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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/20660-8.txt b/20660-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b48abd --- /dev/null +++ b/20660-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10229 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faith of Islam, by Edward Sell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Faith of Islam + +Author: Edward Sell + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20660] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. Original page numbers are shown as {99}. + +THE + +FAITH OF ISLAM: + +BY + +THE REV. EDWARD SELL, +FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS. + + * * * * * + +TRÜBNER & CO., LONDON. ADDISON & CO., MADRAS. 1880. + +_All rights reserved._ + + * * * * * + + +MADRAS: +PRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO., MOUNT ROAD. + + * * * * * + + +PREFACE. + +The following pages embody a study of Islám during a residence of fifteen +years in India, the greater part of which time I have been in daily +intercourse with Musalmáns. I have given in the footnotes the authorities +from which I quote. I was not able to procure in Madras a copy of the +Arabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but the French translation by +Baron M. de Slane, to which I so frequently refer, is thoroughly reliable. +The quotations from the Qurán are made from Rodwell's translation. The +original has been consulted when necessary. + +A few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred, such +as Sulát for Salát, Munkar for Munkir, &c., but in no case is the meaning +affected. + +In some words, such as Khalíf, Khalífate, and Omar, I have retained the +anglicised form instead of using the more correct terms, Khalífa, Khiláfat, +'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish the Káf-i-Karashat from the +Káf-i-Tází. + +E. S. + + MADRAS, + _December 1st, 1880._ + +{v} + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS. + +Introduction. ... PAGE ix + +CHAPTER I. + +THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM. + +The Qurán--Its revelation--Miraculous nature--Arrangement of Qurán--Osmán's +recension. The Sunnat--The authority of Sunnat--Tradition--Bid'at or +innovation--Shía'h Traditions. Ijmá'--Ijtihád--Four orthodox Imáms, Hanífa, +Málik, Sháfa'í and Hanbal. Qíás--Established by the early +Mujtahidín--Sterility of Islám ... PAGE 1 + +Note to Chapter I. Ijtihád ... PAGE 32 + +CHAPTER II. + +EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS. + +Inspiration--The seven readings--Work of a Commentator--Words and Sentences +of the Qurán--Use of the words--Deductions of arguments from the +Qurán--Divisions of the Qurán--Abrogation--Creation of the Qurán--Hadís or +Tradition--Collections of Traditions--Classification of Traditions ... PAGE +37 + +CHAPTER III. + +THE SECTS OF ISLÁM. + +The Shía'hs--The Imámat--Khárigites--Núr-i-Muhammadí--Imám--Ismá,ílians and +Imámites--Ghair-i-Mahdís--Dá,irí--Mahmúdíah--Khalífate--Súfíism--Persian +Poetry--Darwíshes--Omar Khayyám--Wahhábís--their rise--spread in +India--doctrines and influence ... PAGE 73 + +Note to Chapter III. Wahhábíism ... PAGE 114 + +{vi} + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CREED OF ISLÁM + +Imán--God--Attributes of God--Discussions on the nature of God--The rise of +the Mutazilites--The Sifátíans--Mushábihites--Names of God--Creation of the +Qurán. Angels--Recording Angels--Hárút and Márút--Munkir and Nakír--Jinn. +The Books--Abrogation--Tahríf. The Prophets--Rank and inspiration of +prophets--Nabí and Rasúl--Sinlessness of prophets--The +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm--Miracles of prophets--The Mi'ráj. The Resurrection and +the last day--The Trumpets--Descent of the +books--Balances--Bridge--Al-A'ráf--Al-Barzakh--Intercession of +Muhammad--Heaven--Hell. The Predestination of good and +evil--Jabríans--Qadríans--Ash'aríans--Free-will--Apostacy ... PAGE 116 + +Note to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... PAGE 181 + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM. + +Farz, wájib, sunnat, mustahab and mubáh actions--Harám or unlawful acts. +Tashahhud. Salát--Wazú--Ghusl--Tayammum--Namáz--Farz, sunnat, witr and nafl +rak'ats--Appointed hours of prayer--Friday Namáz and sermon--Namáz on a +journey and in time of war--Namáz in Ramazán, during an eclipse and in time +of drought--Funeral service--Its ritual and prayers. Fasting--Its time and +nature. Zakát--Nisáb--Proportion of property to be given as +alms--Recipients of the Zakát. The Hajj--Farz, sunnat, wájib and mustahab +duties connected with the Hajj--Time for the Hajj--Arrival of the Hájí at +Mecca--Tawáf--Ceremonies of the Hajj--Conclusion of the Hajj--Formal nature +of Islám ... PAGE 187 + +Note to Chapter V. Fatvá on the Namáz ... PAGE 233 + +{vii} + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM. + +Muharram--'Áshúr Khána--Marsiya--Wáqi'a Khán--'Alams--Ceremonies of the +'Áshúrá--Fátihas for 'Alí, for Hasan and Husain--Akhir-i-chár Shamba--Bárá +Wafát--Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharif--Ásár-i-Sharíf--Shab Barát--Ramazán and +'Íd-ul-Fitr--'Itikáf--Sadqa--Sermon on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr--Baqr-'Íd or +'Íd-uz-Zuhá--Sermon on the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá--The Qurbán or Sacrifice--Festival +of Madár--Festival of Sálár Mas'úd Ghází--Festival of Khája Khizr--Feast of +Pír Dastgír Sáhib--Festival of Qádir Walí Sáhib ... PAGE 237 + +Index of Technical Terms ... PAGE 265 + +{ix} + + * * * * * + + +INTRODUCTION. + +It is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents of +this work. It does not fall in with its plan to enter into an account +either of the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of the +system founded by him. The first has been done by able writers in England, +France and Germany. I could add nothing new to this portion of the subject, +nor throw new light upon it. The political growth of Muslim nations has +also been set forth in various ways. + +It seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of the +religious system which has grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and of its +effect upon the individual and the community. What the Church in her +missionary enterprise has to deal with, what European Governments in the +political world have to do with is Islám as it is, and as it now influences +those who rule and those who are ruled under it. + +I have, therefore, tried to show from authentic sources, and from a +practical knowledge of it, what the Faith of Islám really is, and how it +influences men and nations in the present day. I think that recent Fatvás +delivered by the 'Ulamá in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim State is +bound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the present practice of +orthodox Muslims all the world {x} over is a constant carrying out of the +precepts given in the Qurán and the Sunnat, and an illustration of the +principles I have shown to belong to Islám. On this subject it is not too +much to say that there is, except amongst Oriental scholars, much +misconception. + +Again, much that is written on Islám is written either in ignorant +prejudice, or from an ideal standpoint. To understand it aright, one should +know its literature and live amongst its people. I have tried faithfully to +prove every statement I have made; and if, now and again, I have quoted +European authors, it is only by way of illustration. I rest my case +entirely upon Musalmán authorities themselves. Still more, I have +ascertained from living witnesses that the principles I have tried to show +as existing in Islám, are really at work now and are as potent as at any +previous period. + +I have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and development of +the system, seeking wherever possible to link the past with the present. In +order not to interfere with this unity of plan, I have had to leave many +subjects untouched, such as those connected with the civil law, with +slavery, divorce, jihád or religious wars, &c. A good digest of Muhammadan +Law[1] will give all necessary information on these points. The basis of +the Law which determines these questions is what I have described in my +first chapter. Ijtihád, for example, rules quite as effectually in a +question of domestic {xi} economy or political jurisprudence as on points +of dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for me to go into details on +these points. + +When I have drawn any conclusion from data which Muhammadan literature, and +the present practice of Muslims have afforded me, I have striven to give +what seems to me a just and right one. Still, I gladly take this +opportunity of stating that I have found many Muslims better than their +creed, men with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom I respect for +many virtues and esteem as friends. I judge the system, not any individual +in it. + +In India, there are a number of enlightened Muhammadans, ornaments to +native society, useful servants of the State, men who show a laudable zeal +in all social reforms, so far as is consistent with a reputation for +orthodoxy. Their number is far too few, and they do not, in many cases, +represent orthodox Islám, nor do I believe their counterpart would be found +amongst the 'Ulamá of a Muslim State. The fact is that the wave of +scepticism which has passed over Europe has not left the East untouched. +Hindu and Muslim alike have felt its influence, but to judge of either the +one system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men who +expound their views before English audiences is to yield oneself up to +delusion on the subject. + +Islám in India has also felt the influence of contact with other races and +creeds, though, theologically speaking, the Imán and the Dín, the faith and +the practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have {xii} described them in +chapters four and five. If Islám in India has lost some of its original +fierceness, it has also adopted many superstitious practices, such as those +against which the Wahhábís protest. The great mass of the Musalmán people +are quite as superstitious, if not more so, than their heathen neighbours. +Still the manliness, the suavity of manner, the deep learning, after an +oriental fashion, of many Indian Musalmáns render them a very attractive +people. It is true there is a darker side--much bigotry, pride of race, +scorn of other creeds, and, speaking generally, a tendency to inertness. It +is thus that in Bengal, Madras and perhaps in other places, they have +fallen far behind the Hindus in educational status, and in the number of +appointments they hold in the Government service. Indeed, this subject is a +serious one and deserves the special attention of the Indian Government. In +Bengal the proportion of Musalmáns to Hindus in the upper ranks of the +Uncovenanted Civil Service in 1871 was 77 to 341. In the year 1880 it had +declined to 53 to 451. The state of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yet +an intelligent Muslim, as a rule, makes a good official. + +Looking at the subject from a wider stand-point, I think the Church has +hardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of Islám is to her +onward march in the East. Surely special men with special training are +required for such an enterprise as that of encountering Islám in its own +strongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian {xiii} faith could be +found in the East than men won from the Crescent to the Cross. + +All who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help in +this volume, and I am not without hope that it may also throw some light on +the political questions of the day. + +{1} + + * * * * * + + +THE FAITH OF ISLÁM. + +CHAPTER I. + +THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM. + +The creed of Islám, "Lá-iláha-il-lal-láhu wa Muhammad-ur-Rasúl-Ulláh," +(There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God) is very +short, but the system itself is a very dogmatic one. Such statements as: +"The Qurán