is +not a great industrial nation, but surely, until there is hardly a twig +left.</p> + +<p>China is not the only nation that has suffered in this way. Many of the +ancient peoples have entirely passed away; and the destruction of their +forests, as we have seen in the previous chapter, was the first cause +leading to their extinction.</p> + +<p>Denmark was originally almost covered with forests. These were cut down +for fuel, for lumber,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> and to make way for agriculture. For a long time +there was no attempt to restore them, and now a large area, once +productive, has become a sandy desert. In the same way, large parts of +Austria and Italy have become valueless because the growing forests were +cut down.</p> + +<p>In France the forests at the head-waters of the Rhone and the Seine were +cut down and fierce floods began to pour down the valleys each year, +bringing destruction to property and crops all along their way. But +France has long ago learned the lesson of forestry, and as soon as the +danger was seen, the mountain sides were replanted with trees, and since +then conditions have been gradually changing for the better.</p> + +<p>France has had another experience in forestry that has taught her what +can be done to save her waste lands. Near the coast were great +sand-dunes. The winds drove them each year farther inland, and the sand +was gradually driving out the vineyards and farm crops. In 1793 the +planting of forests on these dunes was begun. Of 350,000 acres, 275,000 +have been planted in valuable pine forests. More than half of these +belong to private owners and there is no record of their value, but the +portion belonging to the government has yielded a large income above all +expenses, and is worth $10,000,000 as land; and this was not only +valueless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> but was a menace to the surrounding country. In the interior +of France a sandy marsh covering 2,000,000 acres has been changed into a +profitable forest valued at $100,000,000.</p> + +<p>A hundred years ago all the eastern part of the United States and the +Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast region were covered with thick +forests hundreds and hundreds of miles in extent. Evergreens—the pines, +hemlocks, cedars and spruces—grew near the coast in great abundance, +while farther inland were found the most magnificent hardwood forests in +the world.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, the first needs of the early settlers required them to +cut down these mighty forests. The soil, which was very fertile, could +not, of course, be used for farming purposes until the land was cleared, +and so this was the first necessity.</p> + +<p>The wood was used to build the cabins, to make the rude furniture, the +wagons and ox-carts, and for fuel, but this disposed of only a small +amount of the wood that came from the clearing of a farm. No man could +give it to his neighbor when all had more than they could use, and there +was no market for its sale. The trees were burned in large quantities to +clear the land for the planting of crops.</p> + +<p>Wood was of the greatest value to the first settlers, but it was also +the greatest hindrance to their making homes, so they took no care +whatever of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> what they could not use. It was burned or left on the +ground to decay. As towns sprang up, there began to be a demand for +lumber for houses, for furniture, for vehicles and for fuel from those +who had no trees of their own. This made a market for the best grades of +lumber at a low price, but almost every farmer would give away trees of +the best hardwood to any person who would cut and haul them away.</p> + +<p>Conditions have changed very slowly, but very surely. In every state, in +every county and in every township there has been a steady clearing of +the land as it fills with new home-makers. At the same time the demand +has grown enormously each year from the dwellers in cities.</p> + +<p>The opening up of railroads and telegraph lines in the middle and latter +part of the century made a great demand for wood. The building of ships +and steamboats, the opening of mines, the establishing of telephone and +trolley systems, the building of great cities, all these have called +steadily and increasingly for wood.</p> + +<p>The time has long passed when wood was a hindrance to progress. For a +long time there has been a ready market at high prices and it is rapidly +reaching the point where we shall face an actual shortage of timber. +This is not true of all parts of the country, of course. Maine, +Washington,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> and parts of Oregon, Alabama, Arkansas, and Mississippi, +Wisconsin and some other states, still have vast quantities of lumber, +but trains and ships carry it to all parts of the world so there is no +lack of a market.</p> + +<p>The change from plenty, even great excess, to need, has come so +gradually that few persons, even those living in the forest regions, +have realized until within a very few years how general is their +destruction. Those who, riding about a small portion of the country +familiar to them, have been struck with the disappearance of the woods +and the cultivation of the lands, have looked upon it wholly as a sign +of progress, and have not realized that the same thing is going on in +every part of the country.</p> + +<p>The wholesale destruction of the forests, without replanting, has come +mostly from ignorance. We have had all our resources in such great +abundance that we have not hitherto needed to learn the lessons that the +Old World has learned, sometimes at the cost of whole nations, but the +time has come when we <i>do</i> need to learn them.</p> + +<p>The first lesson is to study the various uses of the forests, to find +how they are being affected by present use, their wastes, and the best +means of preserving them. When all the people have learned these +lessons, they will, undoubtedly, gladly set<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> about righting the wrongs +that have been done in the past.</p> + +<p>The original forests of this country covered an area of about +850,000,000 acres, with nearly five and a half trillion board feet of +"merchantable," that is, salable, timber according to present standards. +(A board foot is one foot long, one foot wide and one inch in +thickness.) Considerably more than half the original number of acres are +still forested, but most of the land has been cut or burned over, some +of it several times, and the amount remaining of salable timber, which +includes only the best part of the trunk, is from two to two and a half +trillion, that is from 1,400 to 2,000 billion, feet. The yearly cut for +all purposes, including waste, is now over two hundred billion board +feet;—some authorities place the amount as high as two hundred and +seventy-five billion feet. This, however, probably includes firewood, +one of the largest uses of wood, but taken very largely from worm-eaten +wood that could not be cut into lumber. It also probably includes +boughs, and other unsalable parts of the tree.</p> + +<p>The timber cut doubled from 1880 to 1905, is still increasing at almost +the same rate, and, if we had the timber, it would doubtless double +again by 1930. But even at the present rate, the forests now standing, +without allowance for growth, would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> be exhausted in from ten to sixteen +years. The yearly growth of timber in our present forests is estimated +at from forty-two to sixty billion feet, and the yearly cut at from +three to three and a half times the amount added for growth.</p> + +<p>That is, we are using in four months at least as much wood as will +naturally grow in a year. The other eight months we shall be using our +forest reserves, and each year there will be less forest land to produce +new growth, as well as less old wood to cut.</p> + +<p>Mr. R. A. Long, an expert lumberman who spoke before the first +Conservation Congress, estimated then that the forests, making allowance +for growth, would not last over thirty-five years. The government +figures indicate that they will last about thirty-three years, at the +present rate, but as the rate has been doubling every twenty-five years, +many persons who have studied the situation believe that the supply will +not continue in commercial quantities for manufacturing more than +twenty-five years.</p> + +<p>We must understand, must think, what the destruction of our forests +would mean to us. It would mean fierce droughts and fiercer floods. It +would mean the gradual drying up of our streams, a scarcity of water to +drink, as in China to-day. It would mean that the manufacture of wooden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +articles would practically cease. The thousand conveniences that we +enjoy as a matter of course would become rare and costly. It would mean +that only the rich could build houses of wood, and this would force the +masses of people into crowded quarters, not only the poor, but the +well-to-do also. These are only a few of the many disasters that would +follow the loss of our forests, and all these things might come to pass +before we ourselves are old!</p> + +<p>If we knew that at a certain time a tidal wave would engulf our homes, +how we should work to save all that we could before the calamity +overtook us! And we should set about the saving of our forests with +equal care, for their destruction means distress for every one of us.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, this is only the dark possibility. The methods of +prevention are well known to those who have studied the history of the +nations that have fallen, and the nations that have risen to power. It +is only necessary that all the people should know these things and +realize their importance, in order to keep conditions as they are at +present or even to better them.</p> + +<p>The methods of prevention are five. They are:</p> + +<p>(1) To use the trees in the most careful and conservative way without +the great wastes now common.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<p>(2) To save the vast areas of forests that are now burned each year.</p> + +<p>(3) To prevent loss from insects.</p> + +<p>(4) To use substitutes: that is, to use other and cheaper materials to +take the place of wood whenever possible.</p> + +<p>(5) To plant trees and to replant where old ones have been cut, until +all land that is not fitted for agriculture is covered with forests.</p> + +<p>These are only the rules that good sense and good business would teach +us to follow, but we have not followed any of them in the past, and now +it will be necessary to do all these things if we are to continue to +have enough wood to use to keep pace with our progress in other +directions.</p> + +<p>As an example of the rapid rate at which we are consuming our forests, +we use nine times as much lumber for every man, woman and child as the +people of Germany use, and twenty-five times as much as the people of +England use. This is due to several causes, many of which we would not +wish changed.</p> + +<p>To begin with, this was a new and undeveloped country, a large part of +which had never been inhabited, and all the land, as fast as it was +occupied, must be built up with entirely new homes; and because wood is +the cheapest building material it is the one generally used.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<p>The growth of all European countries is mostly by the increase of their +own people, while this is only a small percentage of our growth, which +comes largely from immigration from other countries, so the increase of +population is much greater here and the proportion of new homes needed +is far greater. Improvements of all kinds, public buildings, churches +and bridges were built in almost every European community long ago, +while in this country these things are being done each year in thousands +of places.</p> + +<p>Wages are higher in this country, and more people are able to afford the +luxuries of life, vehicles, musical instruments, and the large variety +of small conveniences to be found in almost every American home but seen +in few homes of the poorer class in Europe.</p> + +<p>These are a few of the reasons why we use such a large amount of lumber +each year. They are all conditions that mean a larger, better nation +than we could otherwise have, with a higher standard of living, and +while in some particulars, as we shall show, there should be changes +that would conserve our forests, the great wastes do not lie in the +<i>use</i>, but in the <i>abuse</i> of the forests.</p> + +<p>Now let us see what use is made of all the wood that is cut every year. +The greatest use of all is for firewood, but this is largely the +decaying or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> faulty trees from farmers' wood-lots, or the waste product +of a lumber region, so this does not constitute so heavy a drain on the +forests as the fact that 100,000,000 cords a year are used, would +indicate.</p> + +<p>Twenty times as much of the salable timber is sawed into lumber as is +used in any other way. Nearly 40,000,000,000 board feet are thus used, +but lumber is used in a variety of ways, while the other cuts are +confined to a single use.</p> + +<p>The first and greatest use of lumber is for building purposes, for +houses, barns, sheds, out-buildings, fences, and for window-sashes, +doors and inside finishings of all buildings, even those made of other +materials.</p> + +<p>Next comes furniture of all kinds,—chairs, tables, beds, and all other +house, office, and school furniture; musical instruments, pianos, etc., +vehicles of all kinds,—farm wagons, delivery wagons, carriages and +other pleasure vehicles, including parts of automobile bodies, +agricultural implements, plows, harrows, harvesters, threshing machines +and other farm implements. Though these are built largely of iron, yet +one-fourth of the implement factories report a use of 215,000,000 feet +of lumber a year, so the entire output of these factories calls for a +large amount of wood from our forests.</p> + +<p>Car building is the other really great use for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> lumber. Freight cars, +passenger cars, and trolley cars use each year an increasingly large +proportion of the product of our saw-mills.</p> + +<p>After these come the various smaller articles, which, though themselves +small, are used in every home and are turned out in such vast quantities +as to require a very large amount of lumber each year.</p> + +<p>An empty spool seems a trifle, but the making of all the spools requires +the cutting of hundreds of acres of New England's best birch woods. +Butter dishes, fruit crates, baskets, wooden boxes of all kinds, tools +and handles, kitchen utensils, toys and sporting goods, picture molding +and frames, grille and fretwork, excelsior, clothes-pins, matches, +tooth-picks,—all these are mowing down our forests by the thousands of +acres.</p> + +<p>The lumber cut includes all kinds of both hard and soft woods. A very +large percentage of this is of yellow or southern hard pine, of which +several billion feet a year are used.</p> + +<p>An almost equal amount is used for hewn cross-ties for railroads and +trolley lines. Many sawed cross-ties are included in the item of lumber. +The hewed cross-ties are made from young oak-trees, or from hard-pine, +cedar and chestnut. Without them no more railroad or trolley lines could +be built, and the present systems could not be kept in repair. Many +other materials have been tried, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> wood is the only one that has ever +proved satisfactory and safe for this purpose.</p> + +<p>The next largest use of lumber is the grinding of it into pulp to be +used in making paper for our books, magazines and newspapers, wrapping +papers, etc. The woods used for this purpose are mostly spruce and +hemlock. The great sources of supply of pulp-wood are Maine and +Wisconsin, and large amounts are imported from Canada, which greatly +lessens the drain on our own forests.</p> + +<p>Next in importance comes cooperage stock for the making of barrels. When +we consider the many uses of barrels,—that vinegar, oil, and liquors +are all shipped in tight barrels, which are mostly made of the best +white oak, and that flour, starch, sugar, crackers, fruits and +vegetables, glassware, chemicals, and cement are shipped in what are +called slack barrels, made of various hardwoods, the hoops being always +of soft elm, a wood which is rapidly disappearing, we can see the size +and necessity of this industry.</p> + +<p>Round mine timbers, largely made of young hardwood trees, are used to +support the mines underground. Mining engineers say that on an average +three feet of lumber are used in mining every ton of coal taken out. +Assuming that 450,000,000 tons of coal are mined each year, this would +mean that almost a billion and a half feet a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> year are used in the coal +mines, and this is about the amount shown by the government report.</p> + +<p>After this comes wood for lath used in building. This product is usually +taken from lower class wood or logging camp waste. Then comes the wood +for distillation into wood-alcohol for use in manufacture and to furnish +power in engines.</p> + +<p>Next in quantity used comes veneer, which has two entirely different +uses. The highest grade woods are cut to about one-twentieth of an inch +and glued to cheaper woods as an outside finish in the making of +furniture. The other use is for veneer used alone, when a very thin wood +is desired. This is employed for butter dishes, berry baskets, crates, +boxes and barrels.</p> + +<p>Next on the list come poles—electric railway, electric light, +telegraph, and telephone poles. Every pole that is erected for any of +these purposes, every extension of the service, and all replacing caused +by wind or decay, means the cutting of a tall, straight, perfect tree, +usually cedar or chestnut. If we think of each pole of the network that +covers the entire continent, as a tree, we shall better realize what our +forests have done in binding the nation together.</p> + +<p>Leather is stained by soaking the hides in a solution containing the +bark of oak or hemlock. Sometimes an extract is made from chestnut +wood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> This has caused one of the most criminal wastes of trees, for a +great deal of timber was cut down solely for the bark, and the wood left +to decay in the forest. But now, as the price of lumber advances, more +of it is used each year and less left to waste.</p> + +<p>The bark and extract of the quebracho, a South American tree, are being +imported for use in tanning, and are still further reducing the drain on +our own forests.</p> + +<p>Turpentine and rosin do not in themselves destroy the forests any more +than does tapping the maple trees for their sap, but in the making of +turpentine trees that are too small are often "boxed" and the trees are +easily blown down by heavy winds or are attacked by insects and fungi. +Many destructive fires also follow turpentining, so that on the whole +the turpentine industry is responsible for the destruction each year of +large areas of the southern pine forests. The methods of turpentining +introduced by the government result in the saving of thirty per cent. +more turpentine, and also protect the trees so that they may be used +fifteen or twenty years and still be almost as valuable as ever for +timber.</p> + +<p>Twenty millions of posts are cut each year in the Lake States alone, and +the entire number used is probably two or three times as great.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> + +<p>These constitute the greater uses of wood, not a full and detailed list; +but it plainly shows that all the uses are not only desirable, but +necessary for our comfort and happiness, and that we would not willingly +sacrifice one of them, and in order that this shall not become +necessary, let us see what abuses we can find in the management of our +forests. And here we find the most startling figures of all.</p> + +<p>Great and important as is our list of products made from wood, we are +surprised to learn that of all wood cut fully two-thirds is wasted in +the forests, left to decay or burned. The largest forests are now all +located far from the great manufacturing regions, and that means far +from the lumber market. The cost of transportation must be added to +every car of lumber sold. The freight on a car-load of lumber from the +South to Chicago or other points in the middle West is not less than a +hundred dollars, and from the Pacific coast it is very much higher.</p> + +<p>It does not pay to send low-grade lumber when the cost is so great, and +as there is no local market a large part of each tree is burned. All the +upper end of the trunk and all branches are thus destroyed, although +much valuable timber is contained in them.</p> + +<p>At one mill in Alabama a pile of waste wood and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> branches as high as a +two-story house burns night and day throughout the year, and that is +probably true of all the larger mills.</p> + +<p>If the timber could be conservatively managed as are live-stock +products, so that all the waste could be utilized, all the small +articles, shingles, lath, posts, tan-bark and extract, pulp-wood, wood +for distillation and small manufactured articles would be made +by-products of the larger cuts.</p> + +<p>Much has been said of the greed of large lumber companies in causing +wholesale and reckless destruction of the forests, and much of it is +doubtless true, but the lumber companies cite the fact that no farmer +will gather a crop of corn which will not pay for the labor cost of +gathering, and say that at the present prices of lumber they can not pay +the present freight rates to the factories. It seems therefore that a +certain amount of waste is unavoidable unless wood-working plants are +established near the forest regions.</p> + +<p>The first great step in conserving our forests is to stop the +unnecessary wastes in use. The next step is to take measures to prevent +the great destruction of our forests by fire.</p> + +<p>Those who have never lived in a great forest region can have little idea +of the extent of the damage caused by these great forest fires. The loss +of life of both man and animals, the sweeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> away of houses and crops, +the homelessness and misery of those who have lost everything they had +saved, are not to be taken into account here, but only the loss of the +forests themselves.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that the loss by fire is as great as the entire amount +cut for use in the entire United States. The National Conservation +Committee reports that 50,000,000 acres of woodland are burned over +yearly. This probably includes all burned-over lands, in much of which +the standing timber is not destroyed, but the saplings and seedlings are +killed as well as the grass for grazing and for the protection of the +roots. Much land is burned over in this way year after year until hope +of future growth is gone, though the damage to the large trees has not +been great. In one way this loss is even more serious, as it shuts off +the hope of future forests, but the loss of our full-grown standing +forests is grave.</p> + +<p>In 1891 this loss amounted to 15,000,000 acres, or nearly forty thousand +acres every day in the year. Since then the work of the Forest Service +in fighting fires and the great clearing of the forests, has reduced +this somewhat, but it still amounts to no less than 30,000 acres of our +best salable timber a day. This is the really great and serious loss of +the forests.</p> + +<p>All the wood that is used goes to make our country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> a better place to +live in, to make its people more comfortable and happy, but all that is +lost by fire is a loss to all the nation in comforts for the future, and +in the present it means high prices for lumber because our forests are +disappearing so rapidly.</p> + +<p>And we are letting them burn at the rate of thirty thousand acres every +day! More than enough to supply all our needs. If any one could gather +together in one vast pile our houses and barns, our furniture, our +wagons and carriages, our farm implements, all our home conveniences, +our railroad cross-ties, our trolley and telephone poles, our papers and +magazines, and burn them all, the whole world would be roused by the +fearfulness of the loss. But we sit idly by and see the materials of +which all these things are made and must be made in the future, and with +them our shade, our water-sheds, the soil of the forest-lands itself +destroyed, with never a word of protest.</p> + +<p>In a paper prepared for the National Conservation Congress, it was +stated that in some years government survey parties were unable to work +in the Rocky Mountains for whole seasons on account of the dense smoke, +and the fires were allowed to burn till the snows of winter put them +out. The writer further stated that he believed from observation that +the Forest Service, by checking fires in their beginning, has in the +last few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> years saved more timber than has been used for commercial +purposes.</p> + +<p>Private owners of large tracts should be compelled to use the same care +in preventing fires that is exercised by the government. This care, and +the breaking up of the forests into smaller tracts by clearing the land +in alternate sections would soon reduce the fire loss so greatly as +almost to save us from anxiety for the future of our timber lands.</p> + +<p>The next great loss to the forests is from insects. When insects have +bored into wood it becomes honey-combed by the canals cut by the little +insects and is utterly valueless. The loss to fruit and forest trees +will be taken up more fully in the chapter on insects. At present it is +only necessary, in order to show how much our forests suffer in this +way, to state that the yearly loss from this cause is placed at no less +than $100,000,000 a year, and the loss to fruits is counted at one-fifth +of the entire crop. Some slight idea of the danger to our forests will +be seen by the simple statement that forty-one different species of +insects infest the locust tree, eighty the elm, one hundred and five the +birch, one hundred and sixty-five the pine, one hundred and seventy the +hickory, one hundred and eighty-six the willow, while oak trees are +attacked by over five hundred!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is exceedingly difficult to control and can perhaps never be +entirely checked. Some remedies will be suggested later, and by having +smaller forests, more carefully watched, some personal care can be given +to the trees. In Germany the trees are as closely watched as are other +crops, and the saving in value well repays this extra care and expense.</p> + +<p>A much smaller loss comes from the winds that sometimes level all the +trees over many square miles. This can not, of course, be prevented, +except possibly in the turpentine forests, but care should be taken to +use all the wood, never allowing it to decay where it fell, and also to +replant the land with trees, unless it is fitted for agriculture.</p> + +<p>A great saving of the forests may be effected by what is called +preservative treatment, which consists of treating railroad ties, +piling, mine timbers, poles, and posts with creosote or zinc chlorid to +prevent decay from the moisture of the ground or from injury by +salt-water borers. The use of creosote is almost double the cost of zinc +chlorid, but it is much more effective and durable. A fence post can be +treated with creosote for about ten cents, a railroad tie for twenty +cents, and a telephone pole for from seventy-five cents to a dollar. In +every case the timber treated will last twice as long as it would +without such treatment and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> view of the present high prices it is bad +business policy to use timber in such a way that it will need replacing +soon. It is estimated that if all timbers which could be profitably +treated were so cared for, it would mean a money saving to the owners of +$47,000,000, and an annual saving in wood equal to 4,000,000,000 board +feet of lumber.</p> + +<p>The next point in the conservation of the forests is to seek substitutes +to take the place of wood. There are many uses of wood which nothing +else will satisfactorily supply. For example, no railroad cross-tie has +ever been designed of other material that does not increase the danger +of railway accidents, though over two hundred kinds have been patented.</p> + +<p>There is nothing that will take the place of wood in furniture, and in +many small articles. Some articles might be replaced in metal, but it +makes them too heavy or too expensive. But in certain lines there is an +excellent opportunity to use other materials to great advantage.</p> + +<p>Cars are now being built of steel, and of combinations of metal with +asbestos. These are not yet entirely satisfactory, but it is hoped that +they can be perfected soon. Cement and concrete are taking the place of +wood to a great extent in building, and their use will doubtless +increase rapidly.</p> + +<p>When veneer is used for barrels and boxes it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> affords a saving of nearly +two-thirds in the amount of wood required. This is a line of use where +cheaper substitutes should always be used if possible, because a package +is usually used only once, never more than twice, and then discarded, so +that the wood is put to little real service compared with other wooden +articles.</p> + +<p>When possible, small articles of wood should be made only in a forest +region or near saw-mills to use the scraps and save an unnecessary drain +on the more valuable grades of lumber.</p> + +<p>One of the most important lines in which substitutes are practicable is +in the making of paper and box-board or pasteboard. The latter is +sometimes called strawboard, because it is made from wheat straw, and +where it is manufactured, uses a large amount of straw that would +otherwise be wasted, but the great wheat fields of the West still have +immense quantities of unused straw, which, if made into strawboard, +would not only bring more prosperity to that region but would lessen the +drain on the forests.</p> + +<p>A box bound with wire and made of corrugated paper now takes the place +for many light articles of the wooden packing-case. The strawboard also +takes the place of wood-pulp for smaller paper boxes. Rice-straw, hemp, +flax-straw, cotton fiber and peat have all been tested in a small way +and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> found to make excellent paper, and it is thought corn-stalks can +also be used, but none of these is now manufactured in the United States +on a large scale. This is largely because the price of pulp-wood is low, +and the cost of experimenting with new materials is great with the +results uncertain.</p> + +<p>This brings us to the last one of our preventive measures for the +decline of our forests, the one which needs the most careful attention +of all—the replanting of the lands that are not fitted for agriculture, +and planting trees about houses and unoccupied spaces.</p> + +<p>Many farmers have planted orchards on a part of their farm-lands and +many trees have been planted in town and country, but until a few years +ago there was no organized effort to plant trees.</p> + +<p>Now many states have set apart a day which is called Arbor Day, for this +purpose, but in no state does it hold so important a place as it should. +It is observed by the schools but not by the general public.</p> + +<p>In Germany there are regular tree-planting days in which all the people +take part. Every one who is not too poor—and he must be poor +indeed—plants a tree in his own garden, or in front of his home, in the +forest or in the highway; for himself or for the general good.</p> + +<p>Each child plants a tree on his or her birthday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> every year, and watches +and cares for it as it grows. The roadsides are lined with fruit or nut +or flowering trees which have been planted in neat, orderly rows. These +things are in striking contrast to the observance of Arbor Day in this +country, where one tree suffices for an entire school, or at best each +class has a tree of its own. It is all a matter of enthusiasm and +education.</p> + +<p>In considering the best trees for planting we come to the last great use +of trees of which we have not spoken. Fruit and nut trees supply us with +large quantities of the most wholesome and delicious food. The apple, +pear, peach, plum, and cherry grow in the central part of the United +States, and oranges, lemons, figs, olives and apricots in the warmer +parts.</p> + +<p>By planting these trees in suitable places one may have a rich harvest +for many years to come. If a small fraction of the seeds of fruit trees +which are wasted each year were planted, the general food supply would +be greatly increased, and many benefits would be derived from the trees +themselves.</p> + +<p>Have you ever heard the story of "Apple-seed John," the man who, +according to tradition, went through what is now western Pennsylvania, +Ohio and Indiana while the country was still a wilderness and planted +orchards for the settlers who, he was sure, would come later?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> + +<p>So many stories have been told of him that it is hard to discover how +much of the tale is really true. At least one poem has been written +about him, and the Reverend Newell Dwight Hillis has woven the facts and +fancies of his career into a charming book, <i>The Quest of John Chapman</i>.</p> + +<p>The story is that he spent his winters in the settlements near the +Atlantic coast teaching the children or working at small tasks about the +farms, and taking his pay always in the seeds of apples, peaches, pears, +plums, and grapes. The farmers and their families saved all their seeds +for him and when spring came he filled his boat with seeds and started +down the Ohio River. When he reached a suitable landing-place he took +his bags of seeds on his back and trudged through the forest.</p> + +<p>Whenever he came to an open space he planted an orchard, built a fence +of boughs about it, and started on again. And so he traveled on and on, +through all the spring and summer months, year after year, planting his +seeds for those who would come after him, until he grew too old to work.</p> + +<p>The first settlers in those states found the orchards and vineyards +awaiting them, and a few trees are still standing that are said to have +been planted by Apple-Seed John. The story of this man who in his humble +way devoted his life to others is one that may well be told and +imitated, for while none<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> of us can do the work he did, it may inspire +us with a wish to make some spot on earth better by planting our few +seeds or plants.</p> + +<p>In carrying on this work in the schools as well as by the general +public, a regular plan should be followed. Much can be accomplished with +no expense at all, even in cities. In all cases the expense will be very +small compared to the good accomplished.</p> + +<p>Seeds may be planted and later transplanted. This will require no +expense and little labor. Every child, large and small, in city and +country, can learn to do this work and can thus perform a real service. +Small saplings which are growing close together, where they can never +develop, may each be planted in a place where it will have a chance to +grow into a thrifty tree. Most farmers would be entirely willing to +allow the pupils to take such saplings from their wood-lots if the work +were properly done. This is an excellent work for country schools to +undertake, both for the good it will accomplish and for the training of +the pupils themselves in practical work.</p> + +<p>Fruit trees of suitable size for planting may be had for about twenty +cents each. Most American children could easily save that amount from +money spent on candy, sweetmeats or toys so as to have a tree ready for +planting on Arbor Day which would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> yield them fruit as they grow older, +and be a source of pride and pleasure. Such trees will of course usually +be planted at the children's own homes, but it would be an excellent +idea to follow the German plan of planting public orchards just outside +the town. When the trees are old enough to bear, the children are +allowed on certain days to go and gather and eat the fruit and carry it +home in baskets.</p> + +<p>The older boys in every school, whether city or country, should be +taught to plant and transplant trees in the best way. The following +directions for the work are sent out by the Department of Agriculture at +Washington:</p> + +<p>"The proper season for planting is not everywhere the same. When the +planting is done in the spring, the right time is when the frost is out +of the ground and before budding begins.</p> + +<p>"The day to plant is almost as important as the season. Sunny, windy +weather is to be avoided. Cool, damp days are the best. Trees can not be +thrust carelessly into a rough soil and then be expected to flourish. +They should be planted in properly worked soil, well enriched. If they +can not be planted immediately after they are taken up the first step is +to prevent their roots drying out in the air. This may be done by piling +fresh dirt deep about the roots or setting the roots in mud.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> + +<p>"In planting they should be placed from two to three inches deeper than +they stood originally. Fine soil should always be pressed firmly—not +made hard—about the roots, and two inches of dry soil at the top should +be left very loose to retain the moisture."</p> + +<p>The reading of such poems as Lucy Larcom's "He who plants a tree plants +a hope," or William Cullen Bryant's, "Come, let us plant the apple +tree," and suitable talks or papers on trees, dealing with their kinds +and uses, on the benefits of forests, and on practical forestry, should +be a part of the Arbor Day exercises.</p> + +<p>In many communities a tract of land which is not well suited for general +agriculture may be obtained for the benefit of the school, and some +simple work in forestry may be undertaken by the pupils. Sometimes a +farmer may be induced to give a small bit of waste land where the +experiment may be tried. Sometimes such land can be bought by the school +in one of the following ways:</p> + +<p>A series of entertainments may be given by the pupils, the proceeds to +be applied to the buying of the land, and the pupils may also obtain +money in other outside ways to bring to the general fund. If only one +acre can be bought and cleared by the pupils, and properly planted, a +little at a time, a tree for each child's birthday, or by obtaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +small seedlings and saplings from the forest, it will be a source of +keen interest, and will give an added pleasure to the school work. +Watching the growth of the trees and caring for them will keep this +interest alive year after year, and in time it will become a valuable +property belonging to the school. Sometimes the school officials will +set aside a sum from the public money to purchase the land. In one High +School, one acre is thus bought each year, and every pupil in the senior +year gives and plants a tree. Sometimes the farmers or the merchants of +a community may unite in buying the land, which will, of course, become +public property, and set it aside for improvement after the manner of a +city park.</p> + +<p>Sometimes women's clubs become interested in such a movement and will +raise the funds necessary for beginning it. It then becomes the duty of +the school, year after year, to plant and care for the land. After a +time the school will have a valuable property to sell, or can have a +yearly income from the sale of timber.</p> + +<p>Such plans may be carried out in many schools. Every school can and +should do something to forward this great work. All school yards should +be well planted and care taken that the boy with a new knife does not +try it on the bark or that the bark is not rubbed from the trees in +careless play.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> Many trees planted in school yards have been destroyed +in this way.</p> + +<p>But we shall not be safe if only the schools plant trees. Farmers and +lot owners should take up the work in earnest, adding as many trees as +possible each year. In this way they could insure an abundant supply of +fruit, nuts and timber for the future, could increase the value of their +property, and provide a steady income besides.</p> + +<p>Farmers' institutes would find this a most important work to undertake, +arranging for a common plan to be carried out in an entire neighborhood, +and setting aside days in which all the members may work together to set +out trees by the roadsides. This brings us to the question of what kinds +of trees are best to plant.</p> + +<p>For town or city lots, fruit trees should always be chosen, because they +bear in a short time and will add to the family food supply, and so +lessen the cost of living and increase the variety of food. Every farm +should have a good assortment of fruit. Any nurseryman's catalogue will +furnish lists of kinds so that a wise choice may be made. In selecting +fruit trees, great care should be taken to choose the best varieties.</p> + +<p>For streets and roadsides, nut or wild fruit trees are best, for the +trees are generally graceful in appearance and will yield some return, +as the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> popular maples and poplars will not. The chestnut is one of +the best trees for such planting, though it is of a rather slow growth. +English or American walnuts, pecans, mulberry and persimmon trees can be +grown in most parts of the United States.</p> + +<p>One town in Kansas is planting fruit trees on all its streets, so that +in a few years there will be an abundance of fruit free to every +passer-by. This is a most excellent plan, but individuals would be +likely to find the fruit molested if only a few trees are planted in a +community.</p> + +<p>Barn-lots and lanes should be planted with wild cherry, haws, elder, +dogwood, mountain-ash, and other wild fruits to serve as food for birds, +poultry, and hogs.</p> + +<p>Where the banks of streams need to be protected from erosion, probably +the best tree for planting is the basket willow, which thrives well near +the water, has a heavy network of roots, and is valuable for weaving +into baskets and furniture.</p> + +<p>For all hillsides and rocky places, as well as wood-lots, the hardwoods +which sell best for timber should be planted in the North and West, and +the evergreens near the sea-coasts and in the South. Forests of oak, +hickory, walnut, maple (especially the sugar maple, which yields a +steady return during the lifetime of the tree), elm, chestnut, and +locust will sell for a good price, and are always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> salable. It requires +many years to grow large timber, but by proper management several years +can be gained in its growth, and it is always a valuable investment for +a farmer to make for his children.</p> + +<p>Not individuals only, but states and the national government as well, +should provide forests for the future, and this is the greatest duty of +all, for much of the most important work can only be done by a power +that can control the entire watershed at the head-waters of a +river-system.</p> + +<p>For example, the Appalachian Mountains are the source of hundreds of +streams which flow east, west and south, and pass through many states. +These mountains were originally covered with a heavy forest growth, but +they belong largely to private companies who are cutting the forests at +a rapid rate.</p> + +<p>The effect of this is seen in bare hillsides, washed by mountain +torrents which are causing disastrous floods on the lowlands, filling up +the streams, and carrying away much of the most fertile soil of some of +the southeastern states, and in the drying up of the small tributaries.</p> + +<p>This can not be remedied by single companies nor by the states that +suffer most. The only remedy is for the government to buy the land at +the head-waters of the rivers and reforest it. The same conditions on a +smaller scale are to be found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> in every mountainous region where the +forests are cut away.</p> + +<p>The United States owns a large amount of forest but not nearly enough to +insure a supply of wood for the future. The public forest lands are +nearly all in the West. They consist of national forests, national +parks, Indian and military reservations and land open to entry as timber +claims. In all they contain nearly 100,000,000 acres, or about half as +much as is contained in farmers' wood-lots and about one-fourth as much +as the amount owned by large lumber companies.</p> + +<p>The United States, on its public domain, is setting about a careful +system of cutting and replanting. This system is known as forestry. It +has been worked out by some of the more advanced nations of Europe who +saw that destruction was coming on them through the cutting away of +their forests. Now forestry is practised by every nation except Turkey +and China. The principles have been well proved and the results of +scientific care of the forests are known to be even more sure than in +farming or live-stock raising.</p> + +<p>The Department of Agriculture will send complete directions for planting +trees in rows at proper distances, will tell what kinds are best suited +to each region and condition, how to make them grow rapidly, and when to +cut. All these things should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> be thoroughly understood by every land +owner, large or small, but at present forestry is practised on only one +per cent. of all land in this country, owned by private persons or +companies, though it is practised on seventy per cent. of all public +lands.</p> + +<p>The countries that show the best results in forestry are some of the +German states, particularly Prussia and Saxony, and France. In Prussia +the rate of production is three times as great as it was seventy-five +years ago. There is three times as much saw timber in a tree as there +was at that time, and the money returns from an average acre of forest +are now nearly ten times what they were sixty years ago. In Saxony the +state forests are receiving two dollars and thirty cents per acre a year +above all expenses from forests on land not fitted for agriculture, and +the profit is increasing every year.</p> + +<p>France and Germany together spend $11,000,000 a year on their public +forests and receive from them an income of $30,000,000, or nearly three +times as much, while the United States spends for its public forests +more than ten times as much as it receives.</p> + +<p>Many of our states are taking an active interest in forestry and are +buying tracts of land of low value for state forests. New York is taking +the lead in the work of planting forests, but even here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> the amount done +is much less than it should be. The state forester says that one million +trees are planted each year while twenty millions should be planted.</p> + +<p>The National Conservation Commission reported that the entire United +States should plant an area larger than the states of Pennsylvania, +Ohio, and West Virginia, in order to supply our future needs, but that +we have actually planted an area less than the state of Rhode Island.</p> + +<p>This, then, is the lesson we should learn in regard to our forests: To +guard against waste in cutting and use, fire, and insects, and to plant +trees until our future supply of timber is assured, till the head-waters +of our streams are protected and our waste lands made into valuable +forest tracts; till every farm has its wood-lot, and every community its +fruit and shade. It is a work in which every one of us may take some +part and from which good results are certain to come.</p> + +<h3>ORCHARDS</h3> + +<p>Another phase of tree-culture that does not, strictly speaking, come +under the head of forestry, but which should be considered here, is the +cultivation of orchards, either for home use or for commercial purposes.</p> + +<p>In a few sections, fruit is the most valuable of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> all crops. Oranges in +Florida and California, peaches in some of the southern states, and +apples in the northwest, are more profitable than any field crops, and +their cultivation is made the subject of careful scientific study. But +there are many other states where the raising of fruit in commercial +quantities is almost altogether neglected, and to which almost all fruit +is shipped from other sections. This is particularly true in the rich +corn and wheat producing states of the Mississippi Valley.</p> + +<p>The early settlers each planted an orchard for home use, and these +produced the finest quality of fruit in abundance; but usually, after +being planted, the trees were left to take care of themselves, while the +farmer's time and attention were given to his fields of grain.</p> + +<p>As time passed, plant diseases and insect pests increased, winds broke +down many of the unpruned trees, frosts often blighted the entire crop +of fruit, and the uncultivated, sod-choked trees produced fruit that was +less in quantity and poorer in quality each year.</p> + +<p>In recent years the highest grade of apples have all been shipped from +the West. These are grown on irrigated land; a high price being paid +both for the land itself and for the water-privilege, and the orchards +are seldom more than ten acres in extent. Wind and frost may cause as +much damage here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> as in the eastern states and plant diseases and insect +enemies are equally liable to injure the crop.</p> + +<p>But here orcharding is carried on in a scientific manner. The small size +of the orchard makes it possible for the owner properly to care for +every tree, and each one must be made a source of profit. Every +condition that tends to affect the crop is carefully studied, and the +remedy found and applied.</p> + +<p>There is no reason why the same care and labor should not produce +equally good results with far less expense in the well-watered regions +of the eastern and central part of the United States. The neglected +orchard will prove a failure anywhere, as surely as will a neglected +garden, and success will come only by giving to fruit the same +intelligent care that would be bestowed upon any other crop.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of apples should receive particular attention in the +north central states, because they have great food value, are not +perishable, can be shipped long distances, and the demand, both at home +and abroad, is always greater than the supply. The home orchard, +however, should contain many kinds of fruit, and the same general rules +in regard to the care of the orchard apply to all of them.</p> + +<p>First, the orchard should not be located on land that is fitted to +produce the best farm crops, but it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> must not be too steep and hilly to +be cultivated. A sunny sloping hillside is best suited to orchard crops.</p> + +<p>In most cases little fertilization is needed except the planting of +clover or some other leguminous crop. If corn be planted in young +orchards, as is often the case, potash should be used as a fertilizer +after the crop is gathered, since both corn and fruit trees draw very +heavily on the potash in the soil.</p> + +<p>Old orchards sometimes need a single application of a general fertilizer +containing all the principal soil elements. All fertilizers should be +applied not merely around the base of the trunk, but as far from it as +the tree spreads its branches in all directions.</p> + +<p>The trees should be carefully pruned and special attention paid to +trimming the tops low to prevent damage from winds, and also to make +spraying easy.</p> + +<p>The soil should be deeply cultivated the first few years in order to +make the roots strike deep into the ground, and afterward the soil +should receive some surface cultivation every year.</p> + +<p>When there is danger of frost after the trees have bloomed, brushwood +fires are lighted and a dense smoke is raised over the orchard by +burning pots of crude oil. This smoke is helpful in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> preventing the +formation of frost, and will often be the means of saving the crop.</p> + +<p>The other great causes of failure to grow large quantities of perfect +fruit, if the varieties are well chosen, are plant diseases and damage +by insects. The methods of their control are given in the chapter on +Insects, and include principally the disposal of all decayed fruit, the +raking up and burning of all leaves in infected orchards, arsenical and +lime sprays, and, above all, such attention to pruning and cultivation +as will keep the trees in good condition.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the keeping of bees in the orchard will pay well, not only for +the honey they produce, but because they assist greatly in carrying the +pollen from flower to flower, and so increasing the crop of fruit.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Forests. Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Forest Conservation, Papers and Discussions, Report Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Arbor Day, Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 96.</p> + +<p class="d">Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 134.</p> + +<p class="d">Practical Assistance to Tree Planters. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 22.</p> + +<p class="d">How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 61.</p> + +<p class="d">Forest Planting on Coal Lands. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 41.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> + +<p class="d">Forestry in the Public Schools. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 130.</p> + +<p class="d">Primer of Forestry. (Pinchot). Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 173.</p> + +<p class="d">The Use of the National Forests. (Pinchot.)</p> + +<p class="d">What Forestry Has Done. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 140.</p> + +<p class="d">Forest Preservation and National Prosperity. Forest Service Department +of Agriculture Circular, 35.</p> + +<p class="d">Forest Planting and Farm Management. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 228.</p> + +<p class="d">Facts and Figures Regarding our Forest Resources. Forest Service +Department of Agriculture Circular, 11.</p> + +<p class="d">Drain Upon the Forests. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129.</p> + +<p class="d">The Waning Hardwood Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129.</p> + +<p class="d">Timber Supply of the United States. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 116.</p> + +<p class="d">Forestry and the Lumber Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 97.</p> + +<p class="d">How to Cultivate and Care for Forests in Semi-arid Regions.</p> + +<p class="d">Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 54.</p> + +<p class="d">Paper-making Materials and their Conservation. Bureau of Chemistry, 41.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> + +<h3>WATER</h3> + + +<p>Water is an absolute necessity to man, as much as the air he breathes or +the food he eats. Water comes to us in the form of rain or snow. We +usually think of it as unlimited, but we must come to think of it as a +resource that can be abused and wasted or made useful and profitable as +is the soil itself.</p> + +<p>The amount of water is fixed and passes in an endless round from cloud +to river or land and back to the clouds again. The average yearly +rainfall of the United States is estimated at thirty inches, about forty +inches in the eastern half, an average of eighteen inches in the western +part, and in many places not more than ten or twelve inches. One inch of +rain would amount to nearly one hundred and one tons per acre, or on a +roof twenty feet long by twenty feet wide, one inch of rain would be two +hundred and fifty gallons. With a rainfall of forty inches, this would +amount to 10,000 gallons in a year, or an average, over every bit of +land twenty feet square, of twenty-seven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> gallons for every day in the +year. This is about the quantity that falls in the eastern part of the +United States.</p> + +<p>It varies slightly from year to year, but there is no more—there is no +possible way of adding to it, though we may lessen it by allowing it to +rush out to sea, giving no service to the land. As the land waters +diminish the rainfall also grows less.</p> + +<p>This two hundred trillions cubic feet of water which falls on our land +every year constitutes our entire water resource, is the source of all +our rivers and streams, of the moisture in the air, of our rains and +snows, and our water for plant and animal growth.</p> + +<p>To understand how much this is, we may say that it is about equal to ten +times the amount of water that flows through the Mississippi River +system. The water of the Mississippi and its branches is nearly half of +all the water in the United States that flows through waterways to the +sea. This water that flows through our streams is sometimes called the +run-off. The run-off is increasing every year as we cut our forests and +cultivate our land. It is used for navigation, irrigation and power, but +the increase is not an advantage for these purposes as might be +supposed, because it comes in disastrous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> floods, tearing away dams, +ruining power sites, and not only preventing navigation during the flood +season, but by filling up the rivers and changing the channels, making +navigation difficult and dangerous throughout the year. The run-off is +controlled to some extent and may be brought under almost as complete +control as may be desired.</p> + +<p>As much as the water of five or six Mississippis, or a little more than +half of our supply, is evaporated to moisten and temper the air, to fall +as rain or snow, or to form dews. This is sometimes called the fly-off, +and except for some changes caused by management of the land, is +entirely beyond control.</p> + +<p>A part of the remainder sinks into the soil below the surface. A large +portion of this helps to cause the slow rock-decay that forms the soil, +and which is known as ground water. It is estimated that within the +first hundred feet below the surface of the earth there is a quantity of +water that has seeped down; and that would form, if it were collected, a +vast reservoir sixteen or seventeen feet in depth spreading over all the +3,000,000 square miles of the area of our country. This is equal to +about seven years' rainfall and is a very important part of our water +resources. In many places it forms into underground streams or lakes. It +feeds all the springs and many of the lakes. Our wells are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> dug or +drilled into this underground water system. It carries away the excess +of salts and mineral matter from the soil, the trees strike their roots +deep into the earth and draw from it, and last and most important of +all, that which sinks immediately below the surface supplies all our +plant growth. So that it is this last portion, that which sinks below +the ground, and which is sometimes termed the cut-off, amounting to +about one-tenth of all our water resource, or about the quantity that +flows through the Mississippi River system, that forms the really +important part.</p> + +<p>On this depends all that makes a land habitable, the water for drinking +purposes and for plant and animal growth. On it depends the rate of +production of every acre of farm and forest land and the life of every +animal. Every full-grown man of one hundred and fifty pounds takes into +his system not less than a ton of water each year, and every bushel of +corn requires for its making fifteen or twenty tons of water.</p> + +<p>Of the importance of this Professor Chamberlain says: "The key to the +problem of soil conservation lies in due control of the water that falls +on every acre. This water is an asset of great value. It should be +counted by every land owner as a possible value, saved if turned where +it will do good, lost if permitted to run away, doubly lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> if it also +carries away the soil and does destructive work below."</p> + +<p>The uses of rainfall are given thus:</p> + +<p>A due portion should go through the soil to its bottom to promote rock +decay. Some of it should go into the underdrainage to carry away harmful +matter, another portion goes up to the surface carrying solutions needed +by the plants. A portion goes into the plants to nourish them, and still +another part runs off the surface, carrying away the worn-out parts of +the soil.</p> + +<p>Crops can use to advantage all the rain that falls during the growing +season; and in most cases crops are all the better for all the water +that can be carried over from the winter. There are many local +exceptions, but in general crops are best when the soil can be made to +absorb as much of the rainfall and snowfall as possible. This also +causes the least possible amount of wash from the land.</p> + +<p>Doctor N. J. McGee says: "Scarcely anywhere in the United States is the +rainfall excessive, that is, greater than is needed by growing plants, +living animals and men. Nearly everywhere it falls below this standard. +In the western part the average rainfall is only about eighteen inches; +in the extreme eastern part the fall averages forty-eight inches. In the +western part much of the land is unable to produce crops at all except +when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> artificially watered. The eastern part might produce more abundant +crops, develop greater industries and support a larger population with a +rainfall of sixty inches than it is able to do with a rainfall of +forty-eight inches." As may readily be seen, the fly-off can be +controlled only in a very small degree, by conserving the moisture that +is in the soil, and so preventing it from evaporating too rapidly.</p> + +<p>The cut-off can be controlled to a considerable extent through forestry +and scientific farming and it is very important that the supply should +be as carefully conserved as possible.</p> + +<p>But it is in the run-off that the great waste of water occurs, and also +that great saving is possible. It has been found by careful estimate +that from eighty-five per cent. to ninety-five per cent. of the water +that flows to the sea is wasted in freshets or destructive floods.</p> + +<p>We are not accustomed to think of the water as wasted, since it seems +beyond our control, but as we are taking a careful account of stock, and +seeing how our forests, our fuels and our minerals are disappearing, and +our soil being carried out to sea by the rushing waters, it is well to +consider, also, whether this great resource may not be so used as to +benefit mankind in many ways and at the same time lessen the drain on +other resources.</p> + +<p>The water of streams may be divided as to use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> into four great classes. +The most important is that used by cities for general supply, for +household and drinking purposes; next, that which is used for navigation +and the running of boats to carry commerce; third, that which is used +for artificial watering or irrigation, and lastly, that which is used +for power in manufacturing.</p> + +<p>In the past, when water has been used it has seldom been employed for +more than one of these purposes, but as we come to understand more the +nature, value and possibilities of this great resource, we shall learn +to make the money spent for one of these lines of activity supply +several other needs.</p> + +<p>As we study each of these separately we shall see this interrelation +among them.</p> + +<p>The cities of the United States have expended $250,000,000 in waterworks +and nearly as much more in land for reservoirs, and for canals for +conveying the water from these reservoirs to the cities. The better +managed systems protect the drained lands from erosion by planting +forests or grass and the water is completely controlled, so that all the +water, even the storm overflow, is saved. There is very little waste in +these city water systems until it comes to the consumer, where, except +when it is sold through meters, the waste is often great.</p> + +<p>The failure to provide the greatest good lies in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> the fact that the +water systems have been used for water supply only and have not been +made profitable in other ways. The drainage basins should be heavily +planted with trees, which will in time yield a large return, or with +hay, which can be marketed each year. Whenever possible, the canals +carrying the water supply should also be used to furnish power.</p> + +<p>The city of Los Angeles, when it had a population of only 150,000, +undertook to provide pure water from a point two hundred and fifty miles +distant. To do so it must take on itself a debt of $23,000,000, a large +sum for a city ten times its size. Yet the people were ready to assume +this great burden to insure an unending supply of pure water, for they +realized that without it their city could not continue to grow. It was +not until the plans for piping water to the city were almost completed +that the value of the water-power along the route was realized. It has +been disposed of at a rate that pays ten per cent. interest on the debt +each year, and has made what seemed a dangerous risk, a profitable +business arrangement. All these other uses of water which are +profitable, help to lower the price of water to the users.</p> + +<p>The matter of supreme importance in the water supply, however, is not +whether the water is cheap, but whether it is pure. If refuse from +factories<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> is allowed to drain into a stream, the water becomes loaded +with poisonous chemicals, acids, or minerals. If city sewage or +barn-yards are allowed to drain into it, the germs of typhoid and other +fevers enter the water supply. To insure the purity of water supply from +a stream, no factory waste, city sewage or country refuse should be +allowed to enter any part of the stream. In addition to this it should +be carefully filtered.</p> + +<p>The disposal of waste is a serious problem, and the easiest way is to +divert it into the nearest water course and trust to the old maxim, +"Running water purifies itself."</p> + +<p>This, while true as a general fact, has so many exceptions that it is +not safe to trust to it. The Sanitary District Canal of Chicago has +proved positively that even the most heavily germ-laden water becomes +pure by running many miles at a regulated speed through the open +country, but the conditions are altogether different from those of an +ordinary river. First, in a river, sewage may enter at any point +down-stream to add to the germs already present in the water, while +nothing is allowed to enter the Drainage Canal after it leaves the city. +Second, some germs live for several days and may be carried many miles. +Only a microscopic test can prove whether water contains such germs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +Usually such tests are not made and water is used without people knowing +whether it is pure or not, but the water of the Sanitary Canal is tested +at many points to determine its purity. Each hour and each mile of its +journey it grows purer. This proves that although running water does +purify itself, a stream that is drained into all along its course is not +a fit source of water supply.</p> + +<p>Factory refuse, instead of being allowed to pollute the waters, should +be turned to good use by extracting the chemicals, which form valuable +by-products. All farm waste should be taken to a remote part of the +farm, placed in an open shed or vat with cement floor and screened from +flies to form a compost heap for fertilizers for the farm. This will +amply repay the extra trouble and expense by increasing the farm crops. +The sooner such refuse, especially manure, is returned to the land, the +more valuable it is as a fertilizer.</p> + +<p>In cities the sewage should be disposed of in such a way as to yield a +profit to the city, and also promote the health of the people. The +sewage of a city of 100,000 people is supposed to be worth, in Germany, +about $900,000 a year for fertilizer on account of the phosphorus it +contains. The city of Berlin operates large sewage farms, using as +laborers men condemned to the workhouse. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> expense for land and sewer +system was $13,000,000, but it pays for the money invested, with $60,000 +yearly profit over all expenses.</p> + +<p>On the other hand the cost of impure water to the city of Pittsburg was +reckoned at $3,850,000, and in the city of Albany, New York, the annual +loss was estimated at $475,000.</p> + +<p>In the early settlement of our country all towns were built on streams, +and the ones which grew and flourished were all on rivers large enough +to carry commerce by boat. After the invention of steamboats, daily +packet lines were run on all the principal rivers.</p> + +<p>Albert Gallatin planned a complete system of improved waterways, +including many canals, that was intended to establish a great commercial +route. Many canals were built and put into actual operation and dozens +of others had been planned, when the building of railways began. This +new system of transportation at once became popular. Not only were no +more canals dug and no more steamboat lines built, but many of those +actually in operation were abandoned.</p> + +<p>In order to encourage railroad building and develop new regions, the +government has given land and money to the extent of hundreds of +millions of dollars, until now the railroads form one-seventh of all our +national wealth, having 228,000 miles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> tracks and earning +$2,500,000,000 each year, while the waterways owned by the government +have fallen into disuse.</p> + +<p>Within the last four or five years another change has come about in the +general attitude toward the waterways. At the time that the crops are +moved in the fall, and when coal is needed for the winter supply, there +are not nearly enough cars in the country to handle the volume of +business, neither are there enough locomotives to move the necessary +cars, nor tracks, nor stations. In short, the railways are entirely +unable to handle the vast products of the country during the busiest +seasons. Many persons in the West have suffered for fuel, and commerce +has been greatly checked by the shortage; and the situation is growing +worse each year as production increases.</p> + +<p>James J. Hill estimates that the cost of equipping the railroads to +carry the commerce of the country would be from five to eight billion +dollars. This means a heavy tax on iron and coal and timber as well as +on the labor resources of the country, and it would then be only a +question of time until still further extensions were needed.</p> + +<p>With these facts in view, interest in the waterways of the country has +been revived.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that it will require five hundred million dollars, or +fifty million dollars a year for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> ten years completely to improve the +waterways of the country. This is not more than one-tenth of what would +be needed to equip the railroads. The cost of carrying freight by rail +is from four to five times that of carrying it by water.</p> + +<p>Much of the heavy freight of the country,—coal, iron, grain and +lumber,—should be carried in this way, in order to reduce freight rates +and so, indirectly, the cost to the people, and further to relieve the +burden on the railways.</p> + +<p>The railways, it might be added, would still have a large and increasing +package-freight business, besides the handling of heavy freight in parts +of the country where there are no navigable rivers.</p> + +<p>For these reasons it would seem clearly the only wise policy to adopt a +general plan for waterway improvement and carry it into effect at once. +But there are many things to be considered.</p> + +<p>Millions of dollars (in all about five hundred and fifty-two millions) +have been spent for the improvement of waterways. Some of it has +resulted in great gain, but a large part of it has been wasted through +lack of an organized plan. Work has been begun and not enough money +appropriated to finish it. In the course of a few years much of the +value of the work is destroyed by the action of the current or by +shifting sands, or if a stretch of river is finished in the most +approved manner, often it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> is not used much, in some cases actually less +after than before the work was begun, and these things have created a +prejudice against waterway improvements.</p> + +<p>The other reason is that in spite of the overcrowding of the railroads, +the traffic on many of our large rivers is steadily growing less. The +Inland Waterways Commission finds as a reason for the decrease, the +relations existing between the railways and the waterways. A railway, +they consider, has two classes of advantages. First, those that come +from natural conditions. A railroad line can be built in any direction +to any part of the country except the extremely mountainous parts, while +a river runs only in a single direction.</p> + +<p>If a new region distant from a large water course is opened up, as is +being done rapidly in the West through irrigation and dry farming, the +people are entirely dependent on the railways to develop it, to bring +them all the conveniences of the outside world, and to carry the +products of their land to the market.</p> + +<p>Branch lines and switches can be built to factories and warehouses, +while boats can reach only those situated along the water-front.</p> + +<p>Another advantage of the railroads is that they bill freight all the way +through, and that freight is much more easily transferred from one road +to another. It is much more difficult and expensive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> to load and reload +freight from boats and barges on account of the high and low water +stages of the river. This difference amounts to as much as sixty feet in +the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Railways make faster time, and the +distance between two points is usually shorter, though sometimes during +the busy season of the railways the river freight reaches its +destination much sooner.</p> + +<p>The other class of reasons relates to the railways themselves, which +have always been in open competition with the waterways, and to gain +traffic for themselves, usually charge lower rates to those points to +which boats also carry freight. In many cases they have bought the +steamboat lines so that rates might be kept up, and then, unable to +operate the two lines as cheaply as one, have abandoned the steamboat +lines.</p> + +<p>Another method by which the railroads have driven out the water traffic, +is by charging extremely heavy rates for freight hauled a short distance +to or from boats, making it quite as cheap as well as more convenient to +send freight all the way by rail.</p> + +<p>Lastly, railroad warehouses, terminals and machinery for handling +freight are all much better than those of inland steamboat lines, except +at some points on the Great Lakes where the traffic is very heavy.</p> + +<p>Some of these disadvantages might be overcome<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> by law. In France, where +the waterways are managed better than in any other country, the law +requires that railroad rates be twenty per cent. higher on all heavy +freight than the rates on the same freight if carried by water, and in +several countries railroad companies are not permitted to own or manage +a steamboat line.</p> + +<p>These measures are suggestive of what may be done by law to correct +abuses, but laws alone can not accomplish everything. The rivers belong +to all the people, and every one who wishes may operate steamboat or +barge lines, but before these can become profitable, and before first +class warehouses and machinery are installed, there must appear on the +part of the people a desire to patronize them. The best results are +found in those cases where there is harmony between the railways and the +steamboat lines; those in which the steamboat lines relieve the railways +of much of the heavy freight which they are not able to handle without +greatly increasing their present equipment.</p> + +<p>There should be coöperation on the part of the people. The towns and +cities along the banks of many European rivers provide suitable +terminals, warehouses and wharves with free use of the service. In other +cases this is done by private capital with a charge for use to shippers. +Sometimes it is done by the steamboat companies themselves, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> unless +one or the other method is assured all along the river it is not wise +for the government to undertake the improvement of a stream.</p> + +<p>Intelligent improvement of the waterways of the United States demands +first that a careful survey of the needs of the whole country be made, +then that a systematic plan be carried out providing for the improvement +of important streams first.</p> + +<p>The state and nation should work together, and any work that is begun +should be completed as promptly as possible so that its full benefit may +be realized.</p> + +<p>Certain work, such as the improvement of the channel, should be done by +the national government, since the waters belong to the nation; but the +expense of constructing levees or dykes should be borne by the land +owners along the banks, because the land thus protected is greatly +increased in value; or by the state, which gets the return in increased +taxes.</p> + +<p>In many instances, the improvement of a stream would be a great benefit +to one state or part of a state, but it would be impossible in many +years to improve all the desirable streams, so that the larger ones of +most general importance must be considered first.</p> + +<p>In such cases the improvement is often undertaken by the state. Some +navigable rivers have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> been thus improved and many canals are the +property of states or of private companies.</p> + +<p>Only a few rivers have a steady flow throughout the year at a depth +sufficient to carry large boats. On most streams destructive floods at +certain seasons and low waters at others interfere with navigation +during a considerable part of the year. Most rivers have sand-bars, +sunken rocks or logs in the channel, making the passage of boats +difficult and dangerous. Others are well suited for navigation, except +at points where rapids and falls make it impossible for boats to pass. +The Ohio, the Tennessee, the Missouri and the upper Mississippi abound +in such dangerous places and these should be canalized. It is the +improving of rivers in these ways, dredging harbors to make them safer, +and digging canals to provide a short passage between two bodies of +water, that constitute what is known as the Improvement of Inland +Waters.</p> + +<p>If you look at a map showing the navigable streams of the United States +you will see that nearly all of them lie in the eastern part.</p> + +<p>The Mississippi is like a great artery with branches extending in all +directions, east and west. The Great Lakes, with their outlet, the St. +Lawrence River, and the many important rivers emptying into the Atlantic +Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, such as the Merrimac, Hudson, Delaware,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +Susquehanna, Potomac and Rio Grande, form great highways for all the +commerce of the eastern part of the country, while the Columbia, +Sacramento and Colorado Rivers, with their branches, are the only +navigable streams of any importance west of the Mississippi River +system.</p> + +<p>In some places a small portion of land divides two important water +areas, and canals dug through this neck of land change the commercial +routes of the whole world. Such are the Isthmus of Suez, eighty-seven +miles wide, through which a canal was cut that saves a sailing distance +of 3,700 miles from England to India. Only the Isthmus of Panama, +forty-nine miles in width, divides the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean. +When the canal across this narrow strip is completed, the sailing +distance from New York to San Francisco will be shortened 8,000 miles, +the entire distance around South America.</p> + +<p>The Sault Ste. Marie Canal, connecting Lakes Superior and Huron, is only +a little more than a mile and a half long, but it opens up the entire +iron, copper, lumber and wheat resources of the Northwest to cheap water +passage through the other lakes to the manufacturing region of the East.</p> + +<p>The Erie Canal, by connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson River from +Buffalo to Albany, New York, makes the only water passage from the Great +Lakes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> to the ocean that lies within the borders of the United States.</p> + +<p>If you will turn to the map again, you will see still other places where +a short canal may open up an entirely new and important water route. +From Chicago to Lockport, Illinois, is only thirty-seven miles, but +Chicago is on Lake Michigan, while Lockport is on the Illinois River, a +branch of the Mississippi. This canal, a large part of which is now in +operation, is a part of the Lakes to Gulf waterway. One plan is to +broaden and deepen the channel so that large vessels may pass, without +unloading, from the Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.</p> + +<p>Another proposed canal which would be undertaken largely by individual +states and a part of which is already completed, would afford a safe +inside passage connecting the many bays, channels and navigable rivers +of the Atlantic coast.</p> + +<p>Still another proposed measure is the cutting of a canal from the +southern end of Lake Michigan to the western end of Lake Erie at Toledo, +Ohio, to avoid the long haul up Lake Michigan and down Lake Huron again.</p> + +<p>The United States now has 25,000 miles of navigable rivers and a nearly +equal mileage of rivers not now navigable but which might be made +commercially important; five great lakes that have a combined length of +1,410 miles, 2,120 miles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> operated canals, and 2,500 miles of sounds, +bays and bayous, that might be joined by tidewater canals easily +constructed, less than 1,000 miles long altogether, and making a +continuous passage from New England to the Gulf of Mexico.</p> + +<p>In all, our waterways at the present time are 55,000 to 60,000 miles +long, the greatest system in the world, but almost unused.</p> + +<p>The most important waterway improvement so far completed, is the Sault +Ste. Marie, or the "Soo" canal which cost $96,000,000. A depth of eight +feet was increased to twenty-one feet. The traffic has risen in sixteen +years from a million and a quarter tons to forty-one and a quarter +million tons.</p> + +<p>A large proportion of the United States is not naturally fitted to be +the home of man; at least, it is not fitted to produce his food, and +except on the lofty mountains the reason for this will almost always be +found to be either a lack or an excess of water.</p> + +<p>In some parts of the country, there is, as we have seen, little +rainfall. These arid or semi-arid lands must be provided with water for +drinking purposes and for agriculture. The diverting of water courses +into canals and ditches so that water can be carried to these waste +lands is called irrigation.</p> + +<p>In other parts of the country where rains are abundant, serious floods +occur every year, often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> many times in a year. Thousands of acres of +land thus subject to overflow are lost to use. The holding back of these +flood waters in the upper part of the rivers, and so preventing these +overflows, is termed storage of waters.</p> + +<p>In still other regions the rainfall is abundant, and the land low-lying. +Large areas are always covered with water. Such lands are called swamps +or bogs, and when drained, they become the richest of agricultural +lands. Irrigation, storage and drainage are the three methods employed +to make waste lands valuable and useful. The land is saved or reclaimed, +so all these methods of balancing and distributing the water supply are +called reclamation.</p> + +<p>In general it may be said that irrigation is more generally needed in +the West, storage of flood waters in the central and eastern states, and +drainage in the South.</p> + +<p>By thus distributing the rainfall, hundreds of millions of acres have +been or may be reclaimed, and large regions, formerly unfit to inhabit, +have been turned into profitable farms. Three-fourths of one per cent. +of our total rainfall, or two per cent. of all that falls in the West, +is used for irrigating 13,000,000 acres.</p> + +<p>There are several methods of irrigation which are adapted to different +regions and different crops.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> The rice fields of South Carolina, +Georgia, Louisiana and Texas are irrigated by allowing the land to +remain continually flooded to a depth of several inches. When the +irrigation season is over the levees are opened, and the water runs off +rapidly, and the crop is soon ready to be harvested. Tidal rivers are +used to supply water in most cases, but in Texas many flowing wells are +employed for irrigation.</p> + +<p>In Florida, where irrigation is used largely for intensive farming, +various means are employed, some of which are also used in the western +and southwestern states. Mechanical pumps, operated by turbine wheels, +pump the water from the rivers if a lift be required. Sometimes the +water is pumped direct to the fields in iron pipes and applied by means +of hydrants and hose, as in a city water system.</p> + +<p>Overhead pipe lines are now recognized as the most perfect and +satisfactory form of artificial watering. Two-inch pipes are run over +frames several feet in height. These are arranged in parallel lines all +over the fields about forty feet apart. At intervals of forty feet, a +small iron pipe, ending with a fine spraying attachment, extends upward. +The water is turned on in the evening and comes out of the sprayer in a +fine mist and falls upon the plants like a gentle rain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + +<p>By another form of irrigation, the fields are divided at regular +intervals by wide wooden troughs from which water is directed between +the rows of plants. Main canals leading from the streams and intersected +by short canals extend in all directions through the fields and +orchards, and are distributed in various ways. This system is in general +use throughout the arid portions of the West. The methods are said to be +the most scientific and varied in southern California.</p> + +<p>When water for irrigation is supplied from wells some underground system +is generally used. One common method is to lay continuous pipes from the +wells all over the fields and distribute from hydrants, plugs and +standpipes.</p> + +<p>By still another system, the water is carried below the surface through +pipes which are broken every few inches and laid in beds of charcoal.</p> + +<p>In the eastern states irrigation is only employed in dry weather to +increase the yield of vegetable crops. In the arid western region it +transforms what would otherwise be a dreary desert into fertile valleys.</p> + +<p>William J. Bryan, speaking at the first Conservation Congress, said, +"Last September, I visited the southern part of Idaho and saw there a +tract that has been recently reclaimed. I had been there before. I had +looked upon these lands as so barren<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> that it seemed as if it were +impossible that they could ever be made useful.</p> + +<p>"When I went back this time and found that in three years 1,700,000 +acres of land had been reclaimed, that where three years ago nothing but +sage-brush grew, they are now raising seven tons of alfalfa to the acre, +and more than a hundred bushels of oats; when I found that ten thousand +people are living on that tract, that in one town that has grown up in +that time there are more than 1,900 inhabitants, and in three banks they +had deposits of over half a million dollars, I had some realization of +the magic power of water when applied to these desert lands."</p> + +<p>The same thing might be said of other regions throughout the West. In +the Salton district of California a marvelous change has been brought +about by irrigation. A few years ago that was one of the most desolate +and forbidding regions on our continent. Now it is covered with several +thousands of acres of alfalfa and other crops, and it bids fair to be a +great fruit region. Of southern California it is said, "The irrigation +systems of this part of the state are known all over the world, and have +created a prosperous commonwealth in a region which would be a scene of +utter desolation without them."</p> + +<p>This locality presents a better opportunity for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> the scientific study of +farming by irrigation than exists anywhere else in the world. Here all +land values depend directly on ability to obtain a water supply. So +precious is the water and so abundant are the rewards that follow its +application to the soil that the most careful consideration is given to +the various sources of supply and distribution.</p> + +<p>As land becomes scarcer and the cost of living greater on account of the +increase in population, men are turning more and more to irrigation to +solve the problem of food supply.</p> + +<p>As showing what may be accomplished by irrigation, the report of the +last census says: "The construction of large irrigation works on the +Platte, Yellowstone and Arkansas Rivers would render fertile an area +equal to that of some eastern states. Engineers are grappling with the +great problems of conserving the flood waters of these streams, which +now are wasted and help to increase the destructive floods of the +Mississippi. The solving of these problems will change a vast area of +country, now practically worthless, into valuable farms."</p> + +<p>The "Great Bend" country, drained by the Columbia River, contains +several million acres of land which only requires water to make it of +great agricultural value.</p> + +<p>The Gila River basin contains more than 10,000,000 acres of fertile +land, capable of producing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> immense crops if irrigated, but without +irrigation it is a desert land where only sage-brush and cactus +flourish.</p> + +<p>From arid lands capable of producing excellent crops but lacking in the +magical element of water, we pass to the consideration of lands where +the richest of soils are shut off from productiveness because they are +covered with water. On the lower Mississippi the soil is richer than in +any other part of the United States, but much of it is overflowed so +frequently that it is unfit for cultivation. Dykes and levees have +reclaimed thousands of acres of such overflow land. Many states control +large marshy sections that have been or may be reclaimed.</p> + +<p>In southern Florida lie the Everglades, a vast country which has been +worse than valueless; a malarial region abounding in alligators, +rattlesnakes, scorpions and other dangerous animals and insects. The +state of Florida has undertaken the work of draining this great swamp, +and when the task is completed, Florida will have added to its resources +3,000,000 acres of the richest soil for the raising of winter vegetables +and fruits.</p> + +<p>Florida is engaged in another great project—the digging of an inside +passage connecting its inland tidal waters by a canal system which will +open to navigation a continuous inland waterway six hundred miles in +length. In digging these canals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> through the marshes bordering the +coast, thousands of acres of exceedingly fertile land have been +reclaimed and are now producing valuable crops.</p> + +<p>The Kankakee marshes in Indiana have been drained, adding many thousands +of acres of rich soil to the agricultural area of the state.</p> + +<p>In all, about 80,000,000 acres are so wet that they must be drained in +order to make them produce good farm crops, but which, while now covered +only with marsh grass or undergrowth, is capable of being made the most +fertile of all land.</p> + +<p>This swamp land is ten times the area of Holland, which supports a +population of 5,000,000 people. It is therefore easy to see how greatly +we may add to our productive territory and our national wealth by +reclamation through drainage.</p> + +<p>We now come to the use of water as power; and although in the last fifty +years this subject has received little attention, as manufacturing +increases and as fuel decreases and becomes higher, the value of water +becomes more evident, and water-power sites are being eagerly sought.</p> + +<p>Our age may come to be known in the future as the age of power, because +through the application of mechanical power man has gained such +marvelous control over the world about him. Wind and water led in the +production of power until about 1870, since which time they have +scarcely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> increased at all, the greater advantages of steam and +electricity having driven them out.</p> + +<p>As long as all factories had to be built by the side of streams having +suitable water-power, the number and size of factories were always +extremely limited. With the introduction of steam it became possible to +build factories at mines, in forests, in fruit or grain regions, +wherever the supply of raw material was plentiful, and to multiply +factories of all kinds in cities near the markets for their product, or +where labor was cheap and abundant. But power could only be used where +it was developed, and the size of the power plant depended on the amount +of business done by each individual user.</p> + +<p>Now a new era of power has again enlarged the possibilities of +manufacturing. By means of electricity the work, not only of factories, +but also of the home and the farm may be done in any place where +electricity can be installed. We must bear in mind that electricity is +never a source of power, but is only the agent that carries power to the +user. The source of all electric power is either steam or water, +produced by water-wheels, turbines, steam-engines or gas-engines. The +economical way to furnish electric power is to establish central power +plants, and electricity may be conveyed from them for many miles. An +electric railway, telegraph, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> telephone system many miles in length +is operated from a single power plant. Electric light and power are +transmitted all over the largest cities. It is no longer necessary that +a factory be of any specified size nor that it have any waste power. If +it be within reach of the electrical current it may use as much or as +little as is needed.</p> + +<p>The cheapness of electric power must always depend on nearness to the +source of supply or to the market. Until a short time ago it was +customary to locate electric power-houses near the market, that is, in +cities. But the benefits to be derived from having the electric plant +near the source of power, so that the cost of production is greatly +lessened, are becoming better recognized. This will make water-power +increasingly valuable.</p> + +<p>It is even now practicable to develop water-power, wherever located, for +the production of electricity. Although the lowest grade coals are used +for electric power at the mines yet they can now be used for still other +purposes. Coal or other fuel once used can not be replaced, but when +electricity is derived from water-power only energy otherwise wasted is +used. This energy, if derived from water-power, is all added to our +assets instead of being lost.</p> + +<p>For many years the amount of power used for manufacturing and other +purposes has doubled about once in ten years, and the steady pace kept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +by different lines of development shows how closely they are related. +Our power, our forest cut, the use of our iron and other minerals, our +coal and petroleum, the railroad earnings, freight and passenger +traffic, and our agricultural products all double themselves every ten +years. This means that in ten years we shall require twice as much power +as now, but will have far less coal to use. This raises the +question,—have we available water-power to conserve our coal supply? +Let us see. It is estimated that we are now using 26,000,000 horse-power +of energy derived from steam, 3,000,000 horse-power derived from water, +and 800,000 from gas or oil, a total of 29,800,000 horse-power. It is +also estimated that there is now running idly over dams, falls, and +rapids 30,000,000 horse-power of energy. In other words, we are wasting +every day enough water to run every factory and mill, and to turn every +wheel, to move every electric car and to supply every electric light or +power-station in the country.