is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating everything," +"The Qurán contains the _entire_ code of Islám--that is, it is not a book +of religious precepts merely, but it governs all that a Muslim does," "The +Qurán contains the whole religion of Muhammad," "The Qurán which contains +the whole Gospel of Islám" are not simply misleading, they are erroneous. +So far from the Qurán alone being the _sole_ rule of faith and practice to +Muslims, there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practice +is based on it alone. No one among them disputes its authority or casts any +doubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in all that it concerns, +but its exegesis, the whole system of legal jurisprudence and of +theological science, is largely founded on the Traditions. Amongst the +orthodox Musalmáns, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, the +Qurán, Sunnat, Ijmá' and Qíás. The fact that all the sects do not agree +with the orthodox--the Sunnís--in this matter illustrates another important +fact in Islám--the want of unity amongst its followers. {2} + +1. THE QURÁN.--The question of the inspiration will be fully discussed, and +an account of the laws of the exegesis of the Qurán will be given in the +next chapter. It is sufficient now to state that this book is held in the +highest veneration by Muslims of every sect. When being read it is kept on +a stand elevated above the floor, and no one must read or touch it without +first making a legal ablution.[2] It is not translated unless there is the +most urgent necessity, and even then the Arabic text is printed with the +translation. It is said that God chose the sacred month of Ramazán in which +to give all the revelations which in the form of books have been vouchsafed +to mankind. Thus on the first night of that month the books of Abraham came +down from heaven; on the sixth the books of Moses; on the thirteenth the +Injíl, or Gospel, and on the twenty-seventh the Qurán. On that night, the +Laylut-ul-Qadr, or "night of power," the whole Qurán is said to have +descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, from whence it was brought +piecemeal to Muhammad as occasion required.[3] "Verily we have caused it +(the Qurán) to descend on the night of power." (Súra xcvii. 1.) That night +is called the blessed night, the night better than a thousand months, the +night when angels came down by the permission of their Lord, the night +which bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn. Twice on that night +in the solitude of the cave of Hira the voice called, twice though pressed +sore "as if a fearful weight had been laid upon him," the prophet struggled +{3} against its influence. The third time he heard the words:-- + + "Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created-- + Created man from clots of blood." (Súra xcvi. 5.) + +"When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from minutest beginnings +man had been called into existence, and lifted up by understanding and +knowledge of the Lord, who is most beneficent, and who by the pen had +revealed that which man did not know, Muhammad woke up from his trance and +felt as if "a book had been written in his heart." He was much alarmed. +Tradition records that he went hastily to his wife and said--"O Khadíja! +what has happened to me!" He lay down and she watched by him. When he +recovered from his paroxysm, he said "O Khadíja! he of whom one would not +have believed (_i.e._, himself) has become either a soothsayer (káhin) or +mad." She replied, "God is my protection, O Ab-ul-kásim. He will surely not +let such a thing happen unto thee, for thou speakest the truth, dost not +return evil for evil, keepest faith, art of a good life and art kind to thy +relatives and friends, and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars. +What has befallen thee? Hast thou seen aught terrible?" Muhammad replied +"Yes." And he told her what he had seen. Whereupon she answered and +said:--"Rejoice, O dear husband and be of good cheer. He in whose hands +stands Khadíja's life, is my witness that thou wilt be the Prophet of this +people."[4] The next Súra, the 74th, was revealed at Mecca, after which +there seems to have been an intermission, called the Fatrah. It was during +this time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the contents of the +Jewish and the Christian Scriptures. + +Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This fact, +however, is only once stated in the Qurán:--"Say, whoso is the enemy of +Gabriel--For he it is {4} who by God's leave hath caused the Qurán to +descend on thy heart" (Súra ii. 91.) This Súra was revealed some years +after the Prophet's flight to Madína. The other references to the +revelation of the Qurán are:--"Verily from the Lord of the worlds hath this +book come down; the Faithful Spirit (Rúh-ul-Ámín) hath come down with it" +(Súra xxvi. 192.) "The Qurán is no other than a revelation revealed to him, +one terrible in power (Shadíd-ul-Quá) taught it him." (Súra liii. 5.) These +latter passages do not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium of +communication, but the belief that he was is almost, if not entirely, +universal, and the Commentators say that the terms "Rúh-ul-Ámín" and +"Shadíd-ul-Quá" refer to no other angel or spirit. The use of the word +"taught" in the last Súra quoted, and the following expression in Súra +lxxv. 18. "When we have _recited it_, then follow thou the recital," show +that the Qurán is entirely an objective revelation and that Muhammad was +only a passive medium of communication. The Muhammadan historian, Ibn +Khaldoun, says on this point:--"Of all the divine books the Qurán is the +only one of which the text, words and phrases have been communicated to a +prophet by an audible voice. It is otherwise with the Pentateuch, the +Gospel and the other divine books: the prophets received them under the +form of ideas."[5] This expresses the universal belief on this point--a +belief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of Islám. + +The Qurán thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle of +Islám. Other divine books, it is admitted, were revelations received under +the form of ideas, but the Qurán is far superior to them all for the actual +text was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus we read in Súra lxxv. +16-19:-- + +{5} + + "Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation; + For we will see to the collecting and recital of it; + _But when we have recited it_, then follow thou the recital; + And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee." + +The Qurán is, then, believed to be a miraculous revelation of divine +eloquence, as regards both _form_ and _substance_, arrangement of words, +and its revelation of sacred things. It is asserted that each +well-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department of +human skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the days of +Moses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the magicians of Pharaoh's +court had to submit to the superior skill of the Hebrew prophet. In the +days of Jesus the science of medicine flourished. Men possessed great skill +in the art of healing; but no physician could equal the skill of Jesus, who +not only healed the sick, but raised the dead. In the days of Muhammad the +special and most striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of the +Arabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri says:--"Wisdom hath alighted +on three things--the brain of the Franks, the hands of the Chinese and the +tongue of the Arabs." They were unrivalled for their eloquence, for the +skill with which they arranged their material and gave expression to their +thoughts. It is in this very particular that superior excellence is claimed +for the Qurán.[6] It is to the Muhammadan mind a sure evidence of its +miraculous origin that it should excel in this respect. Muslims say that +miracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order to +confirm the divine message. In this case the Qurán is both a revelation and +a miracle. {6} Muhammad himself said:--"Each prophet has received manifest +signs which carried conviction to men: but that which I have received is +the revelation. So I hope to have a larger following on the day of +resurrection than any other prophet has." Ibn Khaldoun says that "by this +the Prophet means that such a wonderful miracle as the Qurán, which is also +a revelation, should carry conviction to a very large number."[7] To a +Muslim the fact is quite clear, and so to him the Qurán is far superior to +all the preceding books. Muhammad is said to have convinced a rival, Lebid, +a poet-laureate, of the truth of his mission by reciting to him a portion +of the now second Súra. "Unquestionably it is one of the very grandest +specimens of Koranic or Arabic diction.... But even descriptions of this +kind, grand as they be, are not sufficient to kindle and preserve the +enthusiasm and the faith and the hope of a nation like the Arabs.... The +poets before him had sung of valour and generosity, of love and strife and +revenge ... of early graves, upon which weeps the morning cloud, and of the +fleeting nature of life which comes and goes as the waves of the desert +sands, as the tents of a caravan, as a flower that shoots up and dies away. +Or they shoot their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own +soul. Muhammad sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, not the joys +of the world, nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, nor human vengeance, not +the glories of tribe or ancestor. He preached Islám." The very fierceness +with which this is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficient +though he may have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic certainty +with which the Prophet proclaimed his message have tended, equally with the +passionate grandeur of his utterances, to hold the Muslim world spell-bound +to the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book. + +So sacred is the text supposed to be that only the {7} Companions[8] of the +Prophet are deemed worthy of being commentators on it. The work of learned +divines since then has been to learn the Qurán by heart and to master the +traditions, with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon. The +revelation itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by the +ordinary rules of criticism. If only the Isnád, or chain of authorities for +any interpretation, is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted +as the correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no other +book in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought or +expression. It deals with positive precepts rather than with principles. +Its decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the very +letter on all men, at all times and under every circumstance of life. This +follows as a natural consequence from the belief in its eternal nature. + +The various portions recited by the Prophet during the twenty-three years +of his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of his +followers, or treasured up in their memories. As the recital of the Qurán +formed a part of every act of public worship, and as such recital was an +act of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as much as he +could. He who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour, and was +often the recipient of a substantial reward.