</p> + +<p>The amount of water-power is gauged solely by the low-water stage of the +stream. A river is considered to produce only as much power as it can +furnish at its season of lowest water. At other times factories may be +operated more actively, but usually most of the extra power is wasted +during a large part of the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<p>If these storm or flood waters can be stored in reservoirs, the +stream-flow throughout the year can be made fairly uniform and the power +possibilities greatly increased. The Geological Survey believes that by +storing the flood waters and regulating the flow of the streams, the +large rivers of the United States may be made to furnish 150,000,000 +horse-power, enough, if it could be utilized, to supply every power need +of our country for many years to come without using a ton of our coal, +and without in any way decreasing the water.</p> + +<p>Of course this can never be practicable. Much power will always be +needed where no stream for power is available. But the lesson is plain +that where water can be used it should be, both in order to save the +coal and because it can be produced more cheaply. The 30,000,000 +horse-power now available, if produced in our most modern electric +plants, would require the burning of nearly 225,000,000 tons of coal, +and if in the average plant run by steam-engines, more than 650,000,000 +tons of coal, which is fifty per cent. more than all the coal that is +now produced in this country. At three dollars per ton it would cost +$2,000,000,000 a year to supply the coal to furnish the power that we +might have, one might almost say, as a by-product from the improving of +the rivers for navigation. The development of the water-power +possibilities of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> country is now going forward at a rapid rate, +however.</p> + +<p>Dams on the Susquehanna River will soon make 30,000 horse-power +available, which could be increased to 200,000 by building storage +reservoirs.</p> + +<p>A dam just begun at the rapids of the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa, +will, when completed, furnish 200,000 horse-power. Niagara is producing +56,000 horse-power on the United States side. The Muscle Shoals Falls +rapids in the Tennessee River is furnishing 188,000 horse-power. +Illinois will greatly increase its possibilities for offering cheap +power to factories, when the Lakes to Gulf Canal with 173,000,000 +horse-power worth $12,750,000 yearly, and the Chicago Drainage or +Sanitary Canal, which has nearly 60,000 horse-power, are complete. Both +of these projects were undertaken by the state.</p> + +<p>In California 250,000 horse-power is now in operation, and 5,000,000 +horse-power might easily be developed in that state alone, which at the +price of coal would be worth a billion dollars a year.</p> + +<p>New England has the oldest system of water-power control, because before +the era of steam it was the chief manufacturing region of the country. +The Merrimac, flowing through New Hampshire and Massachusetts, is the +most carefully conserved river in the world, and Governor Dingley of +Maine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> said that the water-power of Maine is equal to the working energy +of 13,000,000 men.</p> + +<p>The money value is counted at twenty dollars a year per horse power, but +it frequently brings as high as one hundred or even one hundred and +fifty dollars a year in a good manufacturing region, so that the value +of our water-power facilities can hardly be computed.</p> + +<p>An ideal picture of the harmonious development of our water resources +for all purposes is one that is not too difficult to realize. It is the +ideal that should be always before us in the improvement of our +waterways, and we should bear in mind that although the expense will be +heavy, it will not cost more than one-tenth as much to improve all the +important waterways as to equip the railways to carry the traffic they +will be called on to carry in the next ten years; and also that in the +past, for every dollar that has been spent on waterways, almost +twenty-five dollars has been spent on railways. The railways are a great +and important part of our national development, but the waterways should +not be neglected. Rather, the two should be so harmonized and adjusted +as to make one great commercial system that will furnish cheap and +abundant transportation for all our commerce.</p> + +<p>The most complete plan for conserving our waters is as follows: First, +build storage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> reservoirs along the upper stretches of the river to hold +the overflow waters of the flood season which are to be turned into the +main channel when the water becomes too low for ordinary navigation.</p> + +<p>These storage reservoirs should be on the lowest grade of land, that +which would be least productive. The reservoirs should be well stocked +with the best varieties of fish to make them profitable. The banks +should be planted with forest trees and made as attractive as they can +be made to form public parks and pleasure grounds for the people, where +boating, fishing and bathing may be enjoyed.</p> + +<p>The next point is to remove all obstructions from the river, to canalize +it at shallow places or rapids, so that the whole river will be +navigable, and, if necessary, to deepen the channel so that it will +carry large vessels between two important points.</p> + +<p>Dams should be built to take advantage of every opportunity for +water-power. One of the worst mistakes in the past has been the failure +to use the power that might have been developed in improving the streams +for navigation.</p> + +<p>Rivers should be made profitable still further by stocking with fish and +should be kept clear of factory refuse and sewage. Soil-wash should be +lessened by planting trees and shrubs along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> banks; and where +overflow or erosion lowers the value of the land or repeatedly ruins the +crops, dykes and levees should be built.</p> + +<p>The rivers most important commercially should be improved first. Canals +should be cut between waterways where large benefits will result; +overflow and swamp land should be drained, and in arid regions every +particle of water conserved for irrigation purposes.</p> + +<p>The irrigation canals may also be used to supply water-power, and the +canals may be used as are other canals for towing barges. If electric +power is produced, electric towing is cheap and very desirable as a +means of transportation.</p> + +<p>In short, our water supply should be as carefully used and with as +little waste as the land of forests. The most important improvements +needed are, a Lakes to Gulf Waterway that shall be safe and practicable +at least for vessels of moderate size; the improvement of the Ohio, +Missouri, Tennessee and Upper Mississippi Rivers; an inner coast passage +from New England to Florida, and in navigable rivers dredging and +deepening if necessary, to make many outlets to the sea which will +afford cheap transportation.</p> + +<p>In the West, the Columbia, San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers with their +branches should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> made navigable. Many western rivers have been almost +ruined by filling with rocks in hydraulic mining, but this is now +prohibited by law and if the channels were cleared they would again +become navigable.</p> + +<p>Appropriations for much of this work have already been made by Congress, +but the work is not systematically planned. The cost of all of it would +be about sixty-two and a half cents a year for each man, woman and child +in the country and every one would receive some benefit.</p> + +<p>The National Conservation Commission on Waterways found that the average +family pays for transportation or freight on all its food and clothing +and the necessities of life, nearly or quite one-third their actual +cost. "It is estimated that the direct benefits would be a yearly saving +in freight handling of $250,000,000, a yearly saving in flood damage of +$150,000,000, a saving in forest fires of at least $25,000,000, a +benefit through cheapened power of fully $75,000,000 and a yearly saving +in farm production of $500,000,000; a total of $1,000,000,000, or twelve +dollars and fifty cents for each person—twenty times the cost! And this +does not take into account the benefits from irrigation, drainage, and +the lessening of disease by a pure water supply."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Waters. Report of the National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Report of Inland Waterways Commission, 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">American Inland Waterways. H. Quick.</p> + +<p class="d">Waterways and Water Transportation. J. S. Jeans.</p> + +<p class="d">Waterway Transportation in Europe. L. G. McPherson.</p> + +<p class="d">Highways of Progress. J. J. Hill.</p> + +<p class="d">Navigation Resources of the United States. (Johnson.) Report, Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Power Resources. (H. St. Clair Putnam.) Report, +Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Florida's Waterways. (Miles.) Report, Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Our Water Resources. (Lyman Cooley.) Report, Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">The Lakes-to-Gulf Waterway. (Randolph.) Report, Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Water Resources. (Kummel.) Report, Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Necessity for Waterway Improvement. (Austin.) Report, Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Report Congressional Committee on European Waterways. Senate Document, +1910.</p> + +<p class="d">River and Harbor Bill. Senate Document. Burton, 1910.</p> + +<p class="d">Forests, Water Storage, Power and Navigation. (Taylor.) Proceedings of +the Am. Hydrochemical Society.</p> + +<p class="d">Our Inland Waterways. (McGee.)</p> + +<p class="d">Outlines of Hydrology. (McGee.)</p> + +<p class="d">Natural Movement of Water in Semi-arid Regions. (McGee.)</p> + +<p class="d">Irrigation in the United States. Dept. Commerce and Labor Census Bureau.</p> + +<p class="d">Irrigation Projects of the U. S. Reclamation Service.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports of Irrigation in various states. Apply to Governor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER V</a></h2> + +<h3>COAL</h3> + + +<p>When we begin to study the mineral resources of the country we pass to +conditions altogether different from those which we have been +considering. Heretofore we have been dealing with resources that can be +renewed, the soil by proper management, the forests by replanting, the +waters by nature's own processes; but the fuels, the iron and many other +mineral resources once used are gone for ever.</p> + +<p>As to their importance Andrew Carnegie says: "Of all the world's metals +iron is in our day the most useful. The opening of the iron age marked +the beginning of real industrial development. To-day the position of +nations may almost be measured by its production and use. Iron and coal +form the foundation of our prosperity. The value of each depends upon +the amount and nearness of the other. In modern times the manufacturing +and transportation industries rest upon them, and with sufficient land +and a fertile soil, these determine the progress of any people."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<p>We are sometimes told that we need have no anxiety about the future, +that new discoveries and inventions will take the place of the present +fuels, and even substitutes for minerals will be devised long before the +supply is exhausted. This may be true, and in a way the future must take +care of itself, but until new inventions have actually been made it is +criminal to waste present resources and blindly trust that time will +make our folly appear good judgment and foresight.</p> + +<p>We have vast mineral resources unused; the present generation, even its +children and its children's children need have no fear of a shortage. +But in the use of those resources that are steadily and for ever +diminishing we must look a long way into the future. We are under the +most solemn obligation to take only our part of the store, and leave the +rest untouched and unspoiled for those who are to come after us. When we +consider what these mineral resources have done for our country in the +last fifty years, when we realize that it is only by having cheap and +abundant coal, iron, and copper that our railroads, our various electric +systems, and our great manufactories have been developed, we can realize +our duty to give the coming generations an equal opportunity to develop +their ideas.</p> + +<p>The yearly products of the mines of the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> States are now valued at +more than $2,000,000,000. Sixty-five car-loads of freight out of every +hundred carried by our railroads are made up of mineral products. More +than a million men are employed at the mines, and more than twice that +number in handling and transporting mine products.</p> + +<p>Of every one hundred tons of coal mined in the whole world, the United +States produces forty-three tons. We supply forty-five tons out of every +hundred of iron ore, twenty-two tons of gold, thirty tons of silver, +thirty-three tons of lead, nearly twenty-eight tons of the zinc, about +fifty-five tons of the copper, and sixty-three tons of the petroleum +consumed by all civilized countries.</p> + +<p>This would be a cause for great national pride if we did not need also +to consider the shameful fact that our wastes or losses in the mining, +handling, and use of our mineral products are estimated at more than +$1,500,000 per day, or, for the year, the gigantic sum of $547,500,000. +That is, more than one-fourth of the entire output is wasted!</p> + +<p>Of all our minerals, the fuels which supply heat, light, and power for +domestic and manufacturing purposes, are the most necessary and +important. Other materials can not be manufactured without their aid. +Almost every particular of modern life would be changed if we no longer +had plenty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> fuel. Its use means its immediate and complete +destruction, which is true of no other resource, and the use of fuels is +increasing and will increase so rapidly that their conservation is +becoming a serious problem.</p> + +<p>The principal fuels are coal, gas, oil, peat, alcohol, and wood, and of +these, coal is at present by far the most important. The first record of +coal mined in this country was in 1814, when twenty-two tons of +anthracite, or hard coal, were mined in Pennsylvania. An increasing +amount was mined each year, but until 1821 the production was less than +five hundred tons per year. In 1822 the production advanced to nearly +60,000 tons, and since that time has increased by leaps and bounds.</p> + +<p>During the seventy-five years from 1820 to 1895, nearly 4,000,000,000 +tons were mined by methods so wasteful that 6,000,000,000 tons were +destroyed or allowed to remain in the ground so that it could never be +recovered. Within the next ten years as much was produced as in the +entire seventy-five preceding years, and in this period 3,000,000,000 +tons were destroyed or left in the ground beyond the reach of future +use. Up to this time the actual amount of coal used has been over +7,500,000,000 tons; the waste 9,000,000,000 tons.</p> + +<p>Experts estimate that in the beginning there were somewhere about +2,000,000,000,000 tons of available<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> coal, so that we have now, with all +our wastefulness, used less than two per cent. of our original +inheritance. But we must remember that in the ten years closing with +1905, we used as much as during the entire history of our country up to +that time, and the rate of consumption is still increasing. In 1907 the +amount mined was about 450,000,000 tons. Counting on a continuance of +the same rate of increase, in 1917 it will be 900,000,000 tons a year, +and if the same conditions should continue for twenty years we should be +using and wasting in one year as much as we have used in all our history +up to the present time. By that time more than one-eighth of our +original supply will be gone, and in less than two hundred years nearly +all of it will have for ever disappeared.</p> + +<p>That is a long time to look forward, but a short time in looking +backward. It carries us back only to the childhood of Benjamin Franklin +and others prominent in our early history; and if this nation could look +forward to only an equal period of prosperous development in the future +the time would seem short indeed.</p> + +<p>But the danger of our coal supply becoming exhausted lies not so much in +its present use as in the rapid increase in its consumption. Fifty years +ago (about the time of the Civil War) we were using an amount equal to a +little more than a quarter of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> a ton for every man, woman and child then +in the country. Now the rate is five tons, or twenty times that amount, +for each person of all our greatly increased population.</p> + +<p>The Pittsburg Coal Company owns about one-seventh of the great +Pennsylvania anthracite fields. From the amount it is now mining each +year and judging from the amount of coal it is able, with present +methods, to reclaim from an acre of coal land, the estimate is made that +this Pittsburg field will be exhausted in ninety-three years. A like +comparison of all the eastern fields indicates that by the beginning of +the next century there will be practically no cheap fuel left in the +entire Appalachian basin.</p> + +<p>The Geological Survey reports that, taking into account the available +coal which can be reached and mined by present methods, and supposing +the present conditions of use, waste, and increase to continue, the coal +supply will be exhausted by the year 2015 A. D., but taking into account +the probable improvements in its use, the year 2027 A. D. is estimated +as the time when the present coal fields will be exhausted, and the +middle of that century as the time when all coal fields in the United +States will be gone.</p> + +<p>This true story well illustrates the need of conservation and the folly +of careless waste. High in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> the hills of the Pittsburg region a thick +bed of excellent coal was found by the early settlers. It was impossible +for them to build roads up the steep cliffs, so some method of getting +the coal down to the valleys had to be devised. Buffaloes roamed the +western plains in countless millions, and were so abundant about +Pittsburg that the supply seemed inexhaustible. So the pioneers killed +the buffaloes, filled each skin with a few bushels of coal, sewed it up, +and tumbled it down the mountain side.</p> + +<p>This was the way they marketed their coal—by destroying their +buffaloes. For many years no one dreamed that there was any end to the +supply of buffaloes. And so both east and west they were killed for +their skins, which sold for a few cents, for their horns, for a supply +of steak, or for mere sport; and then one day people woke up to find +that the buffalo had disappeared, not in one settlement only, as they +had supposed, but everywhere. There are a few remaining, carefully cared +for by the government. They are among our most valued possessions, and +yet only a few years ago they were destroyed, wasted, by millions.</p> + +<p>This passing of the buffalo, the skins of which, as common then as +burlap bags are now, were used to market our first coal, carries with it +a deep lesson as to what will happen to the coal itself, even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> within +the present century, unless our people awake to the consequence of what +they are doing and make a determined effort to stop all unnecessary +waste.</p> + +<p>Let us see where and how these wastes occur. The first serious loss of +our coal occurs at the mines. There are three great wastes in mining.</p> + +<p>(1) A coal bed is not made up entirely of pure coal, especially if it be +very thick. Sometimes there are layers of shale or clay, which makes a +large amount of ash. This can never be sold as regular marketable coal; +but it is rich in carbon, and much of it might be used if it could be +marketed near the mines and sold as low-grade coal. In the past there +has been almost no market for it, and if it were either in the roof or +bottom of the coal bed, it has been left unmined. If mixed with pure +coal, the low-grade coal was thrown into great heaps at the mouth of the +mine. This refuse coal is called culm. The amount varies from one-tenth +to one-half of the coal in nearly every coal bed, and would probably +average one-fourth in all the mines of the country.</p> + +<p>This material is rich in carbon, and when used in gas-engines will +furnish more power than the best Pocahontas coal when steam-engines are +used. Thus one-fourth of all our coal is wasted at the mines simply +because steam-engines instead of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> gas-producer engines have been +employed. If in the future installation of power this fact is taken into +consideration, it will make the cost less to the user, and at the same +time utilize a large proportion of our impure coal and save the higher +grades for other purposes.</p> + +<p>(2) In the mining of coal it was formerly the unfailing custom to leave +supporting pillars of coal for the over-lying rocks to rest upon, to +make suitable working-rooms, etc. These pillars, twelve to eighteen +inches square, and higher than a man's head, are scattered throughout +the entire mines and are usually of the highest grade coal. In many +mines, also, a roof of coal a foot or more in thickness must be left +because the material above the coal is not solid enough to prevent +cave-ins. When the mine is abandoned and closed these pillars and +roofings remain untouched, because removing them constitutes one of the +greatest dangers to life, and is one of the frequent causes of mine +accidents. It is improbable that the coal thus left in abandoned mines +will ever be reclaimed, because not enough is left to make it profitable +at present prices to re-open the mines; and frequently the rocks cave in +about these pillars and make the task almost impossible.</p> + +<p>(3) By careless blasting an unnecessarily large amount of coal is blown +into powder,—the slack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> which has not been marketed at all until within +the last few years. Much of this slack, which is the best grade of coal +in a pulverized form, is left inside the mines. These wastes in +abandoned roofing, pillars, and small-sized coal, together make a total +which for all the mines in the country will average fully one-fourth +more of the coal that is in the ground.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted, however, that conditions are changing for the better. +The most modern mines use fewer supporting pillars of coal, and these +are of larger size, so that there is less danger of accidents. Wherever +possible they use timbers of wood instead of these smaller pillars of +coal. They also mine as near the top of the seam of coal as can be done +safely, and so regulate the blasting that much less slack is made than +by the heavy discharges. These changes in mining methods save a far +larger proportion of coal, and also prevent many accidents, which are +the most unfortunate feature of coal mining, and the one which should +receive most careful consideration. (See chapter on Health.)</p> + +<p>One large mining company in Kentucky raises its own timbers by planting +trees in straight, close rows on its coal land, thus making the land +produce its own mine timbers to conserve the coal below. This company +claims to have lost but one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> life in ten years, and to save seventy-five +per cent. of its coal. This is a striking illustration of what better +mining methods will do for both the miner and the mine owner and of how +forestry may be an aid to the conservation of coal and also of human +life in the mines.</p> + +<p>We have already shown how half of the coal is wasted, but there still +remains another source of waste at the mines. This is a large but +unknown quantity. Coal usually exists in beds or layers with shale or +rock between, much as a "layer-cake" is made, the layers of cake being +represented by the coal and the icing between by these "rock-partings," +as they are called. In rich fields, there are from three to ten of these +rich layers or beds of coal, one above another. It often happens that +the thickest and best layer is the lowest, and when this is the case, it +is usually mined first, regardless of the fact that some, and possibly +all, of the higher beds are dislocated and broken or filled with deadly +gases. Nearly all this loss could be avoided by simply mining the upper +stratum first.</p> + +<p>So much for waste at the mines. This is serious enough if it were all, +but it is not all, it is only the beginning. Let us see now what becomes +of the coal that is marketed. The railroads are the largest single users +of coal, and here we are confronted with the surprising statement that +our locomotives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> consume three tons of coal in doing the same work that +is performed by English locomotives with one ton. This difference is +said to be due to different construction of the engines themselves, and +to more careful stoking, or firing. Our locomotives use 100,000,000 tons +per year, and by even the best methods known a large proportion of the +heat units is wasted. Great effort should be made to improve the +locomotives so that they will consume less coal; but as long as the +railroad companies own the coal mines, as they do in many instances, +they can obtain coal so cheaply that the cost of the improved form of +engine is greater than the amount saved.</p> + +<p>Another great use lies in the manufacture of coke, which is used in the +making of steel, and here, too, we see where great wastes have existed. +The old form of coke-oven was called the bee-hive on account of its +shape. These old style ovens consume all the coal with the exception of +the fixed carbon which is left behind as coke. At the prices which +prevailed in 1907, the value of the by-products wasted in bee-hive +coke-ovens was a little over $55,000,000—surely a loss worth +considering. A different form of coke-ovens is much used abroad and is +coming into use in this country. This is the retort or by-product oven, +sometimes called the recovery oven.</p> + +<p>The bee-hive ovens are usually located near the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> mines where the cost of +coal is low, with small expense for transporting it. On the other hand, +the by-product ovens are established near the larger cities in order to +dispose of their gas and other by-products. Here the cost of +transportation must be added to that of the coal, but the products are +marketed near by instead of at a distance, as in the case of the +bee-hive ovens. The most improved by-product ovens produce not only coke +and gas, but coal-tar, pitch, ammonia, and creosoting oils, all +extremely valuable and adding greatly to the value of the output of the +ovens.</p> + +<p>Electricity is another form of light and power which involves a large +waste of the energy of coal; only one-fifth of one per cent., that is, +one-five hundredth of the value of the coal is used in electricity, and +there is at present no known remedy for this.</p> + +<p>There are methods, however, of lessening even this waste, and these are +constantly receiving more attention. One is for the electric plants +located in cities to sell their exhaust steam or water heated by the +coal as it is converted into electric power, as a by-product. The +electric power-house thus becomes a central heating plant to supply +stores, offices, and residences. Another system being tried abroad, +though scarcely past the experimental stage in this country, establishes +great electric power-houses at the coal mines to use the culm,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +low-grade slack, and lignites, the lowest form of coal, in short, all +the waste of the mines. Still another plan is the manufacturing of +electricity by water-power, as we have seen in a previous chapter.</p> + +<p>The manufacturing industries of the country waste a large amount of fuel +annually, but here the waste is mostly due to expensive methods of +producing power, and to careless stoking, and is largely preventable. As +we have shown, gas-engines are a far more economical form of producing +power than are steam-engines. Steam uses from five to ten per cent. of +the heat-units of coal, gas-producer engines use fifty per cent. and +burn a lower grade of coal.</p> + +<p>One of the great problems of cities is the heavy volume of bituminous or +soft coal smoke that hangs over the entire surrounding region, levying a +heavy tax in cleaning and laundry work, making the air difficult to +breathe, and shutting out the daylight itself. Every residence adds its +mite, but the factories and public buildings are the worst offenders. +There are several good smoke-consuming devices on the market that have +been thoroughly tested by the government, which will furnish their names +on application.</p> + +<p>If factory owners who use steam power could realize that the gases, the +highest heat-producing part of the coal, escape with the smoke, and +that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> by using smoke consumers they not only prevent all the evils of +the smoke nuisance but save fully half of the value of their coal, they +would gladly put in this equipment. What manufacturer would not eagerly +welcome any device that would cut his fuel bills in half?</p> + +<p>The other cause of waste of coal in the manufacturing industries is +recklessness in the use of fuel, filling the furnaces with the drafts so +disposed that much of the heat is wasted. Every factory owner should +learn (from the government reports if he has no other means of learning) +the best methods of firing furnaces, and should employ them in his +factory.</p> + +<p>The last great waste of coal is in households. In stoves and furnaces, +and to a certain extent in kitchen ranges, this waste is through +carelessness in firing, as it is in factories. There still remains a +large amount of wasted energy in cooking that is unavoidable. The amount +of coal consumed before certain articles can be cooked, the heat +remaining after the meal is prepared, are wastes that it seems +impossible to prevent, though wise management will prevent undue waste +even here. Fireless cookers, an invention of recent years, go far toward +solving the problem of waste by long hours of cooking single articles, +and each year we see more prepared food bought in order to save the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +cost of heat. Housekeepers find that it does not pay to bake their bread +themselves, since a dozen loaves can be baked in a large oven with the +fuel used in baking one at home.</p> + +<p>Briquettes are a new form of fuel made from coal, principally for +household use. They are made from the low-grade coals, culm, slack and +lignites, blended with coal-tar pitch. They are commonly used not only +in households, but for locomotives and ships, in several European +countries, especially Germany; but in this country the cost of making +them—about a dollar per ton—makes the retail price higher than the +cheaper grades of coal, and their general introduction at the price of +the higher grades is rather slow.</p> + +<p>Let it always be kept in mind that we must not check the careful use, +only the waste, and the best way to avoid an unnecessary drain on the +coal and at the same time increase our manufactures is to substitute +other power. Coal is only a form of energy that came originally from the +sun. The same causes that produced coal still exist. Scientists tell us +that coal is still being made, but it will take thousands of years to +perfect it. If we could only learn to take the sun's heat directly and +use it for our heat, light, and power, it would be one of the greatest +discoveries in the history of the world, greater even than the discovery +of electricity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> + +<p>Many attempts have been made to produce power directly from the sun +through solar engines, or by concentrating it in furnaces. At the St. +Louis Exposition a few years ago, a Portuguese priest exhibited a solar +engine called a heliophore, in which, by means of the sun's rays, the +temperature was raised to 6000 degrees F., and a cube of iron placed in +it melted like a snowball. The sun helps to raise the tides and some day +they may be used to produce power. Many experiments are being made with +both solar and tidal energy, some of them successful in a small way, but +nothing that is ready to stand the test of every-day use has been +devised.</p> + +<p>Doctor Pritchell says that on a clear day when the sun is high, it +delivers upon each acre of the earth's surface exposed to its rays, the +equal of 7,500 horse-power working continually. If the extra energy not +needed for the growth of plants and animals could be used, all the work +of the world could be done and the problem of fuel supply would be +solved for ever.</p> + +<p>But the greatest conservation of coal possible at present lies in the +use of the water-power which now goes to waste, and which, if employed, +would, as we have seen, give us 30,000,000 horse-power, or more than all +that is now produced from fuel by all our engines combined.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + +<p>Alabama offers a striking illustration of this failure to take advantage +of our opportunities, for Alabama has both coal and water-power. +Engineers estimate that the three principal rivers have power equal to +436,000 horse-power. At Muscle Shoals, on the Tennessee River, there is +now developed 188,000 horse-power, second only to Niagara—and if the +waters were conserved, the figures would reach 1,084,000 horse-power on +the three rivers. This means that, according to the amount of coal +required to produce each horse-power of energy, it would require +11,201,000 tons of coal each year to produce by steam as much power as +these streams might easily be made to produce.</p> + +<p>Alabama, as we have said, is also a great coal state. It is now mining +about 14,000,000 tons per year and only four states produce a larger +amount. It will be seen that four tons out of five mined in this state +will be needed to produce by steam the power that is going to waste in +its rivers. The Honorable W. P. Lay, of the Alabama Conservation +Commission, in calling attention to this fact, says:</p> + +<p>"Suppose for a moment that the coal fields of Alabama were sliding down +an incline and pouring off over a precipice at the rate of 11,201,000 +tons per year, how long would it take the people of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> United States +to do something to try to stop such a waste? Yet what else are we doing +when we sit idly by and let the water of these streams go to waste over +a precipice while we ourselves burn up the coal?"</p> + +<p>And what is true in Alabama is true to a lesser extent in most of the +states. Wherever water-power is going to waste, coal is being used to +take its place, and that coal is needed in some place where there is no +water-power.</p> + +<p>On a certain stream in one of the central states was a fine waterfall. +The early settlers built a mill there. The water turned the mill-wheel +and then passed on to water the valley and turn other mill-wheels. But +one night the old mill was destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt, but +some distance from the stream a new steam mill was built, the motive +power of which was natural gas. When, after a few years, the natural gas +was all gone, the miller began to use coal, and he still uses +coal—hundreds of tons of it—while the water which once turned the +wheels, runs idly over the falls. This is an example of wholly useless +waste of coal, and just such waste is to be found in hundreds of places +in our country.</p> + +<p>If wise mining methods be put into operation, if proper care be taken in +its use, particularly in manufacturing, if the low-grade coals be +utilized, and if other power be substituted wherever practicable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> there +need be no question of shortage. There is enough coal in the ground, if +used rightly, to last for ages to come. But because we have wasted vast +quantities of it in the past, and are still wasting it, so that if the +same conditions continue we can distinctly see the end in sight, it is +important that every one understands what these conditions of use and +waste are, and how the abuse may be corrected, so that mine owners and +consumers may all work together to preserve this most necessary +resource.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Coal is King. Hewette.</p> + +<p class="d">Economical Burning of Coal Without Smoke. Bement.</p> + +<p class="d">Coal and Coal Mines. H. Green.</p> + +<p class="d">International Library of Technology. Vols. 37 and 38.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports of Geological Survey.</p> + +<p class="d">Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Report.)</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Coals in the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> + +<h3>OTHER FUELS</h3> + +<h3>WOOD</h3> + + +<p>Wood, which was formerly the only fuel used in this country, has now +largely given place to other fuels. In rural districts and in lumber +regions it is still used extensively; but in the cities, larger towns, +and manufacturing regions, it is not used in commercial quantities. Its +use for power production is limited to the wood-working factories which +have a large amount of waste lumber and which employ this by-product to +furnish heat for steam boilers.</p> + +<p>The wood used for fuel or for power usually represents what would +otherwise be lost, the dead trees and the unmarketable timber of the +farmer's wood-lot, the refuse of lumber regions or the waste of +wood-working factories. So that the use of wood as fuel now generally +means the conservation of our coal supply, and a use for the low-grade +parts of the forest.</p> + +<p>In some cases, however, farmers cut for fuel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> fine young trees that +would grow into excellent timber. Liberal planting of trees so that wood +shall become plentiful in all parts of the country will tend to bring +about again a larger use of wood as fuel, which will thus once more +become a factor in the saving of our coal. Every farmer should learn to +save all valuable trees for lumber, and to use only undesirable ones for +fuel.</p> + +<h3>PEAT</h3> + +<p>Peat is said by geologists to be only "coal in the making," carbon that +is in the state of changing from vegetable matter to coal. It is +probable that in the course of centuries this would become coal, and in +its present state it has many of the properties of coal, though it has +not nearly so high a heating value.</p> + +<p>In this country we have had such a wealth of fuel resources—coal, wood, +oil, and gas—that up to the present time we have done little to develop +our peat beds, although in European countries ten million tons are used +annually for fuel, as well as large quantities for other purposes. From +the earliest times peat has been the principal fuel of the common people +of Ireland and some of the countries of northern Europe.</p> + +<p>Now, however, people are trying to make the best of many resources not +heretofore developed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> coal prices are steadily advancing and the two +causes combine to turn people's attention to the peat beds of America. +One point that is worthy of notice is that peat is found mostly in +regions where there is no coal, oil, or natural gas. The development of +peat beds in those regions, it will be seen, would give them a great +advantage in the matter of cheap fuel.</p> + +<p>Large peat beds are found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, +New England, New Jersey, Florida, the Dakotas, northern Iowa, Illinois, +Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, eastern Virginia, the Carolinas and +Georgia; and near the coast in the gulf states, and a narrow strip along +the Pacific coast, from southern California to the Canadian border. They +cover an area of about 11,000 square miles and are supposed to contain +not less than 14,000,000,000 tons of air-dried peat. At the rate of +three dollars per ton, which is a reasonable price in the states having +no coal, this peat would have a value of more than $40,000,000,000.</p> + +<p>Peat is prepared for use as common fuel in two ways: (1) By cutting it +into blocks or bricks, which are air-dried by exposure to sun and wind +for a few weeks. This is called "cut peat," is bulky and easily +breakable, and can be used only for local consumption. (2) By digging +either by hand or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> machine, and grinding it in a mill. It is put in wet, +ground, cut with rapidly turning knives, and passed out of the machine +as a thick pulp that is cut into bricks as it comes out. It is then +stored several weeks until thoroughly dried. This is called "machine +peat," "pressed peat," or "condensed peat."</p> + +<p>Peat is being used in many ways. (1) Air-dried peat is used for fuel +only. (2) Dry peat without a binder, or mixed with coal dust and tar or +pitch is used for the same purpose. (3) Machine peat is used for many +purposes, among them making into briquettes, peat charcoal, and peat +coke.</p> + +<p>It has been found practical to make illuminating gas of peat, but a far +more general use is for running gas-engines and producer-gas furnaces. +This is a practical use for it, since it will conserve the coal now used +for that purpose, furnish satisfactory power without smoke or dirt, +provide cheap power in regions that have no coal mines, and lastly may +be made to yield valuable by-products: ammonia, acetic acid, paraffin, +tar, creosote, and wood-alcohol. If all the peat in the United States +could be used in producer-gas engines the ammonia yielded would alone +have a value of $36,000,000,000.</p> + +<p>Peat is also used for packing material, as a fertilizer, for +manufacturing paper, for coarse cloth and mattress filling. By mixing +wet machine peat with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> cement it may be made into blocks for paving and +other construction work. The most promising uses are for fuel, as +bedding for stock, as a disinfectant, in briquettes for burning lime, +brick, and pottery, in which it is finding a large use, and for which it +is said to be particularly well fitted; and most satisfactory of all, +its use in gas-producer engines. In Florida an immense plant is being +built to manufacture electric power, using air-dried peat as fuel, the +power to be transmitted to Jacksonville.</p> + +<p>Machine peat is supposed to have sixty-five per cent. the value of the +same weight of Pocahontas coal, but on account of the lack of waste in +peat its real value is higher than would appear from the comparison. +From two to two and a half pounds will produce one horse-power per hour +in gas-producer engines. By this estimate, we can see that the peat beds +of this country, if properly used, may be largely employed, either now +or in the future, as a substitute for the vanishing coal.</p> + + +<h3>NATURAL GAS</h3> + +<p>Of all the fuels, natural gas may be said to be the ideal one. Coming +from the ground, it is piped a greater or less distance and distributed +to the home or factory for light, heat, or power; for all of which it is +equally desirable. It is ready for our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> use at the turn of a key, is +absolutely clean, having neither dust, ash, nor unconsumed portions. It +requires no kindling other than a lighted match.</p> + +<p>Natural gas is found over an area which, if combined, would cover almost +10,000 square miles. It exists in twenty-two states—Alabama, +California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, +New York, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, +Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, +Wyoming. In some of them the area has been large and the production very +heavy, in others the field is small and unproductive. Until the last two +or three years there have been no statistics as to the quantity of gas +piped, but an account of its value has been kept for many years. For the +twenty years beginning with 1888 the value is given at nearly +$500,000,000.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that much of this represents extremely low prices, +only the amount actually paid for its use. When gas is newly discovered +in a region it is not considered an opportunity for the residents of the +community to have cheap light, power and fuel for themselves, but +instead as an opportunity to develop the country, to increase the +population and attract new factories. In order to advertise and boom +their communities free gas is usually offered to factories.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> So in +dozens of instances large factories have been operated for years without +a cent having been paid for fuel. For this reason no proper estimate can +be made of the quantity of gas consumed, nor of its value even at a +nominal price. In 1907, (the last year for which complete returns have +been published in government reports) the amount of gas consumed was +given at 404,000,000 cubic feet, which at present prices is valued at +$63,000,000.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to determine in any way the future production of +natural gas, or to guess at the quantity remaining in the earth. It may +be much less or much more than present conditions would indicate; but +the present known fields are limited, and the pressure is growing +steadily less in all of them.</p> + +<p>The Conservation Commission reports, "It is safe to predict that the +known fields will be exhausted in twenty-five years." The decrease of +natural gas is strikingly illustrated in Indiana. This state, perhaps +more than any other, profited directly by the discovery of its natural +gas about twenty years ago. Here, the mineral maps show, is by far the +greatest natural gas region in the United States. With the discovery of +natural gas, established towns grew to ten times their former size and +new ones sprang up everywhere. Indiana, which had been chiefly an +agricultural state, bade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> fair to become one of the foremost +manufacturing states on account of its cheap and abundant fuel. In 1902 +Indiana produced nearly $8,000,000 worth of natural gas, but for 1908 +the State Geologist's report contained no figures for this product. It +had ceased to be a prominent factor in the wealth of the state! There is +no resource that has been so shamefully, so hopelessly wasted as our +natural gas.</p> + +<p>With even more recklessness than characterizes the waste of our forests +and our coal, we have allowed this perfect fuel to escape. To the +dwellers in each region where natural gas is found, it seems that the +supply is inexhaustible. The roar of the wells, which makes the very +earth tremble; the flames springing high into the air; the undiminished +pressure after months of use, appearing to indicate a boundless +reservoir below; the opportunity for whole communities to grow rich by +its use; all these things tend to promote recklessness on the part of +all who handle it. In the beginning the wells are usually not tightly +cased, and there is a considerable quantity of gas escaping about every +well. New wells are frequently lighted to show the volume of gas. In +some cases the well has become uncapped on account of heavy pressure and +to prevent the escape of unconsumed gas into the air it is kept burning +night and day. The strongest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> wells are often kept burning for months in +order to advertise a new gas field. In this way immense quantities of +the most perfect fuel in the world have been wantonly wasted. From a +single well in eastern Kentucky there flowed a steady stream of gas for +twenty years which at present prices would be worth $3,000,000, and the +same story of waste from burning wells comes from every natural gas +field.</p> + +<p>In a new region where gas is abundant there is also a great waste from +leaking pipe lines laid on the surface of the ground, from open +flambeaux, and from careless home and factory consumption. In many +communities the open flambeaux have been employed to light the streets, +and allowed to burn day and night to avoid the expense of a man to care +for them. Where natural gas is abundant, meters are not usually +installed; instead, gas is sold by the month. The consumer is under no +obligation to save the gas, in fact, he usually acts on the common +American principle of wanting to get all he can for the money and so +burns his open tip lights, and open burner stoves day and night. The +factories waste in the same way, using open furnaces which are never +banked during the season because it is easier and costs no more.</p> + +<p>This, it seems, should be the whole history of natural gas waste, but +the greatest source of loss<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> still remains to be spoken of. In every gas +region of any importance oil is found sooner or later, usually after the +heaviest gas pressure has been exhausted; and the oil driller is the +greatest of all foes to the life of a natural gas region. He finds that +the gas interferes with the flow of oil, spraying it into the air and +causing loss, and that the danger of fire is much increased by its +presence. This frequently causes explosions, tearing out the side of the +well or blowing out the casing, and making the oil-well useless. The +surplus gas is usually piped to one side out of the reach of danger, and +then burned to get rid of it. Drillers often try to force the gas out in +the hope that it will be followed by a rush of oil.</p> + +<p>This is the heaviest drain on the gas. In the Caddo field in Louisiana +alone the loss is seventy million cubic feet per day, enough to light +ten cities the size of Washington, D. C., and equal to ten thousand +barrels of petroleum per day. In Indiana a few years ago fourteen wells, +all within a space of a few acres in extent, were burned by oil drillers +continuously for six months, the light being visible twenty miles away.</p> + +<p>Greater care in the management of the wells and slight additional +expense for casing are all that is required to stop the waste of gas +from oil wells and heavy pressure gas wells.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<p>All of these wastes taken together constitute a fearful loss. In 1907, +more than 400,000,000 cubic feet were used and an almost equal number +wasted. In other words, the daily waste is over a billion cubic feet, or +enough to supply every city in the United States of over one hundred +thousand population.</p> + +<p>The heating value of a billion feet of gas is equal to a million bushels +of coal. If some great conflagration were sweeping away our coal fields +steadily every day in the year, and destroying our best coal at the rate +of a million bushels per day, how quickly we should all arise to aid in +checking it! And yet this imaginary case is actually true in regard to +the best fuel in this country, which is burning uselessly an equal value +in coal, and our coal must some day be used to supply the loss.</p> + +<p>We are apt to ignore the greatness of this loss because the gas escapes +into the air and we can not see it, or it burns and we see only its +effect, not the loss of fuel, but if we could see it in the form of oil +we should find that a billion feet of gas is equal to more than a +hundred and sixty thousand barrels of petroleum. Think of it, the +equivalent of one hundred and sixty thousand barrels of oil, for which +no price is paid and of which no use is made, for ever destroyed every +day in every year! Would the oil companies permit it? Would we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> not all +assist them in saving their property from destruction, and shall we not +ask of them equal help in saving the fuel that in turn conserves our +coal supply? Little objection can be made to the present method of using +gas in the older regions. The waste in domestic use is comparatively +small. Much is used for lighting with incandescent burners, and asbestos +grates and gas ranges have replaced the open-burner stoves and grates. +These are all efficient methods of use, and but little could be done in +the way of further conservation. In factories the gas-engine is in many +instances replacing the open furnace, which requires many times as much +gas to produce an equal amount of power. They should be used in every +factory, and gas companies should also require the use of the best +devices for saving gas in places where meters are not used.</p> + +<p>Until last year but one state—Indiana—had an effective law preventing +the waste of natural gas by oil companies. This law says in substance +that a man can not take the oil from the ground where nature has safely +stored it, unless he also provide a market for the gas which accompanies +it. It also says that neither the producer nor the consumer shall be +allowed to waste this valuable fuel, as such waste is against public +policy.</p> + +<p>Mr. I. C. White, of West Virginia, in discussing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> this question at the +Conservation Congress said, "This Indiana statute should be enacted into +law in every state where these fuels exist." Since that time +Pennsylvania and Ohio have passed laws, which are said to be effective, +for the conservation of natural gas.</p> + +<p>Much has been accomplished by gas companies, who, since they became +alive to the danger of loss of their investment, have been extremely +watchful of their property. In West Virginia the gas companies buy the +gas which has been obtained in the drilling of oil wells, thus providing +a market for the waste gas and making it possible to continue the oil +business and at the same time to furnish cheap gas.</p> + +<p>Another hopeful sign is the pumping of all of the product of a well. +Formerly as soon as a well dropped greatly in production it was +abandoned, but now it is pumped until dry.</p> + +<p>One method by which the gas from oil wells may be utilized consists in +compressing it in steel cylinders for shipping. This in a small way has +been found to be successful.</p> + +<p>Experiments are being tried on a large scale in Ohio to prove that gas +may be returned to reservoirs within the earth which are tight enough to +hold it under heavy pressure.</p> + +<p>Fuel gas made from low-grade coal is a satisfactory substitute for +natural gas. Like the natural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> product it may be piped for long +distances. Some natural gas companies have bought up the culm banks and +heaps of refuse coal, so that if the natural gas becomes exhausted they +can manufacture cheap gas at the mines and pipe it to the cities they +now serve.</p> + +<h3>PETROLEUM</h3> + +<p>Petroleum, or rock oil, is a dark greenish brown liquid which when +refined yields gasolene, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, lubricating oils, +and paraffin. The name petroleum applies only to the crude petroleum as +it comes from the ground, and the word oil is applied to the products +obtained by refining.</p> + +<p>The early history of the petroleum industry in this country is +interesting as showing what great results spring from small beginnings. +From salt wells in Pennsylvania there was an occasional flow of +petroleum, but it had had no commercial value. Samuel Kier, of +Pittsburg, had salt wells at Tarantum from which he had accumulated so +much petroleum (fifty barrels) that he decided to try to dispose of it, +but there was no market. No one knew what to do with it. He then partly +refined it, making a poor quality of kerosene, and introduced a lamp +with a chimney. This proved so popular that A. C. Ferris, also of +Pittsburg, undertook<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> to sell this in other cities, and these two men +not only sold the fifty barrels and the other petroleum that accumulated +from the salt wells, but they had created such a demand for the new +light that they could not supply enough oil, and in 1859 Colonel Drake +drilled at Titusville the first well solely for petroleum. In the +half-century since that time nearly two billion barrels, or almost two +hundred and fifty million tons, worth one and three-quarter billion +dollars, have been produced.</p> + +<p>Petroleum is now mined, or drilled, in many countries besides the United +States, but the United States furnishes sixty-three barrels out of every +hundred produced in the world. Russia produces twenty-one barrels, +Austria four, and the East Indies three barrels, Roumania two, India and +Mexico one each, Canada, Japan, Germany, Peru, and Italy each less than +one barrel; so we can see that the United States is the one great +producer of petroleum, and that it is to this country that we must look +for the principal world supply for the present, and as far as known, for +the future. Let us see, then, what we may expect the United States to do +to supply this demand.</p> + +<p>The known petroleum lands cover an area of about 8,500 square miles and +are in six large fields and several smaller ones. The largest and best +is the Appalachian, of which the best known is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> Pennsylvania field. +It has a grade of petroleum that differs from any other thus far found +in the world. It is most easily converted into kerosene or lamp oil, and +contains a larger proportion of such oil. It is the finest petroleum in +the world, except that found in Indiana and Ohio, and that costs more to +refine.</p> + +<p>The Appalachian field includes, besides Pennsylvania, western New York, +West Virginia, a narrow strip in eastern Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. +These southern oils are of a much lower grade, but are better than the +Russian or other foreign oils.</p> + +<p>The next great field is called the Lima-Indiana, and covers a +considerable portion of northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana. This +petroleum contains less gasolene and less lamp oils, and more sulphur, +which makes refining difficult. The Illinois field lies next. Here, in a +strip about thirty miles long and six miles wide on an average, an +enormous quantity of petroleum is produced. This oil is slightly lower +in quality and contains considerable asphalt.</p> + +<p>The mid-continent field lies in Kansas and Oklahoma. This petroleum also +contains asphalt and other chemical products. Such immense amounts are +produced here that it has not been possible to care for all of it, +either in the matter of storage tanks or cars for transporting it, and +as a result<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> large amounts have been wasted. In Oklahoma within a space +of less than two square miles one million barrels of forty-two gallons +each of petroleum were wasted in the year 1906.</p> + +<p>The Gulf field lying in Texas and Louisiana has been developed entirely +since 1901. The first well was drilled near Beaumont, Texas, as an +experiment to determine whether oil could be found. Small storage tanks +were provided and it was hoped to find oil enough to make drilling +profitable. The well proved to be a "gusher" of such magnitude that +before sufficient tanks could be provided, or the flow checked, more +than half a million barrels were wasted on the ground.</p> + +<p>The Gulf petroleum contains a large amount of asphalt and a small amount +of gasolene and lamp oil. It has been used principally for burning as +crude oil in locomotives and has sold as low as ten cents per barrel; +but lately methods of refining have been perfected which produce good +lubricating oil and a gasolene of high value from these low-grade oils.</p> + +<p>The last great field is found in California. The oil is similar to the +Gulf oil, and investigation has shown that the quantity is greater in +this field than in any other. It is used largely for fuel and power on +account of lack of other fuels in that region.</p> + +<p>In addition to these fields there are small ones<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> in Colorado and +Wyoming, and promises of fields in New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, Montana, +Oregon and Washington.</p> + +<p>Estimates of the amounts of petroleum yielded are made by computing the +amount usually produced per acre, which varies from eight hundred +barrels produced in Pennsylvania, to eight thousand barrels per acre +produced in Illinois. In most of the fields it is about a thousand +barrels per acre. Even then the amount is extremely difficult to +estimate. The Geological Survey concludes that the lowest probable +calculation of the entire amount stored in the rocks of the United +States is ten billion, and the highest a little less than twenty-five +billion barrels. The last report officially published shows that we are +producing one hundred and seventy million barrels per year. If the same +rate of production continues, we might expect our petroleum to last from +fifty-five to one hundred and thirty-five years, according to the amount +found; but tables of statistics show that throughout the life of the +petroleum industry, as much has been produced each nine years as the +entire product before that time. For example, up to the present, we have +produced one billion eight hundred million barrels and if the present +rate continues, in the next nine years alone we shall produce an equal +quantity again. The causes of such rapid growth are many. One is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +great increase in the use of some of the products, such as gasolene, +which has increased many fold since the automobile became popular. +Another, and the greatest cause, is the ease with which any quantity of +oil can be sold for cash at any time, and at prices much above the cost +of production.</p> + +<p>Another reason is based upon the nature of the product. In pumping from +one well oil is apt to flow in from other leases, under other farms, and +exhaust them without the holders of those leases having received any +compensating benefit. It is therefore necessary for each lessee to get +his share before it flows away. Under these circumstances, it is +impossible to prevent an entire field from being drilled over very +rapidly, unless there is a combination of all the interests; or unless +the law limits the amount that each producer shall extract per acre +within a given time.</p> + +<p>Pennsylvania and New York have declined to one-third their former value +and yet it is only seventeen years since they reached their highest +point. This would seem to indicate that the life of that field will not +exceed ten years. West Virginia is producing only a little more than +half its former yield and is rapidly declining. Ohio and Indiana are +declining more rapidly than Pennsylvania. Texas is also in the rapidly +declining class, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> Kansas the production is only a fraction of +what it was formerly. On the other hand, Illinois, Oklahoma, and +California can be expected to increase steadily for several years.</p> + +<p>Taking into account all these factors, it is estimated that the entire +supply now known to exist would be exhausted before the middle of the +present century. It appears more probable, however, that increasing +prices long before that time will help to conserve the supply; and that +petroleum will be produced for a long time to come, though not in +sufficient quantities for industrial and general use.</p> + +<p>The principal uses of petroleum are for burning as crude oil in furnaces +and under boilers, particularly in locomotives. The refined products +have various uses. Probably the most important is the lubricating oil. +This is necessary in the development of all kinds of power. At least +one-half pint of lubricating oil is used for every ton of coal consumed +for power. All engines, all street and steam railways, steamships, +sewing-machines, clocks, watches, and automobiles, in fact all operating +machinery requires its use; so that a large amount of oil must always be +conserved for lubricating purposes.</p> + +<p>Coal oil, or kerosene, may be regarded as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> absolutely necessary for the +lighting of houses or other establishments not connected with gas or +electric supply.</p> + +<p>Gasolene is sometimes used for lighting, though such use is not common. +It is largely used for cooking, and still more largely used in the +various types of gasolene engines.</p> + +<p>Naphtha is used for power, especially for motor-boats, and for cleaning, +in which it is very valuable by reason of its power to dissolve dirt.</p> + +<p>Paraffin is used in polishing, in laundry work, for waxing floors, and +as a covering to exclude air in preserving articles.</p> + +<p>Waste has been markedly absent in the petroleum industry. It is +necessary that oil drilling outfits shall contain steel storage tanks +for holding the oil when it is reached. Usually the supply is large +enough, but sometimes, as in the case of the big well at Beaumont, +Texas, the oil gushes forth in such volume that the drillers are not +prepared to take care of the overflow, and much is wasted before the +well can be capped. In general there is no waste in storage in this +country. In European countries where there is oil, the loss through lack +of tanks and by using wooden tanks which leak, is very great.</p> + +<p>Another form of waste which is common in foreign countries, but which +has been avoided in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> United States, is evaporation of gasolene and +similar light products when the petroleum is exposed to the air in open +tanks. This is the most valuable part of petroleum, and if it be exposed +to the sun a single day it loses greatly in value.</p> + +<p>The refining processes of the petroleum industry are probably carried +out with better system and less waste than in any other resource, owing +to the fact that the business is controlled by large companies. There is +no waste material in its manufacture, except some slight residue that +might be used for oiling roads, instead of using the crude oil. The +principal waste lies in its use. In view of the fact that the supply is +not unending, is, indeed, rapidly disappearing, the uses should be +confined only to the necessary lines for which there are no substitutes +at similar prices. These are for lubricating oils and for the lighting +of homes. The unnecessary uses are for burning in locomotives and for +the development of power.</p> + +<p>Whenever new petroleum fields are opened up, there is a corresponding +drop in price. In order to dispose of it quickly such petroleum is +usually sold for the lowest grade uses, and the price for this crude +petroleum is not more than one hundredth as much as for high grade +petroleum products. The report of the National Conservation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> Commission +is so excellent that it is quoted almost word for word.</p> + +<p>"At present more petroleum is being produced than is necessary for the +demands of the industry. Within ten years the present fields will be +unable profitably to produce enough for these requirements. The only +direction in which production can be checked is with the petroleum +contained in public lands.</p> + +<p>"Offering such public lands for entry at a low price is nothing more +than temptation to the private citizen to waste petroleum by over +production, since lands yielding hundreds of dollars per acre in this +product can be obtained for a small sum. Every acre of public land, +believed to contain petroleum or natural gas, should be withdrawn from +public sale and leased under conditions that regulate production.</p> + +<p>"Its use for power is justified on the Pacific coast, if used in +gas-producer engines."</p> + +<h3>ALCOHOL</h3> + +<p>As a substitute for other fuels, wood, or denaturated alcohol, will +probably come into greater use each year, and is regarded by many as the +great fuel of the future, because the materials of which it is made are +waste vegetable products and will always be plentiful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is made from cellulose, the woody part of plants, and may be +manufactured from sawdust when freshly cut from live trees, from small, +and refuse potatoes, from inferior grain that is not worth marketing, +and from low-grade fruits and vegetables of all kinds. It is even said +that the hundreds of acres of sage-brush in the West that have always +been considered worse than useless can be made into wood-alcohol and +thus become a valuable product.</p> + +<p>It can be used for any purpose that gasolene can, although a different +style burner is required. It must be made much hotter before it is +changed into vapor, and on account of this it has been difficult to make +satisfactory burners for all the kinds of heating, lighting, and power +work; the machinery being far from perfect as yet. Wood-alcohol can not +yet be made cheaper than gasolene, and is not so easy to burn, so that +it is slow in reaching an important place in the industrial world; but +gas and gasolene prices will advance, and better methods of +manufacturing and burning alcohol will be found, and then we shall have +a fuel that can take the place of either coal or petroleum for lighting +or power.</p> + +<p>It is thought that wood-alcohol will be of especial use to the farmer, +since he has so many waste vegetable products, has so much need of power +in small quantities and is far from the sources of public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> service +power, such as electric and gas plants. Alcohol-driven motors can be +used to take the place of the labor of both horses and men on the farm. +On level farms they can run the heavy machines, such as mowers, reapers, +and binders, plows and cultivators. On any farm they may be used to run +stationary engines, to chop and grind food for live stock, to pump +water, churn, run sewing-machines, operate fans, drive carriages and +wagons and do many other things.</p> + +<p>Wood-alcohol produces ammonia as a by-product, is used in the +manufacture of dyes and coal-tar products, of smokeless powder, of +varnishes, and of imitation silks made from cotton.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports of Geological Survey.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Government Report.)</p> + +<p class="d">Industrial Alcohol and Its Uses. W. H. Wiley. Bulletin, 269.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Peat in the U. S. in 1908. U. S. Government Reports.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Oil in the U. S. in 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Gas in the U. S. in 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Waste of Our Fuel Resources. (White.) Report Governor's Conference.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> + +<h3>IRON</h3> + + +<p>We have already stated the importance of iron in our modern life. It can +not be overestimated. All the many articles of iron and steel, our +tools, our machinery, our vehicles, our bridges, our steel buildings, +and a thousand and one other things are dependent on our iron supply.</p> + +<p>Of all the elements that make up the earth's surface only three are more +plentiful than iron, so that we might think that we should always have +an abundant supply of it; but when it occurs in small quantities, as is +usually the case, it can not of course be profitably mined. It is only +when enough of it is found together to permit it to be mined to +advantage that it is called iron ore.</p> + +<p>Iron ore is found in only twenty-nine states of the Union, and eighty +per cent. of the present production is in two states, Minnesota and +Michigan. We can see that iron is very unevenly distributed, and it is +on a few regions that we must depend for all the future.</p> + +<p>Before we can calculate how much iron we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> we must understand that +it is not found in pure form, but mixed with various other substances: +clay, shale, slate, quartz, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. These must all be +removed, some by washing, but most of them by roasting, or "smelting," +in blast furnaces, after which it is called pig iron. This of course +requires large quantities of fuel.</p> + +<p>It is these things and also the position of the ore that must be taken +into consideration in estimating the amount of iron in the country. If +ore yields a large per cent. of iron in smelting, with a small amount of +waste, it is, of course, far more valuable than if the amount of iron in +every ton of material taken from the ground is small.</p> + +<p>In all minerals, the relation of supply to price is marked. The cost of +labor and of power is exactly the same whether ore yields fifty-five +tons of pure iron to the hundred, or whether it yields only thirty tons, +but the price received is little more than half.</p> + +<p>So if the price is low, it may cost more to mine and smelt the one +hundred tons of earth than will be paid for the thirty tons of iron that +the low-grade ore would yield. So the lands that produce only thirty +tons to the hundred will never be mined till the price of iron is so +high that it is above the cost of producing—that is, till it can be +worked at a profit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Lake Superior iron found in Minnesota is usually more than +fifty-five per cent. pure iron. That is, if a hundred tons of earth be +mined, more than fifty-five tons of pure iron would be obtained from it. +This is the highest grade of ore. Some ore is mined that yields only +forty tons or less. There are vast quantities, billions of tons, of iron +ore in the United States, that would yield less than thirty tons of iron +to the hundred. These low-grade ores and the ones known to lie so deep +in the earth that the cost of mining them is more than the finished +products of iron, are classed as "not available," that is, they can +never be profitably mined under present conditions. But we must remember +that as the higher grade ores are exhausted it will become necessary to +use the lower grades, and that prices will steadily advance as a result.</p> + +<p>Iron is sometimes found almost directly under the ground, at other times +deep in the earth. That which is found just below the surface is, of +course, mined much more easily, more safely, more cheaply, and with far +less loss than that which requires deep mining. Such conditions are +found in the Lake Superior region, and there is almost no loss at all, +the low-grade ores being piled up at one side where they can be easily +reached in case of need.</p> + +<p>On the other hand some iron mines now in operation are as much as two +thousand feet in depth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> In these mines, as in coal mines, pillars are +left to support the rock above. A roof of the iron ore is often left +also. The low-grade ore is left in the ground and no effort is made to +preserve it for future use. These constitute the principal waste in iron +mining.</p> + +<p>The pure iron of the ore is separated by washing out the clays and soft +elements, but the harder substances must be smelted by means of heat. In +the beginning this was done by charcoal, which is still used in Sweden. +The latest method is to employ electricity manufactured by water-power, +but most of the iron smelting in this country has been done by coal. +Every ton of iron smelted requires its portion of coal for firing. If +low-grade fuels in gas-producer engines, or water-power can be used it +will be a great aid in conserving coal.</p> + +<p>If a limited supply of rather low-grade iron exists near a coal region, +it can often be mined profitably, when, if it be far from an abundant +fuel supply, it must be shipped to distant blast furnaces. The cost of +shipping causes ore containing a small percentage of iron to be classed +as "not available."</p> + +<p>Sometimes a large company with many mines has several varieties of ore +of different strength and hardness. If these can be mixed to produce a +medium grade by adding a small amount of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> high-grade ore to a large +amount of lower grade, the value of the product will be doubled.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, too, the by-products can be made extremely profitable by +manufacturing large amounts when the expense of undertaking the work is +too great to be attempted with a small amount. So if iron mines are +owned by a small company much ore may be classed as "not available" that +could be used by a large company. All these things must be considered in +estimating the iron resources.</p> + +<p>The first smelting of iron ore in this country was done at Lynn, +Massachusetts, in 1645, using the low-grade bog-ores and smelting with +charcoal from the surrounding forest.</p> + +<p>Now if we look over an iron map of the United States we shall find that +there are four hundred and eighty blast furnaces, but that only nine of +them are west of the Mississippi River and most of these are in +Missouri. The greatest of all the iron regions now lies in upper +Michigan and Minnesota. This furnishes eighty tons out of every one +hundred mined in the United States, but the smelting is done along the +southern shores of Lake Michigan. The reason for this is that the iron +region itself is far distant from a cheap fuel supply. Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, has been the great iron city of the United States on +account of its nearness to great supplies of both coal and iron. +Birmingham,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> Alabama, is the heart of the great smelting region of the +South.</p> + +<p>The iron is divided into districts as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) The Northeastern, comprising the states of Vermont, Massachusetts, +Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio, +supplies a little more than five per cent. of the iron mined in the +United States.</p> + +<p>(2) The Southeastern, containing Virginia, West Virginia, eastern +Kentucky, and Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, +gives us twelve per cent. of our iron.</p> + +<p>(3) The Lake Superior district, containing the northern parts of +Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin, supplies more than eighty per cent.</p> + +<p>(4) The Mississippi Valley district contains western Kentucky, and +Tennessee, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas. This region furnishes +less than half of one per cent. of the total supply.</p> + +<p>(5) The Rocky Mountain district contains Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, +Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, western Texas, Washington, +Oregon and California; and all this great region now supplies but a +little more than one per cent.</p> + +<p>The official report, which is as thorough as can be made but is +naturally subject to mistakes, gives the amount of available iron, that +is, that which can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> be mined under present conditions, as nearly five +billion tons.</p> + +<p>Let us see how long this may be expected to supply the demand.</p> + +<p>Before 1810 the amount of iron ore produced was so small as to be +scarcely worth considering. From 1810 to 1870 a little less than fifty +million tons were mined, from 1870 to 1889 nearly 154,000,000 tons, and +from 1889 to 1907, 475,000,000 tons, or altogether nearly 680,000,000 +tons. The production has been found to double itself about every nine +years. In 1907 alone it was 52,000,000 tons or about one-thirteenth of +all that has been mined.</p> + +<p>In 1880 we used 200 pounds of pig-iron for every man, woman, and child +in the country; in 1890, 320 pounds; in 1900, 390 pounds, and in 1907, +696 pounds. According to the rule of increase, by 1916 we shall be using +104,000,000 tons a year; by 1925, 208,000,000, and by 1934, 416,000,000 +tons, and if the same rate of increase should continue, by 1940 we +should have required for our use in the meantime, six billion tons. But +we have less than five billion tons of what is now classed as available +ore, which means that before that time (when the school-boys of to-day +are business men) we should have exhausted all our good and cheap ore, +and be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> obliged to depend only on the low-grade ores, the cost of which +will be very great.</p> + +<p>Unlike coal, the forests, and the soil, there is no great and entirely +useless waste of iron. But the uses of iron are so many and so varied, +and the supply of high-grade ores which can be cheaply mined is so small +in proportion to the needs of the future, that we should in all ways +lessen the drain on it by substituting other cheaper and more plentiful +materials when possible.</p> + +<p>The chief use of iron is for the carrying of freight. Here are some +figures given by Mr. Carnegie. Moving one thousand tons of freight by +rail requires an eighty-ton locomotive and twenty-five twenty-ton steel +cars, or five hundred and eighty tons of iron and steel to draw it +over—say an average of ten miles of double track with switches, frogs, +spikes, etc., which will weigh more than four hundred tons. Thus we see +that to move a thousand tons of freight requires the use of an equal +weight of iron. The same freight may be moved by water by means of from +one hundred to two hundred and fifty tons of metal, so that if freight +were sent by water instead of by rail the amount of iron needed for this +service would be reduced at least three-fourths, the amount of coal +would be reduced not less than half, and at the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> the coal used +in extra smelting would be saved. No single step open to us to-day would +do more to check the drain on both iron and coal than the use of our +rivers for carrying heavy freight.</p> + +<p>The next great use of iron is for buildings and bridges. The greatly +increasing use of cement and concrete is reducing this and will reduce +it still further. Cement is made from slag, or the refuse of iron +ore—the clays and shales—and the cost of this valuable product is +little more than the former cost of piling it away. By making the +useless slag into cement the cost of iron production is lowered and at +the same time the drain on the iron is lessened.</p> + +<p>A large use of steel of the highest quality is for battleships, cannon, +and war supplies. If the great nations of the world would agree to +reduce their armament, one of the great drains on the world's iron, +coal, and wood supply would cease, and these materials be put to +improving the world.</p> + +<p>The worst feature of it is that these war supplies are continually +changing. They must be of the latest pattern, or they are of small value +for fighting purposes. The construction of battleships differs greatly +year by year, and the older ships are discarded to make place for newer +and larger ones. It is said that our newest battleship alone could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> with +a few shots destroy all of Admiral Dewey's fleet. The following is from +a recent magazine article:</p> + +<p>"It is admitted by naval officers that the ships of ten years ago are of +obsolete type and would be useless against the new vessels. It is +admitted that within ten years or less the new types will in turn become +obsolete, and will be useless against the type of vessel certain to be +evolved. That is, as soon as a vessel costing millions of dollars leaves +the docks, she enters into active competition for a place on the junk +pile."</p> + +<p>The greatest improvement that can be imagined in the iron situation will +be in the discovery and use of alloys or mixtures of iron with other +materials. Steel, the strongest of all forms of iron, is an alloy of +iron and carbon, and for various purposes these are further mixed with +nickel and silicas. Many other alloys have been discovered within the +last few years, and each makes possible new uses for iron requiring +greater strength. One of the best of these is a mixture of iron and +silicon, called ferro-silicon. Silica is one of the cheapest and most +abundant materials of all the earth's products, so its combination with +iron will greatly lengthen the life of the iron supply; and it is +probable that in the future combinations of other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> materials will yield +better and cheaper metals than any thus far produced.</p> + +<p>The amount of metal which can be reworked is constantly increasing. Most +of the iron factories remelt large quantities of old iron, to be used +with the new, and this will lessen each year the demand on the ores. It +is also possible that new deposits of iron ore will be found and these +will greatly increase the supply. But from the whole iron situation we +may draw the following conclusions:</p> + +<p>First, the amount of iron remaining in the ground is very uncertain. It +may be more, or it may be less, than the present estimate.</p> + +<p>Second, if the estimates are nearly correct, and if the present rate of +increase continues, all the high-grade ores will be exhausted by the +time the small boys of to-day are the business men of the nation.</p> + +<p>Third, the best methods of reducing the drain on the supply are, (a) The +use of old iron as a mixture; (b) Carrying a part of the freight by +water to reduce the amount of iron required by the railroads; (c) The +larger use of concrete and cement to take the place of steel in +buildings; (d) Lessening the amount used for war; (e) The use of alloys. +This opens a large and promising field for invention. (f) More care in +preserving articles made of iron. This is a practical thing for every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +person in our country to do. Every farm implement, or tool, that stands +out in the rain or is left without shelter during the winter, every +article carelessly lost or broken, has its part in making conditions +worse. All that are well cared for help to make the iron supply last a +little longer.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Iron and Steel at Home and Abroad. (Andrew Carnegie.)</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports Geological Survey.</p> + +<p class="d">Mineral Resources of the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2> + +<h3>OTHER MINERALS</h3> + +<h3>GOLD</h3> + +<p>Iron, in its usefulness to man, stands in a class to itself; but there +are dozens of other minerals that have their part in the comfort and +convenience of our daily life. Most of these, however, are found in +comparatively small quantities and have few uses.</p> + +<p>The minerals which are in constant use by nearly all people and that are +found abundantly in the United States, are gold, silver, copper, lead, +zinc, and the elements used in manufacturing building materials.</p> + +<p>Gold is valuable chiefly because it has been made the standard of money +value of the world. Africa produces one-third of the world's supply, +next come the United States and Australia, producing almost equal +amounts, Russia and Canada each produce a limited amount, and various +other countries together produce about one-sixteenth of the whole. (In +the statements of the gold supply of the United States the territory of +Alaska is included.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<p>Gold is not found alone but contained in quartz rock or sand. The method +of taking gold from the rock is first by blasting, and afterward +grinding the rock in a stamp mill, which reduces it to powder, after +which the gold is separated by refining processes. The gold which occurs +in the sand, gravel, or clay soil, is washed out. When done on a small +scale this is called "panning." The larger operations of this kind are +called "placer" and "dredge" mining. There is also a considerable amount +of gold obtained as a by-product from copper mining.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, quartz mines are in the mountains and placer mines +in the river valleys. Placer mining by powerful water pressure, called +hydraulic mining, destroys the banks, and also fills up the river beds +with masses of rock and gravel. Some of the large rivers of California +have been made unfit for steamboat traffic, and serious damage has been +done to the harbor of San Francisco. For this reason hydraulic placer +mining has been stopped by law. This has greatly lessened the gold +production of California.</p> + +<p>In 1907, the United States produced $94,000,000 worth of gold. Of this, +Colorado produced more than any other state. Next in their order come +Alaska, California and Nevada. Each produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> from $15,000,000 to +$20,000,000 worth. Together they furnished nearly four-fifths of the +entire supply. The remaining one-fifth comes from Utah, South Dakota, +Montana, Arizona, Idaho, and Oregon, with very small amounts from the +southeastern states, the two Carolinas and Georgia, New Mexico, +Washington, and Wyoming. South Dakota has the most profitable single +gold mine in the United States. It has produced nearly $60,000,000 in +gold, and is now turning out about $5,000,000 worth a year.</p> + +<p>The United States has many unworked gold mines, "gold reserves" they are +called, whose value can not in any way be exactly estimated. The value +of the placer mines can be better judged than that of the lode or quartz +mines. The placer mines are chiefly in Alaska and California. These +mines may yield gold to the amount of a billion dollars. There are +lesser, but important resources of placer gold in Montana, Idaho, and +Oregon.</p> + +<p>The placer gold mined in 1907 was valued at $24,000,000, and it is +thought that about this quantity can be supplied for a long time.</p> + +<p>The amount of gold yielded in the reduction of copper ores was about +$5,500,000. It is probable that this amount will be gradually increased, +and can be relied on to last many years. From the lead ores a little +over $2,000,000 worth of gold was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> taken. This will probably slowly +decrease for the next ten or twenty years. From gold and silver-bearing +quartz mines $55,000,000 was taken.</p> + +<p>No calculation can be made as to the amount of gold contained in quartz +mines. New discoveries are always probable and many new mines are opened +up each year, but their value can only be estimated as the work in them +progresses.</p> + +<p>Just how long they will last nobody knows, but it would seem that their +decline is far off. The government report says, "Unless very important +new discoveries are made it is thought unlikely that the production of +gold in the United States will rise much above $110,000,000; nor is it +likely that it will sink below $60,000,000 within a long period of +years."</p> + +<p>The amount of gold used in the United States is about equal to the +production. Nearly $80,000,000 is coined into money, and about half as +much is used in the arts,—that is, for jewelry, tableware, in +dentistry, in bookbinding, and various chemical processes. The quantity +used in the arts has doubled since 1900. In 1907 the stock of gold coin +in the United States, according to the Director of the Mint, was +$1,600,000,000, which is almost exactly one-fifth of the gold coin of +the world.</p> + +<p>The production of gold is rapidly increasing. Since 1850 we have mined +three times as much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> gold as in all the previous time since the +discovery of America. Such rapid production greatly shortens the life of +the gold supply. When the gold fields of southern Africa were first +opened they were said to be inexhaustible; but they have been mined so +rapidly, and the supply has proved so far short of the first excited +estimates that experts say that the entire region will be almost +exhausted within twenty years. The loss of gold in mining and refining +is comparatively small. In extracting gold from the cheaper ores the +percentage of loss is large; but as only a small part of the gold is +gained in this way the total loss is relatively small. By other methods +ninety-five per cent. or more is saved. In many cases the loss is too +small to be considered.</p> + +<p>Unlike other minerals little gold is destroyed by use. It is melted and +remelted, all scraps are used, even the sweepings from the mint and from +manufacturing goldsmiths' shops are saved and the gold used. The waste +of the world's gold and silver would be much greater but for the use of +paper money, bank checks, and notes. Their very general use keeps the +gold as a reserve, held in banks and storage vaults much of the time. If +it were in constant use, the continual rubbing together of the coins +would mean a no less steady, though slight, wearing away of their +surface. This is very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> noticeable in old silver coins, which are kept in +more constant circulation.</p> + +<h3>SILVER</h3> + +<p>The conditions in regard to silver are entirely different from those of +the other resources. The production of silver is not increasing, in +fact, the mining of silver alone is decreasing and the reason is not +because the supply is lessening, but because the price is too low to +make a larger working of the mines profitable, and the supply is kept +down to the level of the demand. A great number of silver mines have +been closed for the last few years. The production could be greatly +increased at any time to meet an increased demand.</p> + +<p>The highest production was in 1902, but there have been only slight +changes since 1895; the production being a little less than 60,000,000 +ounces, or about one-third of the world's supply—Mexico being the only +other great producer. In many countries with a small supply the output +is growing less each year on account of the low price, and the +difficulty of competing with the United States.</p> + +<p>The states now producing the most silver are Colorado, Montana, and +Utah; each of these produces about one ounce out of every five ounces +mined. Most of the remainder was produced by Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, and +California.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although nearly 60,000,000 ounces were mined in 1907 only one and a half +million ounces were mined for the sake of the silver alone. The rest was +obtained as a by-product in the mining of gold, lead, copper and zinc, +or, as is often the case, it was distinctively silver ore, but could not +be profitably mined unless some other ore could be obtained at the same +time.</p> + +<p>The richer regions seem to have been exhausted, and as the process of +extracting the ore is expensive the lower grade ores will probably be +held for several years till prices advance. A great silver region has +recently been opened in northern Canada. This contains immense +quantities of very rich ore, and will probably keep the price down for +many years.</p> + +<p>So the care and conservation of silver is not an important issue for the +people of the present generation. As silver is now obtained largely as a +by-product, there is almost no waste.</p> + +<p>The United States sends considerably more than half of its silver to +other countries, principally to India and China, which use much silver +coin, but have little in the way of silver resources. The amount used at +home is divided between coinage and manufacture. The quantity coined +varies greatly from year to year, eight million ounces being about the +average. For manufacturing, jewelry,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> tableware, chemicals, etc., about +twenty million ounces, of which one-fifth is remelted silver, are used. +The demand for silver in manufacturing has doubled since 1898, and may +lead before many years to the reopening of the silver mines.</p> + +<h3>COPPER</h3> + +<p>The conditions of copper mining are exactly opposite from those of +silver. The Indians used almost no metal except copper, and for three +hundred years white men used the old Indian mines and refined the copper +by Indian methods. Better methods of mining copper and extracting it +from the ores have been employed for the last fifty years, but within a +dozen years the refining of copper has been revolutionized by electric +methods. An enormous amount has been produced, but production has been +kept down on account of the high prices. It is said that if the price +could be reduced one-half, ten times as much copper would be used. Most +of the uses of copper have arisen in the last twenty-five years. Its +greatest use is for electric wiring. Nothing can take its place, and the +use is increasing astonishingly.</p> + +<p>Copper is used largely in alloys. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, +and its use has greatly increased in castings, fittings for buildings, +tablets, and statues.