[9] The Arab love for poetry +facilitated the exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died the +revelation ceased. There was no distinct copy of the whole, nothing to show +what was of transitory importance, what of permanent value. There is +nothing which proves that the Prophet took any special care of any +portions. There seems to have been no definite order in which, when the +book was {8} compiled, the various Súras were arranged, for the Qurán, as +it now exists, is utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence. For +a year after the Prophet's death nothing seems to have been done; but then +the battle of Yemana took place in which a very large number of the best +Qurán reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and addressing the +Khalíf Abu Bakr, said, "The slaughter may again wax hot amongst the +repeaters of the Qurán in other fields of battle, and much may be lost +therefrom. Now, therefore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy +orders for the collection of the Qurán." Abu Bakr agreed, and said to Zeid +who had been an amanuensis of the Prophet:--"Thou art a young man, and +wise, against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation; and thou wert +wont to write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the Lord, +wherefore now search out the Qurán and bring it all together." Zeid being +at length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the Qurán +together from "date leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the hearts +of men." In course of time it was all compiled in the order in which the +book is now arranged. This was the authorized text for some twenty-three +years after the death of Muhammad. Owing, however, either to different +modes of recitation, or to differences of expression in the sources from +which Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of different readings +crept into the copies in use. The Faithful became alarmed and the Khalíf +Osmán was persuaded to put a stop to such a danger. He appointed Zeid with +three of the leading men of the Quraish as assistants to go over the whole +work again. A careful recension was made of the whole book which was then +assimilated to the Meccan dialect, the purest in Arabia. After this all +other copies of the Qurán were burnt by order of the Khalíf, and new +transcripts were made of the revised edition which was now the only +authorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of Islám that the Qurán is +incorruptible and absolutely free {9} from error, no little difficulty has +been felt in explaining the need of Osmán's new and revised edition and of +the circumstances under which it took place; but as usual a Tradition has +been handed down which makes it lawful to read the Qurán in seven dialects. +The book in its present form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction of +Abu Bakr's edition with authoritative corrections. We may rest assured that +we have in the Qurán now in use the record of what Muhammad said. It thus +becomes a fundamental basis of Islám. It was a common practice of the early +Muslims when speaking of the Prophet to say:--"His character is the Qurán." +When people curious to know details of the life of their beloved master +asked 'Áyesha, one of his widows, about him, she used to reply:--"Thou hast +the Qurán, art thou not an Arab and readest the Arab tongue? Why dost thou +ask me, for the Prophet's disposition is no other than the Qurán?" + +Whether Muhammad would have arranged the Qurán as we now have it is a +subject on which it is impossible to form an opinion. There are Traditions +which seem to show that he had some doubts as to its completeness. I give +the following account on the authority of M. Caussin de Percival. When +Muhammad felt his end draw near he said:--"Bring ink and paper: I wish to +write to you a book to preserve you always from error." But it was too +late. He could not write or dictate and so he said:--"May the Qurán always +be your guide. Perform what it commands you: avoid what it prohibits." The +genuineness of the first part of this Tradition is, I think, very doubtful, +the latter is quite in accordance with the Prophet's claim for his +teaching. The letter of the book became, as Muhammad intended it should +become, a despotic influence in the Muslim world, a barrier to freethinking +on the part of all the orthodox, an obstacle to innovation in all +spheres--political, social, intellectual and moral. There are many topics +connected with it which can be better explained in the next chapter. All +{10} that has now to be here stated is that the Qurán is the first +foundation of Islám. It is an error to suppose it is the only one: an error +which more than anything else has led persons away from the only position +in which they could obtain a true idea of the great system of Islám. + +The Shía'hs maintain, without good reason, that the following verses +favourable to the claims of 'Alí and of the Shía'h faction were omitted in +Osmán's recension. + + "O Believers! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'Alí). + + 'Alí is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in the + day of judgment; we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him. + We have honoured him above all this family. He and his family are very + patient. Their enemy[10] is the chief of sinners. + + We have announced to thee a race of just men, men[11] who will not + oppose our orders. My mercy and peace are on them living[12] or dead. + + As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them; they will + certainly gain the mansions of Paradise." + +2. THE SUNNAT.--The second foundation of Islám is based on the Hadís +(plural Ahádís) or Tradition. Commands from God given in the Qurán are +called 'farz' and 'wájib.' A command given by the Prophet or an example set +by him is called 'sunnat,' a word meaning a rule. It is then technically +applied to the basis of religious faith and practice, which is founded on +traditional accounts of the sayings and acts of Muhammad.[13] It is the +belief common to all Musalmáns, that the Prophet in all that he _did_, and +in all that he _said_, was supernaturally guided, and that his words and +acts are to all time and to all his followers a divine rule of faith and +practice. "We should know that God Almighty has given commands and +prohibitions to his {11} servants, either by means of the Qurán, or by the +mouth of His Prophet."