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> + +<p>A much more useful alloy is brass, made from copper and zinc. Brass is +very extensively used for parts of machinery, engines, automobiles, and +also for fittings for buildings. Sheet copper is used for sheathing for +ships, for boilers, and for various chemical processes carried on by +electricity or by acids. Very many of these processes have been +discovered within ten or fifteen years, and have largely increased the +uses for copper. One of the older uses of copper which is less common +now was for cooking utensils. Copper is used by the government for +coining one-cent pieces.</p> + +<p>No single country compares at present with the United States in the +production of copper, but if reports be correct there is enough copper +in central Africa to supply the world for years to come. Next to the +United States, Spain mines the largest amount at present, and Japan +ranks next.</p> + +<p>For many years the rate of increase was enormous. In 1845, 224,000 +pounds were mined; in 1888, 226,000,000 pounds. Eight years later, in +1896, it had doubled; after another ten years, in 1906, it had doubled +that quantity, and reached 918,000,000 pounds. In 1890 we were using +three pounds of copper for every man, woman and child in the country. +And in 1907, six and one-half pounds.</p> + +<p>Michigan, Montana, and Arizona produce the bulk of the copper. Utah, +California, Colorado,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> New Mexico, Wyoming, and Nevada each produce +copper in amounts ranging from the 66,000,000 pounds mined in Utah to +the 2,000,000 pounds mined in Nevada. It is probable that the use will +not increase so rapidly in the near future. Much old copper will be +remelted.</p> + +<p>There are large areas of copper lands which are now classed as +"available" with copper at about its present price of thirteen cents a +pound. If the world production should grow so great as to cause a +decided drop in the price, much that is now considered available could +not be mined at a profit, and the copper supply from this country would +be greatly reduced. If, on the other hand, copper should rise to fifteen +or twenty cents or higher, the amount of available copper land would be +vastly increased. The report on the Conservation of Mineral Resources +says in effect: "The copper resources of the United States are believed +to be large enough to allow for a number of years for a demand +increasing at the rate of 30,000,000 pounds a year. Should this demand +continue for a long period the scarcity would be felt and result in a +rising price, which would open up a market for these low-grade ores and +also cause the use of other metals, like aluminum, to take the place of +copper whenever possible."</p> + +<p>There is no great waste in the mining of copper, but in the extraction +of copper from the ore the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> waste is often as much as thirty per cent., +and it is not easy to avoid this on account of the chemical changes that +take place.</p> + +<h3>LEAD</h3> + +<p>The United States produces about one-third of the lead in the world. The +remainder comes from Spain, where the production remains about the same +from year to year; from Germany, where in spite of higher prices +production is growing less; and from Australia and Mexico, in both of +which the supply is rapidly decreasing.</p> + +<p>These facts show that the lead resources of the United States will be +drawn on heavily in the future. The production of the United States +increased from about 70,000 tons in 1880 to 365,000 tons seventeen years +later, and if continued the yearly production by 1920 will amount to +580,000 tons, or more than a billion pounds.</p> + +<p>The principal lead-producing states are Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and +Colorado. In Missouri it is probable that the present rate of increase +could be kept up for at least fifty years. The other states could keep +up the present production for many years but could not greatly increase +it without exhausting the supply.</p> + +<p>As with most mineral resources in the United States, it is only the +richest ores that are now drawn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> upon (except where lead is a by-product +extracted with some other ore). If prices would advance, so as to make +the low-grade ores profitable, the amount of our resources would be +greatly increased.</p> + +<p>There is little waste in the mining or smelting of lead ores, and the +slag, the waste, is always ready to be used again. In the refining and +concentrating of lead the loss often amounts to as much as fifteen per +cent. or twenty per cent. The best way to prevent final loss is to store +all refuse until such time as the reworking becomes profitable. +Improvement in methods has been great in the last fifteen years but more +economical methods everywhere will be one of the necessities of the +future. We can see that the lead resources of the United States are not +large and that when our own supply is exhausted we can not turn to the +rest of the world.</p> + +<p>The waste in mining is not large, and most of it can not be avoided at +present prices; so that for the conservation, which we see is so +important, we must turn to the uses of lead. The most necessary of these +is for lead pipes in plumbing. Another use is for war supplies, which +not only makes heavy drains on our stores of coal and iron, but also on +lead, which is much less plentiful.</p> + +<p>One ton out of every three produced in the United States is used in the +manufacture of white lead and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> consumed as paint. This, of course, is +entirely lost, and it seems that some other material might be used, +instead of so valuable a mineral, especially when the resource is not +abundant. White lead is used more than any other substance for paint, +although zinc white has come into considerable use in the last few +years. No other nation uses lead paint to such an extent as does the +United States, partly because no other nation could afford so general a +use of such an expensive material, and partly because so many wooden +buildings are erected. By using brick, stone, or cement, of which we +have practically an unending supply, to take the place of wood, our +store of which is rapidly disappearing, we could avoid much of the drain +on our mineral resources which are used for paint.</p> + +<p>As production and price advance a greater quantity of lead is remelted. +About 25,000 tons are returned to use each year.</p> + +<h3>ZINC</h3> + +<p>Zinc is a whitish metal. It is used in galvanizing iron to prevent its +rusting. It is used also in the manufacture of white paint, which +consumes about one ton out of every six tons mined. This, of course, is +permanently lost, but the price and its value as a resource is much +lower than lead. This takes more than half of the entire product. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +remainder of the output is about equally divided between brass and sheet +zinc. All these uses are extremely necessary and it is believed that the +production of zinc will rapidly increase for many years.</p> + +<p>The United States is the largest producer, Germany ranks second. Large +amounts are mined in Australia, and very large deposits, entirely +undeveloped, are said to exist in Africa. In 1880, the United States +produced 23,000 tons of zinc; in 1907, 280,000 tons. This indicates the +rapid rate at which we are increasing our use of zinc.</p> + +<p>If the same rate should continue, in 1920 we should be using 475,000 +tons, or almost a billion pounds, and if zinc oxide should take the +place of white lead in painting to the extent that now seems probable, +the quantity would be still further increased.</p> + +<p>Missouri is by far the heaviest producer of zinc, having a little more +than half of the output. New Jersey ranks next, then Colorado, Wisconsin +and Kansas. Some of the other western states each produce small amounts. +Most of the pure zinc ore is mined at a depth of from one hundred and +fifty to two hundred and fifty feet and occurs in sheets, but a large +part of the ore is a by-product obtained from the reduction of other +ores. In New Jersey the zinc alone is found in a single region, where it +was estimated a few years ago that there were eight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> million tons, of +which two and a half million tons have been mined since 1904. The zinc +in Missouri, Wisconsin and Kansas is found alone or underlying lead +deposits, while that of the western states is almost always found in +limestone, and is mixed with silver, copper, lead, and, more rarely, +gold. In these states there has been little attempt to discover zinc; in +fact, ores containing zinc have been rather shunned because of the +difficulty in extracting them.</p> + +<p>It is thought that our resources of zinc, especially in the West, have +just begun to be developed, and that the supply, even at the present +rate of increase and at present prices, will last many years. However, +with increasing use for the product, we can not be sure of supplies for +more than a generation; and in view of the importance of zinc it becomes +necessary to inquire into its wastes.</p> + +<p>In no mineral is the waste more startling than in zinc. In Missouri it +is necessary to leave supporting pillars as in coal mining. This can not +be remedied, as the use of timbers is too expensive, but it causes a +heavy loss. In the West, owing to the expensive treatment and shipment, +much of the low-grade ore is left in the ground. In refining the loss is +enormous, often as much as forty per cent. In order to produce zinc at a +low cost there must be a heavy loss of metal. Better plants and +equipment for refining, and the saving of all refuse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> for later use will +be necessary if we are to conserve the zinc supply for future +generations.</p> + +<h3>MISCELLANEOUS</h3> + +<p>The supplies of many of the materials used in buildings and bridges, +such as stone, gravel, clay, cement and lime are so great that they +appear inexhaustible, and need of care in their use is not so much to be +considered as is their development to take the place of other resources.</p> + +<p>In the past they have not been used freely because wooden buildings have +been so much cheaper; but cement, concrete and brick are now +manufactured much more cheaply, on account of improved methods, while +the price of lumber has been increasing rapidly. Within the last ten +years, the value of cement manufactures has increased nearly six times. +In 1900 we used seventy pounds of cement for each person; in 1907, two +hundred and twenty-eight pounds. The value of brick and other products +made from clay has doubled in the same period and is now $160,000,000, +while the value of building-stone quarries is three times as great as it +was ten years ago. There are many reasons why these materials should +take the place of wood; as they are stronger, more durable, do not +require paint, and are so much less liable to loss by fire.</p> + +<p>The waste of minerals used in building is due to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> improper and reckless +methods of taking them from the ground and preparing them for market and +in careless methods in manufacturing.</p> + +<p>Of such minerals as quartz, grindstone, millstone, emery stone, mineral +paints, talc and salt, there seems to be enough to meet the needs of the +future as well as the present. Such supplies as sulphur, asphalt, +magnesia, borax, and asbestos, as well as coal and iron, are not very +plentiful. If used carelessly, they will be exhausted in a few years; if +wisely, they may be expected to last beyond the limits of the present +century.</p> + +<p>Our supplies of quicksilver, antimony, graphite, mica, tin, nickel, +platinum, and many minerals less well known, as well as our petroleum, +natural gas, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, and phosphate rock will +be almost exhausted well within the present century unless large new +deposits are discovered.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Report of National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">The Conservation of Mineral Resources. U. S. Government Reports.</p> + +<p class="d">Report of the U. S. Geological Survey.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Gold in 1908. U. S. Government Reports.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Silver in 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Lead in 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Zinc in 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Production of Structural Materials.</p> + +<p class="d">About twenty pamphlets on other minerals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER IX</a></h2> + +<h3>ANIMAL FOODS</h3> + +<h3>GRAZING</h3> + +<p>Food is of two classes: vegetable, which comes directly from the earth, +and animal, which has fed on vegetable life. This is, of course, a more +concentrated form of food, and much less of it is needed to sustain +life.</p> + +<p>For the plentiful supply of vegetable food we must depend upon the +fertility of the soil, as we have seen. Our animal food can not be +classed among our natural resources, but as a product of them, and +requires the same care and wise use.</p> + +<p>In the early history of our country natural animal food was abundant. +Fishes swarmed in the sea, lakes, and streams. Wild turkeys and other +game birds, deer, and bison formed a large part of the food of our +forefathers. But these have been gradually disappearing. We have caught +and destroyed so many fish that we have only a fraction of our former +number. The game birds have disappeared either because they have been +killed in great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> numbers or because their nesting-places have been +destroyed. Of the big game nothing is now left except in a few remote +regions, and it is growing less plentiful each year.</p> + +<p>Although large quantities of fish and game are marketed every year at +certain seasons, they form a small fraction of the animal food required +in the country, and we must now depend for most of our animal food, not +on that which was at first given us for a natural resource but on that +raised by man.</p> + +<p>The poultry—the chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys; the cattle, beef +and dairy, the hogs and the sheep that are raised in such vast numbers +have taken the place of wild game. The cultivated varieties have higher +food value, and are far more satisfactory, since they are ready for use +at any time.</p> + +<p>The conservation of our animal food resources presents a different +problem from any other. It is true that we have wasted and exhausted our +natural food supplies, but we must remember that to a certain extent +their preservation was neither possible nor desirable. They have been +driven out by advancing civilization.</p> + +<p>Wild birds and animals leave as the forests are cut out, destroying +their natural homes. Many of them can not be kept in captivity, so this +supply never could have been regulated. It was necessary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> to destroy +some of them to insure man's safety, and others were needed for his use. +But we can take their places with other animals which are better fitted +for our food, and it is the task of keeping up a sufficient supply of +these on the most suitable land and under conditions that will yield the +best results, that constitutes the problem of the conservation of our +animal food resources.</p> + +<p>The raising of poultry and live stock on a large scale is a separate +occupation, usually followed in a scientific manner and it is not of +that industry that we need to speak, but rather of the benefit to every +farmer and to the dwellers in small communities, of raising at least a +part of the animal food used by the family.</p> + +<p>Every farm has some bits of unoccupied land that can be fenced off for +poultry. The gleanings from the fields will supply their food, and they +will furnish meat and eggs for the family throughout the year, with +enough left to sell to provide other comforts.</p> + +<p>Live stock, cattle, sheep and hogs, as well as goats, horses and mules, +are profitable to every farmer. Many farms have woodland; land that +overflows at some seasons, and so is unfit for raising crops; or some +rocky unproductive land where stock can be raised more profitably than +anything else, and if every farmer would use all the land not suitable +for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> farm crops for pasture land the problem of an abundant meat supply, +of dairy products and of fertilizers to enrich the soil would be largely +solved. Some farming experts advocate letting each field in turn be used +for pasture every five years, because the stock raised on it is equal in +value to any other farm crop, and because the rest and fertilization +almost double the value of the succeeding year's crop.</p> + +<p>In the West and Southwest there are large tracts of public land +untilled. Much of the land can never be used for agricultural purposes, +because it is arid or mountainous.</p> + +<p>This land is well adapted to grazing and the government has allowed free +use of it to stockmen as pasture lands.</p> + +<p>These public pasture lands are called "ranges." In the early years when +this part of the country belonged to Mexico, the ranges were traversed +by Indians and Mexicans who tended the herds of wild cattle and horses, +raised mostly for their hides. But in the last quarter of a century the +business has fallen into the hands of Americans who have introduced +better breeds of higher value. In California, Arizona, and New Mexico +there are now on the open ranges eight million sheep, nearly three +million cattle and nearly a million horses, worth much more than one +hundred million dollars. Wyoming and Utah have great sheep ranges and +do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> much to keep up the wool supply. On Texas, with its great cattle +ranges, we depend for a large part of our beef and leather. In all these +states where stock is fed on public land, there are many questions as to +ownership of animals, rights of rival rangers, and other points to +settle.</p> + +<p>In some of these states the government has set aside national forest +reserves. Within these is much good grazing land. In order that the +government may have some revenue from the land, a regular price has been +set on these forest lands. The charge is forty cents a year each for +horses, thirty-five cents a year for cattle, and twelve cents for sheep. +The land is properly divided, so that each kind of stock has suitable +pasture. Each person who pays this tax is given a certain range and no +one else is allowed to use it. There is sufficient pasture for each so +that it need not be too closely cropped. A man may lease the same range +year after year, may put down wells to supply his stock, live on it, and +do many things to improve it.</p> + +<p>The forest rangers who patrol the forest to watch for fires or for +timber thieves also protect these stockmen in their rights and prevent +trouble about grazing privileges.</p> + +<p>Outside the forest reserves the grazing is free, but the advantages +offered by this system are so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> great that nearly all rangers now wish to +use the forest reserves.</p> + +<p>As each ranger has his land assigned to him and no one else can use it, +the grass is not overcropped as it often is in regions outside the +forests. If pasture is good, so many herds are pastured there that soon +the grass is all trampled down and eaten off. Large areas are so badly +injured that it will not naturally resod itself.</p> + +<p>Cattle men are asking that the same rules that apply to the national +forests be applied to other public lands, so that the pasturage may be +improved and each man may have protection in his rights.</p> + +<p>If all grazing lands could be thus leased, it would give the business a +far more permanent character, better breeds of stock would be raised, +and individual owners would direct their efforts to improving both stock +and pasture, after the manner of stock raisers on private lands.</p> + +<p>So large a part of our animal food, our wool, our leather and many +smaller needs depend on this industry, that every effort should be made +to encourage it, and to provide the wisest laws and best methods both +for conserving and developing it.</p> + +<p>In conclusion it is interesting to note that the Department of +Agriculture is making a study of food birds and animals in various parts +of the world, and trying to domesticate them, to add to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> variety of +our food supply. The quail, the golden pheasant and some species of +grouse among birds, and two or three species of deer, including the +reindeer, appear to be adapted to domestic life in this country, and +may, before many years, become a part of the animal industry of the +United States.</p> + +<h3>FISHERIES</h3> + +<p>One who has never seen the big catches of fish brought in by a mackerel +fleet or visited a wholesale fish market can have little idea of the +importance of that industry, nor of the immense amount of food that is +taken from the waters of the United States every year.</p> + +<p>The word fish is made to include not only fish proper, but oysters, +clams, scallops, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and turtles. Fish is liked by +most persons, is more easily digested than meat and is nourishing. As a +food resource, it is different in many respects from any other. It does +not exhaust the soil, nor take from the earth anything of value, the +food of fishes consisting of water plants and animals that are not used +by man in any other way. Fish also purify the water in which they live, +and so cause a great, though indirect, benefit.</p> + +<p>It is so plainly the wise thing, then, to keep our rivers stocked with +fish and to use them for food only, that it seems that this valuable +resource has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> been more seriously and unnecessarily wasted than any +other.</p> + +<p>Fish are wasted on inland streams in the following ways: (1) By +dynamiting. If a charge of dynamite be exploded on the bed of the river, +great numbers of fish, killed by the shock, rise to the top of the water +and can be taken. This practice was quite common at one time, but is now +prohibited by law in several states.</p> + +<p>(2) By seining. A seine or net is placed entirely across the stream, and +all the fish which come down the stream are caught. In several states +seining is not allowed at all. In others it is allowed only at certain +seasons. And in still others the meshes of the seine must be large +enough to allow all fish below a certain size to slip through.</p> + +<p>(3) By catching with a hook, (angling) more fish than can be used or +catching small fish and then throwing them away. This is a very common +custom among sportsmen, but should be prohibited by law. From a certain +small inland lake, it is said that during the entire season an average +of five thousand fish a day is taken. These are almost all caught by +summer residents, and it is unlikely that a large per cent. of them are +eaten. In a few years the lake will be exhausted, and will cease to +furnish fish for the people of the community, and there will, of course, +be no more fishing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> for the sportsmen. Equal waste is going on all +through the summer at every resort where good fishing is to be had. Some +states have laws regulating the size of the fish that may be caught and +the number that one person may take in one day, and all states should +have such laws.</p> + +<p>(4) The worst waste of our fish is caused by turning large quantities of +sewage or refuse from factories into streams. All the fish for miles up +and down a river are often destroyed in this way. As we have seen, this +is only one of the bad results of allowing such refuse to drain into +streams; every state should have strict laws prohibiting it.</p> + +<p>From the waters of the New England states more than five hundred and +twenty-eight millions of fish are taken each year. Here are the great +cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. From the Middle Atlantic states, +the great region for oysters, lobsters and other sea food, come eight +hundred and twenty million more; one hundred and six million come from +the South Atlantic states; one hundred and thirteen million, including +the much sought tarpon and red snappers, come from the Gulf states; two +hundred and seventeen million are caught in the Pacific states, +including the great salmon catches; ninety-six millions are taken from +the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and one hundred and sixty-six +millions, largely salmon, from Alaska. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> Great Lakes, with their +pickerel, and other fine fresh-water fish furnish one hundred and +thirteen millions and the small inland waters at least five millions +more.</p> + +<p>When they are taken from the waters the 2,169,000,000 pounds of fish +caught in the United States are worth $58,000,000, but by canning, +salting, and other processes of preserving, the value is greatly +increased.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, there is a method of conserving our supply of fish and not +only preventing it from growing less, but of greatly increasing the +number and improving the quality. The United States government has a +thoroughly well organized fish commission, and many states and counties +and even private clubs carry on the same work, which is a general +supervision of the fish supply.</p> + +<p>The government maintains stations which are regularly engaged in +hatching fish, keeping them until the greatest danger of their being +destroyed is past, and then placing them in various streams all over the +country. These fish are always of good food varieties, and are carefully +selected to insure the kind best suited to the stream, as to whether it +is warm or cold, deep or shallow, clear or muddy, fresh or salt, slow +and placid, or swift and turbulent, for each kind of stream has certain +varieties of fish that are especially adapted to it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> + +<p>With all these things taken into account, stocking only with the best +food varieties, if a state has laws which require that a stream be kept +free from sewage and refuse, that no tiny fish be taken from the water, +and that only a stated number can be taken in a day by a single person, +hundreds of small streams, ponds and reservoirs all over the country may +be made to yield food supplies for the entire community near by.</p> + +<p>Governor Deneen, of Illinois, in urging that streams be improved for +navigation, says, "No estimate of the benefits to flow from stream +development would be complete without allusion to the fisheries which +have been established on the Illinois River, largely by restocking with +fish from hatcheries. The fisheries located on that stream are second in +value only to those of the Columbia River.</p> + +<p>"Our experience thus far indicates that the food resources of the water +may be brought up in value to those of the land. The Illinois valley +contains 80,000 acres of water area and yields a fish product worth ten +dollars an acre each year, very nearly all profit. The average value of +the land product near by is a little less than twelve dollars an acre, +and the labor, cost of seeding, and exhaustion of fertilization of the +land must all be counted before there can be a profit."</p> + +<p>In 1908 the United States Fish Commission<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> distributed nearly two and a +half billion of young fish and half a million fish eggs. These were such +excellent varieties as salmon, shad, trout, bass, white fish, perch, +cod, flat fish and lobsters.</p> + +<p>The Bureau of Fisheries has its fish-hatching stations, its boats for +catching fish in nets and its tank cars for carrying the young fish and +eggs to the streams that are to be stocked.</p> + +<p>Some of the most important work is interestingly described in a history +of the Bureau of Fisheries issued in 1908. Among other things it tells +of the lobster industry in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. +Lobsters are not found naturally in the Pacific, but shipments of +lobsters have been made from the Atlantic coast. At the last shipment, +after carrying them across the continent packed in seaweed, more than a +thousand lobsters were safely placed on the bed of the Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<p>On the Atlantic coast the lobsters were rapidly disappearing when the +work of artificial "planting" of young lobsters and eggs began. The +results can be seen now, for more lobsters are being caught each year, +and the price to users is growing less as the supply becomes more +plentiful.</p> + +<p>The shad and the salmon are considered the finest of all fish for +eating. Both are salt-water fish and both have the habit of going some +distance up fresh-water rivers to lay their eggs. No eggs are ever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> laid +in salt water. The mother fish goes up beyond where the tide comes in, +so that the baby fish may have fresh water, which is necessary for them. +Salmon and shad are never caught in the sea, but in the rivers, where +they go in large numbers to lay their eggs in the spring. This, of +course, means the destruction of both fish and eggs,—the present and +future supply.</p> + +<p>Shad eggs, or roe are sold in large quantities. The Bureau of Fisheries +has planted three thousand millions of young shad in streams along the +coast, and the eggs from which these fish were hatched were all taken +from fish that had been caught for market, and would have been totally +lost if the Bureau had not collected them from the fishermen.</p> + +<p>Shad have been planted in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers flowing +into the Pacific Ocean. From these two sources they have spread until +now they are found as far south as Los Angeles, and as far north as +Alaska, a coast line of 4,000 miles, and it is said that more shad could +now be caught in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers than in any other +water courses.</p> + +<p>In addition to supplying the streams with young fish, it is necessary to +leave a part of each river clear so that some of the fish may find their +way up-stream to deposit their eggs. The salmon have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> been almost driven +out from the waters of New England, except in the Penobscot River, where +they have been kept by the watchfulness of the Fisheries Bureau. It is +believed that the entire salmon industry in Maine would be wiped out in +five years if fish culture should cease, and in the West, where the +drain on the salmon for canning purposes is so heavy, artificial +planting is used very largely to keep up the supply.</p> + +<p>The experiments with oysters are full of interest. In Chesapeake Bay, +where the best natural oyster beds were found, the demands on them were +so great that the supply began to fail. In 1904 only a little more than +one-fourth as many were produced as in 1880. The natural oyster beds +were then marked and set aside as public fishing grounds.</p> + +<p>These are to be used by whoever wishes but under strict protective +rules. All other ocean beds may be planted with oysters by any one who +leases the privilege from the state, and the right to collect the +oysters from a certain bed belongs to the person who leases it as fully +as does property on land.</p> + +<p>Louisiana had a small number of natural beds. About ten years ago the +planting of oyster beds began, and soon 20,000 acres had been planted. +Conditions were particularly favorable, and within two years after the +eggs or spawn were placed it was found that oysters three and a half to +four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> inches in size had grown in quantities of 1,000 to 2,000 bushels +per acre. For a long time it has been the custom of fishermen to fatten +their oysters by transplanting them to new beds where the food is +abundant, and in a short time the oysters are much plumper, it takes +fewer of them to make a quart and they also sell at a higher price, +because they are of the finest quality.</p> + +<p>These rich food beds are not plentiful, and many dealers are compelled +to put small oysters on the market. The Bureau of Fisheries has made a +study of these food beds, and by using fertilizer, such as farmers use +on their land, have been able to make such beds of sea-plants grow where +they do not naturally exist. These experiments have been tried only a +short time, but the results have been entirely satisfactory, and it is +hoped that before long, rich oyster beds may be made to grow in any part +of the ocean where oysters will thrive.</p> + +<p>In the Great Lakes the fishing is so heavy that it is probable that the +supply of perch and white fish would be very low by this time if +fish-culture had not been carried on to so great an extent. White fish, +lake trout, pike and perch may be hatched in such large numbers as to +keep the fisheries up to their present yield.</p> + +<p>Another important work of the Fisheries Bureau is to keep up the supply +of cod for the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> fisheries on the New England coast. For the last +twenty years profitable shore cod fishery has been kept up on grounds +that had been entirely exhausted before and also where cod had never +been found before. At the wharves, government officers from the +Fisheries Bureau board the fishing boats when they come in and take the +eggs from the fish. These are taken to the government hatchery and +either the eggs or the young fish are put back into the sea, and so keep +up an unending supply.</p> + +<p>Alaska is one of the most important fishing regions of the world. For +this entire Territory, the United States paid Russia $7,200,000 and many +thought that the money was practically thrown away, since it apparently +bought for us nothing but barren, ice-bound shores. But since it became +a part of the United States, Alaska has yielded fishery products alone +amounting in value to $158,000,000—twenty-two and a half times the +price paid. Of this, $49,000,000 came from the fur seal fishery, +$86,000,000 from salmon and $23,000,000 from other fish.</p> + +<p>About $1,500,000 worth of sponges are now taken from Florida waters each +year. Naturally the failure of the industry would be a serious loss to +the state. But the natural sponge beds are being rapidly exhausted, and +the Bureau of Fisheries is convinced that the continuation of the sponge +fisheries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> must depend on artificial planting. Sponges can be produced +from cuttings at a cost much less than that of taking them from the +natural beds.</p> + +<p>Rhode Island has been successful in cultivating soft-shell clams and in +increasing the area of its clam beds.</p> + +<p>The Mississippi and its branches are subject to great floods in the +early spring and occasionally in summer. After these floods millions of +fishes are left in small pools some distance back from the river. These +pools gradually dry up; the larger fishes are caught and the smaller +ones die. The state and National Fish Commissions are now collecting +these fishes in large numbers, and using them to stock ponds and rivers +in other parts of the country.</p> + +<p>They are used to supply many parts of the West and South and there is +much greater demand for them than the Commissions can meet. Not that +there is a lack of fish, for millions are left to waste because the +Commissions can not distribute them rapidly enough to save them. If +large storage ponds could be established to collect and keep the fish +during the flood season, so that all the time might be spent in +collecting fish during the overflow, and they could be sent out later, +the amount of fish saved would be increased many fold.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p> + +<p>The fish thus saved are being made to serve another useful purpose. +Pearl buttons are made from the shells of mussels or fresh-water clams. +This business, which is now worth $5,000,000, can not last many years +unless some means of increasing the supply of mussels can be devised.</p> + +<p>Now these men, who are always studying new plans, have thought of a +wonderful way in which to let the fish help in carrying on this work. +They obtain the mussel eggs, and when they are hatched place them in the +pools with the fish from the overflowed lands. The tiny mussel larvæ +attach themselves to the fish and are carried to the rivers and ponds +with the fish. Soon they are ready to drop to the bottom and find food +for themselves.</p> + +<p>In this way 25,000,000 mussels were carried last year to streams where +mussels are known to thrive. If these mussel-bearing fish can be +obtained by farmers having private fish ponds, the ponds can be drained +each year and the mussels gathered, thus adding considerably to the +owner's income, and also keeping up the pearl button industry, in +addition to the food supply which he gains from the fish.</p> + +<p>Enough has been said to show clearly how desirable and how possible it +is to conserve and increase our fish supplies. With the coöperation of +all who waste the fish at present, and those who might aid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> in stocking +the streams, we could add greatly to the food supply of the nation at a +less cost than in any other way.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Grazing Lands. Report National Conservation Commission.</p> + +<p class="d">Grazing on the Public Lands. (Jastro.) Report Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">The Grazing Lands and Public Forests of Arizona. (Heard.) Report +Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Grazing Problems in the Southwest and How to Meet Them. Bulletin, Dept. +of Agriculture, 5c.</p> + +<p class="d">Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Dept. of Agriculture.</p> + +<p class="d">Distribution of Fish and Fish Eggs. Dept. Commerce and Labor.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> + +<p class="d">Reports of the Commission of Fisheries.</p> + +<p class="d">National Fisheries Congress.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER X</a></h2> + +<h3>INSECTS</h3> + + +<p>If we look at a watch, we see that one wheel can not move until the one +next in order to it moves, and that, in turn, must be set in motion by +another wheel. In the same way nature adjusts itself in its various +parts. Before man enters a region, the balance is perfect. Plants crowd +each other out of the way, the weaker giving place to the stronger; then +insects come to destroy them. These insects are destroyed by birds, +small mammals or other insects. The birds are killed by animals and +other birds, which in turn are the food of larger animals. And so +through all nature runs this law of balance; nothing increases in too +great a proportion.</p> + +<p>But when man comes, he thinks only of his own needs and wishes and +begins at once to upset the delicate balance. Year after year, he plants +large fields of a single crop, and, calling other plants weeds, because +they hinder the growth of his grain, he drives them out entirely. The +insects that feed on these plants, finding no food, soon disappear,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +while the ones which feed on the farmers' crops, finding food so +plentiful, are able to increase in great numbers. They increase all the +more rapidly because man, not knowing or not caring to know who his real +helpers are, has killed and driven away the birds that would feed on +them.</p> + +<p>In order to readjust matters, he must learn how to destroy the insects, +or he can not have crops. Both the plant enemies, the weeds, and the +insects are always trying to bring about nature's balance again by +driving out the over-abundant field crop, so he must constantly fight +them in order to secure his harvest.</p> + +<p>In no country is more harm done by insects than in the United States. +The losses to live stock and to plants, both growing and stored, +resulting from insects are greater than all the expenses of the National +Government, including the pension roll and the yearly maintenance of the +army and navy.</p> + +<p>Immense as is the value of our farm products, it would be much greater +if it were not for the work of these insects. Careful calculations +indicate that this loss will amount to not less than the enormous sum of +$1,100,000,000 annually and probably far more. The loss is usually +estimated at ten per cent. of the crop, but often is much heavier than +this, and many indirect losses are not taken into account in this table, +though we shall speak of them later.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p> + +<p>Most insects pass through four stages: (1) the egg; (2) the worm or +larvæ; (3) the chrysalis, cocoon, or pupa; (4) the full-grown insect or +imago. Butterflies, moths and beetles are examples of insects in this +last stage.</p> + +<p>As eggs, they are, of course, harmless, and during the chrysalis state +they lie perfectly inactive and are harmless, but many of them are very +destructive when they are worms or larvæ, others do most injury in the +full-grown state.</p> + +<p>The insects that man has most reason to dread are: (1) Plant-lice, tiny +insects with soft bodies, usually green. They attach themselves to the +stems and leaves of plants and suck their juices, leaving them to wilt +and die. They are found on many kinds of plants—on corn, wheat and +other grains. They also flourish on garden vegetables and flowers.</p> + +<p>(2) Scale insects. These are flat and appear to be only a scale on the +stem or fruit. They are usually covered with a hard crust-like covering +and are found on trees and bushes. They are usually the color of the +bark on which they are found.</p> + +<p>(3) Worms and caterpillars are soft-bodied, the bodies being in +segments, and either smooth or covered with short bristly hair. They +spend nearly all their time in eating, and do immense damage to the +foliage of trees and vegetables and to fruit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> The adult is a moth or +caterpillar. This class is among the farmer's worst insect enemies.</p> + +<p>(4) Borers attack trees and tough-stemmed plants. The eggs are laid on +the stems, and after hatching, the larvæ bore into the stem or under the +bark, causing the foliage to wilt and die. We are all familiar with what +we call "worm-eaten" wood, with canals that have been eaten by these +borers running through it in all directions. This completely ruins some +of the best forest trees for lumber, and makes one of the greatest +losses of the forests.</p> + +<p>(5) Beetles are insects in the adult state. They have hard, shiny +wing-covers. Many of the borers are beetles, and there are other +varieties which do great damage, though other kinds are useful to man in +destroying harmful insects.</p> + +<p>(6) Bugs have their mouth parts prolonged into a sharp beak with which +they puncture the skin or bark, instead of chewing the leaves, as do +beetles. Flies, gnats, and other similar insects do not usually injure +vegetation so much as do some other classes of insects, the principal +damage being done to fruits; but they have been found to be the cause of +some of the most serious diseases in both man and the lower animals.</p> + +<p>The Department of Agriculture divides the injuries done by insects into +classes according to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> products injured, and in the list they place +first the injury done to cereal crops.</p> + +<p>The insects which damage the corn crop most seriously are the corn-root +worm, which feeds on the roots of young corn, causing it to fall over +and die, and which sometimes takes the whole corn crop of a large +region. The next most important is the boll-worm or ear-worm. Most +persons have seen this worm in the ears of sweet corn; ninety ears out +of every hundred contain a worm which destroys from one-tenth to +one-half the corn. Some years every ear in large regions is infested. In +the South the field corn is attacked as badly as the sweet corn, but in +the great corn states the injury is much less. Even here, however, the +total loss is very great.</p> + +<p>Almost equally important is the damage wrought by the chinch-bug, which +is also one of the greatest pests in wheat and oats.</p> + +<p>Every year in different sections of the country, bill-bugs, wire-worms, +cutworms, cornstalk borers, locusts, grasshoppers, corn plant-lice and +other insects, destroy millions of bushels of corn.</p> + +<p>Of the cereal crops, wheat suffers most from insects. Of the large +number of insects that attack wheat, the three important species are the +Hessian fly, the chinch-bug and the grain plant-louse or green-bug.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Hessian fly has been known to destroy as much as sixty per cent. of +all the wheat acreage of a state. Fortunately, this damage is done early +in the year, so that when whole fields are destroyed they can be +replanted with other crops and only the cost of seed and labor is to be +counted as a loss. But more often the field is only partly destroyed by +the fly; it is not necessary to replant, but the yield is small, often +not more than one-third. Some years the loss from the Hessian fly is +very heavy, at other times comparatively light, yet there are few years +when the loss is less than ten per cent. of the total crop from this +insect alone,—which meant last year a loss of 72,500,000 bushels.</p> + +<p>The chinch-bug is responsible for the loss of five per cent., or one +bushel out of every twenty. It attacks the straw, causing the heads of +wheat to fall over and wither away.</p> + +<p>The injury done by the green-bug comes just as the wheat begins to +ripen, the tiny green creatures attaching themselves in great numbers to +the heads of the wheat. Other insects which prey on the wheat crop are +grasshoppers, the wheat midge, cutworms and army-worms.</p> + +<p>If it were not for the attacks of these various pests the wheat crop +would be at least one-fifth larger than it is. Instead of 725,000,000 +bushels, it would be 870,000,000; which, with wheat at a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> dollar a +bushel, amounts to a loss of nearly $150,000,000. Further, the world +loses all this valuable bread-stuff.</p> + +<p>Oats, rye and barley suffer far less than wheat from insect ravages but +they are all attacked by the same insects, and on the whole, much damage +is done to them each year.</p> + +<p>Hay, clover, and alfalfa have their enemies which destroy a considerable +part of the crops. The locusts and caterpillars, the army-worms and +cutworms are the best known, but the tiny leaf-hoppers, which spring up +at every step as we walk across the path or lawn, and the web-worms and +grass-worms and grubs which work about the roots of the plants all do +their part in lowering the production.</p> + +<p>The principal insect enemies of cotton are the cotton boll-weevil, the +boll-worm, the cotton red spider, and the cotton-leaf worm. The control +of the boll-weevil is considered one of the most serious problems +confronting the agricultural men of the country. In the first years +after its introduction, it reduced the cotton crop fully fifty per +cent., and was the cause, not only of serious loss to the farmers, but +of the closing of the cotton mills in New England, of a scarcity of +cotton cloth and a decided rise in its price. The boll-weevil is a +beetle about a quarter of an inch in length. This little beetle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> eats +into the heart of each boll, which soon falls to the ground.</p> + +<p>The cotton-leaf worm formerly caused heavy damage, as much as +$20,000,000 to $30,000,000 a year, but the loss has been greatly reduced +by the war which farmers have waged against it. It is still estimated at +from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000.</p> + +<p>The boll-worm is chiefly destructive in the Southwest and does damage to +the extent of $12,000,000.</p> + +<p>All in all no article of commerce is more seriously affected by insect +ravages than cotton, on account of its necessity, and the fact that it +can be raised only in certain regions.</p> + +<p>Tobacco is one of the principal crops in several states and it suffers +heavily from insect damage. The large, showy tobacco-worm and the tiny +tobacco-thrips cause serious injury to the leaves.</p> + +<p>Sugar-cane has its insect enemies which take on an average one stalk out +of every ten raised in this country, and reduce the crop in the same +proportion.</p> + +<p>The cranberry is another valuable commercial plant that has been greatly +affected by an insect known as the cranberry fruit worm, but by +spraying, growers have been able to reduce the damage from sixty per +cent. down to fourteen per cent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p> + +<p>Garden vegetables suffer more than anything else from insects. Potatoes +are attacked by two species of insects, both destructive unless held in +check. One is the reddish brown blister-beetle. The eggs are laid on the +ground, and do not become adult insects until the second year. The other +is the striped Colorado beetle, the eggs of which are laid on the under +side of the leaves, and develop into adults in a short time. Two broods +of this beetle develop in a single season. Thus it may be seen that the +two are entirely different, though they are often supposed to be the +same. The Colorado beetle, by the immense damage it was doing to a +necessary food crop, first led to a regular method of fighting insects +in this country. This potato-bug is not feared as it was in the past, +since farmers have learned to control it in a great measure, but they +have only been able to lessen the evil, never to drive it out +completely.</p> + +<p>Other insects that destroy garden vegetables are the well-known green +cabbage-worm, the harlequin cabbage-bug, the cabbage hairworm, the +asparagus-beetle, the squash-bug, the squash-vine borer, the striped +cucumber or melon beetle, the melon aphis, the corn boll-worm, the +cornstalk borer and many others.</p> + +<p>In addition to these insects that attack special plants, all vegetables +are preyed on by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> grub-worm, the cutworm, the aphis and various tiny +hoppers.</p> + +<p>The grub-worms which work about the roots of plants are, in the adult +state, the June-bugs or cock-chafers which fly about our lights in the +spring and early summer, and which themselves do considerable damage by +eating leaves of trees and bushes.</p> + +<p>Orchards and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests, both on +account of the direct loss and on account of the expensive treatment. +There are several hundred insects which ravage fruit trees, attacking +the roots, trunk, foliage and fruit.</p> + +<p>Among these are the scales, of which there are many species, but of +which the most widely known and dreaded is the San Jose scale, so called +because San Jose, California, was its starting place in America. It is +the only one of the scales which, if not checked, will, in two or three +years, completely destroy the tree on which it feeds. It attacks the +citrus fruits, orange, lemon, grape-fruit, and the apple, pear, and +peach as well as small fruits, particularly currants.</p> + +<p>Among the many varieties that do serious damage are the black olive +scale, plum scale, hickory scale, locust scale, frosted black scale, red +oak scale, the cottony maple scale, greedy scale and oyster shell +scale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p> + +<p>The woolly aphis injures the roots of our fruit trees; the trunk and +limb borers, the peach tree borer, the apple borer, all stand ready to +assail the life of the entire tree. The various leaf worms attack the +life of the tree also. The grape-leaf skeletonizer eats every particle +of green from the leaves, leaving only the veins. The canker-worms and +the destructive tent-caterpillars also cause the death of many fruit +trees.</p> + +<p>Of insects which attack the fruit, the list is long. The codling-moth of +the apple causes a greater money loss than any other enemy of fruits. +Various estimates of the loss have been made, and in general it is +believed that it causes the loss of one-fourth to one-half of the apple +crop of the United States each year.</p> + +<p>The plum-curculio attacks nearly all stone fruits. Its natural food +plant is probably the native wild plum, and the plum continues to be its +favorite food, consequently this fruit suffers most from the attacks of +the insect. In years of short crops very little fruit remains on the +tree to ripen. But peaches, apricots and cherries also suffer heavily, +and apples and pears in a less degree.</p> + +<p>The insects which injure the hardwood forest trees are principally the +leaf-eaters, such as the gypsy and brown tail moths, which have almost +stripped the New England shade trees, and done<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> great damage to the +forests; the elm leaf beetles and the numerous borers, both beetles and +grubs, which from eggs laid in or just beneath the bark, hatch into +larvæ which burrow into the wood, destroying its usefulness for lumber. +Among the borers which do most injury in destroying valuable timber are +the hickory-bark beetle, the bark-boring grubs which kill oak, chestnut, +birch and poplar trees, the locust borer, the chestnut timber-worm and +the Columbian timber beetle.</p> + +<p>All these represent the loss from insects to the growing product; but +when it is stored, there is seemingly no less danger of attack by a +different class of insects. These include grain weevils and beetles, +flour-moths, the small fruit and vinegar flies, buffalo-moths and dozens +of others.</p> + +<p>After these comes the loss to man and animals from insects. The cattle +tick alone, through the dreaded Texas fever, causes a loss of from +$10,000,000 to $35,000,000 in various years. The ox warble also preys on +cattle and causes a loss of probably $3,000,000 more. The buffalo-gnats, +gadflies, and other flies do on the whole a large amount of damage each +year.</p> + +<p>Man has only discovered in recent years how serious a factor in his own +health as well as comfort, is the insect life about him. This subject is +more fully treated under the subject of health, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> for the present we +need only say that flies, mosquitos and other insects are supposed to +cause some of our most serious diseases, and to be the indirect cause of +the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars and many human lives each +year.</p> + +<p>Having thus summed up the damage done by insects, let us see what may be +done to prevent their spread and if possible drive out the most harmful +species entirely. Unfortunately, that seems almost impossible; so far +all man's efforts have only resulted in saving a larger or smaller +proportion of the various crops each year.</p> + +<p>In insect control we turn first to the natural means of destruction. +Chief among these means are birds,—of which we will speak in another +chapter,—snakes and toads.</p> + +<p>Toads live entirely on insects and catch large quantities of them. It is +estimated that a single toad is worth almost twenty dollars a year in a +field or garden. English gardeners are said to pay high prices for them +and to keep as many as possible in their gardens. Toads will eat almost +any kind of insect, are absolutely harmless, and should be carefully +protected.</p> + +<p>There is one class of insects which, so far from being an enemy to man, +combines with him to kill the harmful insects. Among these are the black +beetles which feed on cutworms and other larvæ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> which injure the roots +of plants. Lady-bird beetles destroy large numbers of plant-lice, and +the Asiatic lady-bird has been found to be the natural destroyer of the +San Jose scale. These little insects are now being hatched in this +country, and it is hoped through them to stamp out the pest. A number of +larger insects prey on the smaller ones.</p> + +<p>Other insects, such as the Hessian fly, the green-bug or spring grain +aphis, the army-worm and various species of grasshoppers are killed by +tiny parasitic insects whose eggs are laid in the bodies of the larger +insects, but which, after being hatched, feed on them.</p> + +<p>To these natural methods of control man has added others. Cultivation is +one of these methods. As insects flourish when given an unusually large +amount of food of a particular kind, and starve when that food is taken +away from them, so rotation of crops proves to be one of the best means +of getting rid of those insects which can not travel far for their food. +Farmers who practise rotation of crops are much less troubled with +insects that injure the roots of plants than those who do not.</p> + +<p>One of the best means of preventing damage from the Hessian fly is to +sow a narrow strip of wheat all around the edges of the field several +weeks before the main crop is to be sowed. The flies will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> gather in +this strip and lay all their eggs in the early wheat. Just before the +main crop is sowed, the narrow strip is plowed up and thoroughly +harrowed and the larvæ perish for want of food.</p> + +<p>The best known means of getting rid of grasshoppers is to destroy the +eggs. This should be done by plowing and harrowing all roadsides, ditch +banks, uncultivated fields and grassy margins around fields in the fall +or winter.</p> + +<p>Fall harrowing and deep spring plowing will prevent many of the bugs and +beetles which spend the larval state in the ground from hatching. This +method will also destroy the plum-curculio in orchards.</p> + +<p>In attempting to control the boll-weevil of the cotton fields, it has +been found that the best method to pursue is the simple one of planting +the crop very early, so that the cotton passes the danger stage before +the insects emerge, and removing all the plants in the fall.</p> + +<p>Worms that infest fruit can be checked for the following year by fall +plowing in the orchard and by destroying the decayed fruit as it falls. +The farmer who lets his decayed fruit lie on the ground is preparing for +a heavy crop of insects to eat his fruit the following summer.</p> + +<p>Fruit and forest trees are both protected by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> burlap band or a band of +"sticky" fly-paper placed around the tree, to prevent insects from +crawling up.</p> + +<p>The use of poison in destroying insects is now the one most generally +and successfully employed by farmers and fruit growers.</p> + +<p>Poisons may be liquid or dry. The liquid is made by mixing with water, +and for large plants and trees is put on with a spray or force-pump that +carries the poison to every part of the plant.</p> + +<p>Some insects, such as beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers, chew the +leaves or stems of plants, and the poison may be applied to their food; +but others, such as plant-lice, scale insects and all bugs suck the +juice, usually from the stem or bark. Poisons must be applied to the +insect itself to be effectual in this case.</p> + +<p>These are some of the insect poisons most in use:</p> + +<p>Paris green, which will kill all insects that chew the leaves, may be +used in small quantities in gardens by mixing one-half teaspoonful to a +gallon of water, or in large quantities with one pound to one hundred +and fifty or two hundred gallons of water.</p> + +<p>White hellebore is used to destroy currant worms and is usually dusted +on dry.</p> + +<p>Pyrethrum is used as a spray, mixing one ounce to two gallons of water, +to destroy cabbage-worms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> and many other garden insects. If the dry +pyrethrum powder is blown from a bellows into a tightly closed room, it +is said to destroy all the flies.</p> + +<p>Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four pounds of copper sulphate in +hot water and mixing with an equal quantity of a solution made by mixing +four pounds of lime with water. This is then mixed with fifty gallons of +water. Paris green is sometimes added. This mixture is largely used in +orchards and for destroying insects on a large scale. It is also useful +for curing diseases of plants.</p> + +<p>An excellent spray for orchards both for removing fungous diseases and +scale insects is a home-made lime-and-sulphur solution. Enough for +spraying a large orchard is prepared as follows:</p> + +<p>Add three gallons of boiling water to fifteen pounds of lime. Then add +ten pounds of sulphur and three gallons more of hot water. Allow this to +boil about twenty minutes in its own heat, then add enough water to make +fifty gallons of the mixture. Dilute with water in the proportion of one +part of the solution to seventy-five of water.</p> + +<p>Small quantities are made by using a fractional part of this recipe.</p> + +<p>Whale-oil soap dissolved in water and used as a spray is an effective +remedy for the San Jose scale.</p> + +<p>Kerosene emulsion is used to kill the insects which suck the juices of +plants and trees. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> made by mixing a half-pound of hard soap with +one gallon of hot water and stirring into it, so as to mix thoroughly, +two gallons of kerosene oil. This may be kept on hand for use, and is +mixed with ten parts of water to one of the emulsion.</p> + +<p>For use in large orchards force-pumps operated by compressed air and +drawn by two horses are used. The spraying should be done as soon as the +blossoms drop, and many orchards are sprayed three times in a season, +but the work should never be done while the trees are in blossom. +Vegetables should be sprayed many times through the season.</p> + +<p>A careful study of these methods of control, adapted to the various +plants and the insects which prey on them, with the natural enemies of +insects encouraged and protected, would go far to prevent the +wide-spread and serious damage now affecting our crops, our vegetables, +our orchards, and our forests.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology. Dept. of Agriculture. List +furnished on application.</p> + +<p class="d">Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects. Yearbook 1904.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></p> + +<p class="d">Value of Insect Parasitism to the American Farmer. Yearbook 1907.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> + +<p class="d">House Flies. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 71.</p> + +<p class="d">The Grasshopper Problem. Bulletin 84.</p> + +<p class="d">The Boll-Weevil Problem. Bulletin 344.</p> + +<p class="d">The Most Important Step in the Control of the Boll-Weevil. Bulletin 95.</p> + +<p class="d">The San Jose Scale. Yearbook 1902.</p> + +<p class="d">The Plum-Curculio. Bulletin 73.</p> + +<p class="d">The Apple Codling-Moth. Bulletin 41. Price 20c.</p> + +<p class="d">The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 275.</p> + +<p class="d">The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 264.</p> + +<p class="d">The Spring Grain Aphis or Green-Bug. Bulletin 93.</p> + +<p class="d">The Army-Worm. Bulletin 4.</p> + +<p class="d">The Hessian Fly. Bulletin 70.</p> + +<p class="d">The Chinch-Bug. Bulletin 17.</p> + +<p class="d">The Principal Household Insects of the U. S. Bulletin 4.</p> + +<p class="d">Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin 5.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER XI</a></h2> + +<h3>BIRDS</h3> + + +<p>Birds give us pleasure in three ways: by their beauty, by their song and +by their usefulness in destroying animals, insects or plants which are +harmful to man.</p> + +<p>But although they are among man's best friends they have been greatly +misunderstood, so that to the many natural enemies that are constantly +preying on birds, we must add the warfare that man himself wages on +them, and the cutting down of their forest homes. This work of bird +destruction has gone on until all the best species are greatly reduced +in numbers and some species have been almost entirely driven out.</p> + +<p>To see how serious a matter this is we must study the food habits of +birds, and we shall find that although the different species eat a large +variety of food, in almost every case their natural food is something +harmful to man.</p> + +<p>The large American birds, the eagles, hawks, owls and similar kinds, are +called birds of prey because they feed on small birds and animals. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +of these are of the greatest benefit to the farmer, while others are +altogether harmful. Another large class of birds lives almost entirely +on injurious insects and this class is entitled to the fullest care and +protection from the farmer.</p> + +<p>Still another class lives largely on fruits, wild or cultivated, and on +seeds, which may be either the farmer's most valuable grains, or seeds +of the weeds that would choke out the grain.</p> + +<p>It can not be denied that birds often do serious damage through their +food habits; but the great mistake that has been made in man's treatment +of birds has been in hastily deciding that if birds are seen flitting +about fields of grain they are destroying the crop. A better knowledge +of their food habits will lead to proper measures for destroying the +harmful kinds and protecting the useful ones.</p> + +<p>Successful agriculture could hardly be practised without birds, and the +benefit to man, though amounting each year to millions of dollars, can +hardly be estimated in dollars and cents, since it affects so closely +the size of our crops, the amount of timber saved for use in +manufactures, and even the health of the people.</p> + +<p>Here again we see the careful balancing that runs through nature; how +carefully each thing is adjusted to its work. Naturally the balance +between birds, insects and plants would remain true,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> no one increasing +beyond its proper amount. But when man begins to destroy certain things, +and to cultivate others, this balance is seriously disturbed. The birds +that destroy weed seeds being killed, weeds flourish in such vast +numbers as to drive out the cultivated crops. The birds which destroy +mice, moles, gophers, etc., being killed, these animals become a +nuisance and cause serious losses. If insect-destroying birds are driven +out, the farmer will be at the mercy of the insects unless he employs +troublesome and expensive methods of getting rid of them. Certain +favorable conditions cause large numbers of birds to gather in a small +region and they become a pest. Very careful observation has shown that +in nearly every case the favorite food of the birds is something which +is not valued by man, and if this food is provided, the farm grains and +fruits will not be seriously molested.</p> + +<p>Few birds are altogether good, still fewer are altogether bad; most +species are of great benefit, even if at the same time they do some +harm. Some birds do serious damage at one season, and much good at +another. The most notable example of this is the bobolink, which in +northern wheat fields is loved no less for his merry song than for the +thousands of weed seeds and insects he destroys; while in the South he +is known as the reed-bird or rice-bird,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> the most dreaded of all foes to +the rice crop.</p> + +<p>Flying down on the fields by hundreds of thousands these birds often +take almost the entire crop of a district. The yearly loss to +rice-growers from bobolinks has been estimated at two million dollars.</p> + +<p>If crows or blackbirds are seen in large numbers about fields of grain +they are generally accused of robbing the farmer, but more often they +are busily engaged in hunting the insects that without their help would +soon have destroyed his crop; and even if they do considerable damage at +one season they often pay for it many times over.</p> + +<p>Whether a bird is helpful or the reverse, in fact, depends entirely on +the food it eats and often even farmers who have been familiar with +birds all their lives do not know what food a bird really eats. As an +example of the misunderstanding that is often found in regard to birds, +when hawks are seen searching the fields and meadows, or owls flying +about the orchards in the evening, the farmer always supposes that his +poultry is in danger, when in reality the birds are quite as likely to +be hunting for the animals which destroy grain, produce, young trees, +and eggs of birds.</p> + +<p>In order to correct such mistaken ideas the Department of Agriculture +has made a most careful and accurate study of the habits of birds, and +it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> the results of these observations that are recorded here.</p> + +<p>Field workers from this Department who have observed the habits of the +principal birds that live among men, have watched them all day and from +one day to another as they fed their little ones, and, to be more +certain of their facts, they have examined the stomachs of hundreds of +birds, both old and young, to learn exactly what each bird had eaten. In +this way they have proved absolutely that many species that are supposed +to eat chickens, or fruit or grain, in reality never touch them, but are +among the farmer's best friends.</p> + +<p>Among other things they have learned that while they are feeding their +young, birds are especially valuable on a farm. Baby birds require food +with a large amount of nourishment in it that can be easily digested. +Almost all young birds have soft, tender stomachs, and must be fed on +insects; as they grow older, the stomach or gizzard hardens and is +capable of grinding hard grain or seeds. The amount of food required by +the baby birds is astonishing. At certain stages of their growth they +require more than their own weight in insects. And the young birds are +to be fed just at the season that insects do the most injury to growing +crops of grain and young fruit and vegetables.</p> + +<p>Birds vary so much in the kind of food eaten,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> not only by different +varieties of the same species, but by the same birds at different +seasons, that it is necessary to make a careful study of each bird to +know whether, if he is sometimes caught eating cultivated fruit and +grains, he helps in other ways enough to pay for it.</p> + +<p>When insects are unusually abundant, birds eat more than at other times +and confine themselves more strictly to an insect diet, so that at such +times the good they do is particularly valuable.</p> + +<p>Birds of prey may do harm in a particular place, because in that region +mice, rabbits and other natural food are scarce, and they are driven to +feed on things that are useful to man, while in places where their +natural food is plentiful the same birds are altogether helpful.</p> + +<p>In the same way, birds which naturally eat weed seeds frequently find +these almost altogether lacking where the farms are most carefully +cultivated, but in their place are fields of grain whose seed also +furnishes them desirable food. Is it any wonder, then, that, their +natural food being taken from them, they turn to the cultivated crops? +The fruit eating birds seem always to choose the wild fruits, but where +these are not to be had they enter the orchards and soon become known as +enemies of the farmer.</p> + +<p>A careful examination of the harm done by birds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> leads to the belief +that the damage is usually caused by a very large number of one species +of birds living in a small area. In such cases so great is the demand +for food of a particular kind that the supply is soon exhausted, and the +birds turn to the products of the field or orchard. The best conditions +exist when there are many varieties of birds in a region, but no one +variety in great numbers, for then they eat many kinds of insects and +weeds, and do not exhaust all the food supply of one kind. Under such +circumstances, too, the insect-eating birds would find plenty of insects +without preying on useful products, and the insects would be held in +check, so that the damage to crops would be slight.</p> + +<p>The following are examples of the food eaten by birds and the good that +they thus accomplish to man:</p> + +<p>During the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska, a scientific +observer watched a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to her +young in an hour and the same number was kept up regularly. At this +rate, for seven hours a day, a nest-ful of young wrens would eat two +hundred and ten locusts a day. From this he calculated that the birds of +eastern Nebraska would destroy daily nearly 163,000 locusts.</p> + +<p>A locust eats its own weight in grain a day. The locusts eaten by the +baby birds would therefore be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> able to destroy one hundred and +seventy-five tons of crops, worth at least ten dollars a ton, or one +thousand seven hundred and fifty dollars.</p> + +<p>So we see that birds have an actual cash value on the farm. The value of +the hay crop saved by meadow-larks in destroying grasshoppers has been +estimated at three hundred and fifty-six dollars on every township +thirty-six miles square.</p> + +<p>An article contributed to the New York <i>Tribune</i> by an official in the +Department of Agriculture estimated the amount of weed seeds annually +destroyed by the tree sparrow in the state of Iowa on the basis of +one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird. Supposing there +were ten birds to each mile, in the two hundred days that they remain in +the region, we should have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or eight hundred +and seventy-five tons, of weed seed consumed in a single season by this +one species in the one state. In a thicket near Washington, D. C. was a +large patch of weeds where sparrows fed during the winter. The ground +was literally black with the seeds in the spring but on examining them +it was found that nearly all had been cracked and the kernels eaten. A +search was made for seeds of various weeds but not more than half a +dozen could be found, while many thousands of empty seed-pods showed how +the birds had lived during the winter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> + +<p>In no place are birds more important than in the forests, where they +save hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of valuable timber each +year. In forests there can be no rotation of crops and no cultivation, +and spraying, which keeps down the insect pests in the orchard, is +impossible here because of the expense. It would not pay to spray two or +three times a year a crop of timber that requires a lifetime to grow. So +in the forests the owner must depend entirely on birds for his +protection. How great the destruction of our forests would be is shown +by the fact that the damage at present is estimated at $100,000,000, in +spite of the fact that a vast army of birds is working tirelessly, +summer and winter, to devour the insects! The debt of the forester to +the birds can hardly be estimated.</p> + +<p>A full variety of birds will thoroughly protect a farm and orchard. The +sparrows will destroy the weed seeds; the hawks and kites, flying by +day, will catch the meadow mice and other small mammals, and the owls +will pounce on those that venture forth at night. Of the insect-eating +birds, the larks, wrens, thrushes and sparrows search the ground for +worms, eggs and insects under leaves and logs everywhere. The +nuthatches, vireos, warblers and creepers search every part of the tree, +while the woodpeckers tap beneath the bark for grubs and worms. The +fly-catching birds catch their insect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> food on the wing among the trees +and branches, and, last of all, the swallows skim high in the air and +catch the few insects that rise high above the tree-tops.</p> + +<p>Thus each family has its part of the work and the good they do is almost +too great to calculate. Without this check it would be impossible for +any green thing to flourish. So vast an amount of food is required to +feed the great army of insects that the task would be impossible in any +other way.</p> + +<p>A brief description of some of the common birds and their food habits is +given here that farmers may know their friends, and that people +everywhere may learn to protect the useful birds and drive out the few +that do the mischief.</p> + +<p>All of these observations have been made by field workers from the +Department of Agriculture, and no statement has been made that has not +been proved by the examination of many bird stomachs at different +seasons.</p> + +<p>Highest of all in the list come the bluebirds. They are among the most +beautiful of our native birds, with their bright blue coats and soft red +breasts. They are sweet singers, and are among the first to return in +the spring to tell us of the return of summer. In addition to this they +have many good habits and absolutely no bad ones. More than +three-fourths of their food consists of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> insects,—beetles, grasshoppers +and caterpillars. The remainder is weed seeds and fruit, but there were +no reports of cultivated fruits being eaten by bluebirds. On the +contrary they eat the most undesirable of the wild fruit, chokeberry, +pokeberry, Virginia creeper, bitter-sweet and sumac, as well as large +quantities of ragweed seeds. Other birds are equally useful but none +combines usefulness with so much beauty and sweetness of song.</p> + +<p>The tiny wrens are another class of wholly useful birds. Their food +consists almost entirely of insects with a very little grass-seed. They +search every tree, shrub, and vine for caterpillars, spiders and +grasshoppers.</p> + +<p>Sparrows are almost equally useful. The tree sparrow, song sparrow, +chipping sparrow, field sparrow and snowbird or junco are all great +weed-seed destroyers. Many of them remain throughout the winter, when +they feed entirely on the seeds of weeds. Each bird eats at least a +quarter of an ounce of seeds per day, and they are often found by +thousands in a region. At least a half dozen varieties of birds are +feeding in the same ratio all over the country, reducing the crop of +next year's weeds. During the summer they turn to a diet composed partly +of insects and here again they help the farmer by eating the weevils, +leaf-beetles, grasshoppers, bugs and wasps that infest his crops.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + +<p>The various species of swallows rank high as insect-eating birds. The +tree, bank, cliff and barn swallows and the purple martins all eat small +beetles, mosquitoes, flying ants and other high-flying insects, and the +number destroyed is almost beyond our power to imagine.</p> + +<p>The most important service performed by swallows, however, is in the +South, where they migrate for the winter. There they feed largely on the +cotton boll-weevil, one of the most destructive of all insects, as we +have seen. The Department of Agriculture is urging strongly that farmers +in the North protect the swallows so that they may winter in the South +in large numbers to feed on the boll-weevil, which, if allowed to +flourish, will affect not only the southern planters, but every user of +cotton goods, and every one who profits in any way by the sale and +manufacture of cotton goods.</p> + +<p>Among swallows, the beautiful and graceful purple martin is most worthy +of protection. Both North and South, the swallows are among the most +useful of all birds to the farmer and fruit grower, and should be +protected from English sparrows and encouraged in every possible way.</p> + +<p>The seventeen species of titmice which inhabit the United States, and +many of which remain all winter, are all insect eaters to a great +extent, eating large quantities of tent-caterpillars, moths and their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +eggs, weevils, including the cotton boll-weevil, plum-curculio, ants, +spiders, plant-lice, bugs and beetles. They also eat small seeds, +particularly those of the poison ivy.</p> + +<p>The bush-tit feeds largely on insects that destroy grape-vines and on +the black olive scale. Other species eat most of the scales which infest +fruit and forest trees.</p> + +<p>The rose-breasted grosbeak, while it eats a few green peas, is to be +classed among the wholly beneficial birds, for it is the great natural +destroyer of the Colorado potato beetle. In fact, it eats enough +potato-bugs at a single meal to pay for all the peas eaten in a whole +season. One family of grosbeaks, nesting near the field, will keep an +entire patch cleared of potato-bugs throughout the season. In some parts +of the country the grosbeak feeds largely on the plum scale, the hickory +scale, the locust and oak scales and on the tulip scale, which is very +destructive to shade trees. The black grosbeak is another variety that +deserves encouragement in every way, for it eats the chrysalis of the +codling-moth that is so serious a foe to our apple crop. It eats also +many other injurious insects, such as wire-worms, many of the most +harmful of beetles, caterpillars, and scales.</p> + +<p>Among the most useful birds, we must mention the phoebe, which nests +near houses and lives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> almost entirely on harmful insects which it +catches on the wing.</p> + +<p>Night hawks eat flying ants in great numbers, as many as eighteen +hundred having been found in a single stomach. They eat insects that fly +by night and are classed among our most useful birds.</p> + +<p>Quails are almost unequalled as weed-destroyers. Throughout the fall and +winter they spend the time destroying weed seeds. In summer they eat +Colorado potato beetles, chinch-bugs, cotton boll-weevils, +squash-beetles, grasshoppers and cutworms. The mother quail, with her +family of twelve to twenty little ones, patrols the fields thoroughly +for insects. Quails should be prized as among a farmer's most valuable +helpers and protected at all seasons.</p> + +<p>Similar in the good work it does is the meadow-lark. Grasshoppers, +caterpillars and cutworms form a large part of its diet, and its +vegetable food consists of weed seeds or waste grain.</p> + +<p>King-birds are useful in protecting poultry and song birds from hawks, +and are also great fly catchers, taking many beetles on the wing.</p> + +<p>Doves eat great quantities of seeds of harmful weeds. They also eat some +grain, but almost altogether after the crop has been gathered. Old +damaged corn and single grains scattered along the roads are eaten, but +there is no complaint of doves doing injury to fields of growing grain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> + +<p>The orioles are beautiful, are sweet singers, and no exception can be +taken to their food habits. Caterpillars are their principal article of +food, but plant-and bark-lice, spiders and other insects are also eaten. +Orioles do not eat much vegetable food. They have been accused of eating +peas and grapes, but there seems no evidence to show that this habit is +general.</p> + +<p>The food habits of cuckoos render them very desirable, since they eat +hairy caterpillars, particularly tent-caterpillars, for which they seem +to have an especial fondness, fall web-worms and locusts, besides other +injurious insects, but they are accused of bad habits in relation to +other birds, and can therefore hardly be classed among the wholly useful +birds. Warblers and vireos are among the most helpful birds in an +orchard, devouring large quantities of insects.</p> + +<p>There is no class of birds concerning which it is more necessary that +the farmer should be well informed, than the hawks and owls, since some +of them are wholly good, and of the greatest possible benefit to him and +the fruit grower, while others are extremely harmful in their food +habits.</p> + +<p>The harmful varieties live almost entirely on poultry and wild birds, +and include the goshawk or partridge hawk and the Cooper hawk, which is +a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> true chicken-hawk and should be recognized by all farmers at sight.</p> + +<p>The goshawk and chicken-hawk, in the amount of damage done, far exceed +all other birds of prey. The sharp-shinned hawk rarely attacks +full-grown poultry, but preys heavily on young chickens and song birds. +In fact, it is known to eat nearly fifty species of our most useful +birds. There is no question that these birds are a serious pest and +should be destroyed, but they should not be confused with other members +of the family which are among the best friends that a farmer has in +keeping his farm clear of small enemies.</p> + +<p>Owls and hawks eat the same class of food, the hawks flying by day and +the owls by night. Owls remain North in winter, while hawks fly farther +south.</p> + +<p>The small species of both eat large quantities of insects, such as +grasshoppers, locusts and beetles. The larger ones are the farmer's +great protection against the meadow-mouse, the most destructive of all +animals to farm crops. It tunnels under fields and eats the roots of +grass, grain and potatoes, eats large amounts of grain and does even +more damage by girdling young trees in orchards. Rabbits injure trees in +the same way, often during the winter ruining an entire orchard in this +manner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<p>Squirrels, ground-squirrels, gophers, prairie-dogs, and other small +animals do serious damage in the course of a year on almost every farm.</p> + +<p>The rough-leg hawk feeds entirely on meadow-mice, but if the supply +fails, it eats mice, rabbits and ground-squirrels, but in no instance +attacks birds. Its cousin, the ferruginous rough-leg, lives largely on +ground-squirrels, rabbits, prairie-dogs and pouched gophers. This +species also never attacks birds, and neither do any of the four members +of the kite family.</p> + +<p>Another large class of birds,—the marsh-hawk, Harris hawk, red-tailed +hawk, red-shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, +Swainson hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, +Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared +owl, great gray owl, barred owl, western owl, Richardson owl, +screech-owl, snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pigmy owl and elf +owl—live mostly on destructive mammals, insects, frogs and snakes, but +they eat some birds and some of them occasionally catch poultry. Young +ones do much more harm than the full-grown ones, probably because they +find poultry and birds easier to obtain than other food. These species +all do great good on the farm and in the orchard and if their natural +food is plentiful and the number of the birds of prey limited, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +should be allowed to remain, even though they occasionally do harm; but +they can not be allowed to increase greatly in a region without becoming +a nuisance.</p> + +<p>In another class the golden and bald eagles, pigeon and Richardson +hawks, prairie falcon and great horned owl do considerable harm, and the +good and bad qualities about balance. In a poorly settled region, where +there is plenty of natural food, a few of these birds will bring forth +little complaint, but in a section where there are few ground-squirrels, +prairie-dogs, gophers, rabbits and woodchucks, where poultry is raised +extensively, and useful birds are numerous they will do great harm and +farmers will usually want to keep them down entirely.</p> + +<p>The gyrfalcons, duck-hawks, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper hawk and goshawk +live almost entirely on food that is desired by man,—poultry, game +birds and many varieties of our best insect-destroying birds, and they +eat almost nothing that is harmful to man. The numbers of these birds +should be reduced as much as possible: but in general it may be said +that the birds of prey—the hawks and owls—are among the most, if not +the most, valuable birds that are engaged in helping the farmer by +destroying the natural enemies of agriculture.</p> + +<p>Among the smaller birds which do much good, but of which complaints are +made because they eat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> some fruit and grain are the woodpeckers, +including the flickers, cedar-birds, robins, cat-birds, thrashers, crows +and blackbirds.</p> + +<p>The woodpeckers are the great natural protection of the forests by +waging constant warfare on the wood-boring insects and ants beneath the +bark where no other birds can reach them. They are equally useful in an +orchard except that here man may only at great trouble and expense +partly hold them in check. Downy woodpeckers are also great eaters of +scales, and the fruit grower need not begrudge the red-headed woodpecker +a meal of cherries or apples, especially as it will usually be found +that it is the wormy fruit that is attacked.</p> + +<p>The flicker or gold-winged woodpecker lives largely on ants, of which he +eats immense quantities, seeking them not only in the trees but on the +ground.</p> + +<p>Robins are so well loved for their cheery song, for their friendliness +to man, and their red breasts coming as a touch of color in returning +spring, that except where they are present in great numbers, there is +little complaint of the fruit they eat, even without taking into account +the good work they accomplish as insect eaters. In fact only four per +cent. of a robin's food is cultivated and a little less than half of it +is wild fruit not prized by man. The remaining half consists of +caterpillars, beetles, spiders, snails and earth-worms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p> + +<p>The cat-bird is also known as a cherry-eater and he frequently helps +himself from strawberry and raspberry patches. He eats a larger +proportion of cultivated fruit than the robin, but about twice as much +wild fruit, including the sumac and poison ivy. The cat-bird eats many +injurious insects, which constitute only a little less than half of his +food.</p> + +<p>The cedar-bird is sometimes called the cherry bird, and is accused of +being a great cherry-stealer, but an examination of stomachs showed that +only nine birds out of one hundred and fifty-two had eaten any cherries +and that cherries formed only five per cent. of the food of these few. +There is even evidence that this bird prefers wild fruits, which form +its principal food though it eats a few insects.</p> + +<p>The crows and blackbirds are accused of many bad habits, such as pulling +up young corn, destroying large quantities of grain and injuring much +fruit by pecking holes in it which are later entered by insects. Crows +eat fruit to some extent, but the greater part of it is wild. Both crows +and blackbirds are accused of robbing the nests of other birds. +Blackbirds are injurious chiefly because they gather in such large +flocks that when they descend on a field they can eat a large amount of +grain in a short space of time. The greatest good accomplished by the +blackbird is in the spring when it follows the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> plow in search of +grub-worms, of which it is extremely fond. It also does much good in +destroying insects in the early summer, the young birds being fed almost +entirely on insect food until they are grown.</p> + +<p>Of the crow, Doctor Merriam, who is at the head of this branch of work +in the Department of Agriculture, says, "Instead of being an enemy of +the farmer, as is generally believed, the crow is one of his best +friends and the protector of his crops. True, during corn-planting time, +the crow's bill is turned against the farmer during one month, and one +month only is he his enemy. But during the other eleven months the crow +is really working overtime for him. It eats thousands upon thousands of +destructive insects and bugs every week, and when it comes to feeding +its young, gives them a diet composed almost entirely of worms and +insects that prey upon the crops."</p> + +<p>Another government report says, "The crow should receive much credit for +the insects which it destroys. In the more thickly settled parts of the +country it probably does more good than harm, at least when ordinary +precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn +from it." It is probable that in many parts of the country some farmers +will find it desirable to reduce the number of crows and blackbirds on +their farms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p> + +<p>The brown thrasher is a beautiful singer and eats many insects, mostly +injurious. It eats some cultivated fruits. It also eats a small amount +of newly planted corn, but at the same time clears the field of May +beetles. Altogether it is a useful bird but not one of the highest +benefit.</p> + +<p>There are a few species of birds of which but little good can be said, +and which it may be desirable to attempt to drive out in many parts of +the United States. Chief of these is the English sparrow. It is of a +quarrelsome disposition and is much given to driving other birds from +their nests. In some districts it has completely expelled some of the +most useful kinds of birds. It exists everywhere in such numbers as to +render it a nuisance, and it may be said to be the greatest pest among +American birds. Its favorite food is dandelion seeds, and it destroys +many thousands of seeds, but as the dandelion does no real injury this +habit does not offset all the harm done. It also eats other weed seeds +but the greatest thing to be said in its favor is that it feeds on the +cottony maple scale. It is probable that in small numbers the English +sparrow might be classed among the useful, or, at least, one of the only +partly harmful birds, but there is no bird whose numbers it is more +desirable to reduce.</p> + +<p>The common blue-jay is accused of some very bad habits, among them +eating the eggs and young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> of small birds. It is a fruit eater and also +a grain eater and frequently robs corn-cribs and injures newly planted +fields. However, it eats some insects, mice and other small enemies of +the farmer and as it is nowhere very plentiful, and does not live in +flocks, there is not much cause for complaint. However, its cousin, the +California jay, has an extremely bad record. It is a great fruit eater, +and devastates prune, apricot, and cherry orchards. It is a serious +robber of the nests of small birds and hens, and though it eats some +grasshoppers and a very few weed seeds, it is thoroughly disliked by +western fruit growers. It should be greatly reduced in numbers. Another +California bird that has gained a bad reputation is the house finch or +linnet. It does serious harm in the cherry and apricot orchards, not so +much by eating as by pecking at the fruit. It probably pecks, and thus +destroys, five times as much fruit as it eats. As the bird is very +abundant, it sometimes causes the loss of almost the entire crop of a +small fruit grower. It does not deserve protection, for it eats the buds +and blossoms of fruit trees and does little to compensate for all the +harm done. Its best habit is eating woolly plant-lice.</p> + +<p>No article on birds would be complete that does not dwell on the +enormous destruction of birds for trimming hats. As one writer puts it, +we pay eight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> hundred million dollars a year for hat trimmings, assuming +the insect ravages to be due to the killing of our birds for millinery +purposes. While this is exaggerated, it is undoubtedly true that this is +the largest cause of the destruction of the birds of America.</p> + +<p>The Audubon society says that we, as a nation, use 150,000,000 birds a +year for trimming hats alone and that this single item would save our +crops from insect destruction and largely rid our fields of weeds.</p> + +<p>If a few hundred dollars are stolen from a bank, the greatest efforts +are made to catch the thief, and if possible to get the money back; but +the great army of insects destroy each year, almost as much in money +value as all the national banks in the country have on deposit, and this +wholesale destruction might largely be prevented if every woman and girl +took (and kept) a pledge not to use wings, breasts, or birds on her +hats. There is no objection to the use of ostrich feathers, which are +carefully plucked from the live birds. The feathers grow again, just as +the wool grows on sheep that have been sheared. Neither is there any +objection to using the feathers of the barn-yard fowls which are killed +for food.</p> + +<p>Only a little less is the loss caused by so-called "sportsmen," men who +kill only for the pleasure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> of shooting, or who, because they like the +taste of quail, shoot as many as they can in a day instead of only +enough to satisfy hunger. Often a farmer sells for a very small amount +the privilege of hunting on his farm, thinking he is making money when +in fact he is losing ten dollars for every one he makes.</p> + +<p>The quail, sparrows and other birds on the farm are destroyed. As a +result the weed seeds are not eaten and a big crop comes up in the +spring. In the summer there are no quail on the farm to destroy insects. +The insects and the weeds together make the crop poorer, and the owner +feels that farming is growing less profitable, when in fact he has +failed to take ordinary precautions to obtain a good crop by protecting +the birds.