[14] Al-Ghazáli, a most distinguished theologian, +writes:--"Neither is the faith according to His will, complete by the +testimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply saying, 'There is but one +God,' without the addition of the further testimony to the Apostle, that +is, the statement, 'Muhammad is the apostle of God.'" This belief in the +Prophet must extend to all that he has said concerning the present and the +future life, for, says the same author, "A man's faith is not accepted till +he is fully persuaded of those things which the Prophet hath affirmed shall +be after death." + +It is often said that the Wahhábís reject Tradition. In the ordinary sense +of the word Tradition they may; but in Muslim Theology the term Hadís, +which we translate Tradition, has a special meaning. It is applied only to +the sayings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divine or +teacher. The Wahhábís reject the Traditions handed down by men who lived +after the time of the Companions, but the Hadís, embodying the sayings of +the Prophet, they, in common with _all_ Muslim sects, hold to be an +inspired revelation of God's will to men. It would be as reasonable to say +that Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that the Wahhábís reject +Tradition.[15] An orthodox Muslim places the Gospels in the same rank as +the Hadís, that is, he looks upon them as a record of what Jesus said and +did handed down to us by His Companions. "In the same way as other Prophets +received their books under the form of ideas, so our Prophet has in the +same way received a great number of communications which are found in the +collections of the {12} Traditions (Ahádís).[16] This shows that the Sunnat +must be placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures; whilst +the Qurán is a revelation superior to them all. To no sect of Musalmáns is +the Qurán alone the rule of faith. The Shía'hs, it is true, reject the +Sunnat, but they have in their own collection of Traditions an exact +equivalent. + +The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authoritative value are +questions of the first importance, whether Islám is viewed from a +theological or a political stand-point. + +"Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, of whom only one would +be worthy of Paradise. The Companions inquired which sect would be so +highly favoured. The Prophet replied:--'The one which remains firm in my +way and in that of my friends.' It is certain that this must refer to the +Ahl-i-Sunnat wa Jamá'at." (Sunnís.)[17] + +It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should be +rendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. Thus in the fourth Súra of the Qurán +it is written: "O true believers! obey God and obey the apostle." "We have +not sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the permission of God." +From these and similar passages the following doctrine is deduced: "It is +plain that the Prophet (on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy and +peace of God!) is free from sin in what he ordered to be done, and in what +he prohibited, in all his words and acts; for were it otherwise how could +obedience rendered to him be accounted as obedience paid to God?"[18] +Believers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to His +divinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship; this is +a sign of love, and love is the cause of nearness to God. The Prophet +himself is reported to have {13} said, "Obey me that God may regard you as +friends." From this statement the conclusion is drawn that "the love of God +(to man) is conditional on obedience to the Prophet." Belief in and +obedience to the Prophet are essential elements of the true faith, and he +who possesses not both of these is in error.[19] + +In order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is said to have +appointed Muhammad as the Mediator between Himself and man. In a lower +sense, believers are to follow the "Sunnat" of the four Khalífs, Abu Bakr, +Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, who are true guides to men. + +To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly in accord with the +will of God. Moral laws have a different application when applied to him. +His jealousy, his cruelty to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence in +licentiousness, his bold assertion of equality with God as regards his +commands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to men as long +as the world shall last. It is easy for an apologist for Muhammad to say +that this is an accretion, something which engrafted itself on to a simpler +system. It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts of the +system. Let Muhammad be his own witness:--"He who loves not my Sunnat is +not my follower." "He who revives my Sunnat revives me, and will be with me +in Paradise." "He who in distress holds fast to the Sunnat will receive the +reward of a hundred martyrs." As might be expected, the setting up of his +own acts and words as an infallible and unvarying rule of faith accounts +more than anything else for the immobility of the Muhammadan world, for it +must be always remembered that in Islám Church and State are one. The Arab +proverb, "Al mulk wa dín tawáminí"--country and religion are twins--is the +popular form of expressing the unity of Church and State. {14} To the mind +of the Musalmán the rule of the one is the rule of the other,--a truth +sometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform of +Turkey or the regeneration of the House of Osmán. The Sunnat as much as the +Qurán covers all law, whether political, social, moral, or religious. A +modern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with Islám says:--"If Islám +is to be a power for good in the future, it is imperatively necessary to +cut off the social system from the religion. The difficulty lies in the +close connection between the religious and social ordinances in the Kurán, +the two are so intermingled that it is hard to see how they can be +disentangled without destroying both." I believe this to be impossible, and +the case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that the same remark +would apply to the Sunnat. To forget this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoun +distinctly speaks of "the Law derived from the Qurán and the Sunnat," of +the "maxims of Musalmán Law based on the text of the Qurán and the teaching +of the Traditions."[20] + +The Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The technical term for +anything new is "bida't," and of it, it is said: "Bida't is the changer of +Sunnat." In other words, if men seek after things new, if fresh forms of +thought arise, and the changing condition of society demands new modes of +expression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate the community, if in +internals or externals, any new thing (bida't) is introduced, it is to be +shunned. The law as revealed in the Qurán and the Sunnat is perfect. +Everything not in accordance with the precepts therein contained is +innovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some {15} "bida't" is +allowable, such as the teaching of etymology and syntax, the establishment +of schools, guest-houses, &c., which things did not exist in the time of +the Prophet; but it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance +with the least Sunnat (_i.e._ the obeying the least of the orders of the +Prophet, however trivial) is far better than doing some new thing, however +advantageous and desirable it may be. + +There are many stories which illustrate the importance the Companions of +the Prophet attached to Sunnat. "The Khalíf Omar looked towards the black +stone at Mecca, and said, 'By God, I know that thou art only a stone, and +canst grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known that the +Prophet kissed thee, I would not have done so, but on account of that I do +it.'" Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was seen riding his camel round and round a certain +place. In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said: "I +know not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here." Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, one +of the four great Imáms, and the founder of the Hanbalí school of +interpretation, is said to have been appointed on account of the care with +which he observed the Sunnat. One day when sitting in an assembly he alone +of all present observed some formal custom authorised by the practice of +the Prophet. Gabriel at once appeared and informed him that now, and on +account of his act, he was appointed an Imám.[21] In short, it is +distinctly laid down that the best of all works is the following of the +practice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been stated by a learned +theologian to consist of three things: first, to follow the Prophet in +morals and in acts; secondly, to eat only lawful food; thirdly, to be +sincere in all actions. + +{16} + +The Sunnat is now known to Musalmáns through the collections of Traditions +gathered together by the men whose names they now bear. The whole are +called Sihah-Sittah, or "six correct books." Not one of these collectors +flourished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as may be easily +supposed, their work has not passed unchallenged. There is by no means an +absolute consensus of opinion among the Sunnís as to the exact value of +each Tradition, yet all admit that a 'genuine Tradition' must be obeyed. +Whether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions is recorded as spoken by +him under the influence of the highest kind of inspiration is, as will be +shown in the next chapter, a disputed point; but it matters little. +Whatever may have been the degree, it was according to Muslim belief a real +inspiration, and thus his every act and word became a law as binding upon +his followers as the example of Christ is upon Christians. + +The Shía'hs do not acknowledge the Sihah-Sittah, the six correct books of +the Sunnís, but it by no means follows that they reject Tradition. They +have five books of Traditions, the earliest of which was compiled by Abu +Ja'far Muhammad A.H. 329, or a century later than the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, the +most trustworthy of the Sunní set. Thus all Musalmán sects accept the first +and second ground of the faith--the Qurán and the Sunnat--as the inspired +will of God; the Shía'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions on +which the Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is important +to maintain is this, that the Qurán alone is to no Musalmán an +all-sufficient guide. + +3. IJMÁ'.--The third foundation of the Faith is called Ijmá', a word +signifying to be collected or assembled. Technically it means the unanimous +consent of the leading theologians, or what in Christian theology would be +called the "unanimous consent of the Fathers." Practically it is a +collection of the opinions of the Companions, the Tábi'ín and the +Taba-i-Tábi'ín. "The Law," says Ibn Khaldoun {17} "is grounded on the +general accord of the Companions and their followers." The election of Abu +Bakr to the Khalifate is called Ijmá'-i-Ummat, the unanimous consent of the +whole sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special knowledge of the +various circumstances under which special revelations had been made; they +alone knew which verses of the Qurán abrogated others, and which verses +were thus abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other details +they handed on to their successors, the Tábi'ín, who passed the information +on to their followers, the Taba-i-Tábi'ín. Some Muslims, the Wahhábís for +example, accept only the Ijmá' of the Companions; and by all sects that is +placed in the first rank as regards authority; others accept that of the +'Fugitives' who dwelt at Madína; and there are some amongst the orthodox +who allow, as a matter of theory, that Ijmá' may be collected at any time, +but that practically it is not done because there are now no Mujtahidín. +The highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach was that of a Mujtahid, or +one who could make an Ijtihád, a word which, derived from the same root as +Jihád (a Crescentade), means in its technical sense a logical deduction. It +is defined as the "attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching +into the principles of jurisprudence." The origin of Ijtihád was as +follows:--Muhammad wished to send a man named Mu'áz to Yaman to receive +some money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. +On appointing him he said: "O Mu'áz, by what rule will you act?" He +replied, "by the Law of the Qurán." "But if you find no direction therein?" +"Then I will act according to the Sunnat of the Prophet." "But what if that +fails?" "Then I will make an Ijtihád and act on that." The Prophet raised +his hands and said, "Praise be to God who guides the messenger of His +Prophet in what He pleases."[22] This is considered a proof of the +authority of Ijtihád for the Prophet clearly sanctioned it. + +{18} + +When the Prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and fears: +an infallible authority was always present ready to give an inspired +direction. The Khalífs who succeeded the Prophet had only to administer the +Law according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had held. They were +busily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest; they neither attempted +any new legislation, nor did they depart from the practice of him whom they +revered. "In the first days of Islám, the knowledge of the Law was purely +Traditional. In forming their judgments they had no recourse either to +speculation, to private opinion, or to arguments founded upon analogy."[23] +However, as the Empire grew, new conditions of life arose, giving rise to +questions, concerning which Muhammad had given no explicit direction. This +necessitated the use of Ijtihád. During the Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar, +Osmán and 'Alí--the Khulafa-i-Ráshidín, or the Khalífs who could guide men +in the right way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the +course of action to be pursued under some new development of circumstances; +for they knew as none other did the Prophet's sayings and deeds, they could +recall to their memories a saying or an act from which a decision could be +deduced. In this way all Muslims could feel that in following their +judgments and guidance they were walking in the right path. But after the +death of 'Alí, the fourth Khalíf, civil war and hostile factions imperilled +the continuance of the Faith in its purity. At Madína, where Muhammad's +career as a recognised Prophet was best known, devout men commenced to +learn by heart the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the analogical judgments +(Ijtihád) of the four Khalífs. These men were looked up to as authorities, +and their decisions were afterwards known as the 'Customs of Madína.' + +It is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to regulate all +departments of life, all developments of men's ideas and energies by the +Sunnat and analogical deductions {19} therefrom, was one which not only +gave every temptation a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition, +but one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use. +Hence, it was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent mass +of Tradition, of judgments given by Khalífs and Mujtahidín. This gave rise +to the systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox Imáms, to one +or other of which all Muslims, except the Shía'hs, belong. These Imáms, Abu +Hanífa, Ibn Málik, As-Sháfi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all Mujtahidín of the +highest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that there has been no +Mujtahid. Thus in a standard theological book much used in India it is +written: "Ijmá' is this, that it is not lawful to follow any other than the +four Imáms." "In these days the Qází must make no order, the Muftí give no +fatvá (_i.e._ a legal decision), contrary to the opinion of the four +Imáms." "To follow any other is not lawful." So far then as orthodoxy is +concerned, change and progress are impossible. + +Imám Abu Hanífa was born at Basra (A.H. 80), but he spent the greater part +of his life at Kúfa. He was the founder and teacher of the body of legists +known as 'the jurists of Irák.' His system differs considerably from that +of the Imám Málik who, living at Madína, confined himself chiefly to +Tradition as the basis of his judgments. Madína was full of the memories of +the sayings and acts of the Prophet; Kúfa, the home of Hanífa, on the +contrary, was not founded till after the Prophet's death and so possessed +none of his memories. Islám there came into contact with other races of +men, but from them it had nothing to learn. If these men became Muslims, +well and good: if not, the one law for them as for the Faithful was the +teaching of Muhammad. Various texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove the +correctness of this position. "For to thee have we sent down the book which +cleareth up every thing." (Súra xvi. 91) "Nothing have we passed over in +the book." (Súra vi. {20} 38.) "Neither is there a grain in the darkness of +the earth nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct +writing." (Súra vi. 59). These texts were held to prove that all law was +provided for by anticipation in the Qurán. If a verse could not be found +bearing on any given question, analogical deduction was resorted to. Thus: +"He it is who created _for you_ all that is on earth." (Súra ii. 27). +According to the Hanifite jurists, this is a deed of gift which annuls all +other rights of property. The 'you' refers to Muslims. The earth[24] may be +classified under three heads:--(1) land which never had an owner; (2) land +which had an owner and has been abandoned; (3) the person and property of +the Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulness +of slavery, piracy and constant war against the unbelievers. To return to +Abu Hanífa. He admitted very few Traditions as authoritative in his system, +which claims to be a logical development from the Qurán. "The merit of +logical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and wishes of men, +the previous history of a country--all