</p> + +<p>With the huntsman and his bag of birds we may class the small boy with +his rifle or sling-shot. A single boy does little harm but all the boys +in the country taken together do a grave amount of damage.</p> + +<p>Last in the list comes the egg hunters, who by robbing nests can kill +four or five birds at a time, simply for mischief. A party of boys can, +by a day's sport, make a serious difference in the number of birds in a +region where they are not plentiful and thus have a large share in +damaging the crops.</p> + +<p>If, then, birds play so large a part in the welfare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> of the farm and in +turn in the prices of farm crops, fruit, lumber and cotton cloth, it is +most desirable that every effort be made to reduce the numbers of +harmful birds and to encourage the useful species.</p> + +<p>Many of the states now have excellent laws for the protection of birds; +but without a large number of game wardens, it is difficult to enforce +the laws closely unless the public sentiment is strongly against the +killing of birds. Laws should be made to protect birds against the egg +hunter, (except for the purpose of study, and then a license should be +required), sling-shots should be prohibited, as they already are in many +places. All hunters should be required to have a license, the number of +birds killed by a single person in a single day should be limited, and +certain birds should always be protected by law. These laws should be as +nearly uniform as possible in all the states and there must be a desire +on the part of all the people to see these laws obeyed.</p> + +<p>The boys and girls should be banded together in the schools or in +societies and pledged to protect birds and not to destroy them. The +girls should pledge themselves not to wear birds for ornament.</p> + +<p>Women's clubs might do much to popularize the movement for the +protection of birds, and to that end should try to establish a sentiment +among their members against their use for millinery.</p> + +<p>All these agencies working together will make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> a vast difference in the +number of birds, and as a result, in the good that they do, but the +great work must be done by farmers themselves. They will need to protect +themselves in certain ways against the harm done by many of the birds +that on the whole are extremely useful.</p> + +<p>To protect poultry from owls do not allow it to roost in the trees; to +protect from hawks, keep the young ones near the house, and if possible +cover their runways with wire netting.</p> + +<p>To protect against grain eating, use scarecrows or put up a dead crow as +a warning. Mixing seed corn with tar so as to coat it will prevent crows +from pulling it up at planting time.</p> + +<p>To protect against fruit eating, plant wild fruits. The best of all +trees for this purpose is the Russian mulberry, which ripens at the same +time that cherries do and is particularly relished by all fruit-eating +birds. If planted in barn-lots, chickens and hogs will eat all the fruit +that falls to the ground, making it serve a double purpose. The fruit of +wild cherry, elder, dogwood, haws, and mountain-ash are eaten by birds, +and if a farm be planted with such trees and bushes in the barn-yard, +along the lanes or in some of those unproductive spots that are to be +found on every farm, birds will be attracted to the farm and will pay +well for themselves, and the farmer's crop of cultivated fruit will be +protected.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> Birds themselves distribute many seeds, particularly of wild +fruits.</p> + +<p>The farmer who keeps several cats must pay for it in the loss of birds, +for birds will not nest where they are constantly watched by cats. Boxes +for martins and other birds, bits of hay, horse-hair and string +scattered about will often encourage birds to build about an orchard or +farm. A wood-lot, besides paying in other ways, will afford nesting +places for a large number of birds. To place a drinking and bathing +place near the house is one of the best methods of attracting birds, +which will use it constantly.</p> + +<p>By all these methods and a little winter feeding with crumbs, apple +peelings or waste fruit and grain, the farmer will be able to induce a +good variety of birds to nest on his farm, and will receive in return +great protection from the small mammals, insects and weeds that would +lessen the amount of his harvests.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Relation Between Birds and Insects. Yearbook 486.</p> + +<p class="d">Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution.</p> + +<p class="d">Annual Reports of the National Audubon Society.</p> + +<p class="d">Bird Day. How to Prepare For It. C. C. Babcock.</p> + +<p class="d">Bird Neighbors. John Burroughs.</p> + +<p class="d">Bird enemies. John Burroughs.</p> + +<p class="d">How to Attract the Birds. N. B. Doubleday.</p> + +<p class="d">The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook 1900.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p> + +<p class="d">Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? Yearbook 1907.</p> + +<p class="d">Birds as Weed Destroyers. Yearbook 1898.</p> + +<p class="d">How Birds Affect the Orchard. Yearbook 1900.</p> + +<p class="d">Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers. Yearbook Reprint.</p> + +<p class="d">Birds That Eat Scale Insects. Yearbook Reprint.</p> + +<p class="d">Birds Useful for the Destruction of the Cotton Boll-Weevil. Dept. of +Agriculture Bulletins 57, 64.</p> + +<p class="d">Hawks and Owls From the Standpoint of the Farmer. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 61.</p> + +<p class="d">Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 54.</p> + +<p class="d">Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. Yearbook 1895.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER XII</a></h2> + +<h3>HEALTH</h3> + + +<p>When we have improved our soil and replanted our forests and learned the +most economical methods of mining our great deposits of coal, iron, and +other minerals; when we have made the waters do our work and carry our +freight and water our waste places; when we have learned to care for our +birds and our fishes, and taken measures to stop the ravages of insects; +when we have preserved our natural beauties and increased them by +planting trees, shrubs, and flowers, and filling unsightly corners; +there still remains to be considered the greatest subject of all,—the +people who are to enjoy this wonderful inheritance. If they were to be +weak and sick, suffering from all kinds of diseases, dying in great +numbers, all these things would count for little. But men and women, as +they are learning how to conserve their natural resources, are thinking +far more than ever before of health and how to keep it. It is necessary +to think of these things, for as people crowd into cities, where they +live a life different from that which nature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> intended, sickness and the +death-rate increase greatly.</p> + +<p>Health, by which we mean the possession of a strong, well body, free +from pain, should bring with it great power to work and to think and to +benefit the world; and should also bring great happiness and enjoyment +to the person who possesses it, for though sick people may be happy, and +well people unhappy, yet it is a general rule that to be strong and well +is the first great step toward being happy.</p> + +<p>The question, "Is life worth living?" was once happily answered, "It +depends upon the liver;" and it is true in both senses, for not only +does happiness depend on what one gets out of life, but on good +digestion. It is only the person who feels well who really enjoys life.</p> + +<p>The person who can get up each morning able to do a day's work or have a +day's enjoyment, is the one on whom we must depend for the world's work +and invention. We seldom find a strong, vigorous mind in a weak body.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the invalid is the idle member of the family or the +community. He can not find pleasure for himself nor do anything to help +others, and not only that, but he must be cared for by others, thus +taking the labor of the sick person himself and of his nurse. It is +coming to be seen that this is a great waste of time, of money, of +work,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> and of happiness, and people are determining that if these wastes +can be stopped, it is well worth all the time and thought and money +necessary to bring about the change.</p> + +<p>People everywhere are thinking about health, and because of this, +Christian Science, the Emmanuel Movement and the various sects which +practise faith or mental healing have sprung up.</p> + +<p>Hospitals and health officers are doing much for the public health. +Doctors themselves are changing their ideas and are teaching us not only +how to cure but how to prevent disease.</p> + +<p>Doctors are also seeking not only to prevent disease but to find new +ways of treating it. They are discarding drugs in as many cases as +possible, frequently using serums in which cultures from the disease +itself are used for its cure.</p> + +<p>Health means more ability to work, more means of learning, of +accomplishing great things, more pleasures in every day that is lived; +and so it is as important to preserve health, in order to enjoy life, as +it is to prevent death. We can realize how few persons have perfect +health by noting the common salutation "How do you do?" or "How are +you?"</p> + +<p>Serious sickness is such as renders a person entirely unable to work. +Benefit societies have found that the average number of days of sickness +per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> year from each person under seventy years of age is ten, of which +at least two are spent in bed.</p> + +<p>About a million and a half people die each year in the United States, +and it is estimated that twice that number, or three million persons, +are constantly unable even to care for themselves. The effect of this is +felt on the patient himself, in suffering, in loss of time in which he +is unable to earn money, and in the amount spent for doctors, medicine, +and nursing. It is felt on the family, in which the household machinery +is thrown out while the wife and mother nurses the sick members of the +family, or is herself too ill to work, or when the father's income stops +on account of sickness.</p> + +<p>The entire community suffers from the constant idleness of three million +persons, as well as from the deaths which withdraw a still larger number +of persons from actual work for a period of two to five days during the +time of death and burial of the bodies of members of the family.</p> + +<p>Then there is all the long train of small ailments, which do not make us +seriously ill, often do not even keep us from work, but which do take +away from the pleasure and enjoyment of life, which render work a burden +instead of a delight, and lessen our ability to work by many degrees.</p> + +<p>Not only this, but they all have within them the possibility of +developing into serious diseases.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> Such lesser troubles are colds, +headache, catarrh, dyspepsia, nervousness, neuralgia, sore throat, skin +eruptions, rheumatism, toothache, earache, affections of the eyes, +lameness, sprains, bruises, cuts, and burns.</p> + +<p>Civilization has brought us great blessings but it has also brought with +it many dangers to health. Professor Irving Fisher of Yale says:</p> + +<p>"The invention of houses has made it possible for mankind to spread all +over the globe but it is responsible for tuberculosis or consumption. +The invention of cooking has widened the variety of man's diet but has +led to the decay of his teeth. The invention of the alphabet and +printing has produced eye strain with all its attendant evils. The +invention of chairs has led to spinal curvature, etc., etc. Yet it would +be foolish even if it were possible to attempt to return to nature in +the sense of abolishing civilization.</p> + +<p>"The cure for eye strain is not in disregarding the invention of +reading, but in introducing the invention of glasses. The cure for +tuberculosis is not in the destruction of houses but in ventilation. It +is a little knowledge that is dangerous. Civilization can, with fuller +knowledge, bring its own cure, and make the 'kingdom of man' far larger +than the 'nature' people can ever dream of."</p> + +<p>Until within the last few years, sickness and death<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> were regarded from +a religious standpoint. All sickness was to be borne with patience and +resignation because all our sufferings were sent by an all-wise +Providence. But since science has clearly proved that typhoid fever is +usually caused by an impure water supply, and that boiling the water +would prevent the suffering, expense and possible death; that the +dreaded yellow fever can be banished from communities that destroy the +eggs of certain mosquitoes; and many other facts in regard to health +have been learned, a great change has come over the popular belief. It +is seen that, to a great extent, man holds his own fate and is +responsible for his own suffering, and people are eager to learn more +about their own bodies, how to cure them and how to keep them well.</p> + +<p>This knowledge has already done much to prolong life. The average length +of life in India, where no attempt is made to check disease, is +twenty-five years. In England the length of life has doubled in a few +generations. In Sweden, where the people live a sanitary life, the +average is over fifty years, in this country, forty-five years.</p> + +<p>Insurance companies and benefit societies keep close watch of their +members and they report that a person ten years old may now count on +living to be sixty years of age. That is the average age, whereas a +hundred years ago the average expectation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> of life at that age was only +fifty-three years.</p> + +<p>And this is true in spite of the fact that people have been crowding +into cities, that they are living on richer foods, taking less exercise +in the open air, living in houses which shut out the fresh air, and +doing dozens of other things that have tended to lower rather than to +raise the average.</p> + +<p>We can scarcely realize the possibilities of life if, with all the +present scientific knowledge of disease and health, we could have a +generation of people living according to nature's laws.</p> + +<p>Life can be not only lengthened but strengthened. There are many +instances of frail, feeble children who have developed into +exceptionally strong men and women. One of the most noted is Von +Humboldt, the great scientist, who as a child was very weak physically, +and, he himself says, was mentally below the average, but who lived to +the age of ninety, and developed one of the greatest minds of his +century.</p> + +<p>Doctor Horace Fletcher, noted for his theories in regard to eating, was +rejected at the age of forty-six for life insurance but so strengthened +his constitution by careful living that by the time he was fifty he not +only obtained his life insurance but celebrated his birthday by riding +one hundred and ninety miles on his bicycle.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> + +<p>If we could imagine a person who all his life had lived in a locality +where the air was pure; in a house where fresh air entered day and +night, and which was heated to a uniform temperature; whose food had +always consisted of the most pure and nutritious material prepared in +the most wholesome way, eaten slowly and in proper quantity; if bathing, +sleep, rest, exercise, brain work and pleasure had each its due +proportion; if he could be always guarded from contagion and accidents, +we can imagine that such a person would be free from disease and that +death might be long deferred. Of course, death can not be prevented, +only postponed, but disease can be prevented, and so we can increase the +chances of postponing death. Doctors tell us that under ideal conditions +there would be only one cause of death—old age.</p> + +<p>There is no question that under such conditions life could be prolonged +far beyond what is now usually considered its span. One hundred years or +more might easily, we imagine, become the average of life, instead of +the great exception.</p> + +<p>We can hope for these things in the future though it will take several +generations at least to bring them all about, but we need not wait so +long for some of the best results. There are many things that can be +done at once to prolong life and prevent illness. Since we know that +many diseases are preventable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> and we know the suffering and sorrow, as +well as expense, that come from sickness and premature death, we should +all eagerly unite in doing all that we can to stop these ravages.</p> + +<p>There are two agencies that will help to bring this about: individual or +private means, and general or public means. Both are absolutely +necessary if we are to be successful in stamping out disease. Professor +Fisher says: "Personal hygiene means the strengthening of our defenses +against disease. Public hygiene seeks to destroy the germs before they +reach our bodily defenses."</p> + +<p>In the first place, in order to learn what we may do to lengthen the +span of life we must learn something of the nature of disease. Doctors +tell us that diseases are of two classes. The first are hereditary, or +inherited; those which pass from parents to their children and often run +through an entire family. It is more often the <i>tendency</i> to disease +that is inherited, rather than the disease itself, and so even these +inherited diseases may often be prevented by careful living.</p> + +<p>Diseases which may be inherited include rheumatism, gout, scrofula, +diabetes, cancer and insanity. This class of diseases is the most +difficult to prevent and to cure. For some of them no cure has been +found.</p> + +<p>The other class comprises the diseases of environment,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> or personal +surroundings,—that is, our manner of living both as regards our private +life and our relations to other people. These diseases are largely +preventable and it is with them that most of the work of prevention is +to be carried on.</p> + +<p>A disease is considered preventable if, by using the best known means of +treatment, it might be prevented or cured, so that either the disease or +the death usually resulting from it would be avoided.</p> + +<p>Of course, not all deaths from a given disease could be prevented even +with the best known means. Infant diseases constitute one class which is +considered most hopeful of betterment through a pure milk supply and +better hygiene; and yet many authorities believe that not more than half +the deaths could be prevented owing to the large part played by weather +conditions, feeble constitutions, and other unchangeable conditions.</p> + +<p>Preventable diseases may be divided into six classes:</p> + +<p>(1) Diseases caused by lack of proper hygiene.</p> + +<p>(2) Diseases caused by bad habits.</p> + +<p>(3) Contagious diseases.</p> + +<p>(4) Diseases caused by insects.</p> + +<p>(5) Accidents, wounds, or operations and their resulting diseases.</p> + +<p>(6) Diseases remedied by slight means.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> + +<p>We will treat each of these in turn.</p> + +<p>(1) By proper hygiene is meant the proper treatment of the body as to +breathing, eating, drinking, sleeping, bathing and rest. This treatment +includes plenty of fresh air, both day and night, keeping outdoors as +much as possible, and in well-aired houses the rest of the time. +Vigorous but not violent exercise, brisk walking, regular physical +exercise, such as is practised in gymnasiums, will go far toward keeping +the body in good condition.</p> + +<p>The question of fresh air in the home is one of the most important +points to be considered. The bedrooms, the living-rooms, and the kitchen +should have the air changed constantly, not once or twice a day. In +order to prevent drafts, and that the house may not be kept at too low a +temperature in winter, a board, eight to twelve inches in height, may be +placed across the bottom of a window that is raised.</p> + +<p>Many diseases, not only of the throat and lungs, but of the other +organs, may be prevented by the constant introduction of fresh air into +our rooms day and night.</p> + +<p>Tuberculosis causes more deaths than any other single disease in +America, and the sickness and disability continue longer than with most +diseases. It is extremely contagious, being a germ disease, and not an +inherited one, as was formerly supposed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> It increased very rapidly for +a few years but is now slightly decreasing, owing to better knowledge of +its cause and cure.</p> + +<p>Its prevention and its cure both lie largely in fresh air. Physicians +say that no one who lives an open-air life with plenty of fresh air +night and day will contract it. The cure which is restoring hundreds to +health is to find a place where the air is pure, and live and sleep +practically outdoors; to eat as much milk, raw eggs, and meat as can be +digested and to observe the other rules of hygiene. Incipient cases, +those in the earliest stages, may sometimes be cured while continuing at +work by following the other rules as nearly as possible.</p> + +<p>On account of the extremely contagious nature of tuberculosis, special +care should be taken to prevent its spread. The sputum coughed up from +the lungs is the principal carrier of the disease, and the person who, +having tuberculosis, even in its earliest stages, spits in a public +place, is an enemy of mankind, for he endangers the lives of hundreds of +others. The only excuse for this is that he usually does it through +ignorance, but the knowledge of the danger should be so impressed on all +the people that no one could plead ignorance, and for a consumptive to +spit on the street should be counted as much a crime morally as for a +smallpox<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> patient deliberately to expose others to the disease.</p> + +<p>Great care should of course be taken in the home of a consumptive +patient to prevent the infection from spreading through the family. +Separate sleeping-rooms, thorough disinfection, and the use of paper +napkins which are burned at once, to take the place of handkerchiefs, +should be some of the means employed.</p> + +<p>Pneumonia, pleurisy, bronchitis, grip, colds, and catarrh are some of +the other ailments which may be largely banished by living the outdoor +life. The method of treatment is medical, is different in each case, and +should be decided by the family physician. The constant habit of +breathing impurities, day after day and year after year, brings about a +gradual change in the tissue of the lungs.</p> + +<p>In the same way, simple food to take the place of the rich, heavy foods +eaten in large quantities, will prevent many of the diseases of the +stomach, liver, and kidneys, and improve the general health and +strength. A diet of less meat and more eggs has been tried by football +teams in training and found to give an equal amount of strength with +greater endurance. A diet of milk, cereals, vegetables, nuts, and +fruits, raw or simply cooked, with a small amount of animal foods, will +perhaps give<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> the best results in this climate. Food fried in fats, rich +pastries and gravies are the hardest to digest, and better health will +usually follow discontinuing them.</p> + +<p>The purity of the food eaten should receive careful consideration. +Artificially preserved foods are usually more or less dangerous, for +although dealers urge that the poison contained in them is too small to +do harm we must remember that it is not the single dose that does harm, +but the many foods each containing a very small amount of poison, taken +day after day.</p> + +<p>Pure food laws, national and state, have done great good in driving +adulterated and impure foods out of the markets by requiring all foods +to be properly labeled.</p> + +<p>Thorough mastication or chewing of the food is only a little less +important than the character of the food itself. Rapid swallowing +without chewing in childhood lays the foundation for many of the +digestive diseases of later life. If food be thoroughly masticated much +that would otherwise be hard to digest can be eaten without bad results. +One of the best known examples of this is meat, which, while full of +nourishment, sets up in the large intestine a condition known as +"auto-intoxication," a species of digestive poison. If meat be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> eaten +slowly and chewed thoroughly, this condition is almost entirely absent.</p> + +<p>Pure drinking water is almost as necessary as pure food. We take water +into the body for three principal purposes: first, it is needed to +dissolve and dilute various substances and carry them from one part of +the body to another; second, it forms a large part of the blood and +other important fluids of the body, and is a part of many substances +formed in the body; third, it serves to carry from the body the worn-out +and useless tissues, the waste products of the body.</p> + +<p>These are extremely poisonous and must be promptly disposed of to +prevent sickness. This can not be done except by an ample supply of +water. Few persons, especially grown persons, drink enough water. Ten +glasses of pure water are needed properly to supply the body. +"Insufficient water drinking is perhaps the commonest cause of the +interruption of the normal life processes," says Doctor Theron C. +Stearns.</p> + +<p>But the common drinking cup in public places probably causes far more +disease than the drinking itself prevents.</p> + +<p>Particles of dead skin and disease-germs are left in the cup by each +drinker. Some of the most serious diseases may be carried in this way. A +cup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> made of heavy waterproof paper, cheap enough to be thrown away +after being used once, is a recent invention that is highly recommended +for use by school children and those who are obliged to drink away from +home. The water in a public drinking-fountain should come out in a small +steady stream so that those who have no cups may drink from the stream +itself as it rises. Many school-houses are so equipped.</p> + +<p>Sleep is a necessary part of good hygiene. It promotes health and +prevents disease. It is largely in sleep that the system renews itself, +that growth takes place, that waste products are thrown off, and the +body repairs its wastes. No less than eight hours for grown persons and +ten for children should be employed in sleep. Late hours and sleepless +nights are the frequent cause of nervousness, eye strain, nervous +prostration, and the beginning of brain troubles and insanity.</p> + +<p>Bathing is also necessary to good health. The pores of the skin play a +large part in carrying off the wastes of the body, through the +perspiration, and if these become clogged, this poisonous material +remains in the system. We have all noticed how a bath refreshes and +gives tone to the entire body by opening the pores.</p> + +<p>The skin is composed of minute scales, arranged in layers like fish +scales. The tiny crevices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> between these form a lodging place for dirt +and germs. If these remain, our own bodies are constantly exposed to +their infection, if they drop off, as some are constantly doing, we may +spread the contagion to others. This is strikingly illustrated by +scarlet fever, smallpox, and similar diseases where these minute scales +are the sole source of contagion.</p> + +<p>Exercise is another necessity of health. Regular physical culture in a +gymnasium will develop any muscle or part of the body almost at will, +but if this be not possible much can be accomplished in developing the +body by simple work. Gladstone found health in chopping wood, Roosevelt +in a daily tennis game, and President Taft in golf. Many find it in +gardening or farming. These all help to develop vigorous bodies.</p> + +<p>Anything which brings into moderate play any set of muscles, which +increases the circulation, or stimulates the secretion is beneficial. +House-work, which, in its various forms, brings into use all the muscles +of the body, is a wholesome exercise for women. Those who do no +house-work seldom substitute for it any other active exercise, and many +diseases which are caused by deposits of waste tissues that are not +thrown off by the body, are the result.</p> + +<p>Rest—recreation—pleasure—these are as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> necessary to health as +anything else, but the American people are slow to learn the need of +them. We hear much of nervous prostration as an American disease. It is +due to a variety of causes,—high living, late hours, ill-ventilated +rooms, and climate; but chief of all the causes is the long hours of +work under strong pressure. Work done in a hurry and without rest may +accomplish many things, but it invariably causes a corresponding loss of +nerve force. Fatigue, by checking bodily resistance, gives rise to all +kinds of poisons in the system. Every part of the body feels the ill +effect of continued exhaustion.</p> + +<p>Of the diseases caused by bad habits, it can only be said that all the +evils they cause, directly and indirectly, are entirely preventable; +that they are usually wrong morally, and that the suffering which +results is sure.</p> + +<p>Under this head come the effects of drinking, of the use of tobacco and +drugs, and of bad personal and social habits. It is only necessary to +refrain from these bad habits to prevent all the diseases that arise +from them, with all their train of suffering, poverty and crime.</p> + +<p>It is not the province of this book to deal with scientific temperance, +but merely to state a few of the most serious results of the use of +alcohol and other poisons. The white corpuscles of the blood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> have been +called our "standing army," because they are natural germ-destroyers. +One class of the white cells has the power of motion, and another class +has the power of absorbing outside matter, such as disease-germs. One +destroys the germs and the other moves them through the blood and +carries them off with the waste products of the body.</p> + +<p>The white corpuscles thus stand as the defenders of the body, ready to +destroy the germs as they enter, and are, for each individual, the best +of all preventives of germ diseases. The person whose blood is lacking +in white cells is always liable to "catch" contagious or infectious +diseases, and the one who has that element of the blood in proper +proportion is best fitted to withstand disease.</p> + +<p>Leading physicians believe that the greatest harm that comes from the +use of alcohol lies in the fact that nothing else so weakens the +resistance of the white corpuscles, and that therefore the person who is +an habitual user of alcohol lacks the power to repel all classes of +disease. English and American life insurance companies give us almost +exactly the same figures, which show that of insured persons, the death +rate is twenty-three per cent. higher among those who use alcohol than +among total abstainers. It is probable that the proportion of persons +carrying life insurance is much less among the drinking classes and that +if we had complete statistics the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> difference would be far greater than +appears in the life insurance tables.</p> + +<p>Of time lost by sickness, directly and through other diseases caused by +alcoholism, drugs and other bad habits, the percentage is very great, +according to all hospital records.</p> + +<p>The number of prominent persons who have died of "tobacco heart" +indicates that the rate of those whose heart action is weakened by the +use of tobacco is probably very large.</p> + +<p>Doctor Morrow says that if we could put an end at once to diseases +caused by bad habits it would result in closing at least one-half of our +institutions for defective persons, and almost all of our penal +institutions.</p> + +<p>There is another long list of diseases which are contagious, that is, +which one person may transmit to another. These are usually serious but +their spread may be largely prevented by keeping the sick person alone, +except for the necessary nurses, quarantining the house and disinfecting +everything when the period of infection is past.</p> + +<p>In this class are smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, mumps, +chicken-pox and whooping-cough.</p> + +<p>These latter are the so-called "childish diseases" which it was formerly +considered impossible to escape, and little attempt was made to guard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +against them. Now they are recognized as serious, whooping-cough for its +close relation to brain and spinal trouble; measles for their effect on +the eyes and lungs; chicken-pox for its similarity to smallpox, and +mumps for its general lowering of the tone of the system, allowing other +diseases to gain a foothold.</p> + +<p>Special serum treatment for diphtheria and vaccination for smallpox have +greatly reduced the danger from these once greatly dreaded diseases.</p> + +<p>Of preventable diseases none should receive more attention than typhoid +fever, because it is a great scourge and yet it can be prevented by +simple means. If we understand that typhoid is a dirt disease, that it +comes only from dirt, we shall feel it a disgrace to have an epidemic of +typhoid, though one of the saddest features about it is that we must +suffer for the sins of others. The one who is attacked by typhoid fever +may not be the one who has left dirt for the disease to breed in.</p> + +<p>Typhoid fever germs are bred chiefly in manure piles, sewers, or +cess-pools, and would not be transmitted to man directly, but there are +several indirect ways in which they may be carried. Flies also breed in +the same places. Their legs become covered with typhoid germs, and then +they fly into houses directly on the food and cooking utensils. This is +one of the most common ways in which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> disease is carried, and +doctors tell us that the common house-fly should be known as the +"typhoid fly" so that people may know the serious danger that lurks in +what was formerly considered as nothing worse than an annoying foe to +clean housekeeping.</p> + +<p>If houses are thoroughly screened, if cess-pools, manure piles and +garbage are kept tightly covered, screened, or, still better, +disinfected with chloride of lime, there will be no breeding-places left +for flies and this will remove one of the greatest dangers.</p> + +<p>The other danger lies in a polluted water or milk supply. Every sewer +that is carried into a stream, every manure pile that drains into a +water course is a menace to health.</p> + +<p>Very frequently the farm well for watering stock is near the barn,—near +the manure pile, which, as it drains, carries down millions of typhoid +germs to the water-level below. The well becomes infected, the family +drink from it, and soon there may be several cases of typhoid fever in +the home.</p> + +<p>Worst of all, the milk pails are rinsed at the well, and all the milk +that is poured into them spreads the germs wherever the milk may be +sold. In this way an epidemic may be carried to an entire town, and to +persons who themselves have taken every precaution against the disease.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> + +<p>Drinking water should be boiled unless one is sure of the water-supply, +and surface wells are never safe unless we know that they drain only +from clean sources, and then the water should be analyzed frequently. +Boiling absolutely destroys typhoid and other germs, and well repays the +extra work it makes. One case of typhoid fever causes more work than +boiling the water for years, if we consider the work only.</p> + +<p>If you can not buy pasteurized milk, and are not sure of conditions +about the dairy, your milk should be boiled, or, still better, +sterilized at home by putting it in bottles or other containers, and +placing in a vessel of hot water, keeping the milk for several hours +about half-way to the boiling point, then cooling gradually.</p> + +<p>All these means of prevention are troublesome and require time and work, +but as the result in health for the family is sure, every housekeeper +should gladly take this extra burden on herself if it be necessary. In +some states and many cities, the laws governing dairies are now so +strict that there is no need of doing this work in the home. This care +in the dairies should be insisted on everywhere, even if it raises the +price of milk, because it means the saving of many doctor and drug bills +and also raises the standard of public health.</p> + +<p>Yellow fever was formerly dreaded more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> any other single disease +because it was so wide-spread, so fatal, and was thought to be violently +contagious, but during the Spanish-American War it was proved that it is +not contagious at all, but comes only from the bite of a certain +mosquito, the stegomia, which is usually found only in hot climates. It +is conveyed in this way: the mosquito bites a yellow fever patient; for +twelve days it is harmless, but after that time it may infect every +person that it bites.</p> + +<p>If every yellow fever patient could be screened with netting to prevent +his being bitten, we could prevent the yellow fever mosquito from +becoming infected. Further, if we can prevent healthy people from being +bitten by fever-infected mosquitoes, they will escape the disease, and +still further, if we can destroy the eggs of mosquitoes, we can entirely +obviate all danger of yellow fever in a community.</p> + +<p>The mosquito breeds only in water; by having all cisterns, rain-water +barrels, and other water containers carefully covered, and by spreading +the surface of pools of standing water, especially dirty water, covered +with greenish scum, with a thick coating of kerosene oil, we can prevent +the eggs from hatching. This has been done in many communities in Cuba +and the southern part of the United States, and has resulted in +completely stamping out the disease in those places.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> + +<p>Malaria is caused by another mosquito, called the anopheles and while +malaria is seldom fatal as is yellow fever, it causes much suffering and +loss of time, and strong efforts should be made to prevent it. The same +measures that are used to prevent yellow fever will banish malaria from +any community. They are the screening of patients to prevent spreading +the disease; screening all houses closely and keeping close watch for +mosquitoes in the house, and covering all ponds in the neighborhood with +oil. New Jersey mosquitoes were formerly known far and wide, but such an +active campaign has been waged against them, that they have been almost +completely driven from the state.</p> + +<p>The ordinary mosquito has never been found to do any harm beyond the +discomfort of its bite.</p> + +<p>Of other diseases caused by insects, an affection of the eyes called +pink-eye is carried by very tiny flies, and the dreaded bubonic plague +is supposed to be transferred from sick people to well ones by the bites +of fleas, which in turn are brought to this country by rats.</p> + +<p>The hook-worm which affects so many persons in the South is often called +"the lazy disease" since the persons afflicted with it are not totally +disabled, but are lacking in energy and vigor because the small insects +take from the blood the red corpuscles which should carry the digested +food all over the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> body. These insects can be destroyed by medicine, of +which only a few cents worth is required to cure a case and make the +patient fit for work and enjoyment. In Porto Rico almost 300,000 cases +have been treated by the United States government in the last six years.</p> + +<p>Another matter which should receive careful consideration is the large +number of preventable accidents. Mining accidents come in a few cases +from failure to provide the best appliances in the mines, but in many +cases are due to carelessness or ignorance of the operators themselves. +There still remain a large number of accidents which occur in the best +regulated mines, and when no instance of special carelessness can be +traced. For years these disasters have puzzled mining engineers, but +within the last few months it has been discovered that the minute +particles of coal dust in a dry mine completely fill the air, so that +the air itself is ready to burn.</p> + +<p>When a light is taken into this coal-filled atmosphere, it bursts into +flame, causing a violent explosion. Sprinkling the mines, forcing a fine +spray of water through the air of every part of the mines, it is +thought, will prevent this class of accidents, which have furnished long +lists of killed and injured each year.</p> + +<p>Reports show that one miner is killed and several<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> injured for every one +hundred thousand tons of coal mined. The mining accidents of one year +total 2,500 killed and 6,000 seriously injured.</p> + +<p>Other industries do not cause such wholesale injuries, but there are +thousands of individual accidents each year where the injury varies from +mangled fingers to death.</p> + +<p>When the cause is failure to provide suitable safeguards to machinery, +or to warn employees of danger, the penalty to the employers should be +made severe, so that no consideration of money will prevent them from +taking precautions. More often, however, the injury is due to the +carelessness of the men or to the fact that they try to run machines +with which they are unfamiliar.</p> + +<p>Manual training schools, night schools for working-men, with a short +apprenticeship in the running of machinery and an explanation of the +dangers, will go far to prevent this class of accidents, but the fact +will still remain, that often those who are most familiar with machinery +become careless and are more liable to injury than beginners.</p> + +<p>The number of accidents that have been added to the world's list by +automobiles, both to those riding and to persons who are run over by +them, is great and is in a large measure due to carelessness in handling +the machine or to reckless driving.</p> + +<p>The entire number of accidents in the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> States, including railway +accidents, reaches the immense total of sixty thousand killed and many +times that number injured. A most appalling waste of life and labor +value!</p> + +<p>Professor Ditman says, "Of 29,000,000 workers in the United States over +500,000 are yearly killed or crippled as a direct result of the +occupations in which they are engaged—more than were killed and wounded +throughout the whole Russo-Japanese War. More than one-half this +tremendous sacrifice of life is needless."</p> + +<p>Until the last quarter of a century there was a large addition to the +death rate each year from the blood poisoning following operations and +injuries making open wounds. It was not until the discovery of the germs +which cause septic poisoning that deaths from these causes could be +checked. The use of antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, alcohol, and +various other preparations, the boiling of all surgical instruments, and +the boiling or baking of all articles used in the treatment of open +wounds and sores has reduced the death rate at least one-half.</p> + +<p>The rate could be lowered much more if all sores were treated as +surgical cases and carefully sterilized from the beginning. About +eighty-five deaths out of every hundred from these causes might be +prevented.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> + +<p>Every Fourth of July a great many entirely preventable deaths and minor +accidents occur. The toy pistol has come to be considered almost as +deadly as the larger variety. The tiny "caps" that are used in them are +fired back into the hand of the person shooting them, tiny particles of +powder enter the skin, burrowing into the flesh, and the skin closes +over them, shutting out the air. If these particles carry with them +tetanus germs, as is often the case, because these germs are found +chiefly in the dirt of the street where most of this shooting is done, +lock-jaw or tetanus, a severe form of blood-poisoning, results, and is +usually fatal. The same results come less frequently from fire-crackers +and other explosives, and in addition many accidents which injure hands, +eyes, and other parts of the body, are the result of the use of the +heavier explosives.</p> + +<p>The Pasteur Treatment is saving many lives each year by treating cases +of infection from "mad dogs" and other animals affected with +hydrophobia.</p> + +<p>Among the diseases which can be remedied by slight means are enlarged +tonsils and adenoid growths back of the nose, both of which can be +removed by a slight and almost painless operation, but which, if allowed +to develop, often cause serious throat and lung troubles, deafness, and +weakened minds. Slight defects of the eyes can be remedied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> by the +wearing of glasses, but which if unchecked give rise to various nerve +and spinal diseases as well as more serious eye troubles. It is believed +now that most of the blindness of later life could be prevented by +proper care of the eyes in early life and by prompt attention to slight +defects of the eyes when they begin.</p> + +<p>Doctor Walter Cornell, who has made a study of eye strain says, "Eye +strain is the chief cause of functional diseases. It is almost the sole +cause of headache, is the frequent cause of digestive diseases, of +spinal curvatures, and indirectly of neurasthenia and hysteria."</p> + +<p>Decayed teeth in children, slight in themselves, give rise to more +serious troubles in later life,—ill-shaped mouths and jaws and crooked +teeth result from teeth that have been drawn too early in life. Decayed +teeth lead also to many stomach and digestive troubles.</p> + +<p>Medical inspection in the schools shows a surprising number of children +suffering from these minor troubles. About 80,000 children were +examined, and the records show that out of every one hundred children +examined sixty-six needed the services of a doctor, surgeon, or dentist, +and some needed all three.</p> + +<p>Forty out of each hundred had badly neglected teeth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thirty-eight had enlarged glands of the neck.</p> + +<p>Eighteen had enlarged tonsils.</p> + +<p>Ten had growths of the nose.</p> + +<p>Thirty-one needed glasses.</p> + +<p>Six needed more nourishing food.</p> + +<p>This meant that more than 52,000 of the number needed some medical care +that they would not have received at home because their parents had +never noticed the need of it. Every one of them could by prompt +attention, a small dentist's bill, a slight operation of the throat or +nose, or the use of glasses, (almost 25,000 needed glasses) be saved +great suffering or inability to work in later life.</p> + +<p>As we learn more of disease, and especially of germ diseases, we are +oppressed by the feeling that we are in constant danger, but we must +bear in mind that it is the weak and unfit that are attacked, and that +fitness, while partly inherited, is almost altogether a matter of proper +hygiene. Keeping our bodily defenses in good condition against disease +is as much a matter of necessity and good policy as keeping the defenses +of a city in fighting condition in time of war.</p> + +<p>That life may be prolonged and so strengthened that the average height, +weight, and endurance will be increased, admits of no doubt. The same +rule of cultivation runs through all nature. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> original or natural +apple was a small, sour, bitter crab. The difference between that and +the finest products of western orchards, is altogether a matter of +cultivation, selection, and proper treatment. In 1710 the average weight +of dressed cattle did not exceed three hundred and seventy pounds. Now +it is not far from one thousand pounds. An equal change could be made in +the human race, but because we believe so fully in personal liberty to +live our lives as we choose, little has actually been done to raise the +human standard.</p> + +<p>The care and hygiene of children is receiving universal attention, with +the result of a wonderful reduction in the sickness and death of +children, but as yet comparatively few grown persons apply these lessons +to their own lives, and the rates for older persons remain almost +unchanged.</p> + +<p>When individuals have done all that they can, there still remains much +that must be done by the city, the state, and the nation. Boards of +health can do much toward controlling epidemics by placing infected +households under quarantine, by compelling householders who are ignorant +or careless to clean their premises and to take other precautions for +the public health.</p> + +<p>Hospitals, both public and private, have done excellent work, not only +in curing disease but in gaining more definite knowledge of the nature +of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> diseases through the study of large numbers of cases.</p> + +<p>The cleaning of streets and the removal of garbage regularly are among +the great factors in keeping a city in a sanitary condition. New Orleans +and some of the cities of Cuba and Porto Rico show strikingly what may +be done in that direction.</p> + +<p>Medical inspection of schools is a new and valuable aid to health. +Epidemics of childish diseases which sweep through the schools with a +fearful record of illness and a lesser one of death, may often be +checked entirely by the close watch of the medical inspector, who +removes the first patients from the schools when the disease is in its +beginning.</p> + +<p>Public playgrounds for children in cities have an influence that it is +as good for health as it is for morals, providing, as it does, fresh air +and active exercise for children. Open air schools for tubercular +children are being operated in several cities with excellent results in +health and school work.</p> + +<p>Many states are making an organized effort to fight tuberculosis by +establishing fresh-air colonies where, with pure air, rest and plenty of +the most nourishing food, patients are restored to health.</p> + +<p>Care of epileptics and the insane by the state, with proper hygiene and +treatment, accomplishes many cures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p> + +<p>The nation is doing excellent work in a few lines, notably the Pure Food +Bureau and the Marine Hospital Corps, but perfected organization of all +the forces is lacking. The Department of Agriculture has done a +wonderful work in investigating and curbing insect pests that injure +farm crops and trees, and in stamping out disease among live stock. +Forty-six million dollars have been spent and well spent in the work in +the last few years, but it is a matter of reproach that more pains are +taken to save the lives of cattle and farm crops than human lives.</p> + +<p>There should be a strong central Bureau of Health with power and money +scientifically to investigate disease, to distribute information as the +Department of Agriculture does to farmers, and to carry out their ideas, +as do state and city boards of health.</p> + +<p>We have dealt with only one side of the question—the suffering and +sorrow; but in a work on conservation, we must consider also the money +question, the loss to the nation in time and money of these great wastes +of health and life.</p> + +<p>There are no trustworthy statistics as to wages. The average yearly +earnings of all persons, from day laborers to presidents, is estimated +at seven hundred dollars; but as not more than three-fourths of the +people are actual workers, three-fourths of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> amount, or five +hundred and twenty-five dollars is taken as the average wage.</p> + +<p>From these figures the money value of a person under five years is given +at ninety-five dollars; from five to ten years, at nine hundred and +fifty dollars; from ten to twenty years at $2,000; from twenty to thirty +at $4,000; thirty to fifty years at $4,000; fifty to eighty at $2,900 +and over eighty at $700 or less. The average value of life at all ages +is $2,900 and the 93,000,000 persons living in this country would be +worth in earning power the vast sum of $270,000,000,000. This is +probably a low estimate but is more than double all our other wealth +combined.</p> + +<p>Now let us see how much of this vital wealth is wasted. As the average +death rate is at least eighteen out of each thousand, we have 1,500,000 +as the number of deaths in the United States each year. Of these, +forty-two per cent., or 630,000 are classed as preventable—so that a +number equal to the entire population of the city of Boston die each +year whose deaths are as unnecessary as is the waste of our forests by +fire.</p> + +<p>If some great plague should carry off all the people of Boston, not the +people of the United States only, but of the whole world would be roused +by the appalling calamity and every possible means would be employed to +prevent other cities from sharing such a fate; but because these +preventable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> deaths are not in one city, but are widely scattered, we +have long remained indifferent to this terrible and needless waste.</p> + +<p>Then there are always 3,000,000 persons ill, 1,000,000 of whom are of +working age. If, as before, we count only three-fourths of them as +actual workers, we find a yearly direct loss from sickness of +$500,000,000 in wages. The daily cost of nursing, doctor bills, and +medicine is counted at one dollar and fifty cents, which makes for the +3,000,000 sick, a yearly cost for these items of more than +$1,500,000,000. What should we think if nearly all of the people of the +city of New York were constantly sick, and were spending for doctors, +nurses, and medicine as much money as Congress appropriates to run every +department of the government!</p> + +<p>It is estimated that sickness and death cost the United States +$3,000,000,000 annually, of which at least a third, probably one-half, +is preventable. Is it not well worth while, then, from a money +standpoint alone, to use every effort to conserve our national health? +Conservation of health and life, going hand in hand with conservation of +national resources, will give us not only a better America, but better, +stronger, happier, more enlightened Americans. What a new world would be +opened to us if we could have a nation with no sickness or suffering! +That is the ideal, and everything that we can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> do toward realizing that +ideal is a great step in human progress.</p> + + +<h3>REFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="d">Report on National Vitality. Committee of One Hundred. (Fisher.)</p> + +<p class="d">The Nature of Man. Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p class="d">The Prolongation of Life. Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p class="d">The New Hygiene. Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p class="d">Vital Statistics. Farr.</p> + +<p class="d">The Kingdom of Man. Lankester.</p> + +<p class="d">Cost of Tuberculosis. Fisher.</p> + +<p class="d">School Hygiene. Keating.</p> + +<p class="d">Economic Loss Through Insects That Carry Disease. Howard.</p> + +<p class="d">Report of Associated Fraternities on Infectious, Contagious, and +Hereditary Diseases.</p> + +<p class="d">Conservation of Life and Health by Improved Water Supply. Kober.</p> + +<p class="d">Backward Children in the Public Schools. Davis.</p> + +<p class="d">Dangers to Mine Workers. (Mitchell.) Report Governor's Conference.</p> + +<p class="d">Tuberculosis in the U. S. Census Report 1908.</p> + +<p class="d">Industrial Accidents. Bureau of Labor Pamphlet, 1906.</p> + +<p class="d">Factory Sanitation and Labor Protection. Dept. of Labor, No. 44.</p> + +<p class="d">How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. Dept. of Agriculture. +Bulletin 155.</p> + +<p class="d">Public Health and Water Pollution. Bulletin 93.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2> + +<h3>BEAUTY</h3> + + +<p>America has another resource that differs from all the others, and yet +is no less valuable to us as a nation, for it is upon natural beauty +that we must depend to attract visitors and settlers from other +countries, and also to develop love of country in our own people, and to +arouse in them all the higher sentiments and ideals.</p> + +<p>The love of romance and poetry is awakened only by the sight of +beautiful objects, and that nation will produce the highest class of +citizens which has most within it to kindle these lofty ideas. The +savage cares only for the comfort of his body, but as civilization +advances, man devotes more and more thought to those pleasures that come +only through his mind and the cultivation of his tastes.</p> + +<p>The United States is particularly fortunate in this respect, for here is +everything to inspire a love of beauty. There is the beauty of changing +seasons, of our wonderful autumn forest coloring, of rivers, mountains, +lakes, sea, and shore.</p> + +<p>In addition to the beauty of our landscapes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> which is everywhere to be +found, there are many special beauties which are among the world's +wonder-places, and which are visited yearly by thousands of sight-seers, +and each year they attract a greater number of visitors from other +lands. Some of the most remarkable of these are Niagara Falls, the +Yosemite Valley, with its crowning glory, the Yosemite Falls, the +Hetch-Hetchy Falls, Mammoth Cave, the Garden of the Gods, the Grand +Cañon of the Colorado, the Agatized Forests of Arizona, Yellowstone +Park, The Natural Bridge of Virginia, Great Salt Lake, and dozens of +others, less wonderful, but scarcely less beautiful, and equal to the +most talked-of beauties of Europe, such as the Palisades of the Hudson, +Lake Champlain, the Shenandoah Valley, the Dalles of Oregon, Pike's +Peak, Mount Rainier, Lookout Mountain, the Adirondacks, and the entire +Rocky Mountain region.</p> + +<p>To these must be added the relics of ancient civilization, the homes of +the Cliff Dwellers, the work of the Mound Builders, and such fragments +as still remain of the occupation in various times and places of certain +Indian tribes, and of the Norsemen and the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>All these are to be valued for their beauty or historic interest, and +are also valuable as a source of wealth to the community.</p> + +<p>The money spent on tourist-travel in Europe is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> said to be more than +half a billion dollars a year. This vast amount is spent because in +Europe there is so much to delight the eye, because the cities are made +beautiful with artistic buildings filled with art treasures, because +historic places are carefully preserved, because the villages are neat +and well-kept, and the intensive farming which is practised almost +everywhere leaves no waste places to grow up with weeds, and lie +neglected.</p> + +<p>There are parts of Europe, of course, where this is not true, but they +are not included in the line of tourist-travel, and in general it may be +said that Europe is visited almost solely because of its beauty:—the +natural beauty that man has preserved, the beauty that he has created, +or the relics of past greatness.</p> + +<p>Modern Greece would attract few visitors for its own sake. It is the +ruins of a mighty past,—the Acropolis at Athens and the places made +famous in mythology and literature draw thousands to its shores every +year, and add greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the country.</p> + +<p>The same thing is true of America wherever we have preserved and made +beautiful our natural scenery. During three months in the summer, the +New York Central Railroad derives about $200,000 in fares from its +Niagara business alone. Since it became a state reservation in 1885, +more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> seventeen million persons have visited Niagara, and the +amount of money that has been spent there at hotels, for carriages, +automobiles, side-trips, souvenirs, etc., is almost beyond calculation.</p> + +<p>In the Adirondack Park there is between $10,000,000 and $15,000,000 +invested in hotels and cottages. The 15,000 clerks and helpers receive +about $1,000,000 in wages, the railroads receive another $1,000,000 in +fares, and hotel guests spend between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000. All of +these advantages to the region are entirely apart from the practical +uses of the forest.</p> + +<p>These are examples which show the great amount of wealth which can come +from preserving our natural beauties, and the same conditions exist +everywhere, not only in the state and national parks, but wherever some +beautiful spot has been set aside by a city, a railroad company, or some +private enterprise. People flock to these resorts in large numbers for +rest or recreation, and to satisfy their love for the beautiful, and the +result is a gain in health and morals, more desire on the part of those +who visit them to make their own surroundings beautiful, and at the same +time a great gain in money value to the city or company that promotes +such an enterprise.</p> + +<p>Most of the larger cities of the United States have given particular +attention to the subject of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> public parks during recent years. They are +the breathing places for the dwellers in the city, often the only place +where children can have fresh air and plenty of exercise, and the parks +constitute one of the greatest attractions to draw summer visitors to +the city.</p> + +<p>Nearly all steam and electric railway companies own some park or +pleasure resort from which they derive a large income in fares, and many +steamboat companies find their largest profit from their excursion +boats.</p> + +<p>All these facts show clearly that if we consider only the gain in money, +it is altogether a wise policy to include natural beauty among our +national resources, and to conserve it carefully, while if we look at it +from the larger standpoint of preserving for future generations the same +beauties that we enjoy, the need of such conservation is still more +urgent.</p> + +<p>In our future development the United States will largely be made over. +We shall no longer have the same natural conditions that we have had in +the early years of our history, and the physical appearance of the +country will grow better or worse each generation.</p> + +<p>It is possible for us to make America the most beautiful land the world +has ever seen, for we have the natural beauty, and greater knowledge in +setting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> about the work of building than has ever been possessed by any +other nation during its time of greatest growth.</p> + +<p>We shall go far toward realizing our ideal of a beautiful America if we +understand that the conservation of our resources means beauty, and that +waste means ugliness. Proper conservation of our mineral resources will +include the removal of the ugly, unsightly piles of culm, slag, and +other refuse that lie about the mouth of the mines, and disfigure some +of our most beautiful mountain scenery, for, as we have shown elsewhere, +this should be used and not wasted. The proper use of coal would solve +the smoke problem of cities, one of the worst foes of cleanliness and +beauty, and the use of water-power would serve the same purpose. The +complete utilization of our water resources that has been suggested +would make all our waterways contribute greatly to the beauty and +attractiveness of the landscape.</p> + +<p>In conserving our forests we not only increase our timber supply, but +add one of the greatest of all beauties, the trees which give variety +and tone to every picture that our eyes rest upon. We shall have the +shady roads, the long green hill-slopes, the quiet woodlands, the glory +of autumn coloring, the delight of blossoming orchards.</p> + +<p>Conservation of the soil, and utilization of every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> part of the land +mean even more. Picture the contrast between a country where the +hillsides are worn into gullies, where rocks are everywhere to be seen +cropping above the barren soil, where the crops are scanty, the +vegetation stunted; and one where every field yields a rich harvest, +where the grain hangs heavy and golden, where every wayside nook holds a +flower, where there are no neglected fence-corners, no piles of +rubbish,—what we truly call "a smiling landscape." Lastly, in +conserving health, we do more toward promoting personal beauty and +advancing the standard of the race than in any other way.</p> + +<p>We should not be content, however, with the beauty that comes only from +the conservation of our other resources, but should have a definite plan +for the conservation of beauty as a valuable resource in itself.</p> + +<p>The city of Washington should be made the center of this movement toward +national beauty. There is now an organized effort on the part of those +in charge of the erection of public buildings, to make Washington the +most beautiful capital in the world, and a model for other cities.</p> + +<p>The federal government should set aside as national parks all of our +greatest natural wonders, as Yellowstone Park is now held.</p> + +<p>The states should follow the same line and set apart in the same way +those objects of lesser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> interest, either natural or historic, which are +to be found in every state—those that are not of sufficient importance +to merit national recognition, but that will add interest to the state +as a place for tourists to visit.</p> + +<p>Few states are visited in this way more than is Massachusetts, and it is +largely because not only the state, but the various communities have +preserved historical places, buildings and objects so carefully, have +erected monuments to commemorate them; and have thrown these various +objects of interest open to the public free of charge. These communities +in turn have gained the original expenditure many times over from the +money spent by the steady stream of visitors.</p> + +<p>There has been a great movement toward the beautifying of cities and +villages in the past few years. Besides the good work done by park +boards in cities there has been a great improvement in the matter of +cleaner streets, better sidewalks, the planting of more shade trees, and +a far greater attention to the beautifying of private grounds. The +adorning of front yards and porches with vines and flowers is increasing +enormously every year.</p> + +<p>Many causes have been at work to produce this result: the broadening +influence of travel, which brings people in touch with what is being +done in other places to promote public beauty, the work of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> schools, +newspaper and magazine articles, and more time and money to spend on +luxuries,—even the post-card, which makes a souvenir view of every spot +of local beauty or interest; but probably no other one agency has +produced such good results in public beauty as has the woman's club +which has taken up this line of work.</p> + +<p>The "cleaning-up" movement, with a public house-cleaning day twice a +year when all refuse is carted away, and streets, alleys and back-yards +cleaned, had its origin in this way. The care and beautifying of +cemeteries is another branch of the work.</p> + +<p>In many places, flower and vegetable seeds are distributed free or at a +nominal cost among the school children, prizes are offered for the best +garden, the largest vegetables, the most attractive back-yard, the best +arranged flower-bed, and other good results; the work is examined by a +committee, and the prizes awarded at the end of the season either by the +club or by merchants who have become interested in the contest.</p> + +<p>This provides the children wholesome outdoor work and exercise +throughout the summer, and promotes a pleasant rivalry among them, +besides increasing their knowledge of plants, and the results have been +found to be far-reaching, for not only the pupils, but their parents as +well, are interested in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> neater, more orderly methods of living, and in +beautifying their homes.</p> + +<p>In the movement for public beauty, as in all other progress, it is the +work of individuals that counts most. Every house that is built with a +thought for its beauty, every home, farm-building and fence kept in good +repair, every neat back-yard and flower-surrounded home has its part in +making America more beautiful, and this influence in countless homes is +certain to count in the making of better citizens.</p> + +<p>A country where beauty meets the eye at every turn will invite the +tourist and the home-seeker, will be deeply loved by its own people, and +will be an inspiration to poetry and art. It rests largely with the +people of to-day to decide whether we shall make of our own land such an +ideal place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><a href="#toc">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2> + +<h3>IN CONCLUSION</h3> + + +<p>No one can read the record of facts presented in this book without being +impressed by two things: (1) How these resources depend on one another +and that proper care of one results in the saving of another, and, (2) +the fact that every one of our most valued resources is decreasing so +rapidly that its end is in sight, even though far in the distance. When +the end comes we know that it will mean the end of progress for our +country in that direction.</p> + +<p>It is also plain that the great, in fact the only, reason for this +scarcity lies not in use but in waste. And lastly we see that there is +yet time to prevent serious shortage in most directions if we set about +a general system of good management and thrift.</p> + +<p>In the meantime we are sure to have higher prices, for the supply is +growing less and the demand greater for almost every material. In many +lines, unless something be done to check this shortage, prices will rise +so high that only the rich can afford what are now considered the +necessities of life, and the lives of the poorer classes will become +like those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> of the peasants of Europe:—a scanty living on the plainest +food, poor homes, hard work, less opportunity to develop mind and body.</p> + +<p>Let us sum up how the various resources may be used to conserve one +another.</p> + +<p>The soil is saved from erosion by the planting of forests, and by the +storing of the flood waters of rivers. Waste land is made fertile by +proper control of the rivers through drainage, storage and irrigation. +Farm crops and also the forests are increased in value by insect +control.</p> + +<p>The insects are largely kept in check by encouraging the nesting and +increase of certain birds. Birds play a large part in the conservation +of the crops, by destroying insects, weeds, and small mammals. The birds +themselves are sheltered and thrive only where trees are abundant.</p> + +<p>The grazing lands are conserved by proper forest control, and the supply +of animal food depends largely on the grazing lands.</p> + +<p>Fisheries are dependent on proper care of the waters, which in turn +depend on forest control, and on proper care of the by-products of +factories.</p> + +<p>Coal is conserved by the use of lower-grade fuels, by using waste from +the forests, and by substituting water-power.</p> + +<p>Gas and oil will also be saved by the greater use of water-power.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> + +<p>Coal-mining is made safer to human life and much saving in coal is +effected by the use of mine-timbers, which involves the planting of +forests. Forests regulate to a great extent the stream-flow of rivers.</p> + +<p>Beauty can only be conserved by the planting of trees, by keeping the +waters pure and clear, by using waste products so that there will be no +unsightly piles of refuse.</p> + +<p>Health depends, among other things, on pure water, air unpolluted by +coal smoke and poisonous gases which should be used as factory +by-products.</p> + +<p>And lastly, the life, happiness, and prosperity of man is conserved by +all of these things.</p> + +<p>The first step in this system of conservation must be education on this +subject, education not only of the children but of the men and women +also, on the need and methods of saving. There would be no danger of a +scarcity of coal if manufacturers all knew the value and economy of +electric water-power or low-grade fuels, and of smoke-consuming devices. +There is no reason why insect destruction should cost the nation so +dearly if the birds were protected, and a few simple methods of +prevention understood. All the various water problems could be met and +solved if one general plan were adopted and carried out, and so all +along the line.</p> + +<p>We have taken note of the great natural wastes:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> how two-thirds of the +wood cut is wasted, and how insects and fire destroy the standing +timber; how the soil is washed down into the valleys, taking the best +from the farms; how we are steadily robbing the soil of its most +necessary elements; how our waters are unused and we pay for this +non-use by the use of other resources that we can ill afford to spare; +how millions of acres of land which might be profitably farmed lie +useless for lack of water and other millions are useless because they +are covered with water. Consumers pay high freight rates and the +railroads are so overcrowded that they are unable to care for all the +business, while the rivers, the cheapest of all carriers, flow idly to +the sea.</p> + +<p>We have seen how one-fourth of the coal is left in the mines, and how +small a part of that which is mined is actually turned into heat, how +gas is allowed to escape unchecked into the air. And greatest and most +serious of all, the useless waste of human life and health.</p> + +<p>But there are scores of other wastes and extravagances that all growing +boys and girls should think of, so that when they enter active life, +they may do their part to prevent them.</p> + +<p>It is going to be necessary to learn to economize in every department of +life as all the European peoples do. We must learn, in this new +country,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> to do things more with the idea of the future in mind. In all +European cities, there are hundreds of houses that have lasted many +centuries, but there are few houses in America that are built in an +enduring way. This building up and tearing down taxes not one, but many, +resources heavily. As the housewife learns that a good kettle that costs +a dollar and lasts five years is cheaper than a poor one which costs +fifty cents but will wear out in one year, so people must learn the +lesson that in building poor light houses of wood which will last a +comparatively short time, they are really paying the higher price; that +in putting in poor roads, cheap bridges, badly-constructed public +buildings, that cost less heavily in the first place but that will need +to be renewed in a few years, they are really paying much more than if +these had been substantially built in the beginning.</p> + +<p>The fire loss of the United States amounts to over half a million +dollars a day, and all insurance men agree that most of this might be +prevented.</p> + +<p>The remedies are to build fewer wooden houses, especially in crowded +districts, to exercise greater care in the building and management of +chimneys, greater care in electric wiring, and general watchfulness in +handling matches and lighted cigars.</p> + +<p>For the forest fires which mean so much to all of us the remedy lies in +forest patrol. The amount<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> usually set aside for fighting fires was not +allowed by some states in 1910, and the fires which cost hundreds of +millions of property and many lives were the result.</p> + +<p>Much of the most fertile land in our country is used for raising +tobacco, and grains that are made into alcoholic liquors. As these can +never be considered necessities it is well to think to what better uses +the land might be put.</p> + +<p>The yearly bill of the United States for pleasure is gigantic, and a +large proportion of the pleasure tends to lower rather than raise the +standard of American life and morals.</p> + +<p>The greatest of all wastes is the waste of time and labor. The waste of +time by drunkenness, by poor work that must be done over, and by +idleness, makes a large item of loss in every line of business.</p> + +<p>Proper education will teach every child to work neatly and with perfect +accuracy, will teach eye, hand and brain, will teach the value and +pleasure of work, careful management and economy and a regard for the +general good.</p> + +<p>A study of the great facts of our national possibilities that have been +gathered together in this book should arouse in the heart of every +American, old and young, the feeling that here is a work for every hand +and every brain, not only to save, but to use wisely; to develop all the +possibilities of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> great resources no less than to conserve them. In +searching for new by-products or machinery for checking the waste and +adding to the usefulness of these resources there is a field for +invention that will not only bring wealth to the inventor, but +prosperity and length of life to the nation.</p> + +<h3>THE END</h3> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Department of Agriculture bulletins are free unless a price +is indicated, and may be obtained by application to The Department of +Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Postage is free in the United States. +These bulletins contain the latest scientific information and result of +research work by the government.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> All Bureau and Commission reports are free.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Some of the Yearbooks of the Dept. of Agriculture contain +very instructive reports on Insects and on Birds. Reprints on various +subjects have been made from them which are available in pamphlet form, +or the entire Yearbook may be had in many cases.</p></div> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Checking the Waste, by Mary Huston Gregory + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + +***** This file should be named 20653-h.htm or 20653-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/5/20653/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Checking the Waste + A Study in Conservation + +Author: Mary Huston Gregory + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + + + + + + + + +CHECKING THE WASTE + +A STUDY IN CONSERVATION + +_By_ + +MARY HUSTON GREGORY + +* * * + +_What you would weave into the life of the nation, +put into the public schools._ + +--EMPEROR WILLIAM I. + +* * * + +INDIANAPOLIS +THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY +PUBLISHERS +COPYRIGHT 1911 +PRESS OF +BRAUNWORTH & CO. +BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS +BROOKLYN, N. Y. + +* * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER PAGE + +I WHAT IS CONSERVATION? 1 + +II SOIL 10 + +III FORESTS 42 + +IV WATER 86 + +V COAL 124 + +VI OTHER FUELS 144 + +VII IRON 164 + +VIII OTHER MINERALS 181 + +IX ANIMAL FOODS 198 + +X INSECTS 217 + +XI BIRDS 236 + +XII HEALTH 265 + +XIII BEAUTY 302 + +XIV IN CONCLUSION 312 + + + + +PREFACE + + +Much has been said and written on the subject of conservation and many +excellent ideas have been advanced, but as yet too little has been +accomplished in the way of practical results. Probably this is due +largely to the fact that most people think of conservation as a problem +for the federal and state governments, mine owners, great lumber +companies, owners of vast tracts of land, and large corporations; and +have not realized how much the responsibility for the care of our +natural resources and the penalty for their waste rest with the whole +people, that every one has a part in this work which has been called +"the greatest question before the American people." + +One cause of the failure to realize this personal responsibility is that +while there have been college text-books and scientific treatises on +various branches of the subject, such as Forestry, there has been no +book treating of the entire problem of our natural resources, their +extent, the amount and nature of their use, their waste, and what may be +done to conserve them, prepared in a way that can be readily understood +by the ordinary reader, and dealing with the practical, rather than the +technical, side. + +It is to supply the need for such general knowledge, and to show how +such saving may be accomplished, that this book has been written. It is +designed as a short but complete statement of the entire conservation +question, and should be of service for study in teachers' reading +circles, farmers' institutes, women's clubs, the advanced grades in +schools, and for general library purposes. + +Every statement of fact bears the weight of authority, for no facts or +figures are given that have not been verified by government reports, +reports of scientific societies, etc. + +Information has been gathered from many sources, chief among them being +the Report of the Conference of Governors at the White House, in May, +1908; the Report of the National Conservation Commission, the Report on +National Vitality, the Report of the Inland Waterways Commission, of the +Geological Survey, the Census Reports, and many government departmental +pamphlets. + +M. H. G. + +Indianapolis, November 24, 1910. + +* * * + + + + +CHECKING THE WASTE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WHAT IS CONSERVATION? + + +A Nation's Riches lie both in its people and in its natural resources. +Neither can exist in its highest estate without the other. Goldsmith +predicted the certain downfall of lands "where wealth accumulates and +men decay," but, in the truest, broadest definition, there can be no +national wealth unless the men and women of the nation are healthy, +intelligent, educated and right-minded. On the other hand it is equally +true that if the people of a country are to make the most of themselves +in mind and body; if they are to get the most comfort and happiness out +of life and to become in the highest degree useful, they must develop +its natural resources to the greatest possible degree. + +The United States is particularly fortunate in its abundant riches of +soil, forest and mine, and in the fact that from the beginning of the +nation these have been the inheritance not of a people slowly learning +the use of tools and materials, and emerging from ignorance and +savagery, but representing the most advanced and enlightened ideas and +spiritual ideals of the time. + +The result of these conditions has been inventions and discoveries that +have developed a great nation at home and have done much to better the +condition of the world. But the very magnitude of our natural wealth has +made us careless, even prodigal, in its use, and thoughtful men are +beginning to realize that with the natural increase of population which +is to be expected, we shall, if the present rates of use and waste +continue, find ourselves no longer rich, but facing poverty and even +actual want. But it is not too late to save ourselves from the results +of our past extravagance. We are only beginning to see the danger into +which we have almost plunged, but we see enough to make us realize that +every one must do his part in checking the waste. Before this can be +intelligently accomplished we must understand something of the great +national movement for the conservation of our national resources. + +Let us go back for a moment to the beginning of our history as a nation, +the days of Washington. + +Invention at that time was little advanced over what it had been three +hundred years before. The same type of slow-sailing vessels carried all +the commerce. Wind and water were the only powers employed in running +the few factories. Only a little iron was used in this country, and in +fact almost its only use anywhere at that time was for tools. There was +little machinery, and that of the simplest description. + +Anthracite coal was known in this country only as a hard black rock. +Bituminous coal, gas, and oil were unknown. + +The forests stretched away in unbroken miles of wilderness. The wood was +used for the settlers' homes, their fuel, and their scanty furniture, +but they needed so little that it grew much faster than it could be +used. The man who cut down a tree was a public benefactor. The trees, +though so necessary to life, were regarded as a serious hindrance to +civilization, for they must be cleared away before crops could be +planted. + +To the pioneers as to us the soil was the most valuable of all +resources. The rivers were necessary to every community for carrying +their commerce, and turning the wheels of their saw and grist mills; +while the fish, game, and birds made a necessary part of their living. + +Under these conditions, with every resource to be found in such +abundance that it seemed impossible it could ever be exhausted, and with +a small scattered population to draw on all these riches, careless +habits of using were sure to spring up. Our forefathers took the best +that the land offered, and that which was easiest to get, and gave no +thought to caring for what remained. Their children, and the new +immigrants who came in such numbers, all practised the same wasteful +methods. + +In the century and a quarter that has passed since then, a great change +has come over the world. By the magic of the railroad, the telegraph, +and the telephone, all the nations of the earth are bound more closely +to one another now than were the scattered communities of a single +county in those days, or than the states of the Union before the Civil +War. + +The forests have been cut away and in place of endless miles of +wilderness there now stretch endless miles of fertile farms, yielding +abundant harvests. + +Slow-going sailing vessels have given place to steamboats which now +carry the river and lake commerce. But men are no longer dependent on +the rivers, for swift railway trains penetrate every part of the +country. The stage-coach is replaced by the trolley-car, and the +horseback rider, plodding over corduroy roads with his saddle-bags, is +succeeded by the automobile rider speeding over the most improved +highways. + +Farm machinery of all descriptions has revolutionized the old methods of +doing farm work. The fish, game, and birds are largely gone and in +their place are the animal foods raised by man. Modern houses, filled +with countless devices for labor-saving and comfort, have replaced the +simple homes of colonial days. + +What has brought about this change? The energy and industry of American +men and women, aided for the most part by American inventions, and made +possible by the wonderful natural resources of America. + +No one could wish to have had our country's development checked in any +way. These great results could be obtained only by using the materials +that could be had easiest and cheapest, even if it meant great waste in +the beginning. Labor was scarce and high in this country, abundant and +cheap in Europe. In order to make goods that could be sold at prices +even above those of European countries, it was absolutely necessary to +have cheap lumber, coal and iron. + +But the time has come when we can no longer continue this waste without +interfering with future development. Some of the resources have been so +exhausted that a few years will see the end of their use in large +commercial quantities. Others, such as coal and iron, will last much +longer, but when they are gone they can never be replaced; and so far as +we can now foresee, the country will cease to prosper when they can no +longer be had for use in manufacturing. The length of time they will +last at the present rate of use can be easily calculated. It is a long +time for us to look forward, for it is longer than the lifetime of any +man now living, or of his children, but it is within the life of his +grandchildren, and that is a very short time in the history of a nation. + +It may be said that while other nations have passed into decay, none has +ever exhausted its resources so early in its history, and surely this +great rich nation can not so soon face actual need. But we must remember +that no other nation has ever used its resources as we have used ours. +We are using in years what other nations have used in centuries. + +It is not possible now, it probably never will be possible, to use every +particle of a resource. This would be too expensive, would mean a labor +cost far beyond the value of the thing saved. + +In the beginning, as we have shown, the vast wastes were not wanton, but +absolutely necessary, and we have not yet reached the point where we can +afford to use the low-grade ores, to use all lumber waste and to +practise many other economies that may sometime become necessary. But in +the case of the forests we should provide enough trees for use in coming +years, and in the case of all minerals, the refuse should be left in +such condition that it can easily be ready for possible future use. + +If conservation meant leaving our resources untouched, and checking +development in order that there might be an abundance for future +generations, it would be both an unwise and unacceptable policy; but it +must be thoroughly understood that this is not what is desired. + +Conservation does not mean the locking up of our resources, nor a +hindrance to real progress in any direction. _It means only wise, +careful use._ + +It does not mean that we shall cease to cut our timber, but it does mean +that we shall not waste two-thirds of all that is cut, as we are doing +at present. It means, too, that we shall take better care of articles +manufactured from it, and most of all, it means that, when a tree is cut +down another shall, whenever possible, be planted in its stead to +provide for the needs of the future. + +It means that we shall not allow the farms of our country to lose five +hundred million dollars in value every year by letting the rich top-soil +drain off into our rivers, because we have cut away the trees whose +roots held the soil in place. It also means that we shall not steadily +rob the land of the elements that would produce good crops, and put +nothing back into the soil. + +It means that we shall not kill the birds that destroy harmful insects +and thus invite the insects to destroy the crops that we have cultivated +with such care. + +It does not mean that we shall let our mines of coal and iron lie +unused, as the miser does his gold, but that we shall, while taking what +we need, leave as little waste in the mine as possible, and shall use +what we take in the most economical way. This means a saving of money to +the user, as well as a conservation of resources. It means, too, that we +shall not allow our water-power to remain unused, while we burn millions +of tons of coal in doing the work that water-power would do better. + +It means that we shall not allow enough natural gas to escape into the +air every day to light all the large cities in the United States. It +means that we shall take better care of the life and health of the +people. + +This is the true conservation. + +In the following chapters we shall take up each of the great resources +in turn, shall see what we have used, what we have wasted, what remains +to us, how long it will continue at the present rate, how it may be used +more wisely, and how it may be replaced, if that be possible, or what +may be used instead of those which can not be renewed. + +We shall study how we may make the most of all that nature has given us +and develop our country to the highest possible point, how we may rise +far above our present level in comfort, convenience, and abundance, and +yet do all these things with much less waste than we now permit. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE SOIL + + +The soil is the greatest of our natural resources. We may almost say +that it is greater than all the others combined, for from it comes all +of our food; a large part of it directly as plants which grow in the +soil and which we eat in the form of roots, leaves, grains, berries, +fruits, and nuts; and a part of it indirectly as animals, which have +received their food supply from the plants. + +But this is not all. The soil supplies almost every known need. We build +our homes from the trees of the forest; combined with the iron that +comes from the soil they furnish our fuel, our ships, our cars, our +furniture, and countless other things. Our clothing is made from the +cotton or flax which grows from the soil, the wool from the sheep that +feed on the pastures, or from the silk-worms that feed on leaves. + +So it is to the earth that we turn for every need, and Mother Nature +supplies it. But it is of the soil as it gives us our food supply that +we shall speak in this chapter, and we must first learn the nature of +the soil, and the process of its making, in order to understand the need +of extraordinary care in its management, and also how to use it so that +it will not wear out, or become exhausted, but will increase in value +for years and even centuries, as it will if properly cared for. + +The earth's surface is constantly being renewed. Although the great +formative movements occurred ages ago, yet earthquakes, volcanic action, +wind, frost and water are working continual changes. Hills and mountains +have been thrown up, and nature has gone to work at once to shave down +the mountains and fill up the valleys. The whole earth is as carefully +adjusted and balanced as the wheels of a watch, but these adjustments +take place in long periods of time. In a lifetime, or even a century, +the changes of the earth's surface seem few and small, but they are none +the less sure. + +The soil or humus, that is, the upper layer of the earth's crust which +is used in farming, has an average depth of about four feet, and has +been formed by decay, first and most important of all by rock decay +which is constantly going on under the surface of the earth and in +exposed places everywhere, and is caused by the action of air and water. +This process is very slow. In places where the rock is already partly +ground up, or, disintegrated, as we sometimes say, it is more rapid, but +the average growth of the soil from beneath by rock decay is scarcely +more than a foot in ten thousand years. + +Some waste of this upper layer is constantly taking place from above, +caused by wind and floods, and considerable additions are made to it by +the decay of animal and vegetable matter, but in order to keep the soil +at its best, the average soil waste should not amount to more than an +inch every thousand years. + +When this humus is once exhausted there is no way to repair the damage +but to wait for the slow rock-decay. In the river valleys there is no +immediate danger of exhausting the entire body of the soil, but on the +hills and in the higher regions the soil-depth is very much less than +four feet, and the danger of waste much more serious. There are parts of +the earth that were once almost as fertile as ours where great cities +once stood, but where now nothing is left but the bare rock. + +So we know that the end is sure, even for the life of man upon earth, +unless we learn to conserve our soil. + +The value of our farm crops can not be overestimated. In food value they +are the life of the nation; in money value, our greatest national +wealth. For the year 1909 the total value of farm products was the +amazing sum of $8,760,000,000. It may give some idea of this vast amount +to say that if we could have it in the form of twenty-dollar gold +pieces, stacked in one pile, the column would reach seven hundred miles +high. If they were laid flat, edge to edge, they would extend from +Alaska to the Panama Canal, with enough left over to reach from New York +to San Francisco. If the money could be distributed, it would give us +all, every man, woman and child in the United States, one hundred +dollars apiece. The corn crop was worth $1,720,000,000; the cotton +$850,000,000; wheat comes third with a value of $725,000,000; then come +hay, oats, and other crops in vast amounts worth hundreds of millions of +dollars. The cotton alone was worth more than the world's output of gold +and silver combined. The corn would pay for the Panama Canal, for fifty +battleships, and for the irrigation projects in the West, with a hundred +million dollars left over. + +And this is all new wealth. If we build a house, we have gained the +house, but the trees of which we build it are gone. The same thing is +true of every article we manufacture. Something is taken from our store +in the making. But after we have taken these wonderful crops from our +farms the land is still there, and the soil is just as ready to produce +a good crop the next year, and the next, and the next, if we treat it +properly. + +This matter of soil conservation is of the greatest importance to every +one of us. If you are to own a farm, or rent a farm, or till a garden, +or plant an orchard ten years from now, it will make a great difference +to you whether the man who owns it from now until then knows how to care +for it so as to make it produce well, or whether, by neglect, he allows +it to become poorer each year. It will make a far greater difference if +twenty years elapse. + +It makes a difference to the farmer whether he gets twelve bushels of +wheat to the acre, or whether he gets twenty, for the cost of producing +the smaller amount is just as great as the cost of producing the larger, +and the extra bushels are all profit. It makes a difference whether a +garden furnishes all the fruit and vegetables needed by the family, or +whether it does not even pay for cultivation, and the food must be +bought at high prices. It makes even more difference to the dweller in +the city, who must buy all that he eats, whether food is abundant or +not. If food is abundant, prices are low, but when the yield is small +the demand is so great that prices become high. + +Not only the men, but the women and children as well, are affected by +these food values, because it is from the extra money left over after +the actual cost of living is taken out that the clothing, the +house-furnishings, books, pictures, music, travel and all the pleasures +of life must come. + +Great as are our harvests, we are not raising much more than enough for +our present needs. Each year we are using more of our food at home, and +have less to export to other countries. In a few years more the public +lands will all be taken, and there will be comparatively little more +land than we now cultivate to supply a population that will be many +times as great as at present. + +Men who watch the great movements of the world tell us that the time is +coming before many years when there will not be food enough to supply +all our people, when we shall be buying food from other countries +instead of selling to them, when we shall have famine instead of plenty +unless we realize the danger and at once set about to make the most of +every acre of our land. + +James J. Hill, the great railroad builder of the Northwest, and one of +the best informed men of the country on food production and the increase +of population, is doing a great work in pointing out these dangers to +the people on every possible occasion. + +Watching the great food-producing region of the country, he has noted +that each year the yield per acre is growing less, and the population +steadily more. He tells us that when our first census was taken only +four per cent. of the people lived in cities, that fifty years ago +one-third of the people lived in cities, and two-thirds in the country, +that is, two-thirds of the people were furnishing food to the remainder. +Now conditions are almost exactly reversed. Only one-third remain in the +country, and must supply the food, not only for themselves, but for all +the two-thirds who are not food producers, so that the food supply is +lagging far behind the demand. The price of corn has advanced from +twenty-five cents to sixty-five cents a bushel in ten years, and this in +turn raises the price of live stock. And so all along the line. Prices +are growing higher all the time because not enough food is being +produced to supply the demand. + +So we can see that it is absolutely necessary that the soil be properly +cared for if we are to continue to increase and prosper, for as +Secretary Wilson has said, "Upon the fertility of the soil depends the +whole business of agriculture." + +The soil is exhausted in two ways: (1) By erosion, or the carrying away +of the entire soil itself. (2) By so using the soil that one or more of +its principal elements are worn out. We shall consider this form of soil +exhaustion first, because it more directly concerns the work of every +farmer. + +By a fertile soil is meant one that has an abundance of plant food in +the proper proportions. The soil contains all the elements that are +needed to support life, but they are in an inorganic form, that is, they +are lifeless. Plants alone can take these inorganic substances from the +soil, and change them into starch, sugar, fats, and protein. All +animals, including man, must get these substances through plants, or +through other animals that have already absorbed them from plants. + +The soil contains ten elements that are absorbed or assimilated by +plants. These are: (1) lime, (2) magnesia, (3) iron, (4) sulphur, all of +which are found in most plants in very small proportions, and are +present in most soils in quantities far beyond the needs of crops for +ages to come; (5) carbon, which is obtained by plants through their +leaves directly from the air and the sunshine; (6) hydrogen and (7) +oxygen, which are taken from the water in the soil and carried to the +leaves, where they also help to take the carbon from the atmosphere. +With none of these elements, then, does the farmer need to concern +himself in regions where the water supply is abundant, as they are, and +will continue to be, plentifully supplied by nature. But the other +three, (8) nitrogen, (9) potassium, and (10) phosphorus, are needed by +plants in large quantities, and are taken from the soil far more rapidly +than nature can replace them. + +All these elements are necessary to plant life, but some plants require +a large amount of one element, others a small proportion of that, but a +large amount of some of the others. No two varieties of plants require +exactly the same proportions, so it is easy to see that the plant that +takes out of the soil any one element makes the soil less capable each +year of producing a good crop of the same kind. + +In the early days of farming in this country, it was the custom to grow +a single crop, which had been found to give good results, year after +year in the same field. In Virginia and other near-by states nearly all +the best land was given every year to the cultivation of tobacco, which +exhausts the soil rapidly. In the states farther north other crops were +planted in the same way. As a result, some of the most fertile soil in +Virginia, the Carolinas, Massachusetts, and other eastern states has +been so exhausted that it is no longer worth cultivating. Everywhere +throughout the New England states are to be found these worn-out farms, +and, while they were never so fertile as the lands of the Mississippi +Valley, each one was rich enough to support a family in comfort, with +something left to sell; but because they were required to produce the +same crops, and so take the same element from the soil, year after year, +they have become so lacking in one of the essential elements that they +are unfit for cultivation, and have been abandoned. + +It is wisdom and good business policy for farmers to study carefully +this question of plant food and to learn what each crop is taking from +the soil, so that it may be replaced. It has been found by long and +careful experiments, that when land has been "single cropped," as this +abuse of the land is called, for a long time, the soil has been almost +entirely deprived of its nitrogen. As you know, nitrogen is one of the +elements of the air, so that there is a never-ending supply, but most +plants are unable to take it from the air, and until the last few years +the task of replacing nitrogen in the soil was considered impossible. +Recent discoveries, however, have shown that there are two ways in which +it may be done. By means of electricity, nitrogen may be directly +combined with the other elements of the soil. The other method is +nature's own plan, and so is easier and cheaper. It has been found that +while most plants exhaust the nitrogen from the soil, one class of +plants, the legumes, of which beans, peas, clover, and alfalfa are the +best known, have the power of drawing large stores of nitrogen from the +air, and, by means of bacteria attached to their roots, restoring it to +the ground. + +So farmers have learned that if they plant corn one year, it is wiser +not to plant corn in the same field the next year, but to sow wheat, +which requires less nitrogen, and the following year to sow clover, so +that the nitrogen which the corn and wheat have taken from the soil, may +be put back into it. If the land be naturally fertile, and has been well +cared for, the soil is then ready to produce a good crop of corn again. + +If the soil has become worn-out and the farmer is trying to improve its +general condition, he can gain better results by keeping the field in +clover a second year, when a profitable crop of clover seed may be had +from the land. This system of changing each year, and alternating cereal +crops, which take the nitrogen from the soil, with leguminous plants, +which restore it to the soil again, is called "rotation of crops," and +if regularly followed will preserve a proper balance of nitrogen in the +soil. + +In some parts of the West there is a lack of decaying vegetable matter +in the soil, because the few plants which naturally grow there have +small roots, and leave little vegetable material behind when they decay. +For this condition one of the best crops to employ in rotation is +sugar-beets, because they strike many small roots deep into the earth. +As these decay, each leaves behind a tiny load of vegetable mold deep in +the earth, and also makes the soil more porous. As the principal +elements of the soil needed by sugar-beets are carbon and oxygen, which +are absorbed from the air and sunshine, and as the beets can be sold at +a good profit, it is an excellent crop to employ in rotation. In the +United States records in various states show that where sugar-beets are +used in rotation, the wheat and corn yield is increased from two to four +times, and in Germany they are largely used to restore the fertility of +the land, even if the sugar-beets themselves are sold at a loss. + +It is most important that farmers should understand the principle of +rotation of crops, because nothing is taken from the soil so quickly or +in such large quantities as nitrogen, and nothing is so easily put back; +while, if it is not so replaced, the land becomes worthless. + +A comparison of the results of single cropping and the rotation of crops +has been clearly shown at the Experiment Station of the Agricultural +College of the State of Minnesota, where for ten years they have planted +corn on one plot of ground. For the first five years it averaged a +little more than twenty bushels per acre, and for the last five years, +eleven bushels. + +On another plot, where corn was planted in rotation, the average yield +was more than forty-eight bushels, the difference in average in the two +plots being thirty-two bushels, or twice the value of the entire average +yield on the exhausted ground. The corn grown at the end of the ten +years was only about three feet high, the ears were small, and the +grains light in weight. But it cost just as much to cultivate the land +that produced it as it did to cultivate the land that produced +forty-eight bushels. + +Of the other two elements, potassium is found abundantly in most soils. +It is also found in a readily soluble form in various parts of the +United States and is sold at a very low price. But even if these +deposits were exhausted we could still use the rocks which are very rich +in potassium, and are very abundant, in a pulverized form, or potash +could be manufactured from them. + +The only remaining element of the soil is phosphorus. This element was +discovered in 1607, the year of the first English settlement at +Jamestown and was first noticed because of its property of giving off +light from itself. The name which was given it means light-bearer. It +was at first thought to be the source of all power, to heal all +diseases, and to turn the common minerals into gold. Although we have +long ago learned that these ideas are absurd, yet we have also learned +that its real value to man is far greater than was even dreamed of then. + +It is the most important element in every living thing, for no cell, +however small, in either animal or vegetable organisms can grow or even +live without phosphorus. It is found in the green of the leaves, and +helps to make the starch. It enters largely into the grain and seeds of +plants, and is necessary for their germination, or sprouting, as well as +their growth. Three-fourths of all the phosphorus in a crop of cereals +is in the grains, giving them size and weight. It will thus be seen how +necessary it is that the soil which feeds our plants, which in turn +become the food of animals and of man, should contain a sufficient +amount of phosphorus. + +Phosphorus is taken from the soil in large quantities by every kind of +crop. In parts of Wisconsin which have been farmed a little more than +fifty years without fertilizing, it is found that about one-third of the +phosphorus has been taken out of the soil, which would mean that in one +hundred and fifty years, or a hundred years from now, the soil would be +incapable of producing any living thing, and long before that time the +crops would not pay for the labor of producing them. Almost every acre +of land that has been farmed for ten years without fertilization is +deficient in phosphorus, that is, so much has been used that the soil +can no longer produce at its former rate. + +It may be asked, if this be true, why the soil of America, which before +it was cultivated had borne rich forests and fields of waving grass, has +not become exhausted long ago. We must remember that nature always +adjusts itself; that, in the wild state, all plants decay where they +grow, and the same elements are returned again to the soil. But when the +entire product of vast areas is removed year after year, the soil has +nothing except the slow rock-decay with which to renew itself. + +In tropical regions it is not necessary to feed domestic animals at any +season of the year, but in those countries where the natural food can be +found only during a part of the year, the need of artificial feeding is +seen at once, and it becomes a part of the regular expense of farming. + +It would be considered the height of folly for a man to allow his +valuable animals to starve to death because of the expense of feeding +them, but few people recognize the fact, which is also true, that it is +equally bad business policy to allow the valuable crops of wheat, oats, +and corn to starve for want of plant food. + +The phosphates (that is, phosphorus) are the only large items of +expense, and in a large measure this may be lessened by raising live +stock, for which high prices can be obtained either as meat or dairy +products, and returning the manure, which contains a large amount of +phosphate, to the soil. If all the waste animal products could be +returned to the land, Professor Van Hise says, three-fourths of the +phosphorus would be replaced. All animal products are rich in +phosphates. The packing houses manufacture large quantities from the +bones and blood of animals. + +The garbage of cities, when reduced to powder, yields large returns in +phosphorus. It is said that if the sewage of cities, which in this +country is often turned into rivers and streams, polluting them and +causing disease, was reduced to commercial fertilizer, it would supply +the equivalent of from six to nine pounds of rock phosphate per year for +every acre of cultivated land in the United States. And this valuable +product is now totally lost, and worse than lost, since it menaces the +life and health of great numbers of our people. + +There still remain to be considered the rock phosphates, the form in +which phosphorus is found in separate deposits. The only large deposits +that have been used are in Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee, and +from them about two and a quarter million tons were mined in 1907. +Unfortunately, however, there is no law that prevents its export from +this country, and almost half of this found its way to Europe, where it +is eagerly sought at high prices. + +Within a short time valuable phosphate beds, more extensive than any +before known to exist in this country, have been discovered in Utah, +Wyoming, and Idaho. Professor Van Hise, who is one of the highest +authorities on the subject, says of these deposits that with the +exception of our coal and iron lands, they are our most precious mineral +possession; that every ounce should be saved for the time which is +coming when the population will have outgrown the capacity of the land, +and means of increasing its fertility in order to prevent famine will be +sought from every possible source. + +The other great waste of the soil is by erosion, or the wearing away of +the soil by stream-flow. We can all see this in a small way by wandering +along the shore of any swift-running stream and noticing how the banks +are worn away, and what deep gullies and ravines are cut into them by +the water running down from the fields above. Another way in which we +can observe the effect of this waste is by noticing the muddy yellow +color of streams during floods and after heavy rains, and comparing it +with the clear blue of the same stream at ordinary times. + +When we realize that this muddy color always means that the water is +filled with soil, all that it will hold in solution, that it is carrying +away the top soil, which is best for agriculture, and, finally, that +every little streamlet and creek, as well as the mightiest river, is +carrying this rich soil-deposit downward toward the sea in its flow, we +begin to see how great a factor erosion is in the wasting of the land. + +The Missouri River, which drains a large area of wheat and corn land, is +notable as a muddy, yellow river at almost all seasons. Do you +understand what that means? It means that this great productive region +is growing poorer each year, and that as the population increases, and +the need of great harvests increases, the land is becoming less able to +produce them. The Mississippi River is said to tear down from its banks +more soil each year than is to be dredged from the Panama Canal. At the +mouth of the river is a delta many miles in extent, formed wholly of +land that has been carried down the river. The soil in lower Mississippi +and Louisiana is almost black, and is in many places seventy feet in +depth, and it has all been left there by the river, which took it from +the higher lands. + +It is estimated that our rivers carry out to sea one billion tons of our +richest soil each year. The ancient Egyptians worshiped the Nile because +each year the spring floods left behind the rich soil deposits that +fertilized their fields and gave them an abundant harvest. Entire fields +and even whole farms along the upper stretches of the Mississippi and +Missouri have been carried away, not the top soil only, but the land +itself, by the swift current of the springtime floods as they cut a new +channel for the river. + +Canaan, the "land of promise" of the Bible, was once an abundant region, +"flowing with milk and honey" in the language of Moses, with its grapes, +its vast forests of cedar, fir, and oak, its treasures of wheat, +olive-oil, and other rich agricultural products. Now all are gone. The +entire country seen by the traveler in the Holy Land to-day is one of +the most desolate regions on the globe, where the few inhabitants are +scarcely able to obtain a scanty living. + +We wonder what has brought about this change, and we have not far to +seek in answer to our questioning. The preservation of the forests means +the preservation of the soil, and the destruction of the forests means +the destruction of the soil. This is the universal law. First the +forests were cut down and the hillsides left bare. Then the streams wore +great ravines down the unprotected hillsides. Steadily the work of +destruction by erosion has gone on, until time beyond our possibility to +comprehend must pass before the land can be made productive again. The +hills and valleys of China have been devastated in the same way, and +many of the older regions of the earth that were once the sites of great +cities and extensive commerce are now marked only by the ruins of the +civilization that has passed away. They have almost ceased to support +life. + +In the days of Rome's greatness, Sicily was known as "the granary of +Rome" because from this little island came the grains to supply her vast +armies. 12,000,000 bushels of grain was the tribute that Rome claimed of +Sicily each year, and yet Sicily had enough left to make her rich. She +built splendid cities and became great. But the same story of +destruction is to be read in the history of Sicily. Now the entire +island does not raise a million and a half bushels of wheat altogether. +The soil is barren. The cities have nearly all fallen into ruin. The +people are scattered. Thousands have come to America, seeking a poor +living at the lowest wages because at home there was no chance to earn +even the little they require. They allowed the soil to become exhausted +by lack of fertilization and by erosion and it long ago ceased to +support the people. All the rest followed naturally. + +In many parts of our own country this same danger is coming on us. It is +only the beginning, but the end is as sure for us as for those far-off +Eastern countries. + +Millions of acres have already been destroyed in the East and South. The +Appalachian mountain system lies not far from the coast, and the rivers +on the eastern slopes are short and swift. It is necessary, then, to +exercise the greatest care of the forests in order to prevent the floods +in this region from carrying away the lands in their swift rush to the +sea. North Carolina was one of the richest states in the Union in +natural resources a hundred years ago. Now it is low on the list in +agricultural products. The forests on its mountain tops were valuable +for their lumber, their turpentine, pitch, and other products, and great +lumber companies have almost denuded the hillsides, regardless of the +fate of the lands they cut over. The people of the state are powerless +to prevent this except by buying all of these lands and replanting the +forests. They have been pleading with Congress for power to stop the +destruction of their forests and the wasting of their lands, but so far +have received no assistance and meanwhile the land grows poorer each +year. The same conditions are to be found in many other states that now +rank high agriculturally, but in North Carolina we are beginning to see +results. + +In order to understand exactly how the damage is done to the land, let +us suppose a case which has actually occurred in hundreds of places. A +farmer owned a farm on the mountain side. Much of it was good wheat +land, but the top was covered with forests. At last he decided to cut +and sell the timber, and use the land for raising more wheat. He did +so, but now there was no spreading foliage to check the dash of the +heavy rains as they fell to the ground. As they sank below the surface +there were no masses of tangled roots to hold the moisture in the soil +and to carry it up into the air again through the trees. + +As the water penetrated deeper, the soil became softened, and was +carried away down the hillside. It was only a muddy little stream, but +it took away some of the richest soil from the fields, and the next +year's crop was not quite so good. Every rain that fell carried more of +the fertile soil down the hillside, and the next year the farmer +wondered that the yield was still less. After a few years he ceased to +sow the field because it had never paid for its cultivation, and was +constantly growing poorer. But it was too late then to repair the damage +that had been done. There were no seeds of forest trees left in the +ground and the farmer did not plant them, so the ground lay idle and +desolate. The rain wore deep gullies down the hillside, which, as they +grew larger, became more of a menace to the lands below them. The +streams soon grew large enough to take the top-soil from the fields +lower down, and in a few years more the whole farm had grown so +unproductive that the farmer, tired of the struggle, left the farm and +went to the city to make a living. + +In the meantime the land in the valley below had been growing more +fertile, for each year the spring floods had left a rich soil deposit +behind them. The farmer down there had been innocently stealing the land +above him, but not all of it, for much had been carried out to sea. + +It is not possible to prevent this entirely, but much of the loss might +have been avoided by leaving the hilltops, which are never well fitted +for cultivation, covered with forests. In this way the soil-wash from +above is prevented and the streams run gently and with only a small +amount of muddy deposit, forming proper drainage for the soil. + +The preserving of the forests on the great mountain ranges of the +country, where nature has placed them, will mean in the one matter of +soil-wash, fruitful lands and bountiful harvests, instead of barren, +wasted lands, desolated by floods and seamed by great ravines, carrying +desolation to the lands below them. + +But in many cases the trees are already cut away. Here replanting +becomes necessary and should be done in every case where soil-wash is +beginning on the mountain tops. It is almost equally desirable to plant +small shrubs and bushes as an undergrowth, so that the roots may form a +thick mat below the ground to hold the water in the soil, and permit it +to filter through slowly. + +In Massachusetts, the tracks of the Boston and Albany Railroad are +depressed so that trains may pass below the level of the highways. In +order to protect the banks from erosion, the sloping sides of this +roadway have been planted with trailing rose-bushes and other vines +which have thickly matted roots. These serve a double purpose in +preventing landslides and washouts on the tracks, and in adding greatly +to the attractiveness of the scenery along the railway. + +The poorest land of a farm is always found on the hilltops, because even +with the greatest care there is always considerable waste of the +top-soil. This land, then, should never be used for field crops. It +should constitute the woodland, or if this is not possible, the +pasture-land of the farm, for the grass roots protect the soil and +prevent it from washing away, and the profits on the hay are at least as +great as any other crop which could be grown on hill land. + +But when erosion has been checked and the top-soil preserved, when the +soil is thoroughly fertilized, and a proper rotation of crops +established, there are still other lessons to be learned in order to +make our country as productive as it might be, as it will _need_ to be +to support the population that we shall have by the end of the century. + +As a nation we undertake to farm too much land and do it carelessly. +The invention of labor-saving machinery has made it possible to farm +hundreds and even thousands of acres together with little physical +labor. This has made farmers heedless of small amounts of land wasted. + +A man often only expects to make a comfortable living on one hundred and +sixty acres of land, while in Europe he would expect to grow rich on two +or three acres. It is often said that a French family would live off of +an American farmer's neglected fence-corners. In France, in England, in +Holland and Belgium every bit of land is tended and made useful. We have +the best natural soil in the world, the most fertile river valleys, +watered by abundant rains. The fertility of our lands is the envy of the +civilized world, and has drawn thousands to our shores in the hope of +finding comfort and plenty, and yet the total value of our farm products +was only eleven dollars and thirty-eight cents per cultivated acre +according to the last census, while in the little island of Jersey, just +off the English coast, the average annual value of products is over two +hundred and fifty dollars per acre. + +Germany has been cultivated nearly eighteen hundred years, the soil is +not naturally so productive nor the climate so favorable as ours, but +the wheat yield there averages more than twice as much as in this +country. + +When the most fertile land in the world produces so much less than +poorer lands elsewhere it plainly shows that we are robbing the soil in +order to get the largest cash returns in the shortest possible time and +with the least possible labor. + +The American farmer needs to cultivate a much smaller amount of land +thoroughly, to have a soil analysis made of his land in order to know +what crops are best suited to it and what elements are lacking to make +it produce the best. In Illinois more than half a million acres had +become unfit for cultivation. Analysis showed that the soil was too +acid. By mixing limestone dust with the soil the trouble was corrected +and the land reclaimed. + +Often it is only necessary to find the cause of some deficiency, or +lack, in the soil, and the remedy will be found to be simple and cheap, +while the result of its use will be to double the crop. Nothing else so +quickly and easily responds to proper treatment, no other resource is so +easily conserved. All the soil needs is proper treatment. + +Every bit of waste land should be cultivated for either use or beauty, +or both. If all the lanes and neglected places could be planted with +fruit and nut trees, berry vines, and bushes, herbs or flowers which +need little cultivation after they are planted, our food, in variety and +quantity, would be greatly increased. "The hedge-rows of Old England" +are famous for their beauty and the air of comfort and prosperity they +give. They take the place of the weeds that grow by the country +roadsides in America and which constitute one of the greatest nuisances +of the farmer. + +Another thing that should be considered is the marketing of farm +products. Near a city or near a canning factory the soil can be most +profitably used for the raising of vegetables, for which the cost of +cultivation is great, but which yield far larger profits than farm +crops. + +Within the last few years a new system of farming has been developed in +the West, which is of great interest to all of us, both because it is +opening up for production a large part of our country that has seemed +valueless, and because the lessons that have been learned there are of +the greatest advantage in every part of the country. + +West of the one-hundredth meridian, which crosses North and South +Dakota, the western part of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and +including the states west of them, lies a vast region that used to be +known as the "great American desert." It comprises almost half of the +United States. Here the noble forests of the eastern states and the +prairie grasses of the plains were replaced by sage-brush and cactus. +The soil was light in color and weight, and the rainfall very scanty. + +It seemed impossible that it could ever be fitted for agriculture. But +there were a few great rivers, rich mining districts, and excellent +grazing lands. These attracted settlers, and to them some cultivation of +the soil became almost a necessity. The waste waters of the rivers were +used for irrigation and the land when watered was found to produce +remarkably fine fruits and agricultural products. Yet there were +hundreds of thousands of acres that could not be irrigated for lack of +water, and the problem of finding a use for these barren, semi-arid +lands remained unsolved for many years. + +But here and there in different states and under varying conditions, +after many experiments and failures, men began without water to grow +successful crops on these semi-arid lands, where the rainfall was +scarcely more than ten inches per year. Others following this method +found success, and it began to seem possible that all this territory +might some day become a great farming region. + +By comparing the methods employed in different states, the few general +laws have been worked out which must be applied in order to farm +successfully in this region, though the details differ with local +differences in altitude, climate, soil, and rainfall. Here farming is +being reduced to a science. In other parts of the country a man sows his +seed and nature cares for it, and gives him his harvest; but here he +must wring from nature all that he gets, so it is only the man who farms +according to fixed laws who can hope to succeed. + +This system is usually called "dry farming," though "scientific farming" +would perhaps be a better name, for the same principles that are +absolutely necessary here will greatly increase the yield anywhere. The +most important principle is to conserve every particle of moisture in +the soil. It is necessary to go deep into the soil to find the +underlying moisture. The seed-bed is made very deep. Plowing is from +sixteen to nineteen inches deep, while in well-watered regions it is +only about six inches. This deep seed-bed is thoroughly cultivated to +make the soil porous, the soil being reduced to a fine powder. After +sowing the seed, the ground is packed as solidly as possible. This is +done by especially designed machines. The surface of the soil is kept +broken all the time to prevent the escape of the moisture. This rule +applies equally to all soils in dry weather, and will often save a crop +of corn in any part of the country during a drought. + +These are simple rules, but the practice of them is opening up the great +semi-arid regions, not of the United States only, but of the whole +earth. Western Canada, a large part of Australia, the Kalahari Desert of +Africa, and many parts of Asia, which are all semi-arid, will in time +become productive instead of barren. + +It must be remarked that the grains of the East could not +withstand the severe winters in a large part of the Northwest, so +the Department of Agriculture sent men all over the world to find +drought-and-cold-resisting grains. They found a hard winter wheat, the +most nutritious in existence, which is now growing all the way from the +Dakotas to the Pacific Ocean, producing crops far above the yield of the +eastern states. 50,000,000 bushels of this wheat was raised in 1907. + +The soil is the natural disintegrated rock, rich in the mineral +elements, but lacking in decayed vegetable matter. The crops soon +exhaust the nitrogen, and as clover and the common alfalfas can not grow +there, the problem of finding legumes has been the most serious one +facing this new region; but in Siberia the Agricultural Department has +recently found a new clover and three varieties of alfalfa that will +stand the cold, and Secretary Wilson believes that these will solve the +problem. + +Every acre brought under cultivation adds to the world's food supply. +Can we even dream of what it will mean when 200,000,000 acres are added +to the farm lands of this continent? It means prosperity for the farmers +themselves, homes for those who are now crowded in cities, work for the +idle, and food for the hungry. It means wealth and happiness for +thousands now living and millions yet to come. + + +REFERENCES + +Lands. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Soil Wastage. Chamberlain. Report White House Conference of Governors. + +Conservation of Soils. Van Hise. (Same.) + +Commercial Fertilizers. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 44.[A] + +[Footnote A: Department of Agriculture bulletins are free unless a price +is indicated, and may be obtained by application to The Department of +Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Postage is free in the United States. +These bulletins contain the latest scientific information and result of +research work by the government.] + +The Liming of Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 57. + +Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 245. + +Soil Fertility. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 257. + +Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +266. + +Fertilizers for Cotton Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin, 62. + +Work of the Bureau of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin. + +Exhaustion and Abandonment of Soils. Bureau of Soils Bulletin. Whitney, +5c. + +Phosphorus. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin. + +The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 411. + +The Search for Leguminous Forage Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture +Reprint, 478. + +Leguminous Crops. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 278. + +Progress in Legume Inoculation. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +315. + +A Grain for Semi-arid Lands. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, +139. + +The Sugar-Beet. Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, 52. + +Dry-Land Problems in the Great Plains Area. Yearbook Dept. of +Agriculture Reprint, 461. + +Reports of Dry Farming Congress. + +The Natural Wealth of the Land. J. J. Hill, Report Governor's +Conference. + +National Wealth and the Farm. J. J. Hill. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORESTS + + +Aside from the soil itself, which supports all life, there is no other +resource so important to man as the forests, with their many uses +covering so wide a range. + +The beauty and restfulness of a forest, the grace and dignity of single +trees, the shade for man and animals, the shelter from storms--all these +things appeal to our love for the beautiful, and touch our higher +nature. The person who loves trees is a better person than the one who +does not. As the poet expresses it: + + "Ah, bare must be the shadeless ways, and bleak the path must be, + Of him, who, having open eyes, has never learned do see, + And so has never learned to love the beauty of a tree. + + "Who loves a tree, he loves the life that springs in star and clod, + He loves the love that gilds the clouds, and greens the April sod, + He loves the wide Beneficence; his soul takes hold on God." + +Trees have played an important part in the history of our country: The +"Charter Oak," in the hollow of which the original charter of +Connecticut remained hidden from the agents of the king; "Eliot's Oak," +under which the gospel was first preached to the Indians; the +wide-spreading elm under which William Penn signed his treaty of peace +with the Indians. + +But no tree has held so dear a place in the hearts of the people, or +been so watchfully cared for as the old "Washington Elm" still standing +in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Under it Washington took command of the +continental army. It is visited every year by hundreds of persons, who +stand with uncovered heads beneath its spreading branches. Many years +ago it was struck by lightning and the upper part torn off, but all the +broken edges have been sealed with pitch to stop decay. It has been +covered with fine wire netting to prevent the bark being chipped off by +relic hunters. It is carefully guarded from damage by insects, and the +boughs are stayed by strong wires. + +And so we might name many instances of trees that are loved and cared +for on account of their beauty, stateliness or some event connected with +them, but it is the usefulness of trees that we shall mention in this +chapter. + +In the larger use of forests is included their effect on climate and +rainfall. It is generally believed that clouds, passing over the damp, +cool air that rises from a forest, are more likely to be condensed into +rain, and so we can establish the general rule that the country which is +well wooded will probably have a larger rainfall than the one which has +few trees. + +Twenty-five years ago Kansas was a prairie state with few trees, and the +semi-arid plains extended half-way across the state, but thousands of +acres of trees have been planted, and crops have been cultivated, and +the more forests and crops the farmer plants the more rain comes to +water them. The great droughts which used to ruin their crops year after +year no longer disturb them. The hot winds which could undo a whole +season's hard work in a day are seldom heard of now. Kansas is no longer +in the semi-arid region. It is one of the most productive states in the +Union, and this has come, not by dry-farming, but by the cultivation of +the soil and by the planting of trees. + +Though rainfall increases, destructive floods become fewer, for the +humus and the leaves on the ground in the forests hold the water as in +a vast sponge, and, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, they keep +the waters in check and distribute the rainfall gently and evenly on the +lands below. They thus prevent erosion of the hillsides and balance the +water supply of rivers. + +Trees supply us with food and medicine, and greatest of all their direct +uses, they furnish lumber for all kinds of manufacturing. + +We can not think of life without the comforts and conveniences that we +get from wood; but interior China affords a striking example of what it +means for a nation to have a very small supply. There is no wood for +manufacturing and the natives search the hillsides for even the tiniest +shrubs to burn and even for grass scratched from the soil. Once this +part of China was a great forest region, but century by century the +forests have been used, not rapidly, as in this country, for China is +not a great industrial nation, but surely, until there is hardly a twig +left. + +China is not the only nation that has suffered in this way. Many of the +ancient peoples have entirely passed away; and the destruction of their +forests, as we have seen in the previous chapter, was the first cause +leading to their extinction. + +Denmark was originally almost covered with forests. These were cut down +for fuel, for lumber, and to make way for agriculture. For a long time +there was no attempt to restore them, and now a large area, once +productive, has become a sandy desert. In the same way, large parts of +Austria and Italy have become valueless because the growing forests were +cut down. + +In France the forests at the head-waters of the Rhone and the Seine were +cut down and fierce floods began to pour down the valleys each year, +bringing destruction to property and crops all along their way. But +France has long ago learned the lesson of forestry, and as soon as the +danger was seen, the mountain sides were replanted with trees, and since +then conditions have been gradually changing for the better. + +France has had another experience in forestry that has taught her what +can be done to save her waste lands. Near the coast were great +sand-dunes. The winds drove them each year farther inland, and the sand +was gradually driving out the vineyards and farm crops. In 1793 the +planting of forests on these dunes was begun. Of 350,000 acres, 275,000 +have been planted in valuable pine forests. More than half of these +belong to private owners and there is no record of their value, but the +portion belonging to the government has yielded a large income above all +expenses, and is worth $10,000,000 as land; and this was not only +valueless but was a menace to the surrounding country. In the interior +of France a sandy marsh covering 2,000,000 acres has been changed into a +profitable forest valued at $100,000,000. + +A hundred years ago all the eastern part of the United States and the +Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast region were covered with thick +forests hundreds and hundreds of miles in extent. Evergreens--the pines, +hemlocks, cedars and spruces--grew near the coast in great abundance, +while farther inland were found the most magnificent hardwood forests in +the world. + +Unfortunately, the first needs of the early settlers required them to +cut down these mighty forests. The soil, which was very fertile, could +not, of course, be used for farming purposes until the land was cleared, +and so this was the first necessity. + +The wood was used to build the cabins, to make the rude furniture, the +wagons and ox-carts, and for fuel, but this disposed of only a small +amount of the wood that came from the clearing of a farm. No man could +give it to his neighbor when all had more than they could use, and there +was no market for its sale. The trees were burned in large quantities to +clear the land for the planting of crops. + +Wood was of the greatest value to the first settlers, but it was also +the greatest hindrance to their making homes, so they took no care +whatever of what they could not use. It was burned or left on the +ground to decay. As towns sprang up, there began to be a demand for +lumber for houses, for furniture, for vehicles and for fuel from those +who had no trees of their own. This made a market for the best grades of +lumber at a low price, but almost every farmer would give away trees of +the best hardwood to any person who would cut and haul them away. + +Conditions have changed very slowly, but very surely. In every state, in +every county and in every township there has been a steady clearing of +the land as it fills with new home-makers. At the same time the demand +has grown enormously each year from the dwellers in cities. + +The opening up of railroads and telegraph lines in the middle and latter +part of the century made a great demand for wood. The building of ships +and steamboats, the opening of mines, the establishing of telephone and +trolley systems, the building of great cities, all these have called +steadily and increasingly for wood. + +The time has long passed when wood was a hindrance to progress. For a +long time there has been a ready market at high prices and it is rapidly +reaching the point where we shall face an actual shortage of timber. +This is not true of all parts of the country, of course. Maine, +Washington, and parts of Oregon, Alabama, Arkansas, and Mississippi, +Wisconsin and some other states, still have vast quantities of lumber, +but trains and ships carry it to all parts of the world so there is no +lack of a market. + +The change from plenty, even great excess, to need, has come so +gradually that few persons, even those living in the forest regions, +have realized until within a very few years how general is their +destruction. Those who, riding about a small portion of the country +familiar to them, have been struck with the disappearance of the woods +and the cultivation of the lands, have looked upon it wholly as a sign +of progress, and have not realized that the same thing is going on in +every part of the country. + +The wholesale destruction of the forests, without replanting, has come +mostly from ignorance. We have had all our resources in such great +abundance that we have not hitherto needed to learn the lessons that the +Old World has learned, sometimes at the cost of whole nations, but the +time has come when we _do_ need to learn them. + +The first lesson is to study the various uses of the forests, to find +how they are being affected by present use, their wastes, and the best +means of preserving them. When all the people have learned these +lessons, they will, undoubtedly, gladly set about righting the wrongs +that have been done in the past. + +The original forests of this country covered an area of about +850,000,000 acres, with nearly five and a half trillion board feet of +"merchantable," that is, salable, timber according to present standards. +(A board foot is one foot long, one foot wide and one inch in +thickness.) Considerably more than half the original number of acres are +still forested, but most of the land has been cut or burned over, some +of it several times, and the amount remaining of salable timber, which +includes only the best part of the trunk, is from two to two and a half +trillion, that is from 1,400 to 2,000 billion, feet. The yearly cut for +all purposes, including waste, is now over two hundred billion board +feet;--some authorities place the amount as high as two hundred and +seventy-five billion feet. This, however, probably includes firewood, +one of the largest uses of wood, but taken very largely from worm-eaten +wood that could not be cut into lumber. It also probably includes +boughs, and other unsalable parts of the tree. + +The timber cut doubled from 1880 to 1905, is still increasing at almost +the same rate, and, if we had the timber, it would doubtless double +again by 1930. But even at the present rate, the forests now standing, +without allowance for growth, would be exhausted in from ten to sixteen +years. The yearly growth of timber in our present forests is estimated +at from forty-two to sixty billion feet, and the yearly cut at from +three to three and a half times the amount added for growth. + +That is, we are using in four months at least as much wood as will +naturally grow in a year. The other eight months we shall be using our +forest reserves, and each year there will be less forest land to produce +new growth, as well as less old wood to cut. + +Mr. R. A. Long, an expert lumberman who spoke before the first +Conservation Congress, estimated then that the forests, making allowance +for growth, would not last over thirty-five years. The government +figures indicate that they will last about thirty-three years, at the +present rate, but as the rate has been doubling every twenty-five years, +many persons who have studied the situation believe that the supply will +not continue in commercial quantities for manufacturing more than +twenty-five years. + +We must understand, must think, what the destruction of our forests +would mean to us. It would mean fierce droughts and fiercer floods. It +would mean the gradual drying up of our streams, a scarcity of water to +drink, as in China to-day. It would mean that the manufacture of wooden +articles would practically cease. The thousand conveniences that we +enjoy as a matter of course would become rare and costly. It would mean +that only the rich could build houses of wood, and this would force the +masses of people into crowded quarters, not only the poor, but the +well-to-do also. These are only a few of the many disasters that would +follow the loss of our forests, and all these things might come to pass +before we ourselves are old! + +If we knew that at a certain time a tidal wave would engulf our homes, +how we should work to save all that we could before the calamity +overtook us! And we should set about the saving of our forests with +equal care, for their destruction means distress for every one of us. + +Fortunately, this is only the dark possibility. The methods of +prevention are well known to those who have studied the history of the +nations that have fallen, and the nations that have risen to power. It +is only necessary that all the people should know these things and +realize their importance, in order to keep conditions as they are at +present or even to better them. + +The methods of prevention are five. They are: + +(1) To use the trees in the most careful and conservative way without +the great wastes now common. + +(2) To save the vast areas of forests that are now burned each year. + +(3) To prevent loss from insects. + +(4) To use substitutes: that is, to use other and cheaper materials to +take the place of wood whenever possible. + +(5) To plant trees and to replant where old ones have been cut, until +all land that is not fitted for agriculture is covered with forests. + +These are only the rules that good sense and good business would teach +us to follow, but we have not followed any of them in the past, and now +it will be necessary to do all these things if we are to continue to +have enough wood to use to keep pace with our progress in other +directions. + +As an example of the rapid rate at which we are consuming our forests, +we use nine times as much lumber for every man, woman and child as the +people of Germany use, and twenty-five times as much as the people of +England use. This is due to several causes, many of which we would not +wish changed. + +To begin with, this was a new and undeveloped country, a large part of +which had never been inhabited, and all the land, as fast as it was +occupied, must be built up with entirely new homes; and because wood is +the cheapest building material it is the one generally used. + +The growth of all European countries is mostly by the increase of their +own people, while this is only a small percentage of our growth, which +comes largely from immigration from other countries, so the increase of +population is much greater here and the proportion of new homes needed +is far greater. Improvements of all kinds, public buildings, churches +and bridges were built in almost every European community long ago, +while in this country these things are being done each year in thousands +of places. + +Wages are higher in this country, and more people are able to afford the +luxuries of life, vehicles, musical instruments, and the large variety +of small conveniences to be found in almost every American home but seen +in few homes of the poorer class in Europe. + +These are a few of the reasons why we use such a large amount of lumber +each year. They are all conditions that mean a larger, better nation +than we could otherwise have, with a higher standard of living, and +while in some particulars, as we shall show, there should be changes +that would conserve our forests, the great wastes do not lie in the +_use_, but in the _abuse_ of the forests. + +Now let us see what use is made of all the wood that is cut every year. +The greatest use of all is for firewood, but this is largely the +decaying or faulty trees from farmers' wood-lots, or the waste product +of a lumber region, so this does not constitute so heavy a drain on the +forests as the fact that 100,000,000 cords a year are used, would +indicate. + +Twenty times as much of the salable timber is sawed into lumber as is +used in any other way. Nearly 40,000,000,000 board feet are thus used, +but lumber is used in a variety of ways, while the other cuts are +confined to a single use. + +The first and greatest use of lumber is for building purposes, for +houses, barns, sheds, out-buildings, fences, and for window-sashes, +doors and inside finishings of all buildings, even those made of other +materials. + +Next comes furniture of all kinds,--chairs, tables, beds, and all other +house, office, and school furniture; musical instruments, pianos, etc., +vehicles of all kinds,--farm wagons, delivery wagons, carriages and +other pleasure vehicles, including parts of automobile bodies, +agricultural implements, plows, harrows, harvesters, threshing machines +and other farm implements. Though these are built largely of iron, yet +one-fourth of the implement factories report a use of 215,000,000 feet +of lumber a year, so the entire output of these factories calls for a +large amount of wood from our forests. + +Car building is the other really great use for lumber. Freight cars, +passenger cars, and trolley cars use each year an increasingly large +proportion of the product of our saw-mills. + +After these come the various smaller articles, which, though themselves +small, are used in every home and are turned out in such vast quantities +as to require a very large amount of lumber each year. + +An empty spool seems a trifle, but the making of all the spools requires +the cutting of hundreds of acres of New England's best birch woods. +Butter dishes, fruit crates, baskets, wooden boxes of all kinds, tools +and handles, kitchen utensils, toys and sporting goods, picture molding +and frames, grille and fretwork, excelsior, clothes-pins, matches, +tooth-picks,--all these are mowing down our forests by the thousands of +acres. + +The lumber cut includes all kinds of both hard and soft woods. A very +large percentage of this is of yellow or southern hard pine, of which +several billion feet a year are used. + +An almost equal amount is used for hewn cross-ties for railroads and +trolley lines. Many sawed cross-ties are included in the item of lumber. +The hewed cross-ties are made from young oak-trees, or from hard-pine, +cedar and chestnut. Without them no more railroad or trolley lines could +be built, and the present systems could not be kept in repair. Many +other materials have been tried, but wood is the only one that has ever +proved satisfactory and safe for this purpose. + +The next largest use of lumber is the grinding of it into pulp to be +used in making paper for our books, magazines and newspapers, wrapping +papers, etc. The woods used for this purpose are mostly spruce and +hemlock. The great sources of supply of pulp-wood are Maine and +Wisconsin, and large amounts are imported from Canada, which greatly +lessens the drain on our own forests. + +Next in importance comes cooperage stock for the making of barrels. When +we consider the many uses of barrels,--that vinegar, oil, and liquors +are all shipped in tight barrels, which are mostly made of the best +white oak, and that flour, starch, sugar, crackers, fruits and +vegetables, glassware, chemicals, and cement are shipped in what are +called slack barrels, made of various hardwoods, the hoops being always +of soft elm, a wood which is rapidly disappearing, we can see the size +and necessity of this industry. + +Round mine timbers, largely made of young hardwood trees, are used to +support the mines underground. Mining engineers say that on an average +three feet of lumber are used in mining every ton of coal taken out. +Assuming that 450,000,000 tons of coal are mined each year, this would +mean that almost a billion and a half feet a year are used in the coal +mines, and this is about the amount shown by the government report. + +After this comes wood for lath used in building. This product is usually +taken from lower class wood or logging camp waste. Then comes the wood +for distillation into wood-alcohol for use in manufacture and to furnish +power in engines. + +Next in quantity used comes veneer, which has two entirely different +uses. The highest grade woods are cut to about one-twentieth of an inch +and glued to cheaper woods as an outside finish in the making of +furniture. The other use is for veneer used alone, when a very thin wood +is desired. This is employed for butter dishes, berry baskets, crates, +boxes and barrels. + +Next on the list come poles--electric railway, electric light, +telegraph, and telephone poles. Every pole that is erected for any of +these purposes, every extension of the service, and all replacing caused +by wind or decay, means the cutting of a tall, straight, perfect tree, +usually cedar or chestnut. If we think of each pole of the network that +covers the entire continent, as a tree, we shall better realize what our +forests have done in binding the nation together. + +Leather is stained by soaking the hides in a solution containing the +bark of oak or hemlock. Sometimes an extract is made from chestnut +wood. This has caused one of the most criminal wastes of trees, for a +great deal of timber was cut down solely for the bark, and the wood left +to decay in the forest. But now, as the price of lumber advances, more +of it is used each year and less left to waste. + +The bark and extract of the quebracho, a South American tree, are being +imported for use in tanning, and are still further reducing the drain on +our own forests. + +Turpentine and rosin do not in themselves destroy the forests any more +than does tapping the maple trees for their sap, but in the making of +turpentine trees that are too small are often "boxed" and the trees are +easily blown down by heavy winds or are attacked by insects and fungi. +Many destructive fires also follow turpentining, so that on the whole +the turpentine industry is responsible for the destruction each year of +large areas of the southern pine forests. The methods of turpentining +introduced by the government result in the saving of thirty per cent. +more turpentine, and also protect the trees so that they may be used +fifteen or twenty years and still be almost as valuable as ever for +timber. + +Twenty millions of posts are cut each year in the Lake States alone, and +the entire number used is probably two or three times as great. + +These constitute the greater uses of wood, not a full and detailed list; +but it plainly shows that all the uses are not only desirable, but +necessary for our comfort and happiness, and that we would not willingly +sacrifice one of them, and in order that this shall not become +necessary, let us see what abuses we can find in the management of our +forests. And here we find the most startling figures of all. + +Great and important as is our list of products made from wood, we are +surprised to learn that of all wood cut fully two-thirds is wasted in +the forests, left to decay or burned. The largest forests are now all +located far from the great manufacturing regions, and that means far +from the lumber market. The cost of transportation must be added to +every car of lumber sold. The freight on a car-load of lumber from the +South to Chicago or other points in the middle West is not less than a +hundred dollars, and from the Pacific coast it is very much higher. + +It does not pay to send low-grade lumber when the cost is so great, and +as there is no local market a large part of each tree is burned. All the +upper end of the trunk and all branches are thus destroyed, although +much valuable timber is contained in them. + +At one mill in Alabama a pile of waste wood and branches as high as a +two-story house burns night and day throughout the year, and that is +probably true of all the larger mills. + +If the timber could be conservatively managed as are live-stock +products, so that all the waste could be utilized, all the small +articles, shingles, lath, posts, tan-bark and extract, pulp-wood, wood +for distillation and small manufactured articles would be made +by-products of the larger cuts. + +Much has been said of the greed of large lumber companies in causing +wholesale and reckless destruction of the forests, and much of it is +doubtless true, but the lumber companies cite the fact that no farmer +will gather a crop of corn which will not pay for the labor cost of +gathering, and say that at the present prices of lumber they can not pay +the present freight rates to the factories. It seems therefore that a +certain amount of waste is unavoidable unless wood-working plants are +established near the forest regions. + +The first great step in conserving our forests is to stop the +unnecessary wastes in use. The next step is to take measures to prevent +the great destruction of our forests by fire. + +Those who have never lived in a great forest region can have little idea +of the extent of the damage caused by these great forest fires. The loss +of life of both man and animals, the sweeping away of houses and crops, +the homelessness and misery of those who have lost everything they had +saved, are not to be taken into account here, but only the loss of the +forests themselves. + +It is estimated that the loss by fire is as great as the entire amount +cut for use in the entire United States. The National Conservation +Committee reports that 50,000,000 acres of woodland are burned over +yearly. This probably includes all burned-over lands, in much of which +the standing timber is not destroyed, but the saplings and seedlings are +killed as well as the grass for grazing and for the protection of the +roots. Much land is burned over in this way year after year until hope +of future growth is gone, though the damage to the large trees has not +been great. In one way this loss is even more serious, as it shuts off +the hope of future forests, but the loss of our full-grown standing +forests is grave. + +In 1891 this loss amounted to 15,000,000 acres, or nearly forty thousand +acres every day in the year. Since then the work of the Forest Service +in fighting fires and the great clearing of the forests, has reduced +this somewhat, but it still amounts to no less than 30,000 acres of our +best salable timber a day. This is the really great and serious loss of +the forests. + +All the wood that is used goes to make our country a better place to +live in, to make its people more comfortable and happy, but all that is +lost by fire is a loss to all the nation in comforts for the future, and +in the present it means high prices for lumber because our forests are +disappearing so rapidly. + +And we are letting them burn at the rate of thirty thousand acres every +day! More than enough to supply all our needs. If any one could gather +together in one vast pile our houses and barns, our furniture, our +wagons and carriages, our farm implements, all our home conveniences, +our railroad cross-ties, our trolley and telephone poles, our papers and +magazines, and burn them all, the whole world would be roused by the +fearfulness of the loss. But we sit idly by and see the materials of +which all these things are made and must be made in the future, and with +them our shade, our water-sheds, the soil of the forest-lands itself +destroyed, with never a word of protest. + +In a paper prepared for the National Conservation Congress, it was +stated that in some years government survey parties were unable to work +in the Rocky Mountains for whole seasons on account of the dense smoke, +and the fires were allowed to burn till the snows of winter put them +out. The writer further stated that he believed from observation that +the Forest Service, by checking fires in their beginning, has in the +last few years saved more timber than has been used for commercial +purposes. + +Private owners of large tracts should be compelled to use the same care +in preventing fires that is exercised by the government. This care, and +the breaking up of the forests into smaller tracts by clearing the land +in alternate sections would soon reduce the fire loss so greatly as +almost to save us from anxiety for the future of our timber lands. + +The next great loss to the forests is from insects. When insects have +bored into wood it becomes honey-combed by the canals cut by the little +insects and is utterly valueless. The loss to fruit and forest trees +will be taken up more fully in the chapter on insects. At present it is +only necessary, in order to show how much our forests suffer in this +way, to state that the yearly loss from this cause is placed at no less +than $100,000,000 a year, and the loss to fruits is counted at one-fifth +of the entire crop. Some slight idea of the danger to our forests will +be seen by the simple statement that forty-one different species of +insects infest the locust tree, eighty the elm, one hundred and five the +birch, one hundred and sixty-five the pine, one hundred and seventy the +hickory, one hundred and eighty-six the willow, while oak trees are +attacked by over five hundred! + +This is exceedingly difficult to control and can perhaps never be +entirely checked. Some remedies will be suggested later, and by having +smaller forests, more carefully watched, some personal care can be given +to the trees. In Germany the trees are as closely watched as are other +crops, and the saving in value well repays this extra care and expense. + +A much smaller loss comes from the winds that sometimes level all the +trees over many square miles. This can not, of course, be prevented, +except possibly in the turpentine forests, but care should be taken to +use all the wood, never allowing it to decay where it fell, and also to +replant the land with trees, unless it is fitted for agriculture. + +A great saving of the forests may be effected by what is called +preservative treatment, which consists of treating railroad ties, +piling, mine timbers, poles, and posts with creosote or zinc chlorid to +prevent decay from the moisture of the ground or from injury by +salt-water borers. The use of creosote is almost double the cost of zinc +chlorid, but it is much more effective and durable. A fence post can be +treated with creosote for about ten cents, a railroad tie for twenty +cents, and a telephone pole for from seventy-five cents to a dollar. In +every case the timber treated will last twice as long as it would +without such treatment and in view of the present high prices it is bad +business policy to use timber in such a way that it will need replacing +soon. It is estimated that if all timbers which could be profitably +treated were so cared for, it would mean a money saving to the owners of +$47,000,000, and an annual saving in wood equal to 4,000,000,000 board +feet of lumber. + +The next point in the conservation of the forests is to seek substitutes +to take the place of wood. There are many uses of wood which nothing +else will satisfactorily supply. For example, no railroad cross-tie has +ever been designed of other material that does not increase the danger +of railway accidents, though over two hundred kinds have been patented. + +There is nothing that will take the place of wood in furniture, and in +many small articles. Some articles might be replaced in metal, but it +makes them too heavy or too expensive. But in certain lines there is an +excellent opportunity to use other materials to great advantage. + +Cars are now being built of steel, and of combinations of metal with +asbestos. These are not yet entirely satisfactory, but it is hoped that +they can be perfected soon. Cement and concrete are taking the place of +wood to a great extent in building, and their use will doubtless +increase rapidly. + +When veneer is used for barrels and boxes it affords a saving of nearly +two-thirds in the amount of wood required. This is a line of use where +cheaper substitutes should always be used if possible, because a package +is usually used only once, never more than twice, and then discarded, so +that the wood is put to little real service compared with other wooden +articles. + +When possible, small articles of wood should be made only in a forest +region or near saw-mills to use the scraps and save an unnecessary drain +on the more valuable grades of lumber. + +One of the most important lines in which substitutes are practicable is +in the making of paper and box-board or pasteboard. The latter is +sometimes called strawboard, because it is made from wheat straw, and +where it is manufactured, uses a large amount of straw that would +otherwise be wasted, but the great wheat fields of the West still have +immense quantities of unused straw, which, if made into strawboard, +would not only bring more prosperity to that region but would lessen the +drain on the forests. + +A box bound with wire and made of corrugated paper now takes the place +for many light articles of the wooden packing-case. The strawboard also +takes the place of wood-pulp for smaller paper boxes. Rice-straw, hemp, +flax-straw, cotton fiber and peat have all been tested in a small way +and found to make excellent paper, and it is thought corn-stalks can +also be used, but none of these is now manufactured in the United States +on a large scale. This is largely because the price of pulp-wood is low, +and the cost of experimenting with new materials is great with the +results uncertain. + +This brings us to the last one of our preventive measures for the +decline of our forests, the one which needs the most careful attention +of all--the replanting of the lands that are not fitted for agriculture, +and planting trees about houses and unoccupied spaces. + +Many farmers have planted orchards on a part of their farm-lands and +many trees have been planted in town and country, but until a few years +ago there was no organized effort to plant trees. + +Now many states have set apart a day which is called Arbor Day, for this +purpose, but in no state does it hold so important a place as it should. +It is observed by the schools but not by the general public. + +In Germany there are regular tree-planting days in which all the people +take part. Every one who is not too poor--and he must be poor +indeed--plants a tree in his own garden, or in front of his home, in the +forest or in the highway; for himself or for the general good. + +Each child plants a tree on his or her birthday every year, and watches +and cares for it as it grows. The roadsides are lined with fruit or nut +or flowering trees which have been planted in neat, orderly rows. These +things are in striking contrast to the observance of Arbor Day in this +country, where one tree suffices for an entire school, or at best each +class has a tree of its own. It is all a matter of enthusiasm and +education. + +In considering the best trees for planting we come to the last great use +of trees of which we have not spoken. Fruit and nut trees supply us with +large quantities of the most wholesome and delicious food. The apple, +pear, peach, plum, and cherry grow in the central part of the United +States, and oranges, lemons, figs, olives and apricots in the warmer +parts. + +By planting these trees in suitable places one may have a rich harvest +for many years to come. If a small fraction of the seeds of fruit trees +which are wasted each year were planted, the general food supply would +be greatly increased, and many benefits would be derived from the trees +themselves. + +Have you ever heard the story of "Apple-seed John," the man who, +according to tradition, went through what is now western Pennsylvania, +Ohio and Indiana while the country was still a wilderness and planted +orchards for the settlers who, he was sure, would come later? + +So many stories have been told of him that it is hard to discover how +much of the tale is really true. At least one poem has been written +about him, and the Reverend Newell Dwight Hillis has woven the facts and +fancies of his career into a charming book, _The Quest of John Chapman_. + +The story is that he spent his winters in the settlements near the +Atlantic coast teaching the children or working at small tasks about the +farms, and taking his pay always in the seeds of apples, peaches, pears, +plums, and grapes. The farmers and their families saved all their seeds +for him and when spring came he filled his boat with seeds and started +down the Ohio River. When he reached a suitable landing-place he took +his bags of seeds on his back and trudged through the forest. + +Whenever he came to an open space he planted an orchard, built a fence +of boughs about it, and started on again. And so he traveled on and on, +through all the spring and summer months, year after year, planting his +seeds for those who would come after him, until he grew too old to work. + +The first settlers in those states found the orchards and vineyards +awaiting them, and a few trees are still standing that are said to have +been planted by Apple-Seed John. The story of this man who in his humble +way devoted his life to others is one that may well be told and +imitated, for while none of us can do the work he did, it may inspire +us with a wish to make some spot on earth better by planting our few +seeds or plants. + +In carrying on this work in the schools as well as by the general +public, a regular plan should be followed. Much can be accomplished with +no expense at all, even in cities. In all cases the expense will be very +small compared to the good accomplished. + +Seeds may be planted and later transplanted. This will require no +expense and little labor. Every child, large and small, in city and +country, can learn to do this work and can thus perform a real service. +Small saplings which are growing close together, where they can never +develop, may each be planted in a place where it will have a chance to +grow into a thrifty tree. Most farmers would be entirely willing to +allow the pupils to take such saplings from their wood-lots if the work +were properly done. This is an excellent work for country schools to +undertake, both for the good it will accomplish and for the training of +the pupils themselves in practical work. + +Fruit trees of suitable size for planting may be had for about twenty +cents each. Most American children could easily save that amount from +money spent on candy, sweetmeats or toys so as to have a tree ready for +planting on Arbor Day which would yield them fruit as they grow older, +and be a source of pride and pleasure. Such trees will of course usually +be planted at the children's own homes, but it would be an excellent +idea to follow the German plan of planting public orchards just outside +the town. When the trees are old enough to bear, the children are +allowed on certain days to go and gather and eat the fruit and carry it +home in baskets. + +The older boys in every school, whether city or country, should be +taught to plant and transplant trees in the best way. The following +directions for the work are sent out by the Department of Agriculture at +Washington: + +"The proper season for planting is not everywhere the same. When the +planting is done in the spring, the right time is when the frost is out +of the ground and before budding begins. + +"The day to plant is almost as important as the season. Sunny, windy +weather is to be avoided. Cool, damp days are the best. Trees can not be +thrust carelessly into a rough soil and then be expected to flourish. +They should be planted in properly worked soil, well enriched. If they +can not be planted immediately after they are taken up the first step is +to prevent their roots drying out in the air. This may be done by piling +fresh dirt deep about the roots or setting the roots in mud. + +"In planting they should be placed from two to three inches deeper than +they stood originally. Fine soil should always be pressed firmly--not +made hard--about the roots, and two inches of dry soil at the top should +be left very loose to retain the moisture." + +The reading of such poems as Lucy Larcom's "He who plants a tree plants +a hope," or William Cullen Bryant's, "Come, let us plant the apple +tree," and suitable talks or papers on trees, dealing with their kinds +and uses, on the benefits of forests, and on practical forestry, should +be a part of the Arbor Day exercises. + +In many communities a tract of land which is not well suited for general +agriculture may be obtained for the benefit of the school, and some +simple work in forestry may be undertaken by the pupils. Sometimes a +farmer may be induced to give a small bit of waste land where the +experiment may be tried. Sometimes such land can be bought by the school +in one of the following ways: + +A series of entertainments may be given by the pupils, the proceeds to +be applied to the buying of the land, and the pupils may also obtain +money in other outside ways to bring to the general fund. If only one +acre can be bought and cleared by the pupils, and properly planted, a +little at a time, a tree for each child's birthday, or by obtaining +small seedlings and saplings from the forest, it will be a source of +keen interest, and will give an added pleasure to the school work. +Watching the growth of the trees and caring for them will keep this +interest alive year after year, and in time it will become a valuable +property belonging to the school. Sometimes the school officials will +set aside a sum from the public money to purchase the land. In one High +School, one acre is thus bought each year, and every pupil in the senior +year gives and plants a tree. Sometimes the farmers or the merchants of +a community may unite in buying the land, which will, of course, become +public property, and set it aside for improvement after the manner of a +city park. + +Sometimes women's clubs become interested in such a movement and will +raise the funds necessary for beginning it. It then becomes the duty of +the school, year after year, to plant and care for the land. After a +time the school will have a valuable property to sell, or can have a +yearly income from the sale of timber. + +Such plans may be carried out in many schools. Every school can and +should do something to forward this great work. All school yards should +be well planted and care taken that the boy with a new knife does not +try it on the bark or that the bark is not rubbed from the trees in +careless play. Many trees planted in school yards have been destroyed +in this way. + +But we shall not be safe if only the schools plant trees. Farmers and +lot owners should take up the work in earnest, adding as many trees as +possible each year. In this way they could insure an abundant supply of +fruit, nuts and timber for the future, could increase the value of their +property, and provide a steady income besides. + +Farmers' institutes would find this a most important work to undertake, +arranging for a common plan to be carried out in an entire neighborhood, +and setting aside days in which all the members may work together to set +out trees by the roadsides. This brings us to the question of what kinds +of trees are best to plant. + +For town or city lots, fruit trees should always be chosen, because they +bear in a short time and will add to the family food supply, and so +lessen the cost of living and increase the variety of food. Every farm +should have a good assortment of fruit. Any nurseryman's catalogue will +furnish lists of kinds so that a wise choice may be made. In selecting +fruit trees, great care should be taken to choose the best varieties. + +For streets and roadsides, nut or wild fruit trees are best, for the +trees are generally graceful in appearance and will yield some return, +as the more popular maples and poplars will not. The chestnut is one of +the best trees for such planting, though it is of a rather slow growth. +English or American walnuts, pecans, mulberry and persimmon trees can be +grown in most parts of the United States. + +One town in Kansas is planting fruit trees on all its streets, so that +in a few years there will be an abundance of fruit free to every +passer-by. This is a most excellent plan, but individuals would be +likely to find the fruit molested if only a few trees are planted in a +community. + +Barn-lots and lanes should be planted with wild cherry, haws, elder, +dogwood, mountain-ash, and other wild fruits to serve as food for birds, +poultry, and hogs. + +Where the banks of streams need to be protected from erosion, probably +the best tree for planting is the basket willow, which thrives well near +the water, has a heavy network of roots, and is valuable for weaving +into baskets and furniture. + +For all hillsides and rocky places, as well as wood-lots, the hardwoods +which sell best for timber should be planted in the North and West, and +the evergreens near the sea-coasts and in the South. Forests of oak, +hickory, walnut, maple (especially the sugar maple, which yields a +steady return during the lifetime of the tree), elm, chestnut, and +locust will sell for a good price, and are always salable. It requires +many years to grow large timber, but by proper management several years +can be gained in its growth, and it is always a valuable investment for +a farmer to make for his children. + +Not individuals only, but states and the national government as well, +should provide forests for the future, and this is the greatest duty of +all, for much of the most important work can only be done by a power +that can control the entire watershed at the head-waters of a +river-system. + +For example, the Appalachian Mountains are the source of hundreds of +streams which flow east, west and south, and pass through many states. +These mountains were originally covered with a heavy forest growth, but +they belong largely to private companies who are cutting the forests at +a rapid rate. + +The effect of this is seen in bare hillsides, washed by mountain +torrents which are causing disastrous floods on the lowlands, filling up +the streams, and carrying away much of the most fertile soil of some of +the southeastern states, and in the drying up of the small tributaries. + +This can not be remedied by single companies nor by the states that +suffer most. The only remedy is for the government to buy the land at +the head-waters of the rivers and reforest it. The same conditions on a +smaller scale are to be found in every mountainous region where the +forests are cut away. + +The United States owns a large amount of forest but not nearly enough to +insure a supply of wood for the future. The public forest lands are +nearly all in the West. They consist of national forests, national +parks, Indian and military reservations and land open to entry as timber +claims. In all they contain nearly 100,000,000 acres, or about half as +much as is contained in farmers' wood-lots and about one-fourth as much +as the amount owned by large lumber companies. + +The United States, on its public domain, is setting about a careful +system of cutting and replanting. This system is known as forestry. It +has been worked out by some of the more advanced nations of Europe who +saw that destruction was coming on them through the cutting away of +their forests. Now forestry is practised by every nation except Turkey +and China. The principles have been well proved and the results of +scientific care of the forests are known to be even more sure than in +farming or live-stock raising. + +The Department of Agriculture will send complete directions for planting +trees in rows at proper distances, will tell what kinds are best suited +to each region and condition, how to make them grow rapidly, and when to +cut. All these things should be thoroughly understood by every land +owner, large or small, but at present forestry is practised on only one +per cent. of all land in this country, owned by private persons or +companies, though it is practised on seventy per cent. of all public +lands. + +The countries that show the best results in forestry are some of the +German states, particularly Prussia and Saxony, and France. In Prussia +the rate of production is three times as great as it was seventy-five +years ago. There is three times as much saw timber in a tree as there +was at that time, and the money returns from an average acre of forest +are now nearly ten times what they were sixty years ago. In Saxony the +state forests are receiving two dollars and thirty cents per acre a year +above all expenses from forests on land not fitted for agriculture, and +the profit is increasing every year. + +France and Germany together spend $11,000,000 a year on their public +forests and receive from them an income of $30,000,000, or nearly three +times as much, while the United States spends for its public forests +more than ten times as much as it receives. + +Many of our states are taking an active interest in forestry and are +buying tracts of land of low value for state forests. New York is taking +the lead in the work of planting forests, but even here the amount done +is much less than it should be. The state forester says that one million +trees are planted each year while twenty millions should be planted. + +The National Conservation Commission reported that the entire United +States should plant an area larger than the states of Pennsylvania, +Ohio, and West Virginia, in order to supply our future needs, but that +we have actually planted an area less than the state of Rhode Island. + +This, then, is the lesson we should learn in regard to our forests: To +guard against waste in cutting and use, fire, and insects, and to plant +trees until our future supply of timber is assured, till the head-waters +of our streams are protected and our waste lands made into valuable +forest tracts; till every farm has its wood-lot, and every community its +fruit and shade. It is a work in which every one of us may take some +part and from which good results are certain to come. + + +ORCHARDS + +Another phase of tree-culture that does not, strictly speaking, come +under the head of forestry, but which should be considered here, is the +cultivation of orchards, either for home use or for commercial purposes. + +In a few sections, fruit is the most valuable of all crops. Oranges in +Florida and California, peaches in some of the southern states, and +apples in the northwest, are more profitable than any field crops, and +their cultivation is made the subject of careful scientific study. But +there are many other states where the raising of fruit in commercial +quantities is almost altogether neglected, and to which almost all fruit +is shipped from other sections. This is particularly true in the rich +corn and wheat producing states of the Mississippi Valley. + +The early settlers each planted an orchard for home use, and these +produced the finest quality of fruit in abundance; but usually, after +being planted, the trees were left to take care of themselves, while the +farmer's time and attention were given to his fields of grain. + +As time passed, plant diseases and insect pests increased, winds broke +down many of the unpruned trees, frosts often blighted the entire crop +of fruit, and the uncultivated, sod-choked trees produced fruit that was +less in quantity and poorer in quality each year. + +In recent years the highest grade of apples have all been shipped from +the West. These are grown on irrigated land; a high price being paid +both for the land itself and for the water-privilege, and the orchards +are seldom more than ten acres in extent. Wind and frost may cause as +much damage here as in the eastern states and plant diseases and insect +enemies are equally liable to injure the crop. + +But here orcharding is carried on in a scientific manner. The small size +of the orchard makes it possible for the owner properly to care for +every tree, and each one must be made a source of profit. Every +condition that tends to affect the crop is carefully studied, and the +remedy found and applied. + +There is no reason why the same care and labor should not produce +equally good results with far less expense in the well-watered regions +of the eastern and central part of the United States. The neglected +orchard will prove a failure anywhere, as surely as will a neglected +garden, and success will come only by giving to fruit the same +intelligent care that would be bestowed upon any other crop. + +The cultivation of apples should receive particular attention in the +north central states, because they have great food value, are not +perishable, can be shipped long distances, and the demand, both at home +and abroad, is always greater than the supply. The home orchard, +however, should contain many kinds of fruit, and the same general rules +in regard to the care of the orchard apply to all of them. + +First, the orchard should not be located on land that is fitted to +produce the best farm crops, but it must not be too steep and hilly to +be cultivated. A sunny sloping hillside is best suited to orchard crops. + +In most cases little fertilization is needed except the planting of +clover or some other leguminous crop. If corn be planted in young +orchards, as is often the case, potash should be used as a fertilizer +after the crop is gathered, since both corn and fruit trees draw very +heavily on the potash in the soil. + +Old orchards sometimes need a single application of a general fertilizer +containing all the principal soil elements. All fertilizers should be +applied not merely around the base of the trunk, but as far from it as +the tree spreads its branches in all directions. + +The trees should be carefully pruned and special attention paid to +trimming the tops low to prevent damage from winds, and also to make +spraying easy. + +The soil should be deeply cultivated the first few years in order to +make the roots strike deep into the ground, and afterward the soil +should receive some surface cultivation every year. + +When there is danger of frost after the trees have bloomed, brushwood +fires are lighted and a dense smoke is raised over the orchard by +burning pots of crude oil. This smoke is helpful in preventing the +formation of frost, and will often be the means of saving the crop. + +The other great causes of failure to grow large quantities of perfect +fruit, if the varieties are well chosen, are plant diseases and damage +by insects. The methods of their control are given in the chapter on +Insects, and include principally the disposal of all decayed fruit, the +raking up and burning of all leaves in infected orchards, arsenical and +lime sprays, and, above all, such attention to pruning and cultivation +as will keep the trees in good condition. + +Lastly, the keeping of bees in the orchard will pay well, not only for +the honey they produce, but because they assist greatly in carrying the +pollen from flower to flower, and so increasing the crop of fruit. + + +REFERENCES + +Forests. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Forest Conservation, Papers and Discussions, Report Governor's +Conference. + +Arbor Day, Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 96. + +Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 134. + +Practical Assistance to Tree Planters. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 22. + +How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 61. + +Forest Planting on Coal Lands. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 41. + +Forestry in the Public Schools. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 130. + +Primer of Forestry. (Pinchot). Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 173. + +The Use of the National Forests. (Pinchot.) + +What Forestry Has Done. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 140. + +Forest Preservation and National Prosperity. Forest Service Department +of Agriculture Circular, 35. + +Forest Planting and Farm Management. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 228. + +Facts and Figures Regarding our Forest Resources. Forest Service +Department of Agriculture Circular, 11. + +Drain Upon the Forests. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129. + +The Waning Hardwood Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 129. + +Timber Supply of the United States. Forest Service Department of +Agriculture Circular, 116. + +Forestry and the Lumber Supply. Forest Service Department of Agriculture +Circular, 97. + +How to Cultivate and Care for Forests in Semi-arid Regions. + +Forest Service Department of Agriculture Circular, 54. + +Paper-making Materials and their Conservation. Bureau of Chemistry, 41. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +WATER + + +Water is an absolute necessity to man, as much as the air he breathes or +the food he eats. Water comes to us in the form of rain or snow. We +usually think of it as unlimited, but we must come to think of it as a +resource that can be abused and wasted or made useful and profitable as +is the soil itself. + +The amount of water is fixed and passes in an endless round from cloud +to river or land and back to the clouds again. The average yearly +rainfall of the United States is estimated at thirty inches, about forty +inches in the eastern half, an average of eighteen inches in the western +part, and in many places not more than ten or twelve inches. One inch of +rain would amount to nearly one hundred and one tons per acre, or on a +roof twenty feet long by twenty feet wide, one inch of rain would be two +hundred and fifty gallons. With a rainfall of forty inches, this would +amount to 10,000 gallons in a year, or an average, over every bit of +land twenty feet square, of twenty-seven gallons for every day in the +year. This is about the quantity that falls in the eastern part of the +United States. + +It varies slightly from year to year, but there is no more--there is no +possible way of adding to it, though we may lessen it by allowing it to +rush out to sea, giving no service to the land. As the land waters +diminish the rainfall also grows less. + +This two hundred trillions cubic feet of water which falls on our land +every year constitutes our entire water resource, is the source of all +our rivers and streams, of the moisture in the air, of our rains and +snows, and our water for plant and animal growth. + +To understand how much this is, we may say that it is about equal to ten +times the amount of water that flows through the Mississippi River +system. The water of the Mississippi and its branches is nearly half of +all the water in the United States that flows through waterways to the +sea. This water that flows through our streams is sometimes called the +run-off. The run-off is increasing every year as we cut our forests and +cultivate our land. It is used for navigation, irrigation and power, but +the increase is not an advantage for these purposes as might be +supposed, because it comes in disastrous floods, tearing away dams, +ruining power sites, and not only preventing navigation during the flood +season, but by filling up the rivers and changing the channels, making +navigation difficult and dangerous throughout the year. The run-off is +controlled to some extent and may be brought under almost as complete +control as may be desired. + +As much as the water of five or six Mississippis, or a little more than +half of our supply, is evaporated to moisten and temper the air, to fall +as rain or snow, or to form dews. This is sometimes called the fly-off, +and except for some changes caused by management of the land, is +entirely beyond control. + +A part of the remainder sinks into the soil below the surface. A large +portion of this helps to cause the slow rock-decay that forms the soil, +and which is known as ground water. It is estimated that within the +first hundred feet below the surface of the earth there is a quantity of +water that has seeped down; and that would form, if it were collected, a +vast reservoir sixteen or seventeen feet in depth spreading over all the +3,000,000 square miles of the area of our country. This is equal to +about seven years' rainfall and is a very important part of our water +resources. In many places it forms into underground streams or lakes. It +feeds all the springs and many of the lakes. Our wells are dug or +drilled into this underground water system. It carries away the excess +of salts and mineral matter from the soil, the trees strike their roots +deep into the earth and draw from it, and last and most important of +all, that which sinks immediately below the surface supplies all our +plant growth. So that it is this last portion, that which sinks below +the ground, and which is sometimes termed the cut-off, amounting to +about one-tenth of all our water resource, or about the quantity that +flows through the Mississippi River system, that forms the really +important part. + +On this depends all that makes a land habitable, the water for drinking +purposes and for plant and animal growth. On it depends the rate of +production of every acre of farm and forest land and the life of every +animal. Every full-grown man of one hundred and fifty pounds takes into +his system not less than a ton of water each year, and every bushel of +corn requires for its making fifteen or twenty tons of water. + +Of the importance of this Professor Chamberlain says: "The key to the +problem of soil conservation lies in due control of the water that falls +on every acre. This water is an asset of great value. It should be +counted by every land owner as a possible value, saved if turned where +it will do good, lost if permitted to run away, doubly lost if it also +carries away the soil and does destructive work below." + +The uses of rainfall are given thus: + +A due portion should go through the soil to its bottom to promote rock +decay. Some of it should go into the underdrainage to carry away harmful +matter, another portion goes up to the surface carrying solutions needed +by the plants. A portion goes into the plants to nourish them, and still +another part runs off the surface, carrying away the worn-out parts of +the soil. + +Crops can use to advantage all the rain that falls during the growing +season; and in most cases crops are all the better for all the water +that can be carried over from the winter. There are many local +exceptions, but in general crops are best when the soil can be made to +absorb as much of the rainfall and snowfall as possible. This also +causes the least possible amount of wash from the land. + +Doctor N. J. McGee says: "Scarcely anywhere in the United States is the +rainfall excessive, that is, greater than is needed by growing plants, +living animals and men. Nearly everywhere it falls below this standard. +In the western part the average rainfall is only about eighteen inches; +in the extreme eastern part the fall averages forty-eight inches. In the +western part much of the land is unable to produce crops at all except +when artificially watered. The eastern part might produce more abundant +crops, develop greater industries and support a larger population with a +rainfall of sixty inches than it is able to do with a rainfall of +forty-eight inches." As may readily be seen, the fly-off can be +controlled only in a very small degree, by conserving the moisture that +is in the soil, and so preventing it from evaporating too rapidly. + +The cut-off can be controlled to a considerable extent through forestry +and scientific farming and it is very important that the supply should +be as carefully conserved as possible. + +But it is in the run-off that the great waste of water occurs, and also +that great saving is possible. It has been found by careful estimate +that from eighty-five per cent. to ninety-five per cent. of the water +that flows to the sea is wasted in freshets or destructive floods. + +We are not accustomed to think of the water as wasted, since it seems +beyond our control, but as we are taking a careful account of stock, and +seeing how our forests, our fuels and our minerals are disappearing, and +our soil being carried out to sea by the rushing waters, it is well to +consider, also, whether this great resource may not be so used as to +benefit mankind in many ways and at the same time lessen the drain on +other resources. + +The water of streams may be divided as to use into four great classes. +The most important is that used by cities for general supply, for +household and drinking purposes; next, that which is used for navigation +and the running of boats to carry commerce; third, that which is used +for artificial watering or irrigation, and lastly, that which is used +for power in manufacturing. + +In the past, when water has been used it has seldom been employed for +more than one of these purposes, but as we come to understand more the +nature, value and possibilities of this great resource, we shall learn +to make the money spent for one of these lines of activity supply +several other needs. + +As we study each of these separately we shall see this interrelation +among them. + +The cities of the United States have expended $250,000,000 in waterworks +and nearly as much more in land for reservoirs, and for canals for +conveying the water from these reservoirs to the cities. The better +managed systems protect the drained lands from erosion by planting +forests or grass and the water is completely controlled, so that all the +water, even the storm overflow, is saved. There is very little waste in +these city water systems until it comes to the consumer, where, except +when it is sold through meters, the waste is often great. + +The failure to provide the greatest good lies in the fact that the +water systems have been used for water supply only and have not been +made profitable in other ways. The drainage basins should be heavily +planted with trees, which will in time yield a large return, or with +hay, which can be marketed each year. Whenever possible, the canals +carrying the water supply should also be used to furnish power. + +The city of Los Angeles, when it had a population of only 150,000, +undertook to provide pure water from a point two hundred and fifty miles +distant. To do so it must take on itself a debt of $23,000,000, a large +sum for a city ten times its size. Yet the people were ready to assume +this great burden to insure an unending supply of pure water, for they +realized that without it their city could not continue to grow. It was +not until the plans for piping water to the city were almost completed +that the value of the water-power along the route was realized. It has +been disposed of at a rate that pays ten per cent. interest on the debt +each year, and has made what seemed a dangerous risk, a profitable +business arrangement. All these other uses of water which are +profitable, help to lower the price of water to the users. + +The matter of supreme importance in the water supply, however, is not +whether the water is cheap, but whether it is pure. If refuse from +factories is allowed to drain into a stream, the water becomes loaded +with poisonous chemicals, acids, or minerals. If city sewage or +barn-yards are allowed to drain into it, the germs of typhoid and other +fevers enter the water supply. To insure the purity of water supply from +a stream, no factory waste, city sewage or country refuse should be +allowed to enter any part of the stream. In addition to this it should +be carefully filtered. + +The disposal of waste is a serious problem, and the easiest way is to +divert it into the nearest water course and trust to the old maxim, +"Running water purifies itself." + +This, while true as a general fact, has so many exceptions that it is +not safe to trust to it. The Sanitary District Canal of Chicago has +proved positively that even the most heavily germ-laden water becomes +pure by running many miles at a regulated speed through the open +country, but the conditions are altogether different from those of an +ordinary river. First, in a river, sewage may enter at any point +down-stream to add to the germs already present in the water, while +nothing is allowed to enter the Drainage Canal after it leaves the city. +Second, some germs live for several days and may be carried many miles. +Only a microscopic test can prove whether water contains such germs. +Usually such tests are not made and water is used without people knowing +whether it is pure or not, but the water of the Sanitary Canal is tested +at many points to determine its purity. Each hour and each mile of its +journey it grows purer. This proves that although running water does +purify itself, a stream that is drained into all along its course is not +a fit source of water supply. + +Factory refuse, instead of being allowed to pollute the waters, should +be turned to good use by extracting the chemicals, which form valuable +by-products. All farm waste should be taken to a remote part of the +farm, placed in an open shed or vat with cement floor and screened from +flies to form a compost heap for fertilizers for the farm. This will +amply repay the extra trouble and expense by increasing the farm crops. +The sooner such refuse, especially manure, is returned to the land, the +more valuable it is as a fertilizer. + +In cities the sewage should be disposed of in such a way as to yield a +profit to the city, and also promote the health of the people. The +sewage of a city of 100,000 people is supposed to be worth, in Germany, +about $900,000 a year for fertilizer on account of the phosphorus it +contains. The city of Berlin operates large sewage farms, using as +laborers men condemned to the workhouse. The expense for land and sewer +system was $13,000,000, but it pays for the money invested, with $60,000 +yearly profit over all expenses. + +On the other hand the cost of impure water to the city of Pittsburg was +reckoned at $3,850,000, and in the city of Albany, New York, the annual +loss was estimated at $475,000. + +In the early settlement of our country all towns were built on streams, +and the ones which grew and flourished were all on rivers large enough +to carry commerce by boat. After the invention of steamboats, daily +packet lines were run on all the principal rivers. + +Albert Gallatin planned a complete system of improved waterways, +including many canals, that was intended to establish a great commercial +route. Many canals were built and put into actual operation and dozens +of others had been planned, when the building of railways began. This +new system of transportation at once became popular. Not only were no +more canals dug and no more steamboat lines built, but many of those +actually in operation were abandoned. + +In order to encourage railroad building and develop new regions, the +government has given land and money to the extent of hundreds of +millions of dollars, until now the railroads form one-seventh of all our +national wealth, having 228,000 miles of tracks and earning +$2,500,000,000 each year, while the waterways owned by the government +have fallen into disuse. + +Within the last four or five years another change has come about in the +general attitude toward the waterways. At the time that the crops are +moved in the fall, and when coal is needed for the winter supply, there +are not nearly enough cars in the country to handle the volume of +business, neither are there enough locomotives to move the necessary +cars, nor tracks, nor stations. In short, the railways are entirely +unable to handle the vast products of the country during the busiest +seasons. Many persons in the West have suffered for fuel, and commerce +has been greatly checked by the shortage; and the situation is growing +worse each year as production increases. + +James J. Hill estimates that the cost of equipping the railroads to +carry the commerce of the country would be from five to eight billion +dollars. This means a heavy tax on iron and coal and timber as well as +on the labor resources of the country, and it would then be only a +question of time until still further extensions were needed. + +With these facts in view, interest in the waterways of the country has +been revived. + +It is estimated that it will require five hundred million dollars, or +fifty million dollars a year for ten years completely to improve the +waterways of the country. This is not more than one-tenth of what would +be needed to equip the railroads. The cost of carrying freight by rail +is from four to five times that of carrying it by water. + +Much of the heavy freight of the country,--coal, iron, grain and +lumber,--should be carried in this way, in order to reduce freight rates +and so, indirectly, the cost to the people, and further to relieve the +burden on the railways. + +The railways, it might be added, would still have a large and increasing +package-freight business, besides the handling of heavy freight in parts +of the country where there are no navigable rivers. + +For these reasons it would seem clearly the only wise policy to adopt a +general plan for waterway improvement and carry it into effect at once. +But there are many things to be considered. + +Millions of dollars (in all about five hundred and fifty-two millions) +have been spent for the improvement of waterways. Some of it has +resulted in great gain, but a large part of it has been wasted through +lack of an organized plan. Work has been begun and not enough money +appropriated to finish it. In the course of a few years much of the +value of the work is destroyed by the action of the current or by +shifting sands, or if a stretch of river is finished in the most +approved manner, often it is not used much, in some cases actually less +after than before the work was begun, and these things have created a +prejudice against waterway improvements. + +The other reason is that in spite of the overcrowding of the railroads, +the traffic on many of our large rivers is steadily growing less. The +Inland Waterways Commission finds as a reason for the decrease, the +relations existing between the railways and the waterways. A railway, +they consider, has two classes of advantages. First, those that come +from natural conditions. A railroad line can be built in any direction +to any part of the country except the extremely mountainous parts, while +a river runs only in a single direction. + +If a new region distant from a large water course is opened up, as is +being done rapidly in the West through irrigation and dry farming, the +people are entirely dependent on the railways to develop it, to bring +them all the conveniences of the outside world, and to carry the +products of their land to the market. + +Branch lines and switches can be built to factories and warehouses, +while boats can reach only those situated along the water-front. + +Another advantage of the railroads is that they bill freight all the way +through, and that freight is much more easily transferred from one road +to another. It is much more difficult and expensive to load and reload +freight from boats and barges on account of the high and low water +stages of the river. This difference amounts to as much as sixty feet in +the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Railways make faster time, and the +distance between two points is usually shorter, though sometimes during +the busy season of the railways the river freight reaches its +destination much sooner. + +The other class of reasons relates to the railways themselves, which +have always been in open competition with the waterways, and to gain +traffic for themselves, usually charge lower rates to those points to +which boats also carry freight. In many cases they have bought the +steamboat lines so that rates might be kept up, and then, unable to +operate the two lines as cheaply as one, have abandoned the steamboat +lines. + +Another method by which the railroads have driven out the water traffic, +is by charging extremely heavy rates for freight hauled a short distance +to or from boats, making it quite as cheap as well as more convenient to +send freight all the way by rail. + +Lastly, railroad warehouses, terminals and machinery for handling +freight are all much better than those of inland steamboat lines, except +at some points on the Great Lakes where the traffic is very heavy. + +Some of these disadvantages might be overcome by law. In France, where +the waterways are managed better than in any other country, the law +requires that railroad rates be twenty per cent. higher on all heavy +freight than the rates on the same freight if carried by water, and in +several countries railroad companies are not permitted to own or manage +a steamboat line. + +These measures are suggestive of what may be done by law to correct +abuses, but laws alone can not accomplish everything. The rivers belong +to all the people, and every one who wishes may operate steamboat or +barge lines, but before these can become profitable, and before first +class warehouses and machinery are installed, there must appear on the +part of the people a desire to patronize them. The best results are +found in those cases where there is harmony between the railways and the +steamboat lines; those in which the steamboat lines relieve the railways +of much of the heavy freight which they are not able to handle without +greatly increasing their present equipment. + +There should be cooeperation on the part of the people. The towns and +cities along the banks of many European rivers provide suitable +terminals, warehouses and wharves with free use of the service. In other +cases this is done by private capital with a charge for use to shippers. +Sometimes it is done by the steamboat companies themselves, but unless +one or the other method is assured all along the river it is not wise +for the government to undertake the improvement of a stream. + +Intelligent improvement of the waterways of the United States demands +first that a careful survey of the needs of the whole country be made, +then that a systematic plan be carried out providing for the improvement +of important streams first. + +The state and nation should work together, and any work that is begun +should be completed as promptly as possible so that its full benefit may +be realized. + +Certain work, such as the improvement of the channel, should be done by +the national government, since the waters belong to the nation; but the +expense of constructing levees or dykes should be borne by the land +owners along the banks, because the land thus protected is greatly +increased in value; or by the state, which gets the return in increased +taxes. + +In many instances, the improvement of a stream would be a great benefit +to one state or part of a state, but it would be impossible in many +years to improve all the desirable streams, so that the larger ones of +most general importance must be considered first. + +In such cases the improvement is often undertaken by the state. Some +navigable rivers have been thus improved and many canals are the +property of states or of private companies. + +Only a few rivers have a steady flow throughout the year at a depth +sufficient to carry large boats. On most streams destructive floods at +certain seasons and low waters at others interfere with navigation +during a considerable part of the year. Most rivers have sand-bars, +sunken rocks or logs in the channel, making the passage of boats +difficult and dangerous. Others are well suited for navigation, except +at points where rapids and falls make it impossible for boats to pass. +The Ohio, the Tennessee, the Missouri and the upper Mississippi abound +in such dangerous places and these should be canalized. It is the +improving of rivers in these ways, dredging harbors to make them safer, +and digging canals to provide a short passage between two bodies of +water, that constitute what is known as the Improvement of Inland +Waters. + +If you look at a map showing the navigable streams of the United States +you will see that nearly all of them lie in the eastern part. + +The Mississippi is like a great artery with branches extending in all +directions, east and west. The Great Lakes, with their outlet, the St. +Lawrence River, and the many important rivers emptying into the Atlantic +Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, such as the Merrimac, Hudson, Delaware, +Susquehanna, Potomac and Rio Grande, form great highways for all the +commerce of the eastern part of the country, while the Columbia, +Sacramento and Colorado Rivers, with their branches, are the only +navigable streams of any importance west of the Mississippi River +system. + +In some places a small portion of land divides two important water +areas, and canals dug through this neck of land change the commercial +routes of the whole world. Such are the Isthmus of Suez, eighty-seven +miles wide, through which a canal was cut that saves a sailing distance +of 3,700 miles from England to India. Only the Isthmus of Panama, +forty-nine miles in width, divides the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean. +When the canal across this narrow strip is completed, the sailing +distance from New York to San Francisco will be shortened 8,000 miles, +the entire distance around South America. + +The Sault Ste. Marie Canal, connecting Lakes Superior and Huron, is only +a little more than a mile and a half long, but it opens up the entire +iron, copper, lumber and wheat resources of the Northwest to cheap water +passage through the other lakes to the manufacturing region of the East. + +The Erie Canal, by connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson River from +Buffalo to Albany, New York, makes the only water passage from the Great +Lakes to the ocean that lies within the borders of the United States. + +If you will turn to the map again, you will see still other places where +a short canal may open up an entirely new and important water route. +From Chicago to Lockport, Illinois, is only thirty-seven miles, but +Chicago is on Lake Michigan, while Lockport is on the Illinois River, a +branch of the Mississippi. This canal, a large part of which is now in +operation, is a part of the Lakes to Gulf waterway. One plan is to +broaden and deepen the channel so that large vessels may pass, without +unloading, from the Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. + +Another proposed canal which would be undertaken largely by individual +states and a part of which is already completed, would afford a safe +inside passage connecting the many bays, channels and navigable rivers +of the Atlantic coast. + +Still another proposed measure is the cutting of a canal from the +southern end of Lake Michigan to the western end of Lake Erie at Toledo, +Ohio, to avoid the long haul up Lake Michigan and down Lake Huron again. + +The United States now has 25,000 miles of navigable rivers and a nearly +equal mileage of rivers not now navigable but which might be made +commercially important; five great lakes that have a combined length of +1,410 miles, 2,120 miles of operated canals, and 2,500 miles of sounds, +bays and bayous, that might be joined by tidewater canals easily +constructed, less than 1,000 miles long altogether, and making a +continuous passage from New England to the Gulf of Mexico. + +In all, our waterways at the present time are 55,000 to 60,000 miles +long, the greatest system in the world, but almost unused. + +The most important waterway improvement so far completed, is the Sault +Ste. Marie, or the "Soo" canal which cost $96,000,000. A depth of eight +feet was increased to twenty-one feet. The traffic has risen in sixteen +years from a million and a quarter tons to forty-one and a quarter +million tons. + +A large proportion of the United States is not naturally fitted to be +the home of man; at least, it is not fitted to produce his food, and +except on the lofty mountains the reason for this will almost always be +found to be either a lack or an excess of water. + +In some parts of the country, there is, as we have seen, little +rainfall. These arid or semi-arid lands must be provided with water for +drinking purposes and for agriculture. The diverting of water courses +into canals and ditches so that water can be carried to these waste +lands is called irrigation. + +In other parts of the country where rains are abundant, serious floods +occur every year, often many times in a year. Thousands of acres of +land thus subject to overflow are lost to use. The holding back of these +flood waters in the upper part of the rivers, and so preventing these +overflows, is termed storage of waters. + +In still other regions the rainfall is abundant, and the land low-lying. +Large areas are always covered with water. Such lands are called swamps +or bogs, and when drained, they become the richest of agricultural +lands. Irrigation, storage and drainage are the three methods employed +to make waste lands valuable and useful. The land is saved or reclaimed, +so all these methods of balancing and distributing the water supply are +called reclamation. + +In general it may be said that irrigation is more generally needed in +the West, storage of flood waters in the central and eastern states, and +drainage in the South. + +By thus distributing the rainfall, hundreds of millions of acres have +been or may be reclaimed, and large regions, formerly unfit to inhabit, +have been turned into profitable farms. Three-fourths of one per cent. +of our total rainfall, or two per cent. of all that falls in the West, +is used for irrigating 13,000,000 acres. + +There are several methods of irrigation which are adapted to different +regions and different crops. The rice fields of South Carolina, +Georgia, Louisiana and Texas are irrigated by allowing the land to +remain continually flooded to a depth of several inches. When the +irrigation season is over the levees are opened, and the water runs off +rapidly, and the crop is soon ready to be harvested. Tidal rivers are +used to supply water in most cases, but in Texas many flowing wells are +employed for irrigation. + +In Florida, where irrigation is used largely for intensive farming, +various means are employed, some of which are also used in the western +and southwestern states. Mechanical pumps, operated by turbine wheels, +pump the water from the rivers if a lift be required. Sometimes the +water is pumped direct to the fields in iron pipes and applied by means +of hydrants and hose, as in a city water system. + +Overhead pipe lines are now recognized as the most perfect and +satisfactory form of artificial watering. Two-inch pipes are run over +frames several feet in height. These are arranged in parallel lines all +over the fields about forty feet apart. At intervals of forty feet, a +small iron pipe, ending with a fine spraying attachment, extends upward. +The water is turned on in the evening and comes out of the sprayer in a +fine mist and falls upon the plants like a gentle rain. + +By another form of irrigation, the fields are divided at regular +intervals by wide wooden troughs from which water is directed between +the rows of plants. Main canals leading from the streams and intersected +by short canals extend in all directions through the fields and +orchards, and are distributed in various ways. This system is in general +use throughout the arid portions of the West. The methods are said to be +the most scientific and varied in southern California. + +When water for irrigation is supplied from wells some underground system +is generally used. One common method is to lay continuous pipes from the +wells all over the fields and distribute from hydrants, plugs and +standpipes. + +By still another system, the water is carried below the surface through +pipes which are broken every few inches and laid in beds of charcoal. + +In the eastern states irrigation is only employed in dry weather to +increase the yield of vegetable crops. In the arid western region it +transforms what would otherwise be a dreary desert into fertile valleys. + +William J. Bryan, speaking at the first Conservation Congress, said, +"Last September, I visited the southern part of Idaho and saw there a +tract that has been recently reclaimed. I had been there before. I had +looked upon these lands as so barren that it seemed as if it were +impossible that they could ever be made useful. + +"When I went back this time and found that in three years 1,700,000 +acres of land had been reclaimed, that where three years ago nothing but +sage-brush grew, they are now raising seven tons of alfalfa to the acre, +and more than a hundred bushels of oats; when I found that ten thousand +people are living on that tract, that in one town that has grown up in +that time there are more than 1,900 inhabitants, and in three banks they +had deposits of over half a million dollars, I had some realization of +the magic power of water when applied to these desert lands." + +The same thing might be said of other regions throughout the West. In +the Salton district of California a marvelous change has been brought +about by irrigation. A few years ago that was one of the most desolate +and forbidding regions on our continent. Now it is covered with several +thousands of acres of alfalfa and other crops, and it bids fair to be a +great fruit region. Of southern California it is said, "The irrigation +systems of this part of the state are known all over the world, and have +created a prosperous commonwealth in a region which would be a scene of +utter desolation without them." + +This locality presents a better opportunity for the scientific study of +farming by irrigation than exists anywhere else in the world. Here all +land values depend directly on ability to obtain a water supply. So +precious is the water and so abundant are the rewards that follow its +application to the soil that the most careful consideration is given to +the various sources of supply and distribution. + +As land becomes scarcer and the cost of living greater on account of the +increase in population, men are turning more and more to irrigation to +solve the problem of food supply. + +As showing what may be accomplished by irrigation, the report of the +last census says: "The construction of large irrigation works on the +Platte, Yellowstone and Arkansas Rivers would render fertile an area +equal to that of some eastern states. Engineers are grappling with the +great problems of conserving the flood waters of these streams, which +now are wasted and help to increase the destructive floods of the +Mississippi. The solving of these problems will change a vast area of +country, now practically worthless, into valuable farms." + +The "Great Bend" country, drained by the Columbia River, contains +several million acres of land which only requires water to make it of +great agricultural value. + +The Gila River basin contains more than 10,000,000 acres of fertile +land, capable of producing immense crops if irrigated, but without +irrigation it is a desert land where only sage-brush and cactus +flourish. + +From arid lands capable of producing excellent crops but lacking in the +magical element of water, we pass to the consideration of lands where +the richest of soils are shut off from productiveness because they are +covered with water. On the lower Mississippi the soil is richer than in +any other part of the United States, but much of it is overflowed so +frequently that it is unfit for cultivation. Dykes and levees have +reclaimed thousands of acres of such overflow land. Many states control +large marshy sections that have been or may be reclaimed. + +In southern Florida lie the Everglades, a vast country which has been +worse than valueless; a malarial region abounding in alligators, +rattlesnakes, scorpions and other dangerous animals and insects. The +state of Florida has undertaken the work of draining this great swamp, +and when the task is completed, Florida will have added to its resources +3,000,000 acres of the richest soil for the raising of winter vegetables +and fruits. + +Florida is engaged in another great project--the digging of an inside +passage connecting its inland tidal waters by a canal system which will +open to navigation a continuous inland waterway six hundred miles in +length. In digging these canals through the marshes bordering the +coast, thousands of acres of exceedingly fertile land have been +reclaimed and are now producing valuable crops. + +The Kankakee marshes in Indiana have been drained, adding many thousands +of acres of rich soil to the agricultural area of the state. + +In all, about 80,000,000 acres are so wet that they must be drained in +order to make them produce good farm crops, but which, while now covered +only with marsh grass or undergrowth, is capable of being made the most +fertile of all land. + +This swamp land is ten times the area of Holland, which supports a +population of 5,000,000 people. It is therefore easy to see how greatly +we may add to our productive territory and our national wealth by +reclamation through drainage. + +We now come to the use of water as power; and although in the last fifty +years this subject has received little attention, as manufacturing +increases and as fuel decreases and becomes higher, the value of water +becomes more evident, and water-power sites are being eagerly sought. + +Our age may come to be known in the future as the age of power, because +through the application of mechanical power man has gained such +marvelous control over the world about him. Wind and water led in the +production of power until about 1870, since which time they have +scarcely increased at all, the greater advantages of steam and +electricity having driven them out. + +As long as all factories had to be built by the side of streams having +suitable water-power, the number and size of factories were always +extremely limited. With the introduction of steam it became possible to +build factories at mines, in forests, in fruit or grain regions, +wherever the supply of raw material was plentiful, and to multiply +factories of all kinds in cities near the markets for their product, or +where labor was cheap and abundant. But power could only be used where +it was developed, and the size of the power plant depended on the amount +of business done by each individual user. + +Now a new era of power has again enlarged the possibilities of +manufacturing. By means of electricity the work, not only of factories, +but also of the home and the farm may be done in any place where +electricity can be installed. We must bear in mind that electricity is +never a source of power, but is only the agent that carries power to the +user. The source of all electric power is either steam or water, +produced by water-wheels, turbines, steam-engines or gas-engines. The +economical way to furnish electric power is to establish central power +plants, and electricity may be conveyed from them for many miles. An +electric railway, telegraph, or telephone system many miles in length +is operated from a single power plant. Electric light and power are +transmitted all over the largest cities. It is no longer necessary that +a factory be of any specified size nor that it have any waste power. If +it be within reach of the electrical current it may use as much or as +little as is needed. + +The cheapness of electric power must always depend on nearness to the +source of supply or to the market. Until a short time ago it was +customary to locate electric power-houses near the market, that is, in +cities. But the benefits to be derived from having the electric plant +near the source of power, so that the cost of production is greatly +lessened, are becoming better recognized. This will make water-power +increasingly valuable. + +It is even now practicable to develop water-power, wherever located, for +the production of electricity. Although the lowest grade coals are used +for electric power at the mines yet they can now be used for still other +purposes. Coal or other fuel once used can not be replaced, but when +electricity is derived from water-power only energy otherwise wasted is +used. This energy, if derived from water-power, is all added to our +assets instead of being lost. + +For many years the amount of power used for manufacturing and other +purposes has doubled about once in ten years, and the steady pace kept +by different lines of development shows how closely they are related. +Our power, our forest cut, the use of our iron and other minerals, our +coal and petroleum, the railroad earnings, freight and passenger +traffic, and our agricultural products all double themselves every ten +years. This means that in ten years we shall require twice as much power +as now, but will have far less coal to use. This raises the +question,--have we available water-power to conserve our coal supply? +Let us see. It is estimated that we are now using 26,000,000 horse-power +of energy derived from steam, 3,000,000 horse-power derived from water, +and 800,000 from gas or oil, a total of 29,800,000 horse-power. It is +also estimated that there is now running idly over dams, falls, and +rapids 30,000,000 horse-power of energy. In other words, we are wasting +every day enough water to run every factory and mill, and to turn every +wheel, to move every electric car and to supply every electric light or +power-station in the country. + +The amount of water-power is gauged solely by the low-water stage of the +stream. A river is considered to produce only as much power as it can +furnish at its season of lowest water. At other times factories may be +operated more actively, but usually most of the extra power is wasted +during a large part of the year. + +If these storm or flood waters can be stored in reservoirs, the +stream-flow throughout the year can be made fairly uniform and the power +possibilities greatly increased. The Geological Survey believes that by +storing the flood waters and regulating the flow of the streams, the +large rivers of the United States may be made to furnish 150,000,000 +horse-power, enough, if it could be utilized, to supply every power need +of our country for many years to come without using a ton of our coal, +and without in any way decreasing the water. + +Of course this can never be practicable. Much power will always be +needed where no stream for power is available. But the lesson is plain +that where water can be used it should be, both in order to save the +coal and because it can be produced more cheaply. The 30,000,000 +horse-power now available, if produced in our most modern electric +plants, would require the burning of nearly 225,000,000 tons of coal, +and if in the average plant run by steam-engines, more than 650,000,000 +tons of coal, which is fifty per cent. more than all the coal that is +now produced in this country. At three dollars per ton it would cost +$2,000,000,000 a year to supply the coal to furnish the power that we +might have, one might almost say, as a by-product from the improving of +the rivers for navigation. The development of the water-power +possibilities of the country is now going forward at a rapid rate, +however. + +Dams on the Susquehanna River will soon make 30,000 horse-power +available, which could be increased to 200,000 by building storage +reservoirs. + +A dam just begun at the rapids of the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa, +will, when completed, furnish 200,000 horse-power. Niagara is producing +56,000 horse-power on the United States side. The Muscle Shoals Falls +rapids in the Tennessee River is furnishing 188,000 horse-power. +Illinois will greatly increase its possibilities for offering cheap +power to factories, when the Lakes to Gulf Canal with 173,000,000 +horse-power worth $12,750,000 yearly, and the Chicago Drainage or +Sanitary Canal, which has nearly 60,000 horse-power, are complete. Both +of these projects were undertaken by the state. + +In California 250,000 horse-power is now in operation, and 5,000,000 +horse-power might easily be developed in that state alone, which at the +price of coal would be worth a billion dollars a year. + +New England has the oldest system of water-power control, because before +the era of steam it was the chief manufacturing region of the country. +The Merrimac, flowing through New Hampshire and Massachusetts, is the +most carefully conserved river in the world, and Governor Dingley of +Maine said that the water-power of Maine is equal to the working energy +of 13,000,000 men. + +The money value is counted at twenty dollars a year per horse power, but +it frequently brings as high as one hundred or even one hundred and +fifty dollars a year in a good manufacturing region, so that the value +of our water-power facilities can hardly be computed. + +An ideal picture of the harmonious development of our water resources +for all purposes is one that is not too difficult to realize. It is the +ideal that should be always before us in the improvement of our +waterways, and we should bear in mind that although the expense will be +heavy, it will not cost more than one-tenth as much to improve all the +important waterways as to equip the railways to carry the traffic they +will be called on to carry in the next ten years; and also that in the +past, for every dollar that has been spent on waterways, almost +twenty-five dollars has been spent on railways. The railways are a great +and important part of our national development, but the waterways should +not be neglected. Rather, the two should be so harmonized and adjusted +as to make one great commercial system that will furnish cheap and +abundant transportation for all our commerce. + +The most complete plan for conserving our waters is as follows: First, +build storage reservoirs along the upper stretches of the river to hold +the overflow waters of the flood season which are to be turned into the +main channel when the water becomes too low for ordinary navigation. + +These storage reservoirs should be on the lowest grade of land, that +which would be least productive. The reservoirs should be well stocked +with the best varieties of fish to make them profitable. The banks +should be planted with forest trees and made as attractive as they can +be made to form public parks and pleasure grounds for the people, where +boating, fishing and bathing may be enjoyed. + +The next point is to remove all obstructions from the river, to canalize +it at shallow places or rapids, so that the whole river will be +navigable, and, if necessary, to deepen the channel so that it will +carry large vessels between two important points. + +Dams should be built to take advantage of every opportunity for +water-power. One of the worst mistakes in the past has been the failure +to use the power that might have been developed in improving the streams +for navigation. + +Rivers should be made profitable still further by stocking with fish and +should be kept clear of factory refuse and sewage. Soil-wash should be +lessened by planting trees and shrubs along the banks; and where +overflow or erosion lowers the value of the land or repeatedly ruins the +crops, dykes and levees should be built. + +The rivers most important commercially should be improved first. Canals +should be cut between waterways where large benefits will result; +overflow and swamp land should be drained, and in arid regions every +particle of water conserved for irrigation purposes. + +The irrigation canals may also be used to supply water-power, and the +canals may be used as are other canals for towing barges. If electric +power is produced, electric towing is cheap and very desirable as a +means of transportation. + +In short, our water supply should be as carefully used and with as +little waste as the land of forests. The most important improvements +needed are, a Lakes to Gulf Waterway that shall be safe and practicable +at least for vessels of moderate size; the improvement of the Ohio, +Missouri, Tennessee and Upper Mississippi Rivers; an inner coast passage +from New England to Florida, and in navigable rivers dredging and +deepening if necessary, to make many outlets to the sea which will +afford cheap transportation. + +In the West, the Columbia, San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers with their +branches should be made navigable. Many western rivers have been almost +ruined by filling with rocks in hydraulic mining, but this is now +prohibited by law and if the channels were cleared they would again +become navigable. + +Appropriations for much of this work have already been made by Congress, +but the work is not systematically planned. The cost of all of it would +be about sixty-two and a half cents a year for each man, woman and child +in the country and every one would receive some benefit. + +The National Conservation Commission on Waterways found that the average +family pays for transportation or freight on all its food and clothing +and the necessities of life, nearly or quite one-third their actual +cost. "It is estimated that the direct benefits would be a yearly saving +in freight handling of $250,000,000, a yearly saving in flood damage of +$150,000,000, a saving in forest fires of at least $25,000,000, a +benefit through cheapened power of fully $75,000,000 and a yearly saving +in farm production of $500,000,000; a total of $1,000,000,000, or twelve +dollars and fifty cents for each person--twenty times the cost! And this +does not take into account the benefits from irrigation, drainage, and +the lessening of disease by a pure water supply." + + +REFERENCES + +Waters. Report of the National Conservation Commission. + +Report of Inland Waterways Commission, 1908. + +American Inland Waterways. H. Quick. + +Waterways and Water Transportation. J. S. Jeans. + +Waterway Transportation in Europe. L. G. McPherson. + +Highways of Progress. J. J. Hill. + +Navigation Resources of the United States. (Johnson.) Report, Governor's +Conference. + +Conservation of Power Resources. (H. St. Clair Putnam.) Report, +Governor's Conference. + +Florida's Waterways. (Miles.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Our Water Resources. (Lyman Cooley.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +The Lakes-to-Gulf Waterway. (Randolph.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Water Resources. (Kummel.) Report, Governor's Conference. + +Necessity for Waterway Improvement. (Austin.) Report, Governor's +Conference. + +Report Congressional Committee on European Waterways. Senate Document, +1910. + +River and Harbor Bill. Senate Document. Burton, 1910. + +Forests, Water Storage, Power and Navigation. (Taylor.) Proceedings of +the Am. Hydrochemical Society. + +Our Inland Waterways. (McGee.) + +Outlines of Hydrology. (McGee.) + +Natural Movement of Water in Semi-arid Regions. (McGee.) + +Irrigation in the United States. Dept. Commerce and Labor Census Bureau. + +Irrigation Projects of the U. S. Reclamation Service. + +Reports of Irrigation in various states. Apply to Governor. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COAL + + +When we begin to study the mineral resources of the country we pass to +conditions altogether different from those which we have been +considering. Heretofore we have been dealing with resources that can be +renewed, the soil by proper management, the forests by replanting, the +waters by nature's own processes; but the fuels, the iron and many other +mineral resources once used are gone for ever. + +As to their importance Andrew Carnegie says: "Of all the world's metals +iron is in our day the most useful. The opening of the iron age marked +the beginning of real industrial development. To-day the position of +nations may almost be measured by its production and use. Iron and coal +form the foundation of our prosperity. The value of each depends upon +the amount and nearness of the other. In modern times the manufacturing +and transportation industries rest upon them, and with sufficient land +and a fertile soil, these determine the progress of any people." + +We are sometimes told that we need have no anxiety about the future, +that new discoveries and inventions will take the place of the present +fuels, and even substitutes for minerals will be devised long before the +supply is exhausted. This may be true, and in a way the future must take +care of itself, but until new inventions have actually been made it is +criminal to waste present resources and blindly trust that time will +make our folly appear good judgment and foresight. + +We have vast mineral resources unused; the present generation, even its +children and its children's children need have no fear of a shortage. +But in the use of those resources that are steadily and for ever +diminishing we must look a long way into the future. We are under the +most solemn obligation to take only our part of the store, and leave the +rest untouched and unspoiled for those who are to come after us. When we +consider what these mineral resources have done for our country in the +last fifty years, when we realize that it is only by having cheap and +abundant coal, iron, and copper that our railroads, our various electric +systems, and our great manufactories have been developed, we can realize +our duty to give the coming generations an equal opportunity to develop +their ideas. + +The yearly products of the mines of the United States are now valued at +more than $2,000,000,000. Sixty-five car-loads of freight out of every +hundred carried by our railroads are made up of mineral products. More +than a million men are employed at the mines, and more than twice that +number in handling and transporting mine products. + +Of every one hundred tons of coal mined in the whole world, the United +States produces forty-three tons. We supply forty-five tons out of every +hundred of iron ore, twenty-two tons of gold, thirty tons of silver, +thirty-three tons of lead, nearly twenty-eight tons of the zinc, about +fifty-five tons of the copper, and sixty-three tons of the petroleum +consumed by all civilized countries. + +This would be a cause for great national pride if we did not need also +to consider the shameful fact that our wastes or losses in the mining, +handling, and use of our mineral products are estimated at more than +$1,500,000 per day, or, for the year, the gigantic sum of $547,500,000. +That is, more than one-fourth of the entire output is wasted! + +Of all our minerals, the fuels which supply heat, light, and power for +domestic and manufacturing purposes, are the most necessary and +important. Other materials can not be manufactured without their aid. +Almost every particular of modern life would be changed if we no longer +had plenty of fuel. Its use means its immediate and complete +destruction, which is true of no other resource, and the use of fuels is +increasing and will increase so rapidly that their conservation is +becoming a serious problem. + +The principal fuels are coal, gas, oil, peat, alcohol, and wood, and of +these, coal is at present by far the most important. The first record of +coal mined in this country was in 1814, when twenty-two tons of +anthracite, or hard coal, were mined in Pennsylvania. An increasing +amount was mined each year, but until 1821 the production was less than +five hundred tons per year. In 1822 the production advanced to nearly +60,000 tons, and since that time has increased by leaps and bounds. + +During the seventy-five years from 1820 to 1895, nearly 4,000,000,000 +tons were mined by methods so wasteful that 6,000,000,000 tons were +destroyed or allowed to remain in the ground so that it could never be +recovered. Within the next ten years as much was produced as in the +entire seventy-five preceding years, and in this period 3,000,000,000 +tons were destroyed or left in the ground beyond the reach of future +use. Up to this time the actual amount of coal used has been over +7,500,000,000 tons; the waste 9,000,000,000 tons. + +Experts estimate that in the beginning there were somewhere about +2,000,000,000,000 tons of available coal, so that we have now, with all +our wastefulness, used less than two per cent. of our original +inheritance. But we must remember that in the ten years closing with +1905, we used as much as during the entire history of our country up to +that time, and the rate of consumption is still increasing. In 1907 the +amount mined was about 450,000,000 tons. Counting on a continuance of +the same rate of increase, in 1917 it will be 900,000,000 tons a year, +and if the same conditions should continue for twenty years we should be +using and wasting in one year as much as we have used in all our history +up to the present time. By that time more than one-eighth of our +original supply will be gone, and in less than two hundred years nearly +all of it will have for ever disappeared. + +That is a long time to look forward, but a short time in looking +backward. It carries us back only to the childhood of Benjamin Franklin +and others prominent in our early history; and if this nation could look +forward to only an equal period of prosperous development in the future +the time would seem short indeed. + +But the danger of our coal supply becoming exhausted lies not so much in +its present use as in the rapid increase in its consumption. Fifty years +ago (about the time of the Civil War) we were using an amount equal to a +little more than a quarter of a ton for every man, woman and child then +in the country. Now the rate is five tons, or twenty times that amount, +for each person of all our greatly increased population. + +The Pittsburg Coal Company owns about one-seventh of the great +Pennsylvania anthracite fields. From the amount it is now mining each +year and judging from the amount of coal it is able, with present +methods, to reclaim from an acre of coal land, the estimate is made that +this Pittsburg field will be exhausted in ninety-three years. A like +comparison of all the eastern fields indicates that by the beginning of +the next century there will be practically no cheap fuel left in the +entire Appalachian basin. + +The Geological Survey reports that, taking into account the available +coal which can be reached and mined by present methods, and supposing +the present conditions of use, waste, and increase to continue, the coal +supply will be exhausted by the year 2015 A. D., but taking into account +the probable improvements in its use, the year 2027 A. D. is estimated +as the time when the present coal fields will be exhausted, and the +middle of that century as the time when all coal fields in the United +States will be gone. + +This true story well illustrates the need of conservation and the folly +of careless waste. High in the hills of the Pittsburg region a thick +bed of excellent coal was found by the early settlers. It was impossible +for them to build roads up the steep cliffs, so some method of getting +the coal down to the valleys had to be devised. Buffaloes roamed the +western plains in countless millions, and were so abundant about +Pittsburg that the supply seemed inexhaustible. So the pioneers killed +the buffaloes, filled each skin with a few bushels of coal, sewed it up, +and tumbled it down the mountain side. + +This was the way they marketed their coal--by destroying their +buffaloes. For many years no one dreamed that there was any end to the +supply of buffaloes. And so both east and west they were killed for +their skins, which sold for a few cents, for their horns, for a supply +of steak, or for mere sport; and then one day people woke up to find +that the buffalo had disappeared, not in one settlement only, as they +had supposed, but everywhere. There are a few remaining, carefully cared +for by the government. They are among our most valued possessions, and +yet only a few years ago they were destroyed, wasted, by millions. + +This passing of the buffalo, the skins of which, as common then as +burlap bags are now, were used to market our first coal, carries with it +a deep lesson as to what will happen to the coal itself, even within +the present century, unless our people awake to the consequence of what +they are doing and make a determined effort to stop all unnecessary +waste. + +Let us see where and how these wastes occur. The first serious loss of +our coal occurs at the mines. There are three great wastes in mining. + +(1) A coal bed is not made up entirely of pure coal, especially if it be +very thick. Sometimes there are layers of shale or clay, which makes a +large amount of ash. This can never be sold as regular marketable coal; +but it is rich in carbon, and much of it might be used if it could be +marketed near the mines and sold as low-grade coal. In the past there +has been almost no market for it, and if it were either in the roof or +bottom of the coal bed, it has been left unmined. If mixed with pure +coal, the low-grade coal was thrown into great heaps at the mouth of the +mine. This refuse coal is called culm. The amount varies from one-tenth +to one-half of the coal in nearly every coal bed, and would probably +average one-fourth in all the mines of the country. + +This material is rich in carbon, and when used in gas-engines will +furnish more power than the best Pocahontas coal when steam-engines are +used. Thus one-fourth of all our coal is wasted at the mines simply +because steam-engines instead of gas-producer engines have been +employed. If in the future installation of power this fact is taken into +consideration, it will make the cost less to the user, and at the same +time utilize a large proportion of our impure coal and save the higher +grades for other purposes. + +(2) In the mining of coal it was formerly the unfailing custom to leave +supporting pillars of coal for the over-lying rocks to rest upon, to +make suitable working-rooms, etc. These pillars, twelve to eighteen +inches square, and higher than a man's head, are scattered throughout +the entire mines and are usually of the highest grade coal. In many +mines, also, a roof of coal a foot or more in thickness must be left +because the material above the coal is not solid enough to prevent +cave-ins. When the mine is abandoned and closed these pillars and +roofings remain untouched, because removing them constitutes one of the +greatest dangers to life, and is one of the frequent causes of mine +accidents. It is improbable that the coal thus left in abandoned mines +will ever be reclaimed, because not enough is left to make it profitable +at present prices to re-open the mines; and frequently the rocks cave in +about these pillars and make the task almost impossible. + +(3) By careless blasting an unnecessarily large amount of coal is blown +into powder,--the slack which has not been marketed at all until within +the last few years. Much of this slack, which is the best grade of coal +in a pulverized form, is left inside the mines. These wastes in +abandoned roofing, pillars, and small-sized coal, together make a total +which for all the mines in the country will average fully one-fourth +more of the coal that is in the ground. + +It is to be noted, however, that conditions are changing for the better. +The most modern mines use fewer supporting pillars of coal, and these +are of larger size, so that there is less danger of accidents. Wherever +possible they use timbers of wood instead of these smaller pillars of +coal. They also mine as near the top of the seam of coal as can be done +safely, and so regulate the blasting that much less slack is made than +by the heavy discharges. These changes in mining methods save a far +larger proportion of coal, and also prevent many accidents, which are +the most unfortunate feature of coal mining, and the one which should +receive most careful consideration. (See chapter on Health.) + +One large mining company in Kentucky raises its own timbers by planting +trees in straight, close rows on its coal land, thus making the land +produce its own mine timbers to conserve the coal below. This company +claims to have lost but one life in ten years, and to save seventy-five +per cent. of its coal. This is a striking illustration of what better +mining methods will do for both the miner and the mine owner and of how +forestry may be an aid to the conservation of coal and also of human +life in the mines. + +We have already shown how half of the coal is wasted, but there still +remains another source of waste at the mines. This is a large but +unknown quantity. Coal usually exists in beds or layers with shale or +rock between, much as a "layer-cake" is made, the layers of cake being +represented by the coal and the icing between by these "rock-partings," +as they are called. In rich fields, there are from three to ten of these +rich layers or beds of coal, one above another. It often happens that +the thickest and best layer is the lowest, and when this is the case, it +is usually mined first, regardless of the fact that some, and possibly +all, of the higher beds are dislocated and broken or filled with deadly +gases. Nearly all this loss could be avoided by simply mining the upper +stratum first. + +So much for waste at the mines. This is serious enough if it were all, +but it is not all, it is only the beginning. Let us see now what becomes +of the coal that is marketed. The railroads are the largest single users +of coal, and here we are confronted with the surprising statement that +our locomotives consume three tons of coal in doing the same work that +is performed by English locomotives with one ton. This difference is +said to be due to different construction of the engines themselves, and +to more careful stoking, or firing. Our locomotives use 100,000,000 tons +per year, and by even the best methods known a large proportion of the +heat units is wasted. Great effort should be made to improve the +locomotives so that they will consume less coal; but as long as the +railroad companies own the coal mines, as they do in many instances, +they can obtain coal so cheaply that the cost of the improved form of +engine is greater than the amount saved. + +Another great use lies in the manufacture of coke, which is used in the +making of steel, and here, too, we see where great wastes have existed. +The old form of coke-oven was called the bee-hive on account of its +shape. These old style ovens consume all the coal with the exception of +the fixed carbon which is left behind as coke. At the prices which +prevailed in 1907, the value of the by-products wasted in bee-hive +coke-ovens was a little over $55,000,000--surely a loss worth +considering. A different form of coke-ovens is much used abroad and is +coming into use in this country. This is the retort or by-product oven, +sometimes called the recovery oven. + +The bee-hive ovens are usually located near the mines where the cost of +coal is low, with small expense for transporting it. On the other hand, +the by-product ovens are established near the larger cities in order to +dispose of their gas and other by-products. Here the cost of +transportation must be added to that of the coal, but the products are +marketed near by instead of at a distance, as in the case of the +bee-hive ovens. The most improved by-product ovens produce not only coke +and gas, but coal-tar, pitch, ammonia, and creosoting oils, all +extremely valuable and adding greatly to the value of the output of the +ovens. + +Electricity is another form of light and power which involves a large +waste of the energy of coal; only one-fifth of one per cent., that is, +one-five hundredth of the value of the coal is used in electricity, and +there is at present no known remedy for this. + +There are methods, however, of lessening even this waste, and these are +constantly receiving more attention. One is for the electric plants +located in cities to sell their exhaust steam or water heated by the +coal as it is converted into electric power, as a by-product. The +electric power-house thus becomes a central heating plant to supply +stores, offices, and residences. Another system being tried abroad, +though scarcely past the experimental stage in this country, establishes +great electric power-houses at the coal mines to use the culm, +low-grade slack, and lignites, the lowest form of coal, in short, all +the waste of the mines. Still another plan is the manufacturing of +electricity by water-power, as we have seen in a previous chapter. + +The manufacturing industries of the country waste a large amount of fuel +annually, but here the waste is mostly due to expensive methods of +producing power, and to careless stoking, and is largely preventable. As +we have shown, gas-engines are a far more economical form of producing +power than are steam-engines. Steam uses from five to ten per cent. of +the heat-units of coal, gas-producer engines use fifty per cent. and +burn a lower grade of coal. + +One of the great problems of cities is the heavy volume of bituminous or +soft coal smoke that hangs over the entire surrounding region, levying a +heavy tax in cleaning and laundry work, making the air difficult to +breathe, and shutting out the daylight itself. Every residence adds its +mite, but the factories and public buildings are the worst offenders. +There are several good smoke-consuming devices on the market that have +been thoroughly tested by the government, which will furnish their names +on application. + +If factory owners who use steam power could realize that the gases, the +highest heat-producing part of the coal, escape with the smoke, and +that by using smoke consumers they not only prevent all the evils of +the smoke nuisance but save fully half of the value of their coal, they +would gladly put in this equipment. What manufacturer would not eagerly +welcome any device that would cut his fuel bills in half? + +The other cause of waste of coal in the manufacturing industries is +recklessness in the use of fuel, filling the furnaces with the drafts so +disposed that much of the heat is wasted. Every factory owner should +learn (from the government reports if he has no other means of learning) +the best methods of firing furnaces, and should employ them in his +factory. + +The last great waste of coal is in households. In stoves and furnaces, +and to a certain extent in kitchen ranges, this waste is through +carelessness in firing, as it is in factories. There still remains a +large amount of wasted energy in cooking that is unavoidable. The amount +of coal consumed before certain articles can be cooked, the heat +remaining after the meal is prepared, are wastes that it seems +impossible to prevent, though wise management will prevent undue waste +even here. Fireless cookers, an invention of recent years, go far toward +solving the problem of waste by long hours of cooking single articles, +and each year we see more prepared food bought in order to save the +cost of heat. Housekeepers find that it does not pay to bake their bread +themselves, since a dozen loaves can be baked in a large oven with the +fuel used in baking one at home. + +Briquettes are a new form of fuel made from coal, principally for +household use. They are made from the low-grade coals, culm, slack and +lignites, blended with coal-tar pitch. They are commonly used not only +in households, but for locomotives and ships, in several European +countries, especially Germany; but in this country the cost of making +them--about a dollar per ton--makes the retail price higher than the +cheaper grades of coal, and their general introduction at the price of +the higher grades is rather slow. + +Let it always be kept in mind that we must not check the careful use, +only the waste, and the best way to avoid an unnecessary drain on the +coal and at the same time increase our manufactures is to substitute +other power. Coal is only a form of energy that came originally from the +sun. The same causes that produced coal still exist. Scientists tell us +that coal is still being made, but it will take thousands of years to +perfect it. If we could only learn to take the sun's heat directly and +use it for our heat, light, and power, it would be one of the greatest +discoveries in the history of the world, greater even than the discovery +of electricity. + +Many attempts have been made to produce power directly from the sun +through solar engines, or by concentrating it in furnaces. At the St. +Louis Exposition a few years ago, a Portuguese priest exhibited a solar +engine called a heliophore, in which, by means of the sun's rays, the +temperature was raised to 6000 degrees F., and a cube of iron placed in +it melted like a snowball. The sun helps to raise the tides and some day +they may be used to produce power. Many experiments are being made with +both solar and tidal energy, some of them successful in a small way, but +nothing that is ready to stand the test of every-day use has been +devised. + +Doctor Pritchell says that on a clear day when the sun is high, it +delivers upon each acre of the earth's surface exposed to its rays, the +equal of 7,500 horse-power working continually. If the extra energy not +needed for the growth of plants and animals could be used, all the work +of the world could be done and the problem of fuel supply would be +solved for ever. + +But the greatest conservation of coal possible at present lies in the +use of the water-power which now goes to waste, and which, if employed, +would, as we have seen, give us 30,000,000 horse-power, or more than all +that is now produced from fuel by all our engines combined. + +Alabama offers a striking illustration of this failure to take advantage +of our opportunities, for Alabama has both coal and water-power. +Engineers estimate that the three principal rivers have power equal to +436,000 horse-power. At Muscle Shoals, on the Tennessee River, there is +now developed 188,000 horse-power, second only to Niagara--and if the +waters were conserved, the figures would reach 1,084,000 horse-power on +the three rivers. This means that, according to the amount of coal +required to produce each horse-power of energy, it would require +11,201,000 tons of coal each year to produce by steam as much power as +these streams might easily be made to produce. + +Alabama, as we have said, is also a great coal state. It is now mining +about 14,000,000 tons per year and only four states produce a larger +amount. It will be seen that four tons out of five mined in this state +will be needed to produce by steam the power that is going to waste in +its rivers. The Honorable W. P. Lay, of the Alabama Conservation +Commission, in calling attention to this fact, says: + +"Suppose for a moment that the coal fields of Alabama were sliding down +an incline and pouring off over a precipice at the rate of 11,201,000 +tons per year, how long would it take the people of the United States +to do something to try to stop such a waste? Yet what else are we doing +when we sit idly by and let the water of these streams go to waste over +a precipice while we ourselves burn up the coal?" + +And what is true in Alabama is true to a lesser extent in most of the +states. Wherever water-power is going to waste, coal is being used to +take its place, and that coal is needed in some place where there is no +water-power. + +On a certain stream in one of the central states was a fine waterfall. +The early settlers built a mill there. The water turned the mill-wheel +and then passed on to water the valley and turn other mill-wheels. But +one night the old mill was destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt, but +some distance from the stream a new steam mill was built, the motive +power of which was natural gas. When, after a few years, the natural gas +was all gone, the miller began to use coal, and he still uses +coal--hundreds of tons of it--while the water which once turned the +wheels, runs idly over the falls. This is an example of wholly useless +waste of coal, and just such waste is to be found in hundreds of places +in our country. + +If wise mining methods be put into operation, if proper care be taken in +its use, particularly in manufacturing, if the low-grade coals be +utilized, and if other power be substituted wherever practicable, there +need be no question of shortage. There is enough coal in the ground, if +used rightly, to last for ages to come. But because we have wasted vast +quantities of it in the past, and are still wasting it, so that if the +same conditions continue we can distinctly see the end in sight, it is +important that every one understands what these conditions of use and +waste are, and how the abuse may be corrected, so that mine owners and +consumers may all work together to preserve this most necessary +resource. + + +REFERENCES + +Coal is King. Hewette. + +Economical Burning of Coal Without Smoke. Bement. + +Coal and Coal Mines. H. Green. + +International Library of Technology. Vols. 37 and 38. + +Reports of Geological Survey. + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Report.) + +Production of Coals in the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +OTHER FUELS + +WOOD + + +Wood, which was formerly the only fuel used in this country, has now +largely given place to other fuels. In rural districts and in lumber +regions it is still used extensively; but in the cities, larger towns, +and manufacturing regions, it is not used in commercial quantities. Its +use for power production is limited to the wood-working factories which +have a large amount of waste lumber and which employ this by-product to +furnish heat for steam boilers. + +The wood used for fuel or for power usually represents what would +otherwise be lost, the dead trees and the unmarketable timber of the +farmer's wood-lot, the refuse of lumber regions or the waste of +wood-working factories. So that the use of wood as fuel now generally +means the conservation of our coal supply, and a use for the low-grade +parts of the forest. + +In some cases, however, farmers cut for fuel fine young trees that +would grow into excellent timber. Liberal planting of trees so that wood +shall become plentiful in all parts of the country will tend to bring +about again a larger use of wood as fuel, which will thus once more +become a factor in the saving of our coal. Every farmer should learn to +save all valuable trees for lumber, and to use only undesirable ones for +fuel. + + +PEAT + +Peat is said by geologists to be only "coal in the making," carbon that +is in the state of changing from vegetable matter to coal. It is +probable that in the course of centuries this would become coal, and in +its present state it has many of the properties of coal, though it has +not nearly so high a heating value. + +In this country we have had such a wealth of fuel resources--coal, wood, +oil, and gas--that up to the present time we have done little to develop +our peat beds, although in European countries ten million tons are used +annually for fuel, as well as large quantities for other purposes. From +the earliest times peat has been the principal fuel of the common people +of Ireland and some of the countries of northern Europe. + +Now, however, people are trying to make the best of many resources not +heretofore developed, coal prices are steadily advancing and the two +causes combine to turn people's attention to the peat beds of America. +One point that is worthy of notice is that peat is found mostly in +regions where there is no coal, oil, or natural gas. The development of +peat beds in those regions, it will be seen, would give them a great +advantage in the matter of cheap fuel. + +Large peat beds are found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, +New England, New Jersey, Florida, the Dakotas, northern Iowa, Illinois, +Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, eastern Virginia, the Carolinas and +Georgia; and near the coast in the gulf states, and a narrow strip along +the Pacific coast, from southern California to the Canadian border. They +cover an area of about 11,000 square miles and are supposed to contain +not less than 14,000,000,000 tons of air-dried peat. At the rate of +three dollars per ton, which is a reasonable price in the states having +no coal, this peat would have a value of more than $40,000,000,000. + +Peat is prepared for use as common fuel in two ways: (1) By cutting it +into blocks or bricks, which are air-dried by exposure to sun and wind +for a few weeks. This is called "cut peat," is bulky and easily +breakable, and can be used only for local consumption. (2) By digging +either by hand or machine, and grinding it in a mill. It is put in wet, +ground, cut with rapidly turning knives, and passed out of the machine +as a thick pulp that is cut into bricks as it comes out. It is then +stored several weeks until thoroughly dried. This is called "machine +peat," "pressed peat," or "condensed peat." + +Peat is being used in many ways. (1) Air-dried peat is used for fuel +only. (2) Dry peat without a binder, or mixed with coal dust and tar or +pitch is used for the same purpose. (3) Machine peat is used for many +purposes, among them making into briquettes, peat charcoal, and peat +coke. + +It has been found practical to make illuminating gas of peat, but a far +more general use is for running gas-engines and producer-gas furnaces. +This is a practical use for it, since it will conserve the coal now used +for that purpose, furnish satisfactory power without smoke or dirt, +provide cheap power in regions that have no coal mines, and lastly may +be made to yield valuable by-products: ammonia, acetic acid, paraffin, +tar, creosote, and wood-alcohol. If all the peat in the United States +could be used in producer-gas engines the ammonia yielded would alone +have a value of $36,000,000,000. + +Peat is also used for packing material, as a fertilizer, for +manufacturing paper, for coarse cloth and mattress filling. By mixing +wet machine peat with cement it may be made into blocks for paving and +other construction work. The most promising uses are for fuel, as +bedding for stock, as a disinfectant, in briquettes for burning lime, +brick, and pottery, in which it is finding a large use, and for which it +is said to be particularly well fitted; and most satisfactory of all, +its use in gas-producer engines. In Florida an immense plant is being +built to manufacture electric power, using air-dried peat as fuel, the +power to be transmitted to Jacksonville. + +Machine peat is supposed to have sixty-five per cent. the value of the +same weight of Pocahontas coal, but on account of the lack of waste in +peat its real value is higher than would appear from the comparison. +From two to two and a half pounds will produce one horse-power per hour +in gas-producer engines. By this estimate, we can see that the peat beds +of this country, if properly used, may be largely employed, either now +or in the future, as a substitute for the vanishing coal. + + +NATURAL GAS + +Of all the fuels, natural gas may be said to be the ideal one. Coming +from the ground, it is piped a greater or less distance and distributed +to the home or factory for light, heat, or power; for all of which it is +equally desirable. It is ready for our use at the turn of a key, is +absolutely clean, having neither dust, ash, nor unconsumed portions. It +requires no kindling other than a lighted match. + +Natural gas is found over an area which, if combined, would cover almost +10,000 square miles. It exists in twenty-two states--Alabama, +California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, +New York, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, +Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, +Wyoming. In some of them the area has been large and the production very +heavy, in others the field is small and unproductive. Until the last two +or three years there have been no statistics as to the quantity of gas +piped, but an account of its value has been kept for many years. For the +twenty years beginning with 1888 the value is given at nearly +$500,000,000. + +It must be remembered that much of this represents extremely low prices, +only the amount actually paid for its use. When gas is newly discovered +in a region it is not considered an opportunity for the residents of the +community to have cheap light, power and fuel for themselves, but +instead as an opportunity to develop the country, to increase the +population and attract new factories. In order to advertise and boom +their communities free gas is usually offered to factories. So in +dozens of instances large factories have been operated for years without +a cent having been paid for fuel. For this reason no proper estimate can +be made of the quantity of gas consumed, nor of its value even at a +nominal price. In 1907, (the last year for which complete returns have +been published in government reports) the amount of gas consumed was +given at 404,000,000 cubic feet, which at present prices is valued at +$63,000,000. + +It is impossible to determine in any way the future production of +natural gas, or to guess at the quantity remaining in the earth. It may +be much less or much more than present conditions would indicate; but +the present known fields are limited, and the pressure is growing +steadily less in all of them. + +The Conservation Commission reports, "It is safe to predict that the +known fields will be exhausted in twenty-five years." The decrease of +natural gas is strikingly illustrated in Indiana. This state, perhaps +more than any other, profited directly by the discovery of its natural +gas about twenty years ago. Here, the mineral maps show, is by far the +greatest natural gas region in the United States. With the discovery of +natural gas, established towns grew to ten times their former size and +new ones sprang up everywhere. Indiana, which had been chiefly an +agricultural state, bade fair to become one of the foremost +manufacturing states on account of its cheap and abundant fuel. In 1902 +Indiana produced nearly $8,000,000 worth of natural gas, but for 1908 +the State Geologist's report contained no figures for this product. It +had ceased to be a prominent factor in the wealth of the state! There is +no resource that has been so shamefully, so hopelessly wasted as our +natural gas. + +With even more recklessness than characterizes the waste of our forests +and our coal, we have allowed this perfect fuel to escape. To the +dwellers in each region where natural gas is found, it seems that the +supply is inexhaustible. The roar of the wells, which makes the very +earth tremble; the flames springing high into the air; the undiminished +pressure after months of use, appearing to indicate a boundless +reservoir below; the opportunity for whole communities to grow rich by +its use; all these things tend to promote recklessness on the part of +all who handle it. In the beginning the wells are usually not tightly +cased, and there is a considerable quantity of gas escaping about every +well. New wells are frequently lighted to show the volume of gas. In +some cases the well has become uncapped on account of heavy pressure and +to prevent the escape of unconsumed gas into the air it is kept burning +night and day. The strongest wells are often kept burning for months in +order to advertise a new gas field. In this way immense quantities of +the most perfect fuel in the world have been wantonly wasted. From a +single well in eastern Kentucky there flowed a steady stream of gas for +twenty years which at present prices would be worth $3,000,000, and the +same story of waste from burning wells comes from every natural gas +field. + +In a new region where gas is abundant there is also a great waste from +leaking pipe lines laid on the surface of the ground, from open +flambeaux, and from careless home and factory consumption. In many +communities the open flambeaux have been employed to light the streets, +and allowed to burn day and night to avoid the expense of a man to care +for them. Where natural gas is abundant, meters are not usually +installed; instead, gas is sold by the month. The consumer is under no +obligation to save the gas, in fact, he usually acts on the common +American principle of wanting to get all he can for the money and so +burns his open tip lights, and open burner stoves day and night. The +factories waste in the same way, using open furnaces which are never +banked during the season because it is easier and costs no more. + +This, it seems, should be the whole history of natural gas waste, but +the greatest source of loss still remains to be spoken of. In every gas +region of any importance oil is found sooner or later, usually after the +heaviest gas pressure has been exhausted; and the oil driller is the +greatest of all foes to the life of a natural gas region. He finds that +the gas interferes with the flow of oil, spraying it into the air and +causing loss, and that the danger of fire is much increased by its +presence. This frequently causes explosions, tearing out the side of the +well or blowing out the casing, and making the oil-well useless. The +surplus gas is usually piped to one side out of the reach of danger, and +then burned to get rid of it. Drillers often try to force the gas out in +the hope that it will be followed by a rush of oil. + +This is the heaviest drain on the gas. In the Caddo field in Louisiana +alone the loss is seventy million cubic feet per day, enough to light +ten cities the size of Washington, D. C., and equal to ten thousand +barrels of petroleum per day. In Indiana a few years ago fourteen wells, +all within a space of a few acres in extent, were burned by oil drillers +continuously for six months, the light being visible twenty miles away. + +Greater care in the management of the wells and slight additional +expense for casing are all that is required to stop the waste of gas +from oil wells and heavy pressure gas wells. + +All of these wastes taken together constitute a fearful loss. In 1907, +more than 400,000,000 cubic feet were used and an almost equal number +wasted. In other words, the daily waste is over a billion cubic feet, or +enough to supply every city in the United States of over one hundred +thousand population. + +The heating value of a billion feet of gas is equal to a million bushels +of coal. If some great conflagration were sweeping away our coal fields +steadily every day in the year, and destroying our best coal at the rate +of a million bushels per day, how quickly we should all arise to aid in +checking it! And yet this imaginary case is actually true in regard to +the best fuel in this country, which is burning uselessly an equal value +in coal, and our coal must some day be used to supply the loss. + +We are apt to ignore the greatness of this loss because the gas escapes +into the air and we can not see it, or it burns and we see only its +effect, not the loss of fuel, but if we could see it in the form of oil +we should find that a billion feet of gas is equal to more than a +hundred and sixty thousand barrels of petroleum. Think of it, the +equivalent of one hundred and sixty thousand barrels of oil, for which +no price is paid and of which no use is made, for ever destroyed every +day in every year! Would the oil companies permit it? Would we not all +assist them in saving their property from destruction, and shall we not +ask of them equal help in saving the fuel that in turn conserves our +coal supply? Little objection can be made to the present method of using +gas in the older regions. The waste in domestic use is comparatively +small. Much is used for lighting with incandescent burners, and asbestos +grates and gas ranges have replaced the open-burner stoves and grates. +These are all efficient methods of use, and but little could be done in +the way of further conservation. In factories the gas-engine is in many +instances replacing the open furnace, which requires many times as much +gas to produce an equal amount of power. They should be used in every +factory, and gas companies should also require the use of the best +devices for saving gas in places where meters are not used. + +Until last year but one state--Indiana--had an effective law preventing +the waste of natural gas by oil companies. This law says in substance +that a man can not take the oil from the ground where nature has safely +stored it, unless he also provide a market for the gas which accompanies +it. It also says that neither the producer nor the consumer shall be +allowed to waste this valuable fuel, as such waste is against public +policy. + +Mr. I. C. White, of West Virginia, in discussing this question at the +Conservation Congress said, "This Indiana statute should be enacted into +law in every state where these fuels exist." Since that time +Pennsylvania and Ohio have passed laws, which are said to be effective, +for the conservation of natural gas. + +Much has been accomplished by gas companies, who, since they became +alive to the danger of loss of their investment, have been extremely +watchful of their property. In West Virginia the gas companies buy the +gas which has been obtained in the drilling of oil wells, thus providing +a market for the waste gas and making it possible to continue the oil +business and at the same time to furnish cheap gas. + +Another hopeful sign is the pumping of all of the product of a well. +Formerly as soon as a well dropped greatly in production it was +abandoned, but now it is pumped until dry. + +One method by which the gas from oil wells may be utilized consists in +compressing it in steel cylinders for shipping. This in a small way has +been found to be successful. + +Experiments are being tried on a large scale in Ohio to prove that gas +may be returned to reservoirs within the earth which are tight enough to +hold it under heavy pressure. + +Fuel gas made from low-grade coal is a satisfactory substitute for +natural gas. Like the natural product it may be piped for long +distances. Some natural gas companies have bought up the culm banks and +heaps of refuse coal, so that if the natural gas becomes exhausted they +can manufacture cheap gas at the mines and pipe it to the cities they +now serve. + + +PETROLEUM + +Petroleum, or rock oil, is a dark greenish brown liquid which when +refined yields gasolene, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, lubricating oils, +and paraffin. The name petroleum applies only to the crude petroleum as +it comes from the ground, and the word oil is applied to the products +obtained by refining. + +The early history of the petroleum industry in this country is +interesting as showing what great results spring from small beginnings. +From salt wells in Pennsylvania there was an occasional flow of +petroleum, but it had had no commercial value. Samuel Kier, of +Pittsburg, had salt wells at Tarantum from which he had accumulated so +much petroleum (fifty barrels) that he decided to try to dispose of it, +but there was no market. No one knew what to do with it. He then partly +refined it, making a poor quality of kerosene, and introduced a lamp +with a chimney. This proved so popular that A. C. Ferris, also of +Pittsburg, undertook to sell this in other cities, and these two men +not only sold the fifty barrels and the other petroleum that accumulated +from the salt wells, but they had created such a demand for the new +light that they could not supply enough oil, and in 1859 Colonel Drake +drilled at Titusville the first well solely for petroleum. In the +half-century since that time nearly two billion barrels, or almost two +hundred and fifty million tons, worth one and three-quarter billion +dollars, have been produced. + +Petroleum is now mined, or drilled, in many countries besides the United +States, but the United States furnishes sixty-three barrels out of every +hundred produced in the world. Russia produces twenty-one barrels, +Austria four, and the East Indies three barrels, Roumania two, India and +Mexico one each, Canada, Japan, Germany, Peru, and Italy each less than +one barrel; so we can see that the United States is the one great +producer of petroleum, and that it is to this country that we must look +for the principal world supply for the present, and as far as known, for +the future. Let us see, then, what we may expect the United States to do +to supply this demand. + +The known petroleum lands cover an area of about 8,500 square miles and +are in six large fields and several smaller ones. The largest and best +is the Appalachian, of which the best known is the Pennsylvania field. +It has a grade of petroleum that differs from any other thus far found +in the world. It is most easily converted into kerosene or lamp oil, and +contains a larger proportion of such oil. It is the finest petroleum in +the world, except that found in Indiana and Ohio, and that costs more to +refine. + +The Appalachian field includes, besides Pennsylvania, western New York, +West Virginia, a narrow strip in eastern Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. +These southern oils are of a much lower grade, but are better than the +Russian or other foreign oils. + +The next great field is called the Lima-Indiana, and covers a +considerable portion of northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana. This +petroleum contains less gasolene and less lamp oils, and more sulphur, +which makes refining difficult. The Illinois field lies next. Here, in a +strip about thirty miles long and six miles wide on an average, an +enormous quantity of petroleum is produced. This oil is slightly lower +in quality and contains considerable asphalt. + +The mid-continent field lies in Kansas and Oklahoma. This petroleum also +contains asphalt and other chemical products. Such immense amounts are +produced here that it has not been possible to care for all of it, +either in the matter of storage tanks or cars for transporting it, and +as a result large amounts have been wasted. In Oklahoma within a space +of less than two square miles one million barrels of forty-two gallons +each of petroleum were wasted in the year 1906. + +The Gulf field lying in Texas and Louisiana has been developed entirely +since 1901. The first well was drilled near Beaumont, Texas, as an +experiment to determine whether oil could be found. Small storage tanks +were provided and it was hoped to find oil enough to make drilling +profitable. The well proved to be a "gusher" of such magnitude that +before sufficient tanks could be provided, or the flow checked, more +than half a million barrels were wasted on the ground. + +The Gulf petroleum contains a large amount of asphalt and a small amount +of gasolene and lamp oil. It has been used principally for burning as +crude oil in locomotives and has sold as low as ten cents per barrel; +but lately methods of refining have been perfected which produce good +lubricating oil and a gasolene of high value from these low-grade oils. + +The last great field is found in California. The oil is similar to the +Gulf oil, and investigation has shown that the quantity is greater in +this field than in any other. It is used largely for fuel and power on +account of lack of other fuels in that region. + +In addition to these fields there are small ones in Colorado and +Wyoming, and promises of fields in New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, Montana, +Oregon and Washington. + +Estimates of the amounts of petroleum yielded are made by computing the +amount usually produced per acre, which varies from eight hundred +barrels produced in Pennsylvania, to eight thousand barrels per acre +produced in Illinois. In most of the fields it is about a thousand +barrels per acre. Even then the amount is extremely difficult to +estimate. The Geological Survey concludes that the lowest probable +calculation of the entire amount stored in the rocks of the United +States is ten billion, and the highest a little less than twenty-five +billion barrels. The last report officially published shows that we are +producing one hundred and seventy million barrels per year. If the same +rate of production continues, we might expect our petroleum to last from +fifty-five to one hundred and thirty-five years, according to the amount +found; but tables of statistics show that throughout the life of the +petroleum industry, as much has been produced each nine years as the +entire product before that time. For example, up to the present, we have +produced one billion eight hundred million barrels and if the present +rate continues, in the next nine years alone we shall produce an equal +quantity again. The causes of such rapid growth are many. One is the +great increase in the use of some of the products, such as gasolene, +which has increased many fold since the automobile became popular. +Another, and the greatest cause, is the ease with which any quantity of +oil can be sold for cash at any time, and at prices much above the cost +of production. + +Another reason is based upon the nature of the product. In pumping from +one well oil is apt to flow in from other leases, under other farms, and +exhaust them without the holders of those leases having received any +compensating benefit. It is therefore necessary for each lessee to get +his share before it flows away. Under these circumstances, it is +impossible to prevent an entire field from being drilled over very +rapidly, unless there is a combination of all the interests; or unless +the law limits the amount that each producer shall extract per acre +within a given time. + +Pennsylvania and New York have declined to one-third their former value +and yet it is only seventeen years since they reached their highest +point. This would seem to indicate that the life of that field will not +exceed ten years. West Virginia is producing only a little more than +half its former yield and is rapidly declining. Ohio and Indiana are +declining more rapidly than Pennsylvania. Texas is also in the rapidly +declining class, and in Kansas the production is only a fraction of +what it was formerly. On the other hand, Illinois, Oklahoma, and +California can be expected to increase steadily for several years. + +Taking into account all these factors, it is estimated that the entire +supply now known to exist would be exhausted before the middle of the +present century. It appears more probable, however, that increasing +prices long before that time will help to conserve the supply; and that +petroleum will be produced for a long time to come, though not in +sufficient quantities for industrial and general use. + +The principal uses of petroleum are for burning as crude oil in furnaces +and under boilers, particularly in locomotives. The refined products +have various uses. Probably the most important is the lubricating oil. +This is necessary in the development of all kinds of power. At least +one-half pint of lubricating oil is used for every ton of coal consumed +for power. All engines, all street and steam railways, steamships, +sewing-machines, clocks, watches, and automobiles, in fact all operating +machinery requires its use; so that a large amount of oil must always be +conserved for lubricating purposes. + +Coal oil, or kerosene, may be regarded as absolutely necessary for the +lighting of houses or other establishments not connected with gas or +electric supply. + +Gasolene is sometimes used for lighting, though such use is not common. +It is largely used for cooking, and still more largely used in the +various types of gasolene engines. + +Naphtha is used for power, especially for motor-boats, and for cleaning, +in which it is very valuable by reason of its power to dissolve dirt. + +Paraffin is used in polishing, in laundry work, for waxing floors, and +as a covering to exclude air in preserving articles. + +Waste has been markedly absent in the petroleum industry. It is +necessary that oil drilling outfits shall contain steel storage tanks +for holding the oil when it is reached. Usually the supply is large +enough, but sometimes, as in the case of the big well at Beaumont, +Texas, the oil gushes forth in such volume that the drillers are not +prepared to take care of the overflow, and much is wasted before the +well can be capped. In general there is no waste in storage in this +country. In European countries where there is oil, the loss through lack +of tanks and by using wooden tanks which leak, is very great. + +Another form of waste which is common in foreign countries, but which +has been avoided in the United States, is evaporation of gasolene and +similar light products when the petroleum is exposed to the air in open +tanks. This is the most valuable part of petroleum, and if it be exposed +to the sun a single day it loses greatly in value. + +The refining processes of the petroleum industry are probably carried +out with better system and less waste than in any other resource, owing +to the fact that the business is controlled by large companies. There is +no waste material in its manufacture, except some slight residue that +might be used for oiling roads, instead of using the crude oil. The +principal waste lies in its use. In view of the fact that the supply is +not unending, is, indeed, rapidly disappearing, the uses should be +confined only to the necessary lines for which there are no substitutes +at similar prices. These are for lubricating oils and for the lighting +of homes. The unnecessary uses are for burning in locomotives and for +the development of power. + +Whenever new petroleum fields are opened up, there is a corresponding +drop in price. In order to dispose of it quickly such petroleum is +usually sold for the lowest grade uses, and the price for this crude +petroleum is not more than one hundredth as much as for high grade +petroleum products. The report of the National Conservation Commission +is so excellent that it is quoted almost word for word. + +"At present more petroleum is being produced than is necessary for the +demands of the industry. Within ten years the present fields will be +unable profitably to produce enough for these requirements. The only +direction in which production can be checked is with the petroleum +contained in public lands. + +"Offering such public lands for entry at a low price is nothing more +than temptation to the private citizen to waste petroleum by over +production, since lands yielding hundreds of dollars per acre in this +product can be obtained for a small sum. Every acre of public land, +believed to contain petroleum or natural gas, should be withdrawn from +public sale and leased under conditions that regulate production. + +"Its use for power is justified on the Pacific coast, if used in +gas-producer engines." + + +ALCOHOL + +As a substitute for other fuels, wood, or denaturated alcohol, will +probably come into greater use each year, and is regarded by many as the +great fuel of the future, because the materials of which it is made are +waste vegetable products and will always be plentiful. + +It is made from cellulose, the woody part of plants, and may be +manufactured from sawdust when freshly cut from live trees, from small, +and refuse potatoes, from inferior grain that is not worth marketing, +and from low-grade fruits and vegetables of all kinds. It is even said +that the hundreds of acres of sage-brush in the West that have always +been considered worse than useless can be made into wood-alcohol and +thus become a valuable product. + +It can be used for any purpose that gasolene can, although a different +style burner is required. It must be made much hotter before it is +changed into vapor, and on account of this it has been difficult to make +satisfactory burners for all the kinds of heating, lighting, and power +work; the machinery being far from perfect as yet. Wood-alcohol can not +yet be made cheaper than gasolene, and is not so easy to burn, so that +it is slow in reaching an important place in the industrial world; but +gas and gasolene prices will advance, and better methods of +manufacturing and burning alcohol will be found, and then we shall have +a fuel that can take the place of either coal or petroleum for lighting +or power. + +It is thought that wood-alcohol will be of especial use to the farmer, +since he has so many waste vegetable products, has so much need of power +in small quantities and is far from the sources of public service +power, such as electric and gas plants. Alcohol-driven motors can be +used to take the place of the labor of both horses and men on the farm. +On level farms they can run the heavy machines, such as mowers, reapers, +and binders, plows and cultivators. On any farm they may be used to run +stationary engines, to chop and grind food for live stock, to pump +water, churn, run sewing-machines, operate fans, drive carriages and +wagons and do many other things. + +Wood-alcohol produces ammonia as a by-product, is used in the +manufacture of dyes and coal-tar products, of smokeless powder, of +varnishes, and of imitation silks made from cotton. + + +REFERENCES + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Reports of Geological Survey. + +Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference. + +Conservation of Mineral Resources. (U. S. Government Report.) + +Industrial Alcohol and Its Uses. W. H. Wiley. Bulletin, 269. + +Production of Peat in the U. S. in 1908. U. S. Government Reports. + +Production of Oil in the U. S. in 1908. + +Production of Gas in the U. S. in 1908. + +Waste of Our Fuel Resources. (White.) Report Governor's Conference. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +IRON + + +We have already stated the importance of iron in our modern life. It can +not be overestimated. All the many articles of iron and steel, our +tools, our machinery, our vehicles, our bridges, our steel buildings, +and a thousand and one other things are dependent on our iron supply. + +Of all the elements that make up the earth's surface only three are more +plentiful than iron, so that we might think that we should always have +an abundant supply of it; but when it occurs in small quantities, as is +usually the case, it can not of course be profitably mined. It is only +when enough of it is found together to permit it to be mined to +advantage that it is called iron ore. + +Iron ore is found in only twenty-nine states of the Union, and eighty +per cent. of the present production is in two states, Minnesota and +Michigan. We can see that iron is very unevenly distributed, and it is +on a few regions that we must depend for all the future. + +Before we can calculate how much iron we have we must understand that +it is not found in pure form, but mixed with various other substances: +clay, shale, slate, quartz, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. These must all be +removed, some by washing, but most of them by roasting, or "smelting," +in blast furnaces, after which it is called pig iron. This of course +requires large quantities of fuel. + +It is these things and also the position of the ore that must be taken +into consideration in estimating the amount of iron in the country. If +ore yields a large per cent. of iron in smelting, with a small amount of +waste, it is, of course, far more valuable than if the amount of iron in +every ton of material taken from the ground is small. + +In all minerals, the relation of supply to price is marked. The cost of +labor and of power is exactly the same whether ore yields fifty-five +tons of pure iron to the hundred, or whether it yields only thirty tons, +but the price received is little more than half. + +So if the price is low, it may cost more to mine and smelt the one +hundred tons of earth than will be paid for the thirty tons of iron that +the low-grade ore would yield. So the lands that produce only thirty +tons to the hundred will never be mined till the price of iron is so +high that it is above the cost of producing--that is, till it can be +worked at a profit. + +The Lake Superior iron found in Minnesota is usually more than +fifty-five per cent. pure iron. That is, if a hundred tons of earth be +mined, more than fifty-five tons of pure iron would be obtained from it. +This is the highest grade of ore. Some ore is mined that yields only +forty tons or less. There are vast quantities, billions of tons, of iron +ore in the United States, that would yield less than thirty tons of iron +to the hundred. These low-grade ores and the ones known to lie so deep +in the earth that the cost of mining them is more than the finished +products of iron, are classed as "not available," that is, they can +never be profitably mined under present conditions. But we must remember +that as the higher grade ores are exhausted it will become necessary to +use the lower grades, and that prices will steadily advance as a result. + +Iron is sometimes found almost directly under the ground, at other times +deep in the earth. That which is found just below the surface is, of +course, mined much more easily, more safely, more cheaply, and with far +less loss than that which requires deep mining. Such conditions are +found in the Lake Superior region, and there is almost no loss at all, +the low-grade ores being piled up at one side where they can be easily +reached in case of need. + +On the other hand some iron mines now in operation are as much as two +thousand feet in depth. In these mines, as in coal mines, pillars are +left to support the rock above. A roof of the iron ore is often left +also. The low-grade ore is left in the ground and no effort is made to +preserve it for future use. These constitute the principal waste in iron +mining. + +The pure iron of the ore is separated by washing out the clays and soft +elements, but the harder substances must be smelted by means of heat. In +the beginning this was done by charcoal, which is still used in Sweden. +The latest method is to employ electricity manufactured by water-power, +but most of the iron smelting in this country has been done by coal. +Every ton of iron smelted requires its portion of coal for firing. If +low-grade fuels in gas-producer engines, or water-power can be used it +will be a great aid in conserving coal. + +If a limited supply of rather low-grade iron exists near a coal region, +it can often be mined profitably, when, if it be far from an abundant +fuel supply, it must be shipped to distant blast furnaces. The cost of +shipping causes ore containing a small percentage of iron to be classed +as "not available." + +Sometimes a large company with many mines has several varieties of ore +of different strength and hardness. If these can be mixed to produce a +medium grade by adding a small amount of high-grade ore to a large +amount of lower grade, the value of the product will be doubled. + +Sometimes, too, the by-products can be made extremely profitable by +manufacturing large amounts when the expense of undertaking the work is +too great to be attempted with a small amount. So if iron mines are +owned by a small company much ore may be classed as "not available" that +could be used by a large company. All these things must be considered in +estimating the iron resources. + +The first smelting of iron ore in this country was done at Lynn, +Massachusetts, in 1645, using the low-grade bog-ores and smelting with +charcoal from the surrounding forest. + +Now if we look over an iron map of the United States we shall find that +there are four hundred and eighty blast furnaces, but that only nine of +them are west of the Mississippi River and most of these are in +Missouri. The greatest of all the iron regions now lies in upper +Michigan and Minnesota. This furnishes eighty tons out of every one +hundred mined in the United States, but the smelting is done along the +southern shores of Lake Michigan. The reason for this is that the iron +region itself is far distant from a cheap fuel supply. Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, has been the great iron city of the United States on +account of its nearness to great supplies of both coal and iron. +Birmingham, Alabama, is the heart of the great smelting region of the +South. + +The iron is divided into districts as follows: + +(1) The Northeastern, comprising the states of Vermont, Massachusetts, +Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio, +supplies a little more than five per cent. of the iron mined in the +United States. + +(2) The Southeastern, containing Virginia, West Virginia, eastern +Kentucky, and Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, +gives us twelve per cent. of our iron. + +(3) The Lake Superior district, containing the northern parts of +Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin, supplies more than eighty per cent. + +(4) The Mississippi Valley district contains western Kentucky, and +Tennessee, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas. This region furnishes +less than half of one per cent. of the total supply. + +(5) The Rocky Mountain district contains Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, +Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, western Texas, Washington, +Oregon and California; and all this great region now supplies but a +little more than one per cent. + +The official report, which is as thorough as can be made but is +naturally subject to mistakes, gives the amount of available iron, that +is, that which can be mined under present conditions, as nearly five +billion tons. + +Let us see how long this may be expected to supply the demand. + +Before 1810 the amount of iron ore produced was so small as to be +scarcely worth considering. From 1810 to 1870 a little less than fifty +million tons were mined, from 1870 to 1889 nearly 154,000,000 tons, and +from 1889 to 1907, 475,000,000 tons, or altogether nearly 680,000,000 +tons. The production has been found to double itself about every nine +years. In 1907 alone it was 52,000,000 tons or about one-thirteenth of +all that has been mined. + +In 1880 we used 200 pounds of pig-iron for every man, woman, and child +in the country; in 1890, 320 pounds; in 1900, 390 pounds, and in 1907, +696 pounds. According to the rule of increase, by 1916 we shall be using +104,000,000 tons a year; by 1925, 208,000,000, and by 1934, 416,000,000 +tons, and if the same rate of increase should continue, by 1940 we +should have required for our use in the meantime, six billion tons. But +we have less than five billion tons of what is now classed as available +ore, which means that before that time (when the school-boys of to-day +are business men) we should have exhausted all our good and cheap ore, +and be obliged to depend only on the low-grade ores, the cost of which +will be very great. + +Unlike coal, the forests, and the soil, there is no great and entirely +useless waste of iron. But the uses of iron are so many and so varied, +and the supply of high-grade ores which can be cheaply mined is so small +in proportion to the needs of the future, that we should in all ways +lessen the drain on it by substituting other cheaper and more plentiful +materials when possible. + +The chief use of iron is for the carrying of freight. Here are some +figures given by Mr. Carnegie. Moving one thousand tons of freight by +rail requires an eighty-ton locomotive and twenty-five twenty-ton steel +cars, or five hundred and eighty tons of iron and steel to draw it +over--say an average of ten miles of double track with switches, frogs, +spikes, etc., which will weigh more than four hundred tons. Thus we see +that to move a thousand tons of freight requires the use of an equal +weight of iron. The same freight may be moved by water by means of from +one hundred to two hundred and fifty tons of metal, so that if freight +were sent by water instead of by rail the amount of iron needed for this +service would be reduced at least three-fourths, the amount of coal +would be reduced not less than half, and at the same time the coal used +in extra smelting would be saved. No single step open to us to-day would +do more to check the drain on both iron and coal than the use of our +rivers for carrying heavy freight. + +The next great use of iron is for buildings and bridges. The greatly +increasing use of cement and concrete is reducing this and will reduce +it still further. Cement is made from slag, or the refuse of iron +ore--the clays and shales--and the cost of this valuable product is +little more than the former cost of piling it away. By making the +useless slag into cement the cost of iron production is lowered and at +the same time the drain on the iron is lessened. + +A large use of steel of the highest quality is for battleships, cannon, +and war supplies. If the great nations of the world would agree to +reduce their armament, one of the great drains on the world's iron, +coal, and wood supply would cease, and these materials be put to +improving the world. + +The worst feature of it is that these war supplies are continually +changing. They must be of the latest pattern, or they are of small value +for fighting purposes. The construction of battleships differs greatly +year by year, and the older ships are discarded to make place for newer +and larger ones. It is said that our newest battleship alone could with +a few shots destroy all of Admiral Dewey's fleet. The following is from +a recent magazine article: + +"It is admitted by naval officers that the ships of ten years ago are of +obsolete type and would be useless against the new vessels. It is +admitted that within ten years or less the new types will in turn become +obsolete, and will be useless against the type of vessel certain to be +evolved. That is, as soon as a vessel costing millions of dollars leaves +the docks, she enters into active competition for a place on the junk +pile." + +The greatest improvement that can be imagined in the iron situation will +be in the discovery and use of alloys or mixtures of iron with other +materials. Steel, the strongest of all forms of iron, is an alloy of +iron and carbon, and for various purposes these are further mixed with +nickel and silicas. Many other alloys have been discovered within the +last few years, and each makes possible new uses for iron requiring +greater strength. One of the best of these is a mixture of iron and +silicon, called ferro-silicon. Silica is one of the cheapest and most +abundant materials of all the earth's products, so its combination with +iron will greatly lengthen the life of the iron supply; and it is +probable that in the future combinations of other materials will yield +better and cheaper metals than any thus far produced. + +The amount of metal which can be reworked is constantly increasing. Most +of the iron factories remelt large quantities of old iron, to be used +with the new, and this will lessen each year the demand on the ores. It +is also possible that new deposits of iron ore will be found and these +will greatly increase the supply. But from the whole iron situation we +may draw the following conclusions: + +First, the amount of iron remaining in the ground is very uncertain. It +may be more, or it may be less, than the present estimate. + +Second, if the estimates are nearly correct, and if the present rate of +increase continues, all the high-grade ores will be exhausted by the +time the small boys of to-day are the business men of the nation. + +Third, the best methods of reducing the drain on the supply are, (a) The +use of old iron as a mixture; (b) Carrying a part of the freight by +water to reduce the amount of iron required by the railroads; (c) The +larger use of concrete and cement to take the place of steel in +buildings; (d) Lessening the amount used for war; (e) The use of alloys. +This opens a large and promising field for invention. (f) More care in +preserving articles made of iron. This is a practical thing for every +person in our country to do. Every farm implement, or tool, that stands +out in the rain or is left without shelter during the winter, every +article carelessly lost or broken, has its part in making conditions +worse. All that are well cared for help to make the iron supply last a +little longer. + + +REFERENCES + +Iron and Steel at Home and Abroad. (Andrew Carnegie.) + +Conservation of Ores and Related Minerals. (Carnegie.) Report Governor's +Conference. + +Report National Conservation Commission. + +Reports Geological Survey. + +Mineral Resources of the U. S. in 1908. Advance chapters available. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MINERALS + + +GOLD + +Iron, in its usefulness to man, stands in a class to itself; but there +are dozens of other minerals that have their part in the comfort and +convenience of our daily life. Most of these, however, are found in +comparatively small quantities and have few uses. + +The minerals which are in constant use by nearly all people and that are +found abundantly in the United States, are gold, silver, copper, lead, +zinc, and the elements used in manufacturing building materials. + +Gold is valuable chiefly because it has been made the standard of money +value of the world. Africa produces one-third of the world's supply, +next come the United States and Australia, producing almost equal +amounts, Russia and Canada each produce a limited amount, and various +other countries together produce about one-sixteenth of the whole. (In +the statements of the gold supply of the United States the territory of +Alaska is included.) + +Gold is not found alone but contained in quartz rock or sand. The method +of taking gold from the rock is first by blasting, and afterward +grinding the rock in a stamp mill, which reduces it to powder, after +which the gold is separated by refining processes. The gold which occurs +in the sand, gravel, or clay soil, is washed out. When done on a small +scale this is called "panning." The larger operations of this kind are +called "placer" and "dredge" mining. There is also a considerable amount +of gold obtained as a by-product from copper mining. + +Generally speaking, quartz mines are in the mountains and placer mines +in the river valleys. Placer mining by powerful water pressure, called +hydraulic mining, destroys the banks, and also fills up the river beds +with masses of rock and gravel. Some of the large rivers of California +have been made unfit for steamboat traffic, and serious damage has been +done to the harbor of San Francisco. For this reason hydraulic placer +mining has been stopped by law. This has greatly lessened the gold +production of California. + +In 1907, the United States produced $94,000,000 worth of gold. Of this, +Colorado produced more than any other state. Next in their order come +Alaska, California and Nevada. Each produced from $15,000,000 to +$20,000,000 worth. Together they furnished nearly four-fifths of the +entire supply. The remaining one-fifth comes from Utah, South Dakota, +Montana, Arizona, Idaho, and Oregon, with very small amounts from the +southeastern states, the two Carolinas and Georgia, New Mexico, +Washington, and Wyoming. South Dakota has the most profitable single +gold mine in the United States. It has produced nearly $60,000,000 in +gold, and is now turning out about $5,000,000 worth a year. + +The United States has many unworked gold mines, "gold reserves" they are +called, whose value can not in any way be exactly estimated. The value +of the placer mines can be better judged than that of the lode or quartz +mines. The placer mines are chiefly in Alaska and California. These +mines may yield gold to the amount of a billion dollars. There are +lesser, but important resources of placer gold in Montana, Idaho, and +Oregon. + +The placer gold mined in 1907 was valued at $24,000,000, and it is +thought that about this quantity can be supplied for a long time. + +The amount of gold yielded in the reduction of copper ores was about +$5,500,000. It is probable that this amount will be gradually increased, +and can be relied on to last many years. From the lead ores a little +over $2,000,000 worth of gold was taken. This will probably slowly +decrease for the next ten or twenty years. From gold and silver-bearing +quartz mines $55,000,000 was taken. + +No calculation can be made as to the amount of gold contained in quartz +mines. New discoveries are always probable and many new mines are opened +up each year, but their value can only be estimated as the work in them +progresses. + +Just how long they will last nobody knows, but it would seem that their +decline is far off. The government report says, "Unless very important +new discoveries are made it is thought unlikely that the production of +gold in the United States will rise much above $110,000,000; nor is it +likely that it will sink below $60,000,000 within a long period of +years." + +The amount of gold used in the United States is about equal to the +production. Nearly $80,000,000 is coined into money, and about half as +much is used in the arts,--that is, for jewelry, tableware, in +dentistry, in bookbinding, and various chemical processes. The quantity +used in the arts has doubled since 1900. In 1907 the stock of gold coin +in the United States, according to the Director of the Mint, was +$1,600,000,000, which is almost exactly one-fifth of the gold coin of +the world. + +The production of gold is rapidly increasing. Since 1850 we have mined +three times as much gold as in all the previous time since the +discovery of America. Such rapid production greatly shortens the life of +the gold supply. When the gold fields of southern Africa were first +opened they were said to be inexhaustible; but they have been mined so +rapidly, and the supply has proved so far short of the first excited +estimates that experts say that the entire region will be almost +exhausted within twenty years. The loss of gold in mining and refining +is comparatively small. In extracting gold from the cheaper ores the +percentage of loss is large; but as only a small part of the gold is +gained in this way the total loss is relatively small. By other methods +ninety-five per cent. or more is saved. In many cases the loss is too +small to be considered. + +Unlike other minerals little gold is destroyed by use. It is melted and +remelted, all scraps are used, even the sweepings from the mint and from +manufacturing goldsmiths' shops are saved and the gold used. The waste +of the world's gold and silver would be much greater but for the use of +paper money, bank checks, and notes. Their very general use keeps the +gold as a reserve, held in banks and storage vaults much of the time. If +it were in constant use, the continual rubbing together of the coins +would mean a no less steady, though slight, wearing away of their +surface. This is very noticeable in old silver coins, which are kept in +more constant circulation. + + +SILVER + +The conditions in regard to silver are entirely different from those of +the other resources. The production of silver is not increasing, in +fact, the mining of silver alone is decreasing and the reason is not +because the supply is lessening, but because the price is too low to +make a larger working of the mines profitable, and the supply is kept +down to the level of the demand. A great number of silver mines have +been closed for the last few years. The production could be greatly +increased at any time to meet an increased demand. + +The highest production was in 1902, but there have been only slight +changes since 1895; the production being a little less than 60,000,000 +ounces, or about one-third of the world's supply--Mexico being the only +other great producer. In many countries with a small supply the output +is growing less each year on account of the low price, and the +difficulty of competing with the United States. + +The states now producing the most silver are Colorado, Montana, and +Utah; each of these produces about one ounce out of every five ounces +mined. Most of the remainder was produced by Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, and +California. + +Although nearly 60,000,000 ounces were mined in 1907 only one and a half +million ounces were mined for the sake of the silver alone. The rest was +obtained as a by-product in the mining of gold, lead, copper and zinc, +or, as is often the case, it was distinctively silver ore, but could not +be profitably mined unless some other ore could be obtained at the same +time. + +The richer regions seem to have been exhausted, and as the process of +extracting the ore is expensive the lower grade ores will probably be +held for several years till prices advance. A great silver region has +recently been opened in northern Canada. This contains immense +quantities of very rich ore, and will probably keep the price down for +many years. + +So the care and conservation of silver is not an important issue for the +people of the present generation. As silver is now obtained largely as a +by-product, there is almost no waste. + +The United States sends considerably more than half of its silver to +other countries, principally to India and China, which use much silver +coin, but have little in the way of silver resources. The amount used at +home is divided between coinage and manufacture. The quantity coined +varies greatly from year to year, eight million ounces being about the +average. For manufacturing, jewelry, tableware, chemicals, etc., about +twenty million ounces, of which one-fifth is remelted silver, are used. +The demand for silver in manufacturing has doubled since 1898, and may +lead before many years to the reopening of the silver mines. + + +COPPER + +The conditions of copper mining are exactly opposite from those of +silver. The Indians used almost no metal except copper, and for three +hundred years white men used the old Indian mines and refined the copper +by Indian methods. Better methods of mining copper and extracting it +from the ores have been employed for the last fifty years, but within a +dozen years the refining of copper has been revolutionized by electric +methods. An enormous amount has been produced, but production has been +kept down on account of the high prices. It is said that if the price +could be reduced one-half, ten times as much copper would be used. Most +of the uses of copper have arisen in the last twenty-five years. Its +greatest use is for electric wiring. Nothing can take its place, and the +use is increasing astonishingly. + +Copper is used largely in alloys. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, +and its use has greatly increased in castings, fittings for buildings, +tablets, and statues. + +A much more useful alloy is brass, made from copper and zinc. Brass is +very extensively used for parts of machinery, engines, automobiles, and +also for fittings for buildings. Sheet copper is used for sheathing for +ships, for boilers, and for various chemical processes carried on by +electricity or by acids. Very many of these processes have been +discovered within ten or fifteen years, and have largely increased the +uses for copper. One of the older uses of copper which is less common +now was for cooking utensils. Copper is used by the government for +coining one-cent pieces. + +No single country compares at present with the United States in the +production of copper, but if reports be correct there is enough copper +in central Africa to supply the world for years to come. Next to the +United States, Spain mines the largest amount at present, and Japan +ranks next. + +For many years the rate of increase was enormous. In 1845, 224,000 +pounds were mined; in 1888, 226,000,000 pounds. Eight years later, in +1896, it had doubled; after another ten years, in 1906, it had doubled +that quantity, and reached 918,000,000 pounds. In 1890 we were using +three pounds of copper for every man, woman and child in the country. +And in 1907, six and one-half pounds. + +Michigan, Montana, and Arizona produce the bulk of the copper. Utah, +California, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Nevada each produce +copper in amounts ranging from the 66,000,000 pounds mined in Utah to +the 2,000,000 pounds mined in Nevada. It is probable that the use will +not increase so rapidly in the near future. Much old copper will be +remelted. + +There are large areas of copper lands which are now classed as +"available" with copper at about its present price of thirteen cents a +pound. If the world production should grow so great as to cause a +decided drop in the price, much that is now considered available could +not be mined at a profit, and the copper supply from this country would +be greatly reduced. If, on the other hand, copper should rise to fifteen +or twenty cents or higher, the amount of available copper land would be +vastly increased. The report on the Conservation of Mineral Resources +says in effect: "The copper resources of the United States are believed +to be large enough to allow for a number of years for a demand +increasing at the rate of 30,000,000 pounds a year. Should this demand +continue for a long period the scarcity would be felt and result in a +rising price, which would open up a market for these low-grade ores and +also cause the use of other metals, like aluminum, to take the place of +copper whenever possible." + +There is no great waste in the mining of copper, but in the extraction +of copper from the ore the waste is often as much as thirty per cent., +and it is not easy to avoid this on account of the chemical changes that +take place. + + +LEAD + +The United States produces about one-third of the lead in the world. The +remainder comes from Spain, where the production remains about the same +from year to year; from Germany, where in spite of higher prices +production is growing less; and from Australia and Mexico, in both of +which the supply is rapidly decreasing. + +These facts show that the lead resources of the United States will be +drawn on heavily in the future. The production of the United States +increased from about 70,000 tons in 1880 to 365,000 tons seventeen years +later, and if continued the yearly production by 1920 will amount to +580,000 tons, or more than a billion pounds. + +The principal lead-producing states are Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and +Colorado. In Missouri it is probable that the present rate of increase +could be kept up for at least fifty years. The other states could keep +up the present production for many years but could not greatly increase +it without exhausting the supply. + +As with most mineral resources in the United States, it is only the +richest ores that are now drawn upon (except where lead is a by-product +extracted with some other ore). If prices would advance, so as to make +the low-grade ores profitable, the amount of our resources would be +greatly increased. + +There is little waste in the mining or smelting of lead ores, and the +slag, the waste, is always ready to be used again. In the refining and +concentrating of lead the loss often amounts to as much as fifteen per +cent. or twenty per cent. The best way to prevent final loss is to store +all refuse until such time as the reworking becomes profitable. +Improvement in methods has been great in the last fifteen years but more +economical methods everywhere will be one of the necessities of the +future. We can see that the lead resources of the United States are not +large and that when our own supply is exhausted we can not turn to the +rest of the world. + +The waste in mining is not large, and most of it can not be avoided at +present prices; so that for the conservation, which we see is so +important, we must turn to the uses of lead. The most necessary of these +is for lead pipes in plumbing. Another use is for war supplies, which +not only makes heavy drains on our stores of coal and iron, but also on +lead, which is much less plentiful. + +One ton out of every three produced in the United States is used in the +manufacture of white lead and consumed as paint. This, of course, is +entirely lost, and it seems that some other material might be used, +instead of so valuable a mineral, especially when the resource is not +abundant. White lead is used more than any other substance for paint, +although zinc white has come into considerable use in the last few +years. No other nation uses lead paint to such an extent as does the +United States, partly because no other nation could afford so general a +use of such an expensive material, and partly because so many wooden +buildings are erected. By using brick, stone, or cement, of which we +have practically an unending supply, to take the place of wood, our +store of which is rapidly disappearing, we could avoid much of the drain +on our mineral resources which are used for paint. + +As production and price advance a greater quantity of lead is remelted. +About 25,000 tons are returned to use each year. + + +ZINC + +Zinc is a whitish metal. It is used in galvanizing iron to prevent its +rusting. It is used also in the manufacture of white paint, which +consumes about one ton out of every six tons mined. This, of course, is +permanently lost, but the price and its value as a resource is much +lower than lead. This takes more than half of the entire product. The +remainder of the output is about equally divided between brass and sheet +zinc. All these uses are extremely necessary and it is believed that the +production of zinc will rapidly increase for many years. + +The United States is the largest producer, Germany ranks second. Large +amounts are mined in Australia, and very large deposits, entirely +undeveloped, are said to exist in Africa. In 1880, the United States +produced 23,000 tons of zinc; in 1907, 280,000 tons. This indicates the +rapid rate at which we are increasing our use of zinc. + +If the same rate should continue, in 1920 we should be using 475,000 +tons, or almost a billion pounds, and if zinc oxide should take the +place of white lead in painting to the extent that now seems probable, +the quantity would be still further increased. + +Missouri is by far the heaviest producer of zinc, having a little more +than half of the output. New Jersey ranks next, then Colorado, Wisconsin +and Kansas. Some of the other western states each produce small amounts. +Most of the pure zinc ore is mined at a depth of from one hundred and +fifty to two hundred and fifty feet and occurs in sheets, but a large +part of the ore is a by-product obtained from the reduction of other +ores. In New Jersey the zinc alone is found in a single region, where it +was estimated a few years ago that there were eight million tons, of +which two and a half million tons have been mined since 1904. The zinc +in Missouri, Wisconsin and Kansas is found alone or underlying lead +deposits, while that of the western states is almost always found in +limestone, and is mixed with silver, copper, lead, and, more rarely, +gold. In these states there has been little attempt to discover zinc; in +fact, ores containing zinc have been rather shunned because of the +difficulty in extracting them. + +It is thought that our resources of zinc, especially in the West, have +just begun to be developed, and that the supply, even at the present +rate of increase and at present prices, will last many years. However, +with increasing use for the product, we can not be sure of supplies for +more than a generation; and in view of the importance of zinc it becomes +necessary to inquire into its wastes. + +In no mineral is the waste more startling than in zinc. In Missouri it +is necessary to leave supporting pillars as in coal mining. This can not +be remedied, as the use of timbers is too expensive, but it causes a +heavy loss. In the West, owing to the expensive treatment and shipment, +much of the low-grade ore is left in the ground. In refining the loss is +enormous, often as much as forty per cent. In order to produce zinc at a +low cost there must be a heavy loss of metal. Better plants and +equipment for refining, and the saving of all refuse for later use will +be necessary if we are to conserve the zinc supply for future +generations. + + +MISCELLANEOUS + +The supplies of many of the materials used in buildings and bridges, +such as stone, gravel, clay, cement and lime are so great that they +appear inexhaustible, and need of care in their use is not so much to be +considered as is their development to take the place of other resources. + +In the past they have not been used freely because wooden buildings have +been so much cheaper; but cement, concrete and brick are now +manufactured much more cheaply, on account of improved methods, while +the price of lumber has been increasing rapidly. Within the last ten +years, the value of cement manufactures has increased nearly six times. +In 1900 we used seventy pounds of cement for each person; in 1907, two +hundred and twenty-eight pounds. The value of brick and other products +made from clay has doubled in the same period and is now $160,000,000, +while the value of building-stone quarries is three times as great as it +was ten years ago. There are many reasons why these materials should +take the place of wood; as they are stronger, more durable, do not +require paint, and are so much less liable to loss by fire. + +The waste of minerals used in building is due to improper and reckless +methods of taking them from the ground and preparing them for market and +in careless methods in manufacturing. + +Of such minerals as quartz, grindstone, millstone, emery stone, mineral +paints, talc and salt, there seems to be enough to meet the needs of the +future as well as the present. Such supplies as sulphur, asphalt, +magnesia, borax, and asbestos, as well as coal and iron, are not very +plentiful. If used carelessly, they will be exhausted in a few years; if +wisely, they may be expected to last beyond the limits of the present +century. + +Our supplies of quicksilver, antimony, graphite, mica, tin, nickel, +platinum, and many minerals less well known, as well as our petroleum, +natural gas, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, and phosphate rock will +be almost exhausted well within the present century unless large new +deposits are discovered. + + +REFERENCES + +Report of National Conservation Commission. + +The Conservation of Mineral Resources. U. S. Government Reports. + +Report of the U. S. Geological Survey. + +Production of Gold in 1908. U. S. Government Reports. + +Production of Silver in 1908. + +Production of Lead in 1908. + +Production of Zinc in 1908. + +Production of Structural Materials. + +About twenty pamphlets on other minerals. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +ANIMAL FOODS + + +GRAZING + +Food is of two classes: vegetable, which comes directly from the earth, +and animal, which has fed on vegetable life. This is, of course, a more +concentrated form of food, and much less of it is needed to sustain +life. + +For the plentiful supply of vegetable food we must depend upon the +fertility of the soil, as we have seen. Our animal food can not be +classed among our natural resources, but as a product of them, and +requires the same care and wise use. + +In the early history of our country natural animal food was abundant. +Fishes swarmed in the sea, lakes, and streams. Wild turkeys and other +game birds, deer, and bison formed a large part of the food of our +forefathers. But these have been gradually disappearing. We have caught +and destroyed so many fish that we have only a fraction of our former +number. The game birds have disappeared either because they have been +killed in great numbers or because their nesting-places have been +destroyed. Of the big game nothing is now left except in a few remote +regions, and it is growing less plentiful each year. + +Although large quantities of fish and game are marketed every year at +certain seasons, they form a small fraction of the animal food required +in the country, and we must now depend for most of our animal food, not +on that which was at first given us for a natural resource but on that +raised by man. + +The poultry--the chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys; the cattle, beef +and dairy, the hogs and the sheep that are raised in such vast numbers +have taken the place of wild game. The cultivated varieties have higher +food value, and are far more satisfactory, since they are ready for use +at any time. + +The conservation of our animal food resources presents a different +problem from any other. It is true that we have wasted and exhausted our +natural food supplies, but we must remember that to a certain extent +their preservation was neither possible nor desirable. They have been +driven out by advancing civilization. + +Wild birds and animals leave as the forests are cut out, destroying +their natural homes. Many of them can not be kept in captivity, so this +supply never could have been regulated. It was necessary to destroy +some of them to insure man's safety, and others were needed for his use. +But we can take their places with other animals which are better fitted +for our food, and it is the task of keeping up a sufficient supply of +these on the most suitable land and under conditions that will yield the +best results, that constitutes the problem of the conservation of our +animal food resources. + +The raising of poultry and live stock on a large scale is a separate +occupation, usually followed in a scientific manner and it is not of +that industry that we need to speak, but rather of the benefit to every +farmer and to the dwellers in small communities, of raising at least a +part of the animal food used by the family. + +Every farm has some bits of unoccupied land that can be fenced off for +poultry. The gleanings from the fields will supply their food, and they +will furnish meat and eggs for the family throughout the year, with +enough left to sell to provide other comforts. + +Live stock, cattle, sheep and hogs, as well as goats, horses and mules, +are profitable to every farmer. Many farms have woodland; land that +overflows at some seasons, and so is unfit for raising crops; or some +rocky unproductive land where stock can be raised more profitably than +anything else, and if every farmer would use all the land not suitable +for farm crops for pasture land the problem of an abundant meat supply, +of dairy products and of fertilizers to enrich the soil would be largely +solved. Some farming experts advocate letting each field in turn be used +for pasture every five years, because the stock raised on it is equal in +value to any other farm crop, and because the rest and fertilization +almost double the value of the succeeding year's crop. + +In the West and Southwest there are large tracts of public land +untilled. Much of the land can never be used for agricultural purposes, +because it is arid or mountainous. + +This land is well adapted to grazing and the government has allowed free +use of it to stockmen as pasture lands. + +These public pasture lands are called "ranges." In the early years when +this part of the country belonged to Mexico, the ranges were traversed +by Indians and Mexicans who tended the herds of wild cattle and horses, +raised mostly for their hides. But in the last quarter of a century the +business has fallen into the hands of Americans who have introduced +better breeds of higher value. In California, Arizona, and New Mexico +there are now on the open ranges eight million sheep, nearly three +million cattle and nearly a million horses, worth much more than one +hundred million dollars. Wyoming and Utah have great sheep ranges and +do much to keep up the wool supply. On Texas, with its great cattle +ranges, we depend for a large part of our beef and leather. In all these +states where stock is fed on public land, there are many questions as to +ownership of animals, rights of rival rangers, and other points to +settle. + +In some of these states the government has set aside national forest +reserves. Within these is much good grazing land. In order that the +government may have some revenue from the land, a regular price has been +set on these forest lands. The charge is forty cents a year each for +horses, thirty-five cents a year for cattle, and twelve cents for sheep. +The land is properly divided, so that each kind of stock has suitable +pasture. Each person who pays this tax is given a certain range and no +one else is allowed to use it. There is sufficient pasture for each so +that it need not be too closely cropped. A man may lease the same range +year after year, may put down wells to supply his stock, live on it, and +do many things to improve it. + +The forest rangers who patrol the forest to watch for fires or for +timber thieves also protect these stockmen in their rights and prevent +trouble about grazing privileges. + +Outside the forest reserves the grazing is free, but the advantages +offered by this system are so great that nearly all rangers now wish to +use the forest reserves. + +As each ranger has his land assigned to him and no one else can use it, +the grass is not overcropped as it often is in regions outside the +forests. If pasture is good, so many herds are pastured there that soon +the grass is all trampled down and eaten off. Large areas are so badly +injured that it will not naturally resod itself. + +Cattle men are asking that the same rules that apply to the national +forests be applied to other public lands, so that the pasturage may be +improved and each man may have protection in his rights. + +If all grazing lands could be thus leased, it would give the business a +far more permanent character, better breeds of stock would be raised, +and individual owners would direct their efforts to improving both stock +and pasture, after the manner of stock raisers on private lands. + +So large a part of our animal food, our wool, our leather and many +smaller needs depend on this industry, that every effort should be made +to encourage it, and to provide the wisest laws and best methods both +for conserving and developing it. + +In conclusion it is interesting to note that the Department of +Agriculture is making a study of food birds and animals in various parts +of the world, and trying to domesticate them, to add to the variety of +our food supply. The quail, the golden pheasant and some species of +grouse among birds, and two or three species of deer, including the +reindeer, appear to be adapted to domestic life in this country, and +may, before many years, become a part of the animal industry of the +United States. + + +FISHERIES + +One who has never seen the big catches of fish brought in by a mackerel +fleet or visited a wholesale fish market can have little idea of the +importance of that industry, nor of the immense amount of food that is +taken from the waters of the United States every year. + +The word fish is made to include not only fish proper, but oysters, +clams, scallops, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and turtles. Fish is liked by +most persons, is more easily digested than meat and is nourishing. As a +food resource, it is different in many respects from any other. It does +not exhaust the soil, nor take from the earth anything of value, the +food of fishes consisting of water plants and animals that are not used +by man in any other way. Fish also purify the water in which they live, +and so cause a great, though indirect, benefit. + +It is so plainly the wise thing, then, to keep our rivers stocked with +fish and to use them for food only, that it seems that this valuable +resource has been more seriously and unnecessarily wasted than any +other. + +Fish are wasted on inland streams in the following ways: (1) By +dynamiting. If a charge of dynamite be exploded on the bed of the river, +great numbers of fish, killed by the shock, rise to the top of the water +and can be taken. This practice was quite common at one time, but is now +prohibited by law in several states. + +(2) By seining. A seine or net is placed entirely across the stream, and +all the fish which come down the stream are caught. In several states +seining is not allowed at all. In others it is allowed only at certain +seasons. And in still others the meshes of the seine must be large +enough to allow all fish below a certain size to slip through. + +(3) By catching with a hook, (angling) more fish than can be used or +catching small fish and then throwing them away. This is a very common +custom among sportsmen, but should be prohibited by law. From a certain +small inland lake, it is said that during the entire season an average +of five thousand fish a day is taken. These are almost all caught by +summer residents, and it is unlikely that a large per cent. of them are +eaten. In a few years the lake will be exhausted, and will cease to +furnish fish for the people of the community, and there will, of course, +be no more fishing for the sportsmen. Equal waste is going on all +through the summer at every resort where good fishing is to be had. Some +states have laws regulating the size of the fish that may be caught and +the number that one person may take in one day, and all states should +have such laws. + +(4) The worst waste of our fish is caused by turning large quantities of +sewage or refuse from factories into streams. All the fish for miles up +and down a river are often destroyed in this way. As we have seen, this +is only one of the bad results of allowing such refuse to drain into +streams; every state should have strict laws prohibiting it. + +From the waters of the New England states more than five hundred and +twenty-eight millions of fish are taken each year. Here are the great +cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. From the Middle Atlantic states, +the great region for oysters, lobsters and other sea food, come eight +hundred and twenty million more; one hundred and six million come from +the South Atlantic states; one hundred and thirteen million, including +the much sought tarpon and red snappers, come from the Gulf states; two +hundred and seventeen million are caught in the Pacific states, +including the great salmon catches; ninety-six millions are taken from +the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and one hundred and sixty-six +millions, largely salmon, from Alaska. The Great Lakes, with their +pickerel, and other fine fresh-water fish furnish one hundred and +thirteen millions and the small inland waters at least five millions +more. + +When they are taken from the waters the 2,169,000,000 pounds of fish +caught in the United States are worth $58,000,000, but by canning, +salting, and other processes of preserving, the value is greatly +increased. + +Fortunately, there is a method of conserving our supply of fish and not +only preventing it from growing less, but of greatly increasing the +number and improving the quality. The United States government has a +thoroughly well organized fish commission, and many states and counties +and even private clubs carry on the same work, which is a general +supervision of the fish supply. + +The government maintains stations which are regularly engaged in +hatching fish, keeping them until the greatest danger of their being +destroyed is past, and then placing them in various streams all over the +country. These fish are always of good food varieties, and are carefully +selected to insure the kind best suited to the stream, as to whether it +is warm or cold, deep or shallow, clear or muddy, fresh or salt, slow +and placid, or swift and turbulent, for each kind of stream has certain +varieties of fish that are especially adapted to it. + +With all these things taken into account, stocking only with the best +food varieties, if a state has laws which require that a stream be kept +free from sewage and refuse, that no tiny fish be taken from the water, +and that only a stated number can be taken in a day by a single person, +hundreds of small streams, ponds and reservoirs all over the country may +be made to yield food supplies for the entire community near by. + +Governor Deneen, of Illinois, in urging that streams be improved for +navigation, says, "No estimate of the benefits to flow from stream +development would be complete without allusion to the fisheries which +have been established on the Illinois River, largely by restocking with +fish from hatcheries. The fisheries located on that stream are second in +value only to those of the Columbia River. + +"Our experience thus far indicates that the food resources of the water +may be brought up in value to those of the land. The Illinois valley +contains 80,000 acres of water area and yields a fish product worth ten +dollars an acre each year, very nearly all profit. The average value of +the land product near by is a little less than twelve dollars an acre, +and the labor, cost of seeding, and exhaustion of fertilization of the +land must all be counted before there can be a profit." + +In 1908 the United States Fish Commission distributed nearly two and a +half billion of young fish and half a million fish eggs. These were such +excellent varieties as salmon, shad, trout, bass, white fish, perch, +cod, flat fish and lobsters. + +The Bureau of Fisheries has its fish-hatching stations, its boats for +catching fish in nets and its tank cars for carrying the young fish and +eggs to the streams that are to be stocked. + +Some of the most important work is interestingly described in a history +of the Bureau of Fisheries issued in 1908. Among other things it tells +of the lobster industry in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. +Lobsters are not found naturally in the Pacific, but shipments of +lobsters have been made from the Atlantic coast. At the last shipment, +after carrying them across the continent packed in seaweed, more than a +thousand lobsters were safely placed on the bed of the Pacific Ocean. + +On the Atlantic coast the lobsters were rapidly disappearing when the +work of artificial "planting" of young lobsters and eggs began. The +results can be seen now, for more lobsters are being caught each year, +and the price to users is growing less as the supply becomes more +plentiful. + +The shad and the salmon are considered the finest of all fish for +eating. Both are salt-water fish and both have the habit of going some +distance up fresh-water rivers to lay their eggs. No eggs are ever laid +in salt water. The mother fish goes up beyond where the tide comes in, +so that the baby fish may have fresh water, which is necessary for them. +Salmon and shad are never caught in the sea, but in the rivers, where +they go in large numbers to lay their eggs in the spring. This, of +course, means the destruction of both fish and eggs,--the present and +future supply. + +Shad eggs, or roe are sold in large quantities. The Bureau of Fisheries +has planted three thousand millions of young shad in streams along the +coast, and the eggs from which these fish were hatched were all taken +from fish that had been caught for market, and would have been totally +lost if the Bureau had not collected them from the fishermen. + +Shad have been planted in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers flowing +into the Pacific Ocean. From these two sources they have spread until +now they are found as far south as Los Angeles, and as far north as +Alaska, a coast line of 4,000 miles, and it is said that more shad could +now be caught in the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers than in any other +water courses. + +In addition to supplying the streams with young fish, it is necessary to +leave a part of each river clear so that some of the fish may find their +way up-stream to deposit their eggs. The salmon have been almost driven +out from the waters of New England, except in the Penobscot River, where +they have been kept by the watchfulness of the Fisheries Bureau. It is +believed that the entire salmon industry in Maine would be wiped out in +five years if fish culture should cease, and in the West, where the +drain on the salmon for canning purposes is so heavy, artificial +planting is used very largely to keep up the supply. + +The experiments with oysters are full of interest. In Chesapeake Bay, +where the best natural oyster beds were found, the demands on them were +so great that the supply began to fail. In 1904 only a little more than +one-fourth as many were produced as in 1880. The natural oyster beds +were then marked and set aside as public fishing grounds. + +These are to be used by whoever wishes but under strict protective +rules. All other ocean beds may be planted with oysters by any one who +leases the privilege from the state, and the right to collect the +oysters from a certain bed belongs to the person who leases it as fully +as does property on land. + +Louisiana had a small number of natural beds. About ten years ago the +planting of oyster beds began, and soon 20,000 acres had been planted. +Conditions were particularly favorable, and within two years after the +eggs or spawn were placed it was found that oysters three and a half to +four inches in size had grown in quantities of 1,000 to 2,000 bushels +per acre. For a long time it has been the custom of fishermen to fatten +their oysters by transplanting them to new beds where the food is +abundant, and in a short time the oysters are much plumper, it takes +fewer of them to make a quart and they also sell at a higher price, +because they are of the finest quality. + +These rich food beds are not plentiful, and many dealers are compelled +to put small oysters on the market. The Bureau of Fisheries has made a +study of these food beds, and by using fertilizer, such as farmers use +on their land, have been able to make such beds of sea-plants grow where +they do not naturally exist. These experiments have been tried only a +short time, but the results have been entirely satisfactory, and it is +hoped that before long, rich oyster beds may be made to grow in any part +of the ocean where oysters will thrive. + +In the Great Lakes the fishing is so heavy that it is probable that the +supply of perch and white fish would be very low by this time if +fish-culture had not been carried on to so great an extent. White fish, +lake trout, pike and perch may be hatched in such large numbers as to +keep the fisheries up to their present yield. + +Another important work of the Fisheries Bureau is to keep up the supply +of cod for the great fisheries on the New England coast. For the last +twenty years profitable shore cod fishery has been kept up on grounds +that had been entirely exhausted before and also where cod had never +been found before. At the wharves, government officers from the +Fisheries Bureau board the fishing boats when they come in and take the +eggs from the fish. These are taken to the government hatchery and +either the eggs or the young fish are put back into the sea, and so keep +up an unending supply. + +Alaska is one of the most important fishing regions of the world. For +this entire Territory, the United States paid Russia $7,200,000 and many +thought that the money was practically thrown away, since it apparently +bought for us nothing but barren, ice-bound shores. But since it became +a part of the United States, Alaska has yielded fishery products alone +amounting in value to $158,000,000--twenty-two and a half times the +price paid. Of this, $49,000,000 came from the fur seal fishery, +$86,000,000 from salmon and $23,000,000 from other fish. + +About $1,500,000 worth of sponges are now taken from Florida waters each +year. Naturally the failure of the industry would be a serious loss to +the state. But the natural sponge beds are being rapidly exhausted, and +the Bureau of Fisheries is convinced that the continuation of the sponge +fisheries must depend on artificial planting. Sponges can be produced +from cuttings at a cost much less than that of taking them from the +natural beds. + +Rhode Island has been successful in cultivating soft-shell clams and in +increasing the area of its clam beds. + +The Mississippi and its branches are subject to great floods in the +early spring and occasionally in summer. After these floods millions of +fishes are left in small pools some distance back from the river. These +pools gradually dry up; the larger fishes are caught and the smaller +ones die. The state and National Fish Commissions are now collecting +these fishes in large numbers, and using them to stock ponds and rivers +in other parts of the country. + +They are used to supply many parts of the West and South and there is +much greater demand for them than the Commissions can meet. Not that +there is a lack of fish, for millions are left to waste because the +Commissions can not distribute them rapidly enough to save them. If +large storage ponds could be established to collect and keep the fish +during the flood season, so that all the time might be spent in +collecting fish during the overflow, and they could be sent out later, +the amount of fish saved would be increased many fold. + +The fish thus saved are being made to serve another useful purpose. +Pearl buttons are made from the shells of mussels or fresh-water clams. +This business, which is now worth $5,000,000, can not last many years +unless some means of increasing the supply of mussels can be devised. + +Now these men, who are always studying new plans, have thought of a +wonderful way in which to let the fish help in carrying on this work. +They obtain the mussel eggs, and when they are hatched place them in the +pools with the fish from the overflowed lands. The tiny mussel larvae +attach themselves to the fish and are carried to the rivers and ponds +with the fish. Soon they are ready to drop to the bottom and find food +for themselves. + +In this way 25,000,000 mussels were carried last year to streams where +mussels are known to thrive. If these mussel-bearing fish can be +obtained by farmers having private fish ponds, the ponds can be drained +each year and the mussels gathered, thus adding considerably to the +owner's income, and also keeping up the pearl button industry, in +addition to the food supply which he gains from the fish. + +Enough has been said to show clearly how desirable and how possible it +is to conserve and increase our fish supplies. With the cooeperation of +all who waste the fish at present, and those who might aid in stocking +the streams, we could add greatly to the food supply of the nation at a +less cost than in any other way. + + +REFERENCES + +Grazing Lands. Report National Conservation Commission. + +Grazing on the Public Lands. (Jastro.) Report Governor's Conference. + +The Grazing Lands and Public Forests of Arizona. (Heard.) Report +Governor's Conference. + +Grazing Problems in the Southwest and How to Meet Them. Bulletin, Dept. +of Agriculture, 5c. + +Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Dept. of Agriculture. + +Distribution of Fish and Fish Eggs. Dept. Commerce and Labor.[B] + +[Footnote B: All Bureau and Commission reports are free.] + +Reports of the Commission of Fisheries. + +National Fisheries Congress. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +INSECTS + + +If we look at a watch, we see that one wheel can not move until the one +next in order to it moves, and that, in turn, must be set in motion by +another wheel. In the same way nature adjusts itself in its various +parts. Before man enters a region, the balance is perfect. Plants crowd +each other out of the way, the weaker giving place to the stronger; then +insects come to destroy them. These insects are destroyed by birds, +small mammals or other insects. The birds are killed by animals and +other birds, which in turn are the food of larger animals. And so +through all nature runs this law of balance; nothing increases in too +great a proportion. + +But when man comes, he thinks only of his own needs and wishes and +begins at once to upset the delicate balance. Year after year, he plants +large fields of a single crop, and, calling other plants weeds, because +they hinder the growth of his grain, he drives them out entirely. The +insects that feed on these plants, finding no food, soon disappear, +while the ones which feed on the farmers' crops, finding food so +plentiful, are able to increase in great numbers. They increase all the +more rapidly because man, not knowing or not caring to know who his real +helpers are, has killed and driven away the birds that would feed on +them. + +In order to readjust matters, he must learn how to destroy the insects, +or he can not have crops. Both the plant enemies, the weeds, and the +insects are always trying to bring about nature's balance again by +driving out the over-abundant field crop, so he must constantly fight +them in order to secure his harvest. + +In no country is more harm done by insects than in the United States. +The losses to live stock and to plants, both growing and stored, +resulting from insects are greater than all the expenses of the National +Government, including the pension roll and the yearly maintenance of the +army and navy. + +Immense as is the value of our farm products, it would be much greater +if it were not for the work of these insects. Careful calculations +indicate that this loss will amount to not less than the enormous sum of +$1,100,000,000 annually and probably far more. The loss is usually +estimated at ten per cent. of the crop, but often is much heavier than +this, and many indirect losses are not taken into account in this table, +though we shall speak of them later. + +Most insects pass through four stages: (1) the egg; (2) the worm or +larvae; (3) the chrysalis, cocoon, or pupa; (4) the full-grown insect or +imago. Butterflies, moths and beetles are examples of insects in this +last stage. + +As eggs, they are, of course, harmless, and during the chrysalis state +they lie perfectly inactive and are harmless, but many of them are very +destructive when they are worms or larvae, others do most injury in the +full-grown state. + +The insects that man has most reason to dread are: (1) Plant-lice, tiny +insects with soft bodies, usually green. They attach themselves to the +stems and leaves of plants and suck their juices, leaving them to wilt +and die. They are found on many kinds of plants--on corn, wheat and +other grains. They also flourish on garden vegetables and flowers. + +(2) Scale insects. These are flat and appear to be only a scale on the +stem or fruit. They are usually covered with a hard crust-like covering +and are found on trees and bushes. They are usually the color of the +bark on which they are found. + +(3) Worms and caterpillars are soft-bodied, the bodies being in +segments, and either smooth or covered with short bristly hair. They +spend nearly all their time in eating, and do immense damage to the +foliage of trees and vegetables and to fruit. The adult is a moth or +caterpillar. This class is among the farmer's worst insect enemies. + +(4) Borers attack trees and tough-stemmed plants. The eggs are laid on +the stems, and after hatching, the larvae bore into the stem or under the +bark, causing the foliage to wilt and die. We are all familiar with what +we call "worm-eaten" wood, with canals that have been eaten by these +borers running through it in all directions. This completely ruins some +of the best forest trees for lumber, and makes one of the greatest +losses of the forests. + +(5) Beetles are insects in the adult state. They have hard, shiny +wing-covers. Many of the borers are beetles, and there are other +varieties which do great damage, though other kinds are useful to man in +destroying harmful insects. + +(6) Bugs have their mouth parts prolonged into a sharp beak with which +they puncture the skin or bark, instead of chewing the leaves, as do +beetles. Flies, gnats, and other similar insects do not usually injure +vegetation so much as do some other classes of insects, the principal +damage being done to fruits; but they have been found to be the cause of +some of the most serious diseases in both man and the lower animals. + +The Department of Agriculture divides the injuries done by insects into +classes according to the products injured, and in the list they place +first the injury done to cereal crops. + +The insects which damage the corn crop most seriously are the corn-root +worm, which feeds on the roots of young corn, causing it to fall over +and die, and which sometimes takes the whole corn crop of a large +region. The next most important is the boll-worm or ear-worm. Most +persons have seen this worm in the ears of sweet corn; ninety ears out +of every hundred contain a worm which destroys from one-tenth to +one-half the corn. Some years every ear in large regions is infested. In +the South the field corn is attacked as badly as the sweet corn, but in +the great corn states the injury is much less. Even here, however, the +total loss is very great. + +Almost equally important is the damage wrought by the chinch-bug, which +is also one of the greatest pests in wheat and oats. + +Every year in different sections of the country, bill-bugs, wire-worms, +cutworms, cornstalk borers, locusts, grasshoppers, corn plant-lice and +other insects, destroy millions of bushels of corn. + +Of the cereal crops, wheat suffers most from insects. Of the large +number of insects that attack wheat, the three important species are the +Hessian fly, the chinch-bug and the grain plant-louse or green-bug. + +The Hessian fly has been known to destroy as much as sixty per cent. of +all the wheat acreage of a state. Fortunately, this damage is done early +in the year, so that when whole fields are destroyed they can be +replanted with other crops and only the cost of seed and labor is to be +counted as a loss. But more often the field is only partly destroyed by +the fly; it is not necessary to replant, but the yield is small, often +not more than one-third. Some years the loss from the Hessian fly is +very heavy, at other times comparatively light, yet there are few years +when the loss is less than ten per cent. of the total crop from this +insect alone,--which meant last year a loss of 72,500,000 bushels. + +The chinch-bug is responsible for the loss of five per cent., or one +bushel out of every twenty. It attacks the straw, causing the heads of +wheat to fall over and wither away. + +The injury done by the green-bug comes just as the wheat begins to +ripen, the tiny green creatures attaching themselves in great numbers to +the heads of the wheat. Other insects which prey on the wheat crop are +grasshoppers, the wheat midge, cutworms and army-worms. + +If it were not for the attacks of these various pests the wheat crop +would be at least one-fifth larger than it is. Instead of 725,000,000 +bushels, it would be 870,000,000; which, with wheat at a dollar a +bushel, amounts to a loss of nearly $150,000,000. Further, the world +loses all this valuable bread-stuff. + +Oats, rye and barley suffer far less than wheat from insect ravages but +they are all attacked by the same insects, and on the whole, much damage +is done to them each year. + +Hay, clover, and alfalfa have their enemies which destroy a considerable +part of the crops. The locusts and caterpillars, the army-worms and +cutworms are the best known, but the tiny leaf-hoppers, which spring up +at every step as we walk across the path or lawn, and the web-worms and +grass-worms and grubs which work about the roots of the plants all do +their part in lowering the production. + +The principal insect enemies of cotton are the cotton boll-weevil, the +boll-worm, the cotton red spider, and the cotton-leaf worm. The control +of the boll-weevil is considered one of the most serious problems +confronting the agricultural men of the country. In the first years +after its introduction, it reduced the cotton crop fully fifty per +cent., and was the cause, not only of serious loss to the farmers, but +of the closing of the cotton mills in New England, of a scarcity of +cotton cloth and a decided rise in its price. The boll-weevil is a +beetle about a quarter of an inch in length. This little beetle eats +into the heart of each boll, which soon falls to the ground. + +The cotton-leaf worm formerly caused heavy damage, as much as +$20,000,000 to $30,000,000 a year, but the loss has been greatly reduced +by the war which farmers have waged against it. It is still estimated at +from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000. + +The boll-worm is chiefly destructive in the Southwest and does damage to +the extent of $12,000,000. + +All in all no article of commerce is more seriously affected by insect +ravages than cotton, on account of its necessity, and the fact that it +can be raised only in certain regions. + +Tobacco is one of the principal crops in several states and it suffers +heavily from insect damage. The large, showy tobacco-worm and the tiny +tobacco-thrips cause serious injury to the leaves. + +Sugar-cane has its insect enemies which take on an average one stalk out +of every ten raised in this country, and reduce the crop in the same +proportion. + +The cranberry is another valuable commercial plant that has been greatly +affected by an insect known as the cranberry fruit worm, but by +spraying, growers have been able to reduce the damage from sixty per +cent. down to fourteen per cent. + +Garden vegetables suffer more than anything else from insects. Potatoes +are attacked by two species of insects, both destructive unless held in +check. One is the reddish brown blister-beetle. The eggs are laid on the +ground, and do not become adult insects until the second year. The other +is the striped Colorado beetle, the eggs of which are laid on the under +side of the leaves, and develop into adults in a short time. Two broods +of this beetle develop in a single season. Thus it may be seen that the +two are entirely different, though they are often supposed to be the +same. The Colorado beetle, by the immense damage it was doing to a +necessary food crop, first led to a regular method of fighting insects +in this country. This potato-bug is not feared as it was in the past, +since farmers have learned to control it in a great measure, but they +have only been able to lessen the evil, never to drive it out +completely. + +Other insects that destroy garden vegetables are the well-known green +cabbage-worm, the harlequin cabbage-bug, the cabbage hairworm, the +asparagus-beetle, the squash-bug, the squash-vine borer, the striped +cucumber or melon beetle, the melon aphis, the corn boll-worm, the +cornstalk borer and many others. + +In addition to these insects that attack special plants, all vegetables +are preyed on by the grub-worm, the cutworm, the aphis and various tiny +hoppers. + +The grub-worms which work about the roots of plants are, in the adult +state, the June-bugs or cock-chafers which fly about our lights in the +spring and early summer, and which themselves do considerable damage by +eating leaves of trees and bushes. + +Orchards and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests, both on +account of the direct loss and on account of the expensive treatment. +There are several hundred insects which ravage fruit trees, attacking +the roots, trunk, foliage and fruit. + +Among these are the scales, of which there are many species, but of +which the most widely known and dreaded is the San Jose scale, so called +because San Jose, California, was its starting place in America. It is +the only one of the scales which, if not checked, will, in two or three +years, completely destroy the tree on which it feeds. It attacks the +citrus fruits, orange, lemon, grape-fruit, and the apple, pear, and +peach as well as small fruits, particularly currants. + +Among the many varieties that do serious damage are the black olive +scale, plum scale, hickory scale, locust scale, frosted black scale, red +oak scale, the cottony maple scale, greedy scale and oyster shell +scale. + +The woolly aphis injures the roots of our fruit trees; the trunk and +limb borers, the peach tree borer, the apple borer, all stand ready to +assail the life of the entire tree. The various leaf worms attack the +life of the tree also. The grape-leaf skeletonizer eats every particle +of green from the leaves, leaving only the veins. The canker-worms and +the destructive tent-caterpillars also cause the death of many fruit +trees. + +Of insects which attack the fruit, the list is long. The codling-moth of +the apple causes a greater money loss than any other enemy of fruits. +Various estimates of the loss have been made, and in general it is +believed that it causes the loss of one-fourth to one-half of the apple +crop of the United States each year. + +The plum-curculio attacks nearly all stone fruits. Its natural food +plant is probably the native wild plum, and the plum continues to be its +favorite food, consequently this fruit suffers most from the attacks of +the insect. In years of short crops very little fruit remains on the +tree to ripen. But peaches, apricots and cherries also suffer heavily, +and apples and pears in a less degree. + +The insects which injure the hardwood forest trees are principally the +leaf-eaters, such as the gypsy and brown tail moths, which have almost +stripped the New England shade trees, and done great damage to the +forests; the elm leaf beetles and the numerous borers, both beetles and +grubs, which from eggs laid in or just beneath the bark, hatch into +larvae which burrow into the wood, destroying its usefulness for lumber. +Among the borers which do most injury in destroying valuable timber are +the hickory-bark beetle, the bark-boring grubs which kill oak, chestnut, +birch and poplar trees, the locust borer, the chestnut timber-worm and +the Columbian timber beetle. + +All these represent the loss from insects to the growing product; but +when it is stored, there is seemingly no less danger of attack by a +different class of insects. These include grain weevils and beetles, +flour-moths, the small fruit and vinegar flies, buffalo-moths and dozens +of others. + +After these comes the loss to man and animals from insects. The cattle +tick alone, through the dreaded Texas fever, causes a loss of from +$10,000,000 to $35,000,000 in various years. The ox warble also preys on +cattle and causes a loss of probably $3,000,000 more. The buffalo-gnats, +gadflies, and other flies do on the whole a large amount of damage each +year. + +Man has only discovered in recent years how serious a factor in his own +health as well as comfort, is the insect life about him. This subject is +more fully treated under the subject of health, so for the present we +need only say that flies, mosquitos and other insects are supposed to +cause some of our most serious diseases, and to be the indirect cause of +the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars and many human lives each +year. + +Having thus summed up the damage done by insects, let us see what may be +done to prevent their spread and if possible drive out the most harmful +species entirely. Unfortunately, that seems almost impossible; so far +all man's efforts have only resulted in saving a larger or smaller +proportion of the various crops each year. + +In insect control we turn first to the natural means of destruction. +Chief among these means are birds,--of which we will speak in another +chapter,--snakes and toads. + +Toads live entirely on insects and catch large quantities of them. It is +estimated that a single toad is worth almost twenty dollars a year in a +field or garden. English gardeners are said to pay high prices for them +and to keep as many as possible in their gardens. Toads will eat almost +any kind of insect, are absolutely harmless, and should be carefully +protected. + +There is one class of insects which, so far from being an enemy to man, +combines with him to kill the harmful insects. Among these are the black +beetles which feed on cutworms and other larvae which injure the roots +of plants. Lady-bird beetles destroy large numbers of plant-lice, and +the Asiatic lady-bird has been found to be the natural destroyer of the +San Jose scale. These little insects are now being hatched in this +country, and it is hoped through them to stamp out the pest. A number of +larger insects prey on the smaller ones. + +Other insects, such as the Hessian fly, the green-bug or spring grain +aphis, the army-worm and various species of grasshoppers are killed by +tiny parasitic insects whose eggs are laid in the bodies of the larger +insects, but which, after being hatched, feed on them. + +To these natural methods of control man has added others. Cultivation is +one of these methods. As insects flourish when given an unusually large +amount of food of a particular kind, and starve when that food is taken +away from them, so rotation of crops proves to be one of the best means +of getting rid of those insects which can not travel far for their food. +Farmers who practise rotation of crops are much less troubled with +insects that injure the roots of plants than those who do not. + +One of the best means of preventing damage from the Hessian fly is to +sow a narrow strip of wheat all around the edges of the field several +weeks before the main crop is to be sowed. The flies will gather in +this strip and lay all their eggs in the early wheat. Just before the +main crop is sowed, the narrow strip is plowed up and thoroughly +harrowed and the larvae perish for want of food. + +The best known means of getting rid of grasshoppers is to destroy the +eggs. This should be done by plowing and harrowing all roadsides, ditch +banks, uncultivated fields and grassy margins around fields in the fall +or winter. + +Fall harrowing and deep spring plowing will prevent many of the bugs and +beetles which spend the larval state in the ground from hatching. This +method will also destroy the plum-curculio in orchards. + +In attempting to control the boll-weevil of the cotton fields, it has +been found that the best method to pursue is the simple one of planting +the crop very early, so that the cotton passes the danger stage before +the insects emerge, and removing all the plants in the fall. + +Worms that infest fruit can be checked for the following year by fall +plowing in the orchard and by destroying the decayed fruit as it falls. +The farmer who lets his decayed fruit lie on the ground is preparing for +a heavy crop of insects to eat his fruit the following summer. + +Fruit and forest trees are both protected by a burlap band or a band of +"sticky" fly-paper placed around the tree, to prevent insects from +crawling up. + +The use of poison in destroying insects is now the one most generally +and successfully employed by farmers and fruit growers. + +Poisons may be liquid or dry. The liquid is made by mixing with water, +and for large plants and trees is put on with a spray or force-pump that +carries the poison to every part of the plant. + +Some insects, such as beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers, chew the +leaves or stems of plants, and the poison may be applied to their food; +but others, such as plant-lice, scale insects and all bugs suck the +juice, usually from the stem or bark. Poisons must be applied to the +insect itself to be effectual in this case. + +These are some of the insect poisons most in use: + +Paris green, which will kill all insects that chew the leaves, may be +used in small quantities in gardens by mixing one-half teaspoonful to a +gallon of water, or in large quantities with one pound to one hundred +and fifty or two hundred gallons of water. + +White hellebore is used to destroy currant worms and is usually dusted +on dry. + +Pyrethrum is used as a spray, mixing one ounce to two gallons of water, +to destroy cabbage-worms and many other garden insects. If the dry +pyrethrum powder is blown from a bellows into a tightly closed room, it +is said to destroy all the flies. + +Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four pounds of copper sulphate in +hot water and mixing with an equal quantity of a solution made by mixing +four pounds of lime with water. This is then mixed with fifty gallons of +water. Paris green is sometimes added. This mixture is largely used in +orchards and for destroying insects on a large scale. It is also useful +for curing diseases of plants. + +An excellent spray for orchards both for removing fungous diseases and +scale insects is a home-made lime-and-sulphur solution. Enough for +spraying a large orchard is prepared as follows: + +Add three gallons of boiling water to fifteen pounds of lime. Then add +ten pounds of sulphur and three gallons more of hot water. Allow this to +boil about twenty minutes in its own heat, then add enough water to make +fifty gallons of the mixture. Dilute with water in the proportion of one +part of the solution to seventy-five of water. + +Small quantities are made by using a fractional part of this recipe. + +Whale-oil soap dissolved in water and used as a spray is an effective +remedy for the San Jose scale. + +Kerosene emulsion is used to kill the insects which suck the juices of +plants and trees. It is made by mixing a half-pound of hard soap with +one gallon of hot water and stirring into it, so as to mix thoroughly, +two gallons of kerosene oil. This may be kept on hand for use, and is +mixed with ten parts of water to one of the emulsion. + +For use in large orchards force-pumps operated by compressed air and +drawn by two horses are used. The spraying should be done as soon as the +blossoms drop, and many orchards are sprayed three times in a season, +but the work should never be done while the trees are in blossom. +Vegetables should be sprayed many times through the season. + +A careful study of these methods of control, adapted to the various +plants and the insects which prey on them, with the natural enemies of +insects encouraged and protected, would go far to prevent the +wide-spread and serious damage now affecting our crops, our vegetables, +our orchards, and our forests. + + +REFERENCES + +Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology. Dept. of Agriculture. List +furnished on application. + +Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects. Yearbook 1904.[C] + +[Footnote C: Some of the Yearbooks of the Dept. of Agriculture contain +very instructive reports on Insects and on Birds. Reprints on various +subjects have been made from them which are available in pamphlet form, +or the entire Yearbook may be had in many cases.] + +Value of Insect Parasitism to the American Farmer. Yearbook 1907. + +House Flies. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 71. + +The Grasshopper Problem. Bulletin 84. + +The Boll-Weevil Problem. Bulletin 344. + +The Most Important Step in the Control of the Boll-Weevil. Bulletin 95. + +The San Jose Scale. Yearbook 1902. + +The Plum-Curculio. Bulletin 73. + +The Apple Codling-Moth. Bulletin 41. Price 20c. + +The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 275. + +The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. Bulletin 264. + +The Spring Grain Aphis or Green-Bug. Bulletin 93. + +The Army-Worm. Bulletin 4. + +The Hessian Fly. Bulletin 70. + +The Chinch-Bug. Bulletin 17. + +The Principal Household Insects of the U. S. Bulletin 4. + +Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin 5. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +BIRDS + + +Birds give us pleasure in three ways: by their beauty, by their song and +by their usefulness in destroying animals, insects or plants which are +harmful to man. + +But although they are among man's best friends they have been greatly +misunderstood, so that to the many natural enemies that are constantly +preying on birds, we must add the warfare that man himself wages on +them, and the cutting down of their forest homes. This work of bird +destruction has gone on until all the best species are greatly reduced +in numbers and some species have been almost entirely driven out. + +To see how serious a matter this is we must study the food habits of +birds, and we shall find that although the different species eat a large +variety of food, in almost every case their natural food is something +harmful to man. + +The large American birds, the eagles, hawks, owls and similar kinds, are +called birds of prey because they feed on small birds and animals. Some +of these are of the greatest benefit to the farmer, while others are +altogether harmful. Another large class of birds lives almost entirely +on injurious insects and this class is entitled to the fullest care and +protection from the farmer. + +Still another class lives largely on fruits, wild or cultivated, and on +seeds, which may be either the farmer's most valuable grains, or seeds +of the weeds that would choke out the grain. + +It can not be denied that birds often do serious damage through their +food habits; but the great mistake that has been made in man's treatment +of birds has been in hastily deciding that if birds are seen flitting +about fields of grain they are destroying the crop. A better knowledge +of their food habits will lead to proper measures for destroying the +harmful kinds and protecting the useful ones. + +Successful agriculture could hardly be practised without birds, and the +benefit to man, though amounting each year to millions of dollars, can +hardly be estimated in dollars and cents, since it affects so closely +the size of our crops, the amount of timber saved for use in +manufactures, and even the health of the people. + +Here again we see the careful balancing that runs through nature; how +carefully each thing is adjusted to its work. Naturally the balance +between birds, insects and plants would remain true, no one increasing +beyond its proper amount. But when man begins to destroy certain things, +and to cultivate others, this balance is seriously disturbed. The birds +that destroy weed seeds being killed, weeds flourish in such vast +numbers as to drive out the cultivated crops. The birds which destroy +mice, moles, gophers, etc., being killed, these animals become a +nuisance and cause serious losses. If insect-destroying birds are driven +out, the farmer will be at the mercy of the insects unless he employs +troublesome and expensive methods of getting rid of them. Certain +favorable conditions cause large numbers of birds to gather in a small +region and they become a pest. Very careful observation has shown that +in nearly every case the favorite food of the birds is something which +is not valued by man, and if this food is provided, the farm grains and +fruits will not be seriously molested. + +Few birds are altogether good, still fewer are altogether bad; most +species are of great benefit, even if at the same time they do some +harm. Some birds do serious damage at one season, and much good at +another. The most notable example of this is the bobolink, which in +northern wheat fields is loved no less for his merry song than for the +thousands of weed seeds and insects he destroys; while in the South he +is known as the reed-bird or rice-bird, the most dreaded of all foes to +the rice crop. + +Flying down on the fields by hundreds of thousands these birds often +take almost the entire crop of a district. The yearly loss to +rice-growers from bobolinks has been estimated at two million dollars. + +If crows or blackbirds are seen in large numbers about fields of grain +they are generally accused of robbing the farmer, but more often they +are busily engaged in hunting the insects that without their help would +soon have destroyed his crop; and even if they do considerable damage at +one season they often pay for it many times over. + +Whether a bird is helpful or the reverse, in fact, depends entirely on +the food it eats and often even farmers who have been familiar with +birds all their lives do not know what food a bird really eats. As an +example of the misunderstanding that is often found in regard to birds, +when hawks are seen searching the fields and meadows, or owls flying +about the orchards in the evening, the farmer always supposes that his +poultry is in danger, when in reality the birds are quite as likely to +be hunting for the animals which destroy grain, produce, young trees, +and eggs of birds. + +In order to correct such mistaken ideas the Department of Agriculture +has made a most careful and accurate study of the habits of birds, and +it is the results of these observations that are recorded here. + +Field workers from this Department who have observed the habits of the +principal birds that live among men, have watched them all day and from +one day to another as they fed their little ones, and, to be more +certain of their facts, they have examined the stomachs of hundreds of +birds, both old and young, to learn exactly what each bird had eaten. In +this way they have proved absolutely that many species that are supposed +to eat chickens, or fruit or grain, in reality never touch them, but are +among the farmer's best friends. + +Among other things they have learned that while they are feeding their +young, birds are especially valuable on a farm. Baby birds require food +with a large amount of nourishment in it that can be easily digested. +Almost all young birds have soft, tender stomachs, and must be fed on +insects; as they grow older, the stomach or gizzard hardens and is +capable of grinding hard grain or seeds. The amount of food required by +the baby birds is astonishing. At certain stages of their growth they +require more than their own weight in insects. And the young birds are +to be fed just at the season that insects do the most injury to growing +crops of grain and young fruit and vegetables. + +Birds vary so much in the kind of food eaten, not only by different +varieties of the same species, but by the same birds at different +seasons, that it is necessary to make a careful study of each bird to +know whether, if he is sometimes caught eating cultivated fruit and +grains, he helps in other ways enough to pay for it. + +When insects are unusually abundant, birds eat more than at other times +and confine themselves more strictly to an insect diet, so that at such +times the good they do is particularly valuable. + +Birds of prey may do harm in a particular place, because in that region +mice, rabbits and other natural food are scarce, and they are driven to +feed on things that are useful to man, while in places where their +natural food is plentiful the same birds are altogether helpful. + +In the same way, birds which naturally eat weed seeds frequently find +these almost altogether lacking where the farms are most carefully +cultivated, but in their place are fields of grain whose seed also +furnishes them desirable food. Is it any wonder, then, that, their +natural food being taken from them, they turn to the cultivated crops? +The fruit eating birds seem always to choose the wild fruits, but where +these are not to be had they enter the orchards and soon become known as +enemies of the farmer. + +A careful examination of the harm done by birds leads to the belief +that the damage is usually caused by a very large number of one species +of birds living in a small area. In such cases so great is the demand +for food of a particular kind that the supply is soon exhausted, and the +birds turn to the products of the field or orchard. The best conditions +exist when there are many varieties of birds in a region, but no one +variety in great numbers, for then they eat many kinds of insects and +weeds, and do not exhaust all the food supply of one kind. Under such +circumstances, too, the insect-eating birds would find plenty of insects +without preying on useful products, and the insects would be held in +check, so that the damage to crops would be slight. + +The following are examples of the food eaten by birds and the good that +they thus accomplish to man: + +During the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska, a scientific +observer watched a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to her +young in an hour and the same number was kept up regularly. At this +rate, for seven hours a day, a nest-ful of young wrens would eat two +hundred and ten locusts a day. From this he calculated that the birds of +eastern Nebraska would destroy daily nearly 163,000 locusts. + +A locust eats its own weight in grain a day. The locusts eaten by the +baby birds would therefore be able to destroy one hundred and +seventy-five tons of crops, worth at least ten dollars a ton, or one +thousand seven hundred and fifty dollars. + +So we see that birds have an actual cash value on the farm. The value of +the hay crop saved by meadow-larks in destroying grasshoppers has been +estimated at three hundred and fifty-six dollars on every township +thirty-six miles square. + +An article contributed to the New York _Tribune_ by an official in the +Department of Agriculture estimated the amount of weed seeds annually +destroyed by the tree sparrow in the state of Iowa on the basis of +one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird. Supposing there +were ten birds to each mile, in the two hundred days that they remain in +the region, we should have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or eight hundred +and seventy-five tons, of weed seed consumed in a single season by this +one species in the one state. In a thicket near Washington, D. C. was a +large patch of weeds where sparrows fed during the winter. The ground +was literally black with the seeds in the spring but on examining them +it was found that nearly all had been cracked and the kernels eaten. A +search was made for seeds of various weeds but not more than half a +dozen could be found, while many thousands of empty seed-pods showed how +the birds had lived during the winter. + +In no place are birds more important than in the forests, where they +save hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of valuable timber each +year. In forests there can be no rotation of crops and no cultivation, +and spraying, which keeps down the insect pests in the orchard, is +impossible here because of the expense. It would not pay to spray two or +three times a year a crop of timber that requires a lifetime to grow. So +in the forests the owner must depend entirely on birds for his +protection. How great the destruction of our forests would be is shown +by the fact that the damage at present is estimated at $100,000,000, in +spite of the fact that a vast army of birds is working tirelessly, +summer and winter, to devour the insects! The debt of the forester to +the birds can hardly be estimated. + +A full variety of birds will thoroughly protect a farm and orchard. The +sparrows will destroy the weed seeds; the hawks and kites, flying by +day, will catch the meadow mice and other small mammals, and the owls +will pounce on those that venture forth at night. Of the insect-eating +birds, the larks, wrens, thrushes and sparrows search the ground for +worms, eggs and insects under leaves and logs everywhere. The +nuthatches, vireos, warblers and creepers search every part of the tree, +while the woodpeckers tap beneath the bark for grubs and worms. The +fly-catching birds catch their insect food on the wing among the trees +and branches, and, last of all, the swallows skim high in the air and +catch the few insects that rise high above the tree-tops. + +Thus each family has its part of the work and the good they do is almost +too great to calculate. Without this check it would be impossible for +any green thing to flourish. So vast an amount of food is required to +feed the great army of insects that the task would be impossible in any +other way. + +A brief description of some of the common birds and their food habits is +given here that farmers may know their friends, and that people +everywhere may learn to protect the useful birds and drive out the few +that do the mischief. + +All of these observations have been made by field workers from the +Department of Agriculture, and no statement has been made that has not +been proved by the examination of many bird stomachs at different +seasons. + +Highest of all in the list come the bluebirds. They are among the most +beautiful of our native birds, with their bright blue coats and soft red +breasts. They are sweet singers, and are among the first to return in +the spring to tell us of the return of summer. In addition to this they +have many good habits and absolutely no bad ones. More than +three-fourths of their food consists of insects,--beetles, grasshoppers +and caterpillars. The remainder is weed seeds and fruit, but there were +no reports of cultivated fruits being eaten by bluebirds. On the +contrary they eat the most undesirable of the wild fruit, chokeberry, +pokeberry, Virginia creeper, bitter-sweet and sumac, as well as large +quantities of ragweed seeds. Other birds are equally useful but none +combines usefulness with so much beauty and sweetness of song. + +The tiny wrens are another class of wholly useful birds. Their food +consists almost entirely of insects with a very little grass-seed. They +search every tree, shrub, and vine for caterpillars, spiders and +grasshoppers. + +Sparrows are almost equally useful. The tree sparrow, song sparrow, +chipping sparrow, field sparrow and snowbird or junco are all great +weed-seed destroyers. Many of them remain throughout the winter, when +they feed entirely on the seeds of weeds. Each bird eats at least a +quarter of an ounce of seeds per day, and they are often found by +thousands in a region. At least a half dozen varieties of birds are +feeding in the same ratio all over the country, reducing the crop of +next year's weeds. During the summer they turn to a diet composed partly +of insects and here again they help the farmer by eating the weevils, +leaf-beetles, grasshoppers, bugs and wasps that infest his crops. + +The various species of swallows rank high as insect-eating birds. The +tree, bank, cliff and barn swallows and the purple martins all eat small +beetles, mosquitoes, flying ants and other high-flying insects, and the +number destroyed is almost beyond our power to imagine. + +The most important service performed by swallows, however, is in the +South, where they migrate for the winter. There they feed largely on the +cotton boll-weevil, one of the most destructive of all insects, as we +have seen. The Department of Agriculture is urging strongly that farmers +in the North protect the swallows so that they may winter in the South +in large numbers to feed on the boll-weevil, which, if allowed to +flourish, will affect not only the southern planters, but every user of +cotton goods, and every one who profits in any way by the sale and +manufacture of cotton goods. + +Among swallows, the beautiful and graceful purple martin is most worthy +of protection. Both North and South, the swallows are among the most +useful of all birds to the farmer and fruit grower, and should be +protected from English sparrows and encouraged in every possible way. + +The seventeen species of titmice which inhabit the United States, and +many of which remain all winter, are all insect eaters to a great +extent, eating large quantities of tent-caterpillars, moths and their +eggs, weevils, including the cotton boll-weevil, plum-curculio, ants, +spiders, plant-lice, bugs and beetles. They also eat small seeds, +particularly those of the poison ivy. + +The bush-tit feeds largely on insects that destroy grape-vines and on +the black olive scale. Other species eat most of the scales which infest +fruit and forest trees. + +The rose-breasted grosbeak, while it eats a few green peas, is to be +classed among the wholly beneficial birds, for it is the great natural +destroyer of the Colorado potato beetle. In fact, it eats enough +potato-bugs at a single meal to pay for all the peas eaten in a whole +season. One family of grosbeaks, nesting near the field, will keep an +entire patch cleared of potato-bugs throughout the season. In some parts +of the country the grosbeak feeds largely on the plum scale, the hickory +scale, the locust and oak scales and on the tulip scale, which is very +destructive to shade trees. The black grosbeak is another variety that +deserves encouragement in every way, for it eats the chrysalis of the +codling-moth that is so serious a foe to our apple crop. It eats also +many other injurious insects, such as wire-worms, many of the most +harmful of beetles, caterpillars, and scales. + +Among the most useful birds, we must mention the phoebe, which nests +near houses and lives almost entirely on harmful insects which it +catches on the wing. + +Night hawks eat flying ants in great numbers, as many as eighteen +hundred having been found in a single stomach. They eat insects that fly +by night and are classed among our most useful birds. + +Quails are almost unequalled as weed-destroyers. Throughout the fall and +winter they spend the time destroying weed seeds. In summer they eat +Colorado potato beetles, chinch-bugs, cotton boll-weevils, +squash-beetles, grasshoppers and cutworms. The mother quail, with her +family of twelve to twenty little ones, patrols the fields thoroughly +for insects. Quails should be prized as among a farmer's most valuable +helpers and protected at all seasons. + +Similar in the good work it does is the meadow-lark. Grasshoppers, +caterpillars and cutworms form a large part of its diet, and its +vegetable food consists of weed seeds or waste grain. + +King-birds are useful in protecting poultry and song birds from hawks, +and are also great fly catchers, taking many beetles on the wing. + +Doves eat great quantities of seeds of harmful weeds. They also eat some +grain, but almost altogether after the crop has been gathered. Old +damaged corn and single grains scattered along the roads are eaten, but +there is no complaint of doves doing injury to fields of growing grain. + +The orioles are beautiful, are sweet singers, and no exception can be +taken to their food habits. Caterpillars are their principal article of +food, but plant-and bark-lice, spiders and other insects are also eaten. +Orioles do not eat much vegetable food. They have been accused of eating +peas and grapes, but there seems no evidence to show that this habit is +general. + +The food habits of cuckoos render them very desirable, since they eat +hairy caterpillars, particularly tent-caterpillars, for which they seem +to have an especial fondness, fall web-worms and locusts, besides other +injurious insects, but they are accused of bad habits in relation to +other birds, and can therefore hardly be classed among the wholly useful +birds. Warblers and vireos are among the most helpful birds in an +orchard, devouring large quantities of insects. + +There is no class of birds concerning which it is more necessary that +the farmer should be well informed, than the hawks and owls, since some +of them are wholly good, and of the greatest possible benefit to him and +the fruit grower, while others are extremely harmful in their food +habits. + +The harmful varieties live almost entirely on poultry and wild birds, +and include the goshawk or partridge hawk and the Cooper hawk, which is +a true chicken-hawk and should be recognized by all farmers at sight. + +The goshawk and chicken-hawk, in the amount of damage done, far exceed +all other birds of prey. The sharp-shinned hawk rarely attacks +full-grown poultry, but preys heavily on young chickens and song birds. +In fact, it is known to eat nearly fifty species of our most useful +birds. There is no question that these birds are a serious pest and +should be destroyed, but they should not be confused with other members +of the family which are among the best friends that a farmer has in +keeping his farm clear of small enemies. + +Owls and hawks eat the same class of food, the hawks flying by day and +the owls by night. Owls remain North in winter, while hawks fly farther +south. + +The small species of both eat large quantities of insects, such as +grasshoppers, locusts and beetles. The larger ones are the farmer's +great protection against the meadow-mouse, the most destructive of all +animals to farm crops. It tunnels under fields and eats the roots of +grass, grain and potatoes, eats large amounts of grain and does even +more damage by girdling young trees in orchards. Rabbits injure trees in +the same way, often during the winter ruining an entire orchard in this +manner. + +Squirrels, ground-squirrels, gophers, prairie-dogs, and other small +animals do serious damage in the course of a year on almost every farm. + +The rough-leg hawk feeds entirely on meadow-mice, but if the supply +fails, it eats mice, rabbits and ground-squirrels, but in no instance +attacks birds. Its cousin, the ferruginous rough-leg, lives largely on +ground-squirrels, rabbits, prairie-dogs and pouched gophers. This +species also never attacks birds, and neither do any of the four members +of the kite family. + +Another large class of birds,--the marsh-hawk, Harris hawk, red-tailed +hawk, red-shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, +Swainson hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, +Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared +owl, great gray owl, barred owl, western owl, Richardson owl, +screech-owl, snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pigmy owl and elf +owl--live mostly on destructive mammals, insects, frogs and snakes, but +they eat some birds and some of them occasionally catch poultry. Young +ones do much more harm than the full-grown ones, probably because they +find poultry and birds easier to obtain than other food. These species +all do great good on the farm and in the orchard and if their natural +food is plentiful and the number of the birds of prey limited, they +should be allowed to remain, even though they occasionally do harm; but +they can not be allowed to increase greatly in a region without becoming +a nuisance. + +In another class the golden and bald eagles, pigeon and Richardson +hawks, prairie falcon and great horned owl do considerable harm, and the +good and bad qualities about balance. In a poorly settled region, where +there is plenty of natural food, a few of these birds will bring forth +little complaint, but in a section where there are few ground-squirrels, +prairie-dogs, gophers, rabbits and woodchucks, where poultry is raised +extensively, and useful birds are numerous they will do great harm and +farmers will usually want to keep them down entirely. + +The gyrfalcons, duck-hawks, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper hawk and goshawk +live almost entirely on food that is desired by man,--poultry, game +birds and many varieties of our best insect-destroying birds, and they +eat almost nothing that is harmful to man. The numbers of these birds +should be reduced as much as possible: but in general it may be said +that the birds of prey--the hawks and owls--are among the most, if not +the most, valuable birds that are engaged in helping the farmer by +destroying the natural enemies of agriculture. + +Among the smaller birds which do much good, but of which complaints are +made because they eat some fruit and grain are the woodpeckers, +including the flickers, cedar-birds, robins, cat-birds, thrashers, crows +and blackbirds. + +The woodpeckers are the great natural protection of the forests by +waging constant warfare on the wood-boring insects and ants beneath the +bark where no other birds can reach them. They are equally useful in an +orchard except that here man may only at great trouble and expense +partly hold them in check. Downy woodpeckers are also great eaters of +scales, and the fruit grower need not begrudge the red-headed woodpecker +a meal of cherries or apples, especially as it will usually be found +that it is the wormy fruit that is attacked. + +The flicker or gold-winged woodpecker lives largely on ants, of which he +eats immense quantities, seeking them not only in the trees but on the +ground. + +Robins are so well loved for their cheery song, for their friendliness +to man, and their red breasts coming as a touch of color in returning +spring, that except where they are present in great numbers, there is +little complaint of the fruit they eat, even without taking into account +the good work they accomplish as insect eaters. In fact only four per +cent. of a robin's food is cultivated and a little less than half of it +is wild fruit not prized by man. The remaining half consists of +caterpillars, beetles, spiders, snails and earth-worms. + +The cat-bird is also known as a cherry-eater and he frequently helps +himself from strawberry and raspberry patches. He eats a larger +proportion of cultivated fruit than the robin, but about twice as much +wild fruit, including the sumac and poison ivy. The cat-bird eats many +injurious insects, which constitute only a little less than half of his +food. + +The cedar-bird is sometimes called the cherry bird, and is accused of +being a great cherry-stealer, but an examination of stomachs showed that +only nine birds out of one hundred and fifty-two had eaten any cherries +and that cherries formed only five per cent. of the food of these few. +There is even evidence that this bird prefers wild fruits, which form +its principal food though it eats a few insects. + +The crows and blackbirds are accused of many bad habits, such as pulling +up young corn, destroying large quantities of grain and injuring much +fruit by pecking holes in it which are later entered by insects. Crows +eat fruit to some extent, but the greater part of it is wild. Both crows +and blackbirds are accused of robbing the nests of other birds. +Blackbirds are injurious chiefly because they gather in such large +flocks that when they descend on a field they can eat a large amount of +grain in a short space of time. The greatest good accomplished by the +blackbird is in the spring when it follows the plow in search of +grub-worms, of which it is extremely fond. It also does much good in +destroying insects in the early summer, the young birds being fed almost +entirely on insect food until they are grown. + +Of the crow, Doctor Merriam, who is at the head of this branch of work +in the Department of Agriculture, says, "Instead of being an enemy of +the farmer, as is generally believed, the crow is one of his best +friends and the protector of his crops. True, during corn-planting time, +the crow's bill is turned against the farmer during one month, and one +month only is he his enemy. But during the other eleven months the crow +is really working overtime for him. It eats thousands upon thousands of +destructive insects and bugs every week, and when it comes to feeding +its young, gives them a diet composed almost entirely of worms and +insects that prey upon the crops." + +Another government report says, "The crow should receive much credit for +the insects which it destroys. In the more thickly settled parts of the +country it probably does more good than harm, at least when ordinary +precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn +from it." It is probable that in many parts of the country some farmers +will find it desirable to reduce the number of crows and blackbirds on +their farms. + +The brown thrasher is a beautiful singer and eats many insects, mostly +injurious. It eats some cultivated fruits. It also eats a small amount +of newly planted corn, but at the same time clears the field of May +beetles. Altogether it is a useful bird but not one of the highest +benefit. + +There are a few species of birds of which but little good can be said, +and which it may be desirable to attempt to drive out in many parts of +the United States. Chief of these is the English sparrow. It is of a +quarrelsome disposition and is much given to driving other birds from +their nests. In some districts it has completely expelled some of the +most useful kinds of birds. It exists everywhere in such numbers as to +render it a nuisance, and it may be said to be the greatest pest among +American birds. Its favorite food is dandelion seeds, and it destroys +many thousands of seeds, but as the dandelion does no real injury this +habit does not offset all the harm done. It also eats other weed seeds +but the greatest thing to be said in its favor is that it feeds on the +cottony maple scale. It is probable that in small numbers the English +sparrow might be classed among the useful, or, at least, one of the only +partly harmful birds, but there is no bird whose numbers it is more +desirable to reduce. + +The common blue-jay is accused of some very bad habits, among them +eating the eggs and young of small birds. It is a fruit eater and also +a grain eater and frequently robs corn-cribs and injures newly planted +fields. However, it eats some insects, mice and other small enemies of +the farmer and as it is nowhere very plentiful, and does not live in +flocks, there is not much cause for complaint. However, its cousin, the +California jay, has an extremely bad record. It is a great fruit eater, +and devastates prune, apricot, and cherry orchards. It is a serious +robber of the nests of small birds and hens, and though it eats some +grasshoppers and a very few weed seeds, it is thoroughly disliked by +western fruit growers. It should be greatly reduced in numbers. Another +California bird that has gained a bad reputation is the house finch or +linnet. It does serious harm in the cherry and apricot orchards, not so +much by eating as by pecking at the fruit. It probably pecks, and thus +destroys, five times as much fruit as it eats. As the bird is very +abundant, it sometimes causes the loss of almost the entire crop of a +small fruit grower. It does not deserve protection, for it eats the buds +and blossoms of fruit trees and does little to compensate for all the +harm done. Its best habit is eating woolly plant-lice. + +No article on birds would be complete that does not dwell on the +enormous destruction of birds for trimming hats. As one writer puts it, +we pay eight hundred million dollars a year for hat trimmings, assuming +the insect ravages to be due to the killing of our birds for millinery +purposes. While this is exaggerated, it is undoubtedly true that this is +the largest cause of the destruction of the birds of America. + +The Audubon society says that we, as a nation, use 150,000,000 birds a +year for trimming hats alone and that this single item would save our +crops from insect destruction and largely rid our fields of weeds. + +If a few hundred dollars are stolen from a bank, the greatest efforts +are made to catch the thief, and if possible to get the money back; but +the great army of insects destroy each year, almost as much in money +value as all the national banks in the country have on deposit, and this +wholesale destruction might largely be prevented if every woman and girl +took (and kept) a pledge not to use wings, breasts, or birds on her +hats. There is no objection to the use of ostrich feathers, which are +carefully plucked from the live birds. The feathers grow again, just as +the wool grows on sheep that have been sheared. Neither is there any +objection to using the feathers of the barn-yard fowls which are killed +for food. + +Only a little less is the loss caused by so-called "sportsmen," men who +kill only for the pleasure of shooting, or who, because they like the +taste of quail, shoot as many as they can in a day instead of only +enough to satisfy hunger. Often a farmer sells for a very small amount +the privilege of hunting on his farm, thinking he is making money when +in fact he is losing ten dollars for every one he makes. + +The quail, sparrows and other birds on the farm are destroyed. As a +result the weed seeds are not eaten and a big crop comes up in the +spring. In the summer there are no quail on the farm to destroy insects. +The insects and the weeds together make the crop poorer, and the owner +feels that farming is growing less profitable, when in fact he has +failed to take ordinary precautions to obtain a good crop by protecting +the birds. + +With the huntsman and his bag of birds we may class the small boy with +his rifle or sling-shot. A single boy does little harm but all the boys +in the country taken together do a grave amount of damage. + +Last in the list comes the egg hunters, who by robbing nests can kill +four or five birds at a time, simply for mischief. A party of boys can, +by a day's sport, make a serious difference in the number of birds in a +region where they are not plentiful and thus have a large share in +damaging the crops. + +If, then, birds play so large a part in the welfare of the farm and in +turn in the prices of farm crops, fruit, lumber and cotton cloth, it is +most desirable that every effort be made to reduce the numbers of +harmful birds and to encourage the useful species. + +Many of the states now have excellent laws for the protection of birds; +but without a large number of game wardens, it is difficult to enforce +the laws closely unless the public sentiment is strongly against the +killing of birds. Laws should be made to protect birds against the egg +hunter, (except for the purpose of study, and then a license should be +required), sling-shots should be prohibited, as they already are in many +places. All hunters should be required to have a license, the number of +birds killed by a single person in a single day should be limited, and +certain birds should always be protected by law. These laws should be as +nearly uniform as possible in all the states and there must be a desire +on the part of all the people to see these laws obeyed. + +The boys and girls should be banded together in the schools or in +societies and pledged to protect birds and not to destroy them. The +girls should pledge themselves not to wear birds for ornament. + +Women's clubs might do much to popularize the movement for the +protection of birds, and to that end should try to establish a sentiment +among their members against their use for millinery. + +All these agencies working together will make a vast difference in the +number of birds, and as a result, in the good that they do, but the +great work must be done by farmers themselves. They will need to protect +themselves in certain ways against the harm done by many of the birds +that on the whole are extremely useful. + +To protect poultry from owls do not allow it to roost in the trees; to +protect from hawks, keep the young ones near the house, and if possible +cover their runways with wire netting. + +To protect against grain eating, use scarecrows or put up a dead crow as +a warning. Mixing seed corn with tar so as to coat it will prevent crows +from pulling it up at planting time. + +To protect against fruit eating, plant wild fruits. The best of all +trees for this purpose is the Russian mulberry, which ripens at the same +time that cherries do and is particularly relished by all fruit-eating +birds. If planted in barn-lots, chickens and hogs will eat all the fruit +that falls to the ground, making it serve a double purpose. The fruit of +wild cherry, elder, dogwood, haws, and mountain-ash are eaten by birds, +and if a farm be planted with such trees and bushes in the barn-yard, +along the lanes or in some of those unproductive spots that are to be +found on every farm, birds will be attracted to the farm and will pay +well for themselves, and the farmer's crop of cultivated fruit will be +protected. Birds themselves distribute many seeds, particularly of wild +fruits. + +The farmer who keeps several cats must pay for it in the loss of birds, +for birds will not nest where they are constantly watched by cats. Boxes +for martins and other birds, bits of hay, horse-hair and string +scattered about will often encourage birds to build about an orchard or +farm. A wood-lot, besides paying in other ways, will afford nesting +places for a large number of birds. To place a drinking and bathing +place near the house is one of the best methods of attracting birds, +which will use it constantly. + +By all these methods and a little winter feeding with crumbs, apple +peelings or waste fruit and grain, the farmer will be able to induce a +good variety of birds to nest on his farm, and will receive in return +great protection from the small mammals, insects and weeds that would +lessen the amount of his harvests. + + +REFERENCES + +Relation Between Birds and Insects. Yearbook 486. + +Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution. + +Annual Reports of the National Audubon Society. + +Bird Day. How to Prepare For It. C. C. Babcock. + +Bird Neighbors. John Burroughs. + +Bird enemies. John Burroughs. + +How to Attract the Birds. N. B. Doubleday. + +The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook 1900. + +Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? Yearbook 1907. + +Birds as Weed Destroyers. Yearbook 1898. + +How Birds Affect the Orchard. Yearbook 1900. + +Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers. Yearbook Reprint. + +Birds That Eat Scale Insects. Yearbook Reprint. + +Birds Useful for the Destruction of the Cotton Boll-Weevil. Dept. of +Agriculture Bulletins 57, 64. + +Hawks and Owls From the Standpoint of the Farmer. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 61. + +Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Dept. of Agriculture +Bulletin 54. + +Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. Yearbook 1895. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HEALTH + + +When we have improved our soil and replanted our forests and learned the +most economical methods of mining our great deposits of coal, iron, and +other minerals; when we have made the waters do our work and carry our +freight and water our waste places; when we have learned to care for our +birds and our fishes, and taken measures to stop the ravages of insects; +when we have preserved our natural beauties and increased them by +planting trees, shrubs, and flowers, and filling unsightly corners; +there still remains to be considered the greatest subject of all,--the +people who are to enjoy this wonderful inheritance. If they were to be +weak and sick, suffering from all kinds of diseases, dying in great +numbers, all these things would count for little. But men and women, as +they are learning how to conserve their natural resources, are thinking +far more than ever before of health and how to keep it. It is necessary +to think of these things, for as people crowd into cities, where they +live a life different from that which nature intended, sickness and the +death-rate increase greatly. + +Health, by which we mean the possession of a strong, well body, free +from pain, should bring with it great power to work and to think and to +benefit the world; and should also bring great happiness and enjoyment +to the person who possesses it, for though sick people may be happy, and +well people unhappy, yet it is a general rule that to be strong and well +is the first great step toward being happy. + +The question, "Is life worth living?" was once happily answered, "It +depends upon the liver;" and it is true in both senses, for not only +does happiness depend on what one gets out of life, but on good +digestion. It is only the person who feels well who really enjoys life. + +The person who can get up each morning able to do a day's work or have a +day's enjoyment, is the one on whom we must depend for the world's work +and invention. We seldom find a strong, vigorous mind in a weak body. + +On the other hand, the invalid is the idle member of the family or the +community. He can not find pleasure for himself nor do anything to help +others, and not only that, but he must be cared for by others, thus +taking the labor of the sick person himself and of his nurse. It is +coming to be seen that this is a great waste of time, of money, of +work, and of happiness, and people are determining that if these wastes +can be stopped, it is well worth all the time and thought and money +necessary to bring about the change. + +People everywhere are thinking about health, and because of this, +Christian Science, the Emmanuel Movement and the various sects which +practise faith or mental healing have sprung up. + +Hospitals and health officers are doing much for the public health. +Doctors themselves are changing their ideas and are teaching us not only +how to cure but how to prevent disease. + +Doctors are also seeking not only to prevent disease but to find new +ways of treating it. They are discarding drugs in as many cases as +possible, frequently using serums in which cultures from the disease +itself are used for its cure. + +Health means more ability to work, more means of learning, of +accomplishing great things, more pleasures in every day that is lived; +and so it is as important to preserve health, in order to enjoy life, as +it is to prevent death. We can realize how few persons have perfect +health by noting the common salutation "How do you do?" or "How are +you?" + +Serious sickness is such as renders a person entirely unable to work. +Benefit societies have found that the average number of days of sickness +per year from each person under seventy years of age is ten, of which +at least two are spent in bed. + +About a million and a half people die each year in the United States, +and it is estimated that twice that number, or three million persons, +are constantly unable even to care for themselves. The effect of this is +felt on the patient himself, in suffering, in loss of time in which he +is unable to earn money, and in the amount spent for doctors, medicine, +and nursing. It is felt on the family, in which the household machinery +is thrown out while the wife and mother nurses the sick members of the +family, or is herself too ill to work, or when the father's income stops +on account of sickness. + +The entire community suffers from the constant idleness of three million +persons, as well as from the deaths which withdraw a still larger number +of persons from actual work for a period of two to five days during the +time of death and burial of the bodies of members of the family. + +Then there is all the long train of small ailments, which do not make us +seriously ill, often do not even keep us from work, but which do take +away from the pleasure and enjoyment of life, which render work a burden +instead of a delight, and lessen our ability to work by many degrees. + +Not only this, but they all have within them the possibility of +developing into serious diseases. Such lesser troubles are colds, +headache, catarrh, dyspepsia, nervousness, neuralgia, sore throat, skin +eruptions, rheumatism, toothache, earache, affections of the eyes, +lameness, sprains, bruises, cuts, and burns. + +Civilization has brought us great blessings but it has also brought with +it many dangers to health. Professor Irving Fisher of Yale says: + +"The invention of houses has made it possible for mankind to spread all +over the globe but it is responsible for tuberculosis or consumption. +The invention of cooking has widened the variety of man's diet but has +led to the decay of his teeth. The invention of the alphabet and +printing has produced eye strain with all its attendant evils. The +invention of chairs has led to spinal curvature, etc., etc. Yet it would +be foolish even if it were possible to attempt to return to nature in +the sense of abolishing civilization. + +"The cure for eye strain is not in disregarding the invention of +reading, but in introducing the invention of glasses. The cure for +tuberculosis is not in the destruction of houses but in ventilation. It +is a little knowledge that is dangerous. Civilization can, with fuller +knowledge, bring its own cure, and make the 'kingdom of man' far larger +than the 'nature' people can ever dream of." + +Until within the last few years, sickness and death were regarded from +a religious standpoint. All sickness was to be borne with patience and +resignation because all our sufferings were sent by an all-wise +Providence. But since science has clearly proved that typhoid fever is +usually caused by an impure water supply, and that boiling the water +would prevent the suffering, expense and possible death; that the +dreaded yellow fever can be banished from communities that destroy the +eggs of certain mosquitoes; and many other facts in regard to health +have been learned, a great change has come over the popular belief. It +is seen that, to a great extent, man holds his own fate and is +responsible for his own suffering, and people are eager to learn more +about their own bodies, how to cure them and how to keep them well. + +This knowledge has already done much to prolong life. The average length +of life in India, where no attempt is made to check disease, is +twenty-five years. In England the length of life has doubled in a few +generations. In Sweden, where the people live a sanitary life, the +average is over fifty years, in this country, forty-five years. + +Insurance companies and benefit societies keep close watch of their +members and they report that a person ten years old may now count on +living to be sixty years of age. That is the average age, whereas a +hundred years ago the average expectation of life at that age was only +fifty-three years. + +And this is true in spite of the fact that people have been crowding +into cities, that they are living on richer foods, taking less exercise +in the open air, living in houses which shut out the fresh air, and +doing dozens of other things that have tended to lower rather than to +raise the average. + +We can scarcely realize the possibilities of life if, with all the +present scientific knowledge of disease and health, we could have a +generation of people living according to nature's laws. + +Life can be not only lengthened but strengthened. There are many +instances of frail, feeble children who have developed into +exceptionally strong men and women. One of the most noted is Von +Humboldt, the great scientist, who as a child was very weak physically, +and, he himself says, was mentally below the average, but who lived to +the age of ninety, and developed one of the greatest minds of his +century. + +Doctor Horace Fletcher, noted for his theories in regard to eating, was +rejected at the age of forty-six for life insurance but so strengthened +his constitution by careful living that by the time he was fifty he not +only obtained his life insurance but celebrated his birthday by riding +one hundred and ninety miles on his bicycle. + +If we could imagine a person who all his life had lived in a locality +where the air was pure; in a house where fresh air entered day and +night, and which was heated to a uniform temperature; whose food had +always consisted of the most pure and nutritious material prepared in +the most wholesome way, eaten slowly and in proper quantity; if bathing, +sleep, rest, exercise, brain work and pleasure had each its due +proportion; if he could be always guarded from contagion and accidents, +we can imagine that such a person would be free from disease and that +death might be long deferred. Of course, death can not be prevented, +only postponed, but disease can be prevented, and so we can increase the +chances of postponing death. Doctors tell us that under ideal conditions +there would be only one cause of death--old age. + +There is no question that under such conditions life could be prolonged +far beyond what is now usually considered its span. One hundred years or +more might easily, we imagine, become the average of life, instead of +the great exception. + +We can hope for these things in the future though it will take several +generations at least to bring them all about, but we need not wait so +long for some of the best results. There are many things that can be +done at once to prolong life and prevent illness. Since we know that +many diseases are preventable and we know the suffering and sorrow, as +well as expense, that come from sickness and premature death, we should +all eagerly unite in doing all that we can to stop these ravages. + +There are two agencies that will help to bring this about: individual or +private means, and general or public means. Both are absolutely +necessary if we are to be successful in stamping out disease. Professor +Fisher says: "Personal hygiene means the strengthening of our defenses +against disease. Public hygiene seeks to destroy the germs before they +reach our bodily defenses." + +In the first place, in order to learn what we may do to lengthen the +span of life we must learn something of the nature of disease. Doctors +tell us that diseases are of two classes. The first are hereditary, or +inherited; those which pass from parents to their children and often run +through an entire family. It is more often the _tendency_ to disease +that is inherited, rather than the disease itself, and so even these +inherited diseases may often be prevented by careful living. + +Diseases which may be inherited include rheumatism, gout, scrofula, +diabetes, cancer and insanity. This class of diseases is the most +difficult to prevent and to cure. For some of them no cure has been +found. + +The other class comprises the diseases of environment, or personal +surroundings,--that is, our manner of living both as regards our private +life and our relations to other people. These diseases are largely +preventable and it is with them that most of the work of prevention is +to be carried on. + +A disease is considered preventable if, by using the best known means of +treatment, it might be prevented or cured, so that either the disease or +the death usually resulting from it would be avoided. + +Of course, not all deaths from a given disease could be prevented even +with the best known means. Infant diseases constitute one class which is +considered most hopeful of betterment through a pure milk supply and +better hygiene; and yet many authorities believe that not more than half +the deaths could be prevented owing to the large part played by weather +conditions, feeble constitutions, and other unchangeable conditions. + +Preventable diseases may be divided into six classes: + +(1) Diseases caused by lack of proper hygiene. + +(2) Diseases caused by bad habits. + +(3) Contagious diseases. + +(4) Diseases caused by insects. + +(5) Accidents, wounds, or operations and their resulting diseases. + +(6) Diseases remedied by slight means. + +We will treat each of these in turn. + +(1) By proper hygiene is meant the proper treatment of the body as to +breathing, eating, drinking, sleeping, bathing and rest. This treatment +includes plenty of fresh air, both day and night, keeping outdoors as +much as possible, and in well-aired houses the rest of the time. +Vigorous but not violent exercise, brisk walking, regular physical +exercise, such as is practised in gymnasiums, will go far toward keeping +the body in good condition. + +The question of fresh air in the home is one of the most important +points to be considered. The bedrooms, the living-rooms, and the kitchen +should have the air changed constantly, not once or twice a day. In +order to prevent drafts, and that the house may not be kept at too low a +temperature in winter, a board, eight to twelve inches in height, may be +placed across the bottom of a window that is raised. + +Many diseases, not only of the throat and lungs, but of the other +organs, may be prevented by the constant introduction of fresh air into +our rooms day and night. + +Tuberculosis causes more deaths than any other single disease in +America, and the sickness and disability continue longer than with most +diseases. It is extremely contagious, being a germ disease, and not an +inherited one, as was formerly supposed. It increased very rapidly for +a few years but is now slightly decreasing, owing to better knowledge of +its cause and cure. + +Its prevention and its cure both lie largely in fresh air. Physicians +say that no one who lives an open-air life with plenty of fresh air +night and day will contract it. The cure which is restoring hundreds to +health is to find a place where the air is pure, and live and sleep +practically outdoors; to eat as much milk, raw eggs, and meat as can be +digested and to observe the other rules of hygiene. Incipient cases, +those in the earliest stages, may sometimes be cured while continuing at +work by following the other rules as nearly as possible. + +On account of the extremely contagious nature of tuberculosis, special +care should be taken to prevent its spread. The sputum coughed up from +the lungs is the principal carrier of the disease, and the person who, +having tuberculosis, even in its earliest stages, spits in a public +place, is an enemy of mankind, for he endangers the lives of hundreds of +others. The only excuse for this is that he usually does it through +ignorance, but the knowledge of the danger should be so impressed on all +the people that no one could plead ignorance, and for a consumptive to +spit on the street should be counted as much a crime morally as for a +smallpox patient deliberately to expose others to the disease. + +Great care should of course be taken in the home of a consumptive +patient to prevent the infection from spreading through the family. +Separate sleeping-rooms, thorough disinfection, and the use of paper +napkins which are burned at once, to take the place of handkerchiefs, +should be some of the means employed. + +Pneumonia, pleurisy, bronchitis, grip, colds, and catarrh are some of +the other ailments which may be largely banished by living the outdoor +life. The method of treatment is medical, is different in each case, and +should be decided by the family physician. The constant habit of +breathing impurities, day after day and year after year, brings about a +gradual change in the tissue of the lungs. + +In the same way, simple food to take the place of the rich, heavy foods +eaten in large quantities, will prevent many of the diseases of the +stomach, liver, and kidneys, and improve the general health and +strength. A diet of less meat and more eggs has been tried by football +teams in training and found to give an equal amount of strength with +greater endurance. A diet of milk, cereals, vegetables, nuts, and +fruits, raw or simply cooked, with a small amount of animal foods, will +perhaps give the best results in this climate. Food fried in fats, rich +pastries and gravies are the hardest to digest, and better health will +usually follow discontinuing them. + +The purity of the food eaten should receive careful consideration. +Artificially preserved foods are usually more or less dangerous, for +although dealers urge that the poison contained in them is too small to +do harm we must remember that it is not the single dose that does harm, +but the many foods each containing a very small amount of poison, taken +day after day. + +Pure food laws, national and state, have done great good in driving +adulterated and impure foods out of the markets by requiring all foods +to be properly labeled. + +Thorough mastication or chewing of the food is only a little less +important than the character of the food itself. Rapid swallowing +without chewing in childhood lays the foundation for many of the +digestive diseases of later life. If food be thoroughly masticated much +that would otherwise be hard to digest can be eaten without bad results. +One of the best known examples of this is meat, which, while full of +nourishment, sets up in the large intestine a condition known as +"auto-intoxication," a species of digestive poison. If meat be eaten +slowly and chewed thoroughly, this condition is almost entirely absent. + +Pure drinking water is almost as necessary as pure food. We take water +into the body for three principal purposes: first, it is needed to +dissolve and dilute various substances and carry them from one part of +the body to another; second, it forms a large part of the blood and +other important fluids of the body, and is a part of many substances +formed in the body; third, it serves to carry from the body the worn-out +and useless tissues, the waste products of the body. + +These are extremely poisonous and must be promptly disposed of to +prevent sickness. This can not be done except by an ample supply of +water. Few persons, especially grown persons, drink enough water. Ten +glasses of pure water are needed properly to supply the body. +"Insufficient water drinking is perhaps the commonest cause of the +interruption of the normal life processes," says Doctor Theron C. +Stearns. + +But the common drinking cup in public places probably causes far more +disease than the drinking itself prevents. + +Particles of dead skin and disease-germs are left in the cup by each +drinker. Some of the most serious diseases may be carried in this way. A +cup made of heavy waterproof paper, cheap enough to be thrown away +after being used once, is a recent invention that is highly recommended +for use by school children and those who are obliged to drink away from +home. The water in a public drinking-fountain should come out in a small +steady stream so that those who have no cups may drink from the stream +itself as it rises. Many school-houses are so equipped. + +Sleep is a necessary part of good hygiene. It promotes health and +prevents disease. It is largely in sleep that the system renews itself, +that growth takes place, that waste products are thrown off, and the +body repairs its wastes. No less than eight hours for grown persons and +ten for children should be employed in sleep. Late hours and sleepless +nights are the frequent cause of nervousness, eye strain, nervous +prostration, and the beginning of brain troubles and insanity. + +Bathing is also necessary to good health. The pores of the skin play a +large part in carrying off the wastes of the body, through the +perspiration, and if these become clogged, this poisonous material +remains in the system. We have all noticed how a bath refreshes and +gives tone to the entire body by opening the pores. + +The skin is composed of minute scales, arranged in layers like fish +scales. The tiny crevices between these form a lodging place for dirt +and germs. If these remain, our own bodies are constantly exposed to +their infection, if they drop off, as some are constantly doing, we may +spread the contagion to others. This is strikingly illustrated by +scarlet fever, smallpox, and similar diseases where these minute scales +are the sole source of contagion. + +Exercise is another necessity of health. Regular physical culture in a +gymnasium will develop any muscle or part of the body almost at will, +but if this be not possible much can be accomplished in developing the +body by simple work. Gladstone found health in chopping wood, Roosevelt +in a daily tennis game, and President Taft in golf. Many find it in +gardening or farming. These all help to develop vigorous bodies. + +Anything which brings into moderate play any set of muscles, which +increases the circulation, or stimulates the secretion is beneficial. +House-work, which, in its various forms, brings into use all the muscles +of the body, is a wholesome exercise for women. Those who do no +house-work seldom substitute for it any other active exercise, and many +diseases which are caused by deposits of waste tissues that are not +thrown off by the body, are the result. + +Rest--recreation--pleasure--these are as necessary to health as +anything else, but the American people are slow to learn the need of +them. We hear much of nervous prostration as an American disease. It is +due to a variety of causes,--high living, late hours, ill-ventilated +rooms, and climate; but chief of all the causes is the long hours of +work under strong pressure. Work done in a hurry and without rest may +accomplish many things, but it invariably causes a corresponding loss of +nerve force. Fatigue, by checking bodily resistance, gives rise to all +kinds of poisons in the system. Every part of the body feels the ill +effect of continued exhaustion. + +Of the diseases caused by bad habits, it can only be said that all the +evils they cause, directly and indirectly, are entirely preventable; +that they are usually wrong morally, and that the suffering which +results is sure. + +Under this head come the effects of drinking, of the use of tobacco and +drugs, and of bad personal and social habits. It is only necessary to +refrain from these bad habits to prevent all the diseases that arise +from them, with all their train of suffering, poverty and crime. + +It is not the province of this book to deal with scientific temperance, +but merely to state a few of the most serious results of the use of +alcohol and other poisons. The white corpuscles of the blood have been +called our "standing army," because they are natural germ-destroyers. +One class of the white cells has the power of motion, and another class +has the power of absorbing outside matter, such as disease-germs. One +destroys the germs and the other moves them through the blood and +carries them off with the waste products of the body. + +The white corpuscles thus stand as the defenders of the body, ready to +destroy the germs as they enter, and are, for each individual, the best +of all preventives of germ diseases. The person whose blood is lacking +in white cells is always liable to "catch" contagious or infectious +diseases, and the one who has that element of the blood in proper +proportion is best fitted to withstand disease. + +Leading physicians believe that the greatest harm that comes from the +use of alcohol lies in the fact that nothing else so weakens the +resistance of the white corpuscles, and that therefore the person who is +an habitual user of alcohol lacks the power to repel all classes of +disease. English and American life insurance companies give us almost +exactly the same figures, which show that of insured persons, the death +rate is twenty-three per cent. higher among those who use alcohol than +among total abstainers. It is probable that the proportion of persons +carrying life insurance is much less among the drinking classes and that +if we had complete statistics the difference would be far greater than +appears in the life insurance tables. + +Of time lost by sickness, directly and through other diseases caused by +alcoholism, drugs and other bad habits, the percentage is very great, +according to all hospital records. + +The number of prominent persons who have died of "tobacco heart" +indicates that the rate of those whose heart action is weakened by the +use of tobacco is probably very large. + +Doctor Morrow says that if we could put an end at once to diseases +caused by bad habits it would result in closing at least one-half of our +institutions for defective persons, and almost all of our penal +institutions. + +There is another long list of diseases which are contagious, that is, +which one person may transmit to another. These are usually serious but +their spread may be largely prevented by keeping the sick person alone, +except for the necessary nurses, quarantining the house and disinfecting +everything when the period of infection is past. + +In this class are smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, mumps, +chicken-pox and whooping-cough. + +These latter are the so-called "childish diseases" which it was formerly +considered impossible to escape, and little attempt was made to guard +against them. Now they are recognized as serious, whooping-cough for its +close relation to brain and spinal trouble; measles for their effect on +the eyes and lungs; chicken-pox for its similarity to smallpox, and +mumps for its general lowering of the tone of the system, allowing other +diseases to gain a foothold. + +Special serum treatment for diphtheria and vaccination for smallpox have +greatly reduced the danger from these once greatly dreaded diseases. + +Of preventable diseases none should receive more attention than typhoid +fever, because it is a great scourge and yet it can be prevented by +simple means. If we understand that typhoid is a dirt disease, that it +comes only from dirt, we shall feel it a disgrace to have an epidemic of +typhoid, though one of the saddest features about it is that we must +suffer for the sins of others. The one who is attacked by typhoid fever +may not be the one who has left dirt for the disease to breed in. + +Typhoid fever germs are bred chiefly in manure piles, sewers, or +cess-pools, and would not be transmitted to man directly, but there are +several indirect ways in which they may be carried. Flies also breed in +the same places. Their legs become covered with typhoid germs, and then +they fly into houses directly on the food and cooking utensils. This is +one of the most common ways in which the disease is carried, and +doctors tell us that the common house-fly should be known as the +"typhoid fly" so that people may know the serious danger that lurks in +what was formerly considered as nothing worse than an annoying foe to +clean housekeeping. + +If houses are thoroughly screened, if cess-pools, manure piles and +garbage are kept tightly covered, screened, or, still better, +disinfected with chloride of lime, there will be no breeding-places left +for flies and this will remove one of the greatest dangers. + +The other danger lies in a polluted water or milk supply. Every sewer +that is carried into a stream, every manure pile that drains into a +water course is a menace to health. + +Very frequently the farm well for watering stock is near the barn,--near +the manure pile, which, as it drains, carries down millions of typhoid +germs to the water-level below. The well becomes infected, the family +drink from it, and soon there may be several cases of typhoid fever in +the home. + +Worst of all, the milk pails are rinsed at the well, and all the milk +that is poured into them spreads the germs wherever the milk may be +sold. In this way an epidemic may be carried to an entire town, and to +persons who themselves have taken every precaution against the disease. + +Drinking water should be boiled unless one is sure of the water-supply, +and surface wells are never safe unless we know that they drain only +from clean sources, and then the water should be analyzed frequently. +Boiling absolutely destroys typhoid and other germs, and well repays the +extra work it makes. One case of typhoid fever causes more work than +boiling the water for years, if we consider the work only. + +If you can not buy pasteurized milk, and are not sure of conditions +about the dairy, your milk should be boiled, or, still better, +sterilized at home by putting it in bottles or other containers, and +placing in a vessel of hot water, keeping the milk for several hours +about half-way to the boiling point, then cooling gradually. + +All these means of prevention are troublesome and require time and work, +but as the result in health for the family is sure, every housekeeper +should gladly take this extra burden on herself if it be necessary. In +some states and many cities, the laws governing dairies are now so +strict that there is no need of doing this work in the home. This care +in the dairies should be insisted on everywhere, even if it raises the +price of milk, because it means the saving of many doctor and drug bills +and also raises the standard of public health. + +Yellow fever was formerly dreaded more than any other single disease +because it was so wide-spread, so fatal, and was thought to be violently +contagious, but during the Spanish-American War it was proved that it is +not contagious at all, but comes only from the bite of a certain +mosquito, the stegomia, which is usually found only in hot climates. It +is conveyed in this way: the mosquito bites a yellow fever patient; for +twelve days it is harmless, but after that time it may infect every +person that it bites. + +If every yellow fever patient could be screened with netting to prevent +his being bitten, we could prevent the yellow fever mosquito from +becoming infected. Further, if we can prevent healthy people from being +bitten by fever-infected mosquitoes, they will escape the disease, and +still further, if we can destroy the eggs of mosquitoes, we can entirely +obviate all danger of yellow fever in a community. + +The mosquito breeds only in water; by having all cisterns, rain-water +barrels, and other water containers carefully covered, and by spreading +the surface of pools of standing water, especially dirty water, covered +with greenish scum, with a thick coating of kerosene oil, we can prevent +the eggs from hatching. This has been done in many communities in Cuba +and the southern part of the United States, and has resulted in +completely stamping out the disease in those places. + +Malaria is caused by another mosquito, called the anopheles and while +malaria is seldom fatal as is yellow fever, it causes much suffering and +loss of time, and strong efforts should be made to prevent it. The same +measures that are used to prevent yellow fever will banish malaria from +any community. They are the screening of patients to prevent spreading +the disease; screening all houses closely and keeping close watch for +mosquitoes in the house, and covering all ponds in the neighborhood with +oil. New Jersey mosquitoes were formerly known far and wide, but such an +active campaign has been waged against them, that they have been almost +completely driven from the state. + +The ordinary mosquito has never been found to do any harm beyond the +discomfort of its bite. + +Of other diseases caused by insects, an affection of the eyes called +pink-eye is carried by very tiny flies, and the dreaded bubonic plague +is supposed to be transferred from sick people to well ones by the bites +of fleas, which in turn are brought to this country by rats. + +The hook-worm which affects so many persons in the South is often called +"the lazy disease" since the persons afflicted with it are not totally +disabled, but are lacking in energy and vigor because the small insects +take from the blood the red corpuscles which should carry the digested +food all over the body. These insects can be destroyed by medicine, of +which only a few cents worth is required to cure a case and make the +patient fit for work and enjoyment. In Porto Rico almost 300,000 cases +have been treated by the United States government in the last six years. + +Another matter which should receive careful consideration is the large +number of preventable accidents. Mining accidents come in a few cases +from failure to provide the best appliances in the mines, but in many +cases are due to carelessness or ignorance of the operators themselves. +There still remain a large number of accidents which occur in the best +regulated mines, and when no instance of special carelessness can be +traced. For years these disasters have puzzled mining engineers, but +within the last few months it has been discovered that the minute +particles of coal dust in a dry mine completely fill the air, so that +the air itself is ready to burn. + +When a light is taken into this coal-filled atmosphere, it bursts into +flame, causing a violent explosion. Sprinkling the mines, forcing a fine +spray of water through the air of every part of the mines, it is +thought, will prevent this class of accidents, which have furnished long +lists of killed and injured each year. + +Reports show that one miner is killed and several injured for every one +hundred thousand tons of coal mined. The mining accidents of one year +total 2,500 killed and 6,000 seriously injured. + +Other industries do not cause such wholesale injuries, but there are +thousands of individual accidents each year where the injury varies from +mangled fingers to death. + +When the cause is failure to provide suitable safeguards to machinery, +or to warn employees of danger, the penalty to the employers should be +made severe, so that no consideration of money will prevent them from +taking precautions. More often, however, the injury is due to the +carelessness of the men or to the fact that they try to run machines +with which they are unfamiliar. + +Manual training schools, night schools for working-men, with a short +apprenticeship in the running of machinery and an explanation of the +dangers, will go far to prevent this class of accidents, but the fact +will still remain, that often those who are most familiar with machinery +become careless and are more liable to injury than beginners. + +The number of accidents that have been added to the world's list by +automobiles, both to those riding and to persons who are run over by +them, is great and is in a large measure due to carelessness in handling +the machine or to reckless driving. + +The entire number of accidents in the United States, including railway +accidents, reaches the immense total of sixty thousand killed and many +times that number injured. A most appalling waste of life and labor +value! + +Professor Ditman says, "Of 29,000,000 workers in the United States over +500,000 are yearly killed or crippled as a direct result of the +occupations in which they are engaged--more than were killed and wounded +throughout the whole Russo-Japanese War. More than one-half this +tremendous sacrifice of life is needless." + +Until the last quarter of a century there was a large addition to the +death rate each year from the blood poisoning following operations and +injuries making open wounds. It was not until the discovery of the germs +which cause septic poisoning that deaths from these causes could be +checked. The use of antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, alcohol, and +various other preparations, the boiling of all surgical instruments, and +the boiling or baking of all articles used in the treatment of open +wounds and sores has reduced the death rate at least one-half. + +The rate could be lowered much more if all sores were treated as +surgical cases and carefully sterilized from the beginning. About +eighty-five deaths out of every hundred from these causes might be +prevented. + +Every Fourth of July a great many entirely preventable deaths and minor +accidents occur. The toy pistol has come to be considered almost as +deadly as the larger variety. The tiny "caps" that are used in them are +fired back into the hand of the person shooting them, tiny particles of +powder enter the skin, burrowing into the flesh, and the skin closes +over them, shutting out the air. If these particles carry with them +tetanus germs, as is often the case, because these germs are found +chiefly in the dirt of the street where most of this shooting is done, +lock-jaw or tetanus, a severe form of blood-poisoning, results, and is +usually fatal. The same results come less frequently from fire-crackers +and other explosives, and in addition many accidents which injure hands, +eyes, and other parts of the body, are the result of the use of the +heavier explosives. + +The Pasteur Treatment is saving many lives each year by treating cases +of infection from "mad dogs" and other animals affected with +hydrophobia. + +Among the diseases which can be remedied by slight means are enlarged +tonsils and adenoid growths back of the nose, both of which can be +removed by a slight and almost painless operation, but which, if allowed +to develop, often cause serious throat and lung troubles, deafness, and +weakened minds. Slight defects of the eyes can be remedied by the +wearing of glasses, but which if unchecked give rise to various nerve +and spinal diseases as well as more serious eye troubles. It is believed +now that most of the blindness of later life could be prevented by +proper care of the eyes in early life and by prompt attention to slight +defects of the eyes when they begin. + +Doctor Walter Cornell, who has made a study of eye strain says, "Eye +strain is the chief cause of functional diseases. It is almost the sole +cause of headache, is the frequent cause of digestive diseases, of +spinal curvatures, and indirectly of neurasthenia and hysteria." + +Decayed teeth in children, slight in themselves, give rise to more +serious troubles in later life,--ill-shaped mouths and jaws and crooked +teeth result from teeth that have been drawn too early in life. Decayed +teeth lead also to many stomach and digestive troubles. + +Medical inspection in the schools shows a surprising number of children +suffering from these minor troubles. About 80,000 children were +examined, and the records show that out of every one hundred children +examined sixty-six needed the services of a doctor, surgeon, or dentist, +and some needed all three. + +Forty out of each hundred had badly neglected teeth. + +Thirty-eight had enlarged glands of the neck. + +Eighteen had enlarged tonsils. + +Ten had growths of the nose. + +Thirty-one needed glasses. + +Six needed more nourishing food. + +This meant that more than 52,000 of the number needed some medical care +that they would not have received at home because their parents had +never noticed the need of it. Every one of them could by prompt +attention, a small dentist's bill, a slight operation of the throat or +nose, or the use of glasses, (almost 25,000 needed glasses) be saved +great suffering or inability to work in later life. + +As we learn more of disease, and especially of germ diseases, we are +oppressed by the feeling that we are in constant danger, but we must +bear in mind that it is the weak and unfit that are attacked, and that +fitness, while partly inherited, is almost altogether a matter of proper +hygiene. Keeping our bodily defenses in good condition against disease +is as much a matter of necessity and good policy as keeping the defenses +of a city in fighting condition in time of war. + +That life may be prolonged and so strengthened that the average height, +weight, and endurance will be increased, admits of no doubt. The same +rule of cultivation runs through all nature. The original or natural +apple was a small, sour, bitter crab. The difference between that and +the finest products of western orchards, is altogether a matter of +cultivation, selection, and proper treatment. In 1710 the average weight +of dressed cattle did not exceed three hundred and seventy pounds. Now +it is not far from one thousand pounds. An equal change could be made in +the human race, but because we believe so fully in personal liberty to +live our lives as we choose, little has actually been done to raise the +human standard. + +The care and hygiene of children is receiving universal attention, with +the result of a wonderful reduction in the sickness and death of +children, but as yet comparatively few grown persons apply these lessons +to their own lives, and the rates for older persons remain almost +unchanged. + +When individuals have done all that they can, there still remains much +that must be done by the city, the state, and the nation. Boards of +health can do much toward controlling epidemics by placing infected +households under quarantine, by compelling householders who are ignorant +or careless to clean their premises and to take other precautions for +the public health. + +Hospitals, both public and private, have done excellent work, not only +in curing disease but in gaining more definite knowledge of the nature +of diseases through the study of large numbers of cases. + +The cleaning of streets and the removal of garbage regularly are among +the great factors in keeping a city in a sanitary condition. New Orleans +and some of the cities of Cuba and Porto Rico show strikingly what may +be done in that direction. + +Medical inspection of schools is a new and valuable aid to health. +Epidemics of childish diseases which sweep through the schools with a +fearful record of illness and a lesser one of death, may often be +checked entirely by the close watch of the medical inspector, who +removes the first patients from the schools when the disease is in its +beginning. + +Public playgrounds for children in cities have an influence that it is +as good for health as it is for morals, providing, as it does, fresh air +and active exercise for children. Open air schools for tubercular +children are being operated in several cities with excellent results in +health and school work. + +Many states are making an organized effort to fight tuberculosis by +establishing fresh-air colonies where, with pure air, rest and plenty of +the most nourishing food, patients are restored to health. + +Care of epileptics and the insane by the state, with proper hygiene and +treatment, accomplishes many cures. + +The nation is doing excellent work in a few lines, notably the Pure Food +Bureau and the Marine Hospital Corps, but perfected organization of all +the forces is lacking. The Department of Agriculture has done a +wonderful work in investigating and curbing insect pests that injure +farm crops and trees, and in stamping out disease among live stock. +Forty-six million dollars have been spent and well spent in the work in +the last few years, but it is a matter of reproach that more pains are +taken to save the lives of cattle and farm crops than human lives. + +There should be a strong central Bureau of Health with power and money +scientifically to investigate disease, to distribute information as the +Department of Agriculture does to farmers, and to carry out their ideas, +as do state and city boards of health. + +We have dealt with only one side of the question--the suffering and +sorrow; but in a work on conservation, we must consider also the money +question, the loss to the nation in time and money of these great wastes +of health and life. + +There are no trustworthy statistics as to wages. The average yearly +earnings of all persons, from day laborers to presidents, is estimated +at seven hundred dollars; but as not more than three-fourths of the +people are actual workers, three-fourths of this amount, or five +hundred and twenty-five dollars is taken as the average wage. + +From these figures the money value of a person under five years is given +at ninety-five dollars; from five to ten years, at nine hundred and +fifty dollars; from ten to twenty years at $2,000; from twenty to thirty +at $4,000; thirty to fifty years at $4,000; fifty to eighty at $2,900 +and over eighty at $700 or less. The average value of life at all ages +is $2,900 and the 93,000,000 persons living in this country would be +worth in earning power the vast sum of $270,000,000,000. This is +probably a low estimate but is more than double all our other wealth +combined. + +Now let us see how much of this vital wealth is wasted. As the average +death rate is at least eighteen out of each thousand, we have 1,500,000 +as the number of deaths in the United States each year. Of these, +forty-two per cent., or 630,000 are classed as preventable--so that a +number equal to the entire population of the city of Boston die each +year whose deaths are as unnecessary as is the waste of our forests by +fire. + +If some great plague should carry off all the people of Boston, not the +people of the United States only, but of the whole world would be roused +by the appalling calamity and every possible means would be employed to +prevent other cities from sharing such a fate; but because these +preventable deaths are not in one city, but are widely scattered, we +have long remained indifferent to this terrible and needless waste. + +Then there are always 3,000,000 persons ill, 1,000,000 of whom are of +working age. If, as before, we count only three-fourths of them as +actual workers, we find a yearly direct loss from sickness of +$500,000,000 in wages. The daily cost of nursing, doctor bills, and +medicine is counted at one dollar and fifty cents, which makes for the +3,000,000 sick, a yearly cost for these items of more than +$1,500,000,000. What should we think if nearly all of the people of the +city of New York were constantly sick, and were spending for doctors, +nurses, and medicine as much money as Congress appropriates to run every +department of the government! + +It is estimated that sickness and death cost the United States +$3,000,000,000 annually, of which at least a third, probably one-half, +is preventable. Is it not well worth while, then, from a money +standpoint alone, to use every effort to conserve our national health? +Conservation of health and life, going hand in hand with conservation of +national resources, will give us not only a better America, but better, +stronger, happier, more enlightened Americans. What a new world would be +opened to us if we could have a nation with no sickness or suffering! +That is the ideal, and everything that we can do toward realizing that +ideal is a great step in human progress. + + +REFERENCES + +Report on National Vitality. Committee of One Hundred. (Fisher.) + +The Nature of Man. Metchnikoff. + +The Prolongation of Life. Metchnikoff. + +The New Hygiene. Metchnikoff. + +Vital Statistics. Farr. + +The Kingdom of Man. Lankester. + +Cost of Tuberculosis. Fisher. + +School Hygiene. Keating. + +Economic Loss Through Insects That Carry Disease. Howard. + +Report of Associated Fraternities on Infectious, Contagious, and +Hereditary Diseases. + +Conservation of Life and Health by Improved Water Supply. Kober. + +Backward Children in the Public Schools. Davis. + +Dangers to Mine Workers. (Mitchell.) Report Governor's Conference. + +Tuberculosis in the U. S. Census Report 1908. + +Industrial Accidents. Bureau of Labor Pamphlet, 1906. + +Factory Sanitation and Labor Protection. Dept. of Labor, No. 44. + +How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. Dept. of Agriculture. +Bulletin 155. + +Public Health and Water Pollution. Bulletin 93. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +BEAUTY + + +America has another resource that differs from all the others, and yet +is no less valuable to us as a nation, for it is upon natural beauty +that we must depend to attract visitors and settlers from other +countries, and also to develop love of country in our own people, and to +arouse in them all the higher sentiments and ideals. + +The love of romance and poetry is awakened only by the sight of +beautiful objects, and that nation will produce the highest class of +citizens which has most within it to kindle these lofty ideas. The +savage cares only for the comfort of his body, but as civilization +advances, man devotes more and more thought to those pleasures that come +only through his mind and the cultivation of his tastes. + +The United States is particularly fortunate in this respect, for here is +everything to inspire a love of beauty. There is the beauty of changing +seasons, of our wonderful autumn forest coloring, of rivers, mountains, +lakes, sea, and shore. + +In addition to the beauty of our landscapes, which is everywhere to be +found, there are many special beauties which are among the world's +wonder-places, and which are visited yearly by thousands of sight-seers, +and each year they attract a greater number of visitors from other +lands. Some of the most remarkable of these are Niagara Falls, the +Yosemite Valley, with its crowning glory, the Yosemite Falls, the +Hetch-Hetchy Falls, Mammoth Cave, the Garden of the Gods, the Grand +Canon of the Colorado, the Agatized Forests of Arizona, Yellowstone +Park, The Natural Bridge of Virginia, Great Salt Lake, and dozens of +others, less wonderful, but scarcely less beautiful, and equal to the +most talked-of beauties of Europe, such as the Palisades of the Hudson, +Lake Champlain, the Shenandoah Valley, the Dalles of Oregon, Pike's +Peak, Mount Rainier, Lookout Mountain, the Adirondacks, and the entire +Rocky Mountain region. + +To these must be added the relics of ancient civilization, the homes of +the Cliff Dwellers, the work of the Mound Builders, and such fragments +as still remain of the occupation in various times and places of certain +Indian tribes, and of the Norsemen and the Spaniards. + +All these are to be valued for their beauty or historic interest, and +are also valuable as a source of wealth to the community. + +The money spent on tourist-travel in Europe is said to be more than +half a billion dollars a year. This vast amount is spent because in +Europe there is so much to delight the eye, because the cities are made +beautiful with artistic buildings filled with art treasures, because +historic places are carefully preserved, because the villages are neat +and well-kept, and the intensive farming which is practised almost +everywhere leaves no waste places to grow up with weeds, and lie +neglected. + +There are parts of Europe, of course, where this is not true, but they +are not included in the line of tourist-travel, and in general it may be +said that Europe is visited almost solely because of its beauty:--the +natural beauty that man has preserved, the beauty that he has created, +or the relics of past greatness. + +Modern Greece would attract few visitors for its own sake. It is the +ruins of a mighty past,--the Acropolis at Athens and the places made +famous in mythology and literature draw thousands to its shores every +year, and add greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the country. + +The same thing is true of America wherever we have preserved and made +beautiful our natural scenery. During three months in the summer, the +New York Central Railroad derives about $200,000 in fares from its +Niagara business alone. Since it became a state reservation in 1885, +more than seventeen million persons have visited Niagara, and the +amount of money that has been spent there at hotels, for carriages, +automobiles, side-trips, souvenirs, etc., is almost beyond calculation. + +In the Adirondack Park there is between $10,000,000 and $15,000,000 +invested in hotels and cottages. The 15,000 clerks and helpers receive +about $1,000,000 in wages, the railroads receive another $1,000,000 in +fares, and hotel guests spend between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000. All of +these advantages to the region are entirely apart from the practical +uses of the forest. + +These are examples which show the great amount of wealth which can come +from preserving our natural beauties, and the same conditions exist +everywhere, not only in the state and national parks, but wherever some +beautiful spot has been set aside by a city, a railroad company, or some +private enterprise. People flock to these resorts in large numbers for +rest or recreation, and to satisfy their love for the beautiful, and the +result is a gain in health and morals, more desire on the part of those +who visit them to make their own surroundings beautiful, and at the same +time a great gain in money value to the city or company that promotes +such an enterprise. + +Most of the larger cities of the United States have given particular +attention to the subject of public parks during recent years. They are +the breathing places for the dwellers in the city, often the only place +where children can have fresh air and plenty of exercise, and the parks +constitute one of the greatest attractions to draw summer visitors to +the city. + +Nearly all steam and electric railway companies own some park or +pleasure resort from which they derive a large income in fares, and many +steamboat companies find their largest profit from their excursion +boats. + +All these facts show clearly that if we consider only the gain in money, +it is altogether a wise policy to include natural beauty among our +national resources, and to conserve it carefully, while if we look at it +from the larger standpoint of preserving for future generations the same +beauties that we enjoy, the need of such conservation is still more +urgent. + +In our future development the United States will largely be made over. +We shall no longer have the same natural conditions that we have had in +the early years of our history, and the physical appearance of the +country will grow better or worse each generation. + +It is possible for us to make America the most beautiful land the world +has ever seen, for we have the natural beauty, and greater knowledge in +setting about the work of building than has ever been possessed by any +other nation during its time of greatest growth. + +We shall go far toward realizing our ideal of a beautiful America if we +understand that the conservation of our resources means beauty, and that +waste means ugliness. Proper conservation of our mineral resources will +include the removal of the ugly, unsightly piles of culm, slag, and +other refuse that lie about the mouth of the mines, and disfigure some +of our most beautiful mountain scenery, for, as we have shown elsewhere, +this should be used and not wasted. The proper use of coal would solve +the smoke problem of cities, one of the worst foes of cleanliness and +beauty, and the use of water-power would serve the same purpose. The +complete utilization of our water resources that has been suggested +would make all our waterways contribute greatly to the beauty and +attractiveness of the landscape. + +In conserving our forests we not only increase our timber supply, but +add one of the greatest of all beauties, the trees which give variety +and tone to every picture that our eyes rest upon. We shall have the +shady roads, the long green hill-slopes, the quiet woodlands, the glory +of autumn coloring, the delight of blossoming orchards. + +Conservation of the soil, and utilization of every part of the land +mean even more. Picture the contrast between a country where the +hillsides are worn into gullies, where rocks are everywhere to be seen +cropping above the barren soil, where the crops are scanty, the +vegetation stunted; and one where every field yields a rich harvest, +where the grain hangs heavy and golden, where every wayside nook holds a +flower, where there are no neglected fence-corners, no piles of +rubbish,--what we truly call "a smiling landscape." Lastly, in +conserving health, we do more toward promoting personal beauty and +advancing the standard of the race than in any other way. + +We should not be content, however, with the beauty that comes only from +the conservation of our other resources, but should have a definite plan +for the conservation of beauty as a valuable resource in itself. + +The city of Washington should be made the center of this movement toward +national beauty. There is now an organized effort on the part of those +in charge of the erection of public buildings, to make Washington the +most beautiful capital in the world, and a model for other cities. + +The federal government should set aside as national parks all of our +greatest natural wonders, as Yellowstone Park is now held. + +The states should follow the same line and set apart in the same way +those objects of lesser interest, either natural or historic, which are +to be found in every state--those that are not of sufficient importance +to merit national recognition, but that will add interest to the state +as a place for tourists to visit. + +Few states are visited in this way more than is Massachusetts, and it is +largely because not only the state, but the various communities have +preserved historical places, buildings and objects so carefully, have +erected monuments to commemorate them; and have thrown these various +objects of interest open to the public free of charge. These communities +in turn have gained the original expenditure many times over from the +money spent by the steady stream of visitors. + +There has been a great movement toward the beautifying of cities and +villages in the past few years. Besides the good work done by park +boards in cities there has been a great improvement in the matter of +cleaner streets, better sidewalks, the planting of more shade trees, and +a far greater attention to the beautifying of private grounds. The +adorning of front yards and porches with vines and flowers is increasing +enormously every year. + +Many causes have been at work to produce this result: the broadening +influence of travel, which brings people in touch with what is being +done in other places to promote public beauty, the work of schools, +newspaper and magazine articles, and more time and money to spend on +luxuries,--even the post-card, which makes a souvenir view of every spot +of local beauty or interest; but probably no other one agency has +produced such good results in public beauty as has the woman's club +which has taken up this line of work. + +The "cleaning-up" movement, with a public house-cleaning day twice a +year when all refuse is carted away, and streets, alleys and back-yards +cleaned, had its origin in this way. The care and beautifying of +cemeteries is another branch of the work. + +In many places, flower and vegetable seeds are distributed free or at a +nominal cost among the school children, prizes are offered for the best +garden, the largest vegetables, the most attractive back-yard, the best +arranged flower-bed, and other good results; the work is examined by a +committee, and the prizes awarded at the end of the season either by the +club or by merchants who have become interested in the contest. + +This provides the children wholesome outdoor work and exercise +throughout the summer, and promotes a pleasant rivalry among them, +besides increasing their knowledge of plants, and the results have been +found to be far-reaching, for not only the pupils, but their parents as +well, are interested in neater, more orderly methods of living, and in +beautifying their homes. + +In the movement for public beauty, as in all other progress, it is the +work of individuals that counts most. Every house that is built with a +thought for its beauty, every home, farm-building and fence kept in good +repair, every neat back-yard and flower-surrounded home has its part in +making America more beautiful, and this influence in countless homes is +certain to count in the making of better citizens. + +A country where beauty meets the eye at every turn will invite the +tourist and the home-seeker, will be deeply loved by its own people, and +will be an inspiration to poetry and art. It rests largely with the +people of to-day to decide whether we shall make of our own land such an +ideal place. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +IN CONCLUSION + + +No one can read the record of facts presented in this book without being +impressed by two things: (1) How these resources depend on one another +and that proper care of one results in the saving of another, and, (2) +the fact that every one of our most valued resources is decreasing so +rapidly that its end is in sight, even though far in the distance. When +the end comes we know that it will mean the end of progress for our +country in that direction. + +It is also plain that the great, in fact the only, reason for this +scarcity lies not in use but in waste. And lastly we see that there is +yet time to prevent serious shortage in most directions if we set about +a general system of good management and thrift. + +In the meantime we are sure to have higher prices, for the supply is +growing less and the demand greater for almost every material. In many +lines, unless something be done to check this shortage, prices will rise +so high that only the rich can afford what are now considered the +necessities of life, and the lives of the poorer classes will become +like those of the peasants of Europe:--a scanty living on the plainest +food, poor homes, hard work, less opportunity to develop mind and body. + +Let us sum up how the various resources may be used to conserve one +another. + +The soil is saved from erosion by the planting of forests, and by the +storing of the flood waters of rivers. Waste land is made fertile by +proper control of the rivers through drainage, storage and irrigation. +Farm crops and also the forests are increased in value by insect +control. + +The insects are largely kept in check by encouraging the nesting and +increase of certain birds. Birds play a large part in the conservation +of the crops, by destroying insects, weeds, and small mammals. The birds +themselves are sheltered and thrive only where trees are abundant. + +The grazing lands are conserved by proper forest control, and the supply +of animal food depends largely on the grazing lands. + +Fisheries are dependent on proper care of the waters, which in turn +depend on forest control, and on proper care of the by-products of +factories. + +Coal is conserved by the use of lower-grade fuels, by using waste from +the forests, and by substituting water-power. + +Gas and oil will also be saved by the greater use of water-power. + +Coal-mining is made safer to human life and much saving in coal is +effected by the use of mine-timbers, which involves the planting of +forests. Forests regulate to a great extent the stream-flow of rivers. + +Beauty can only be conserved by the planting of trees, by keeping the +waters pure and clear, by using waste products so that there will be no +unsightly piles of refuse. + +Health depends, among other things, on pure water, air unpolluted by +coal smoke and poisonous gases which should be used as factory +by-products. + +And lastly, the life, happiness, and prosperity of man is conserved by +all of these things. + +The first step in this system of conservation must be education on this +subject, education not only of the children but of the men and women +also, on the need and methods of saving. There would be no danger of a +scarcity of coal if manufacturers all knew the value and economy of +electric water-power or low-grade fuels, and of smoke-consuming devices. +There is no reason why insect destruction should cost the nation so +dearly if the birds were protected, and a few simple methods of +prevention understood. All the various water problems could be met and +solved if one general plan were adopted and carried out, and so all +along the line. + +We have taken note of the great natural wastes: how two-thirds of the +wood cut is wasted, and how insects and fire destroy the standing +timber; how the soil is washed down into the valleys, taking the best +from the farms; how we are steadily robbing the soil of its most +necessary elements; how our waters are unused and we pay for this +non-use by the use of other resources that we can ill afford to spare; +how millions of acres of land which might be profitably farmed lie +useless for lack of water and other millions are useless because they +are covered with water. Consumers pay high freight rates and the +railroads are so overcrowded that they are unable to care for all the +business, while the rivers, the cheapest of all carriers, flow idly to +the sea. + +We have seen how one-fourth of the coal is left in the mines, and how +small a part of that which is mined is actually turned into heat, how +gas is allowed to escape unchecked into the air. And greatest and most +serious of all, the useless waste of human life and health. + +But there are scores of other wastes and extravagances that all growing +boys and girls should think of, so that when they enter active life, +they may do their part to prevent them. + +It is going to be necessary to learn to economize in every department of +life as all the European peoples do. We must learn, in this new +country, to do things more with the idea of the future in mind. In all +European cities, there are hundreds of houses that have lasted many +centuries, but there are few houses in America that are built in an +enduring way. This building up and tearing down taxes not one, but many, +resources heavily. As the housewife learns that a good kettle that costs +a dollar and lasts five years is cheaper than a poor one which costs +fifty cents but will wear out in one year, so people must learn the +lesson that in building poor light houses of wood which will last a +comparatively short time, they are really paying the higher price; that +in putting in poor roads, cheap bridges, badly-constructed public +buildings, that cost less heavily in the first place but that will need +to be renewed in a few years, they are really paying much more than if +these had been substantially built in the beginning. + +The fire loss of the United States amounts to over half a million +dollars a day, and all insurance men agree that most of this might be +prevented. + +The remedies are to build fewer wooden houses, especially in crowded +districts, to exercise greater care in the building and management of +chimneys, greater care in electric wiring, and general watchfulness in +handling matches and lighted cigars. + +For the forest fires which mean so much to all of us the remedy lies in +forest patrol. The amount usually set aside for fighting fires was not +allowed by some states in 1910, and the fires which cost hundreds of +millions of property and many lives were the result. + +Much of the most fertile land in our country is used for raising +tobacco, and grains that are made into alcoholic liquors. As these can +never be considered necessities it is well to think to what better uses +the land might be put. + +The yearly bill of the United States for pleasure is gigantic, and a +large proportion of the pleasure tends to lower rather than raise the +standard of American life and morals. + +The greatest of all wastes is the waste of time and labor. The waste of +time by drunkenness, by poor work that must be done over, and by +idleness, makes a large item of loss in every line of business. + +Proper education will teach every child to work neatly and with perfect +accuracy, will teach eye, hand and brain, will teach the value and +pleasure of work, careful management and economy and a regard for the +general good. + +A study of the great facts of our national possibilities that have been +gathered together in this book should arouse in the heart of every +American, old and young, the feeling that here is a work for every hand +and every brain, not only to save, but to use wisely; to develop all the +possibilities of our great resources no less than to conserve them. In +searching for new by-products or machinery for checking the waste and +adding to the usefulness of these resources there is a field for +invention that will not only bring wealth to the inventor, but +prosperity and length of life to the nation. + +THE END + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Checking the Waste, by Mary Huston Gregory + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHECKING THE WASTE *** + +***** This file should be named 20653.txt or 20653.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/5/20653/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Chuck Greif and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Library of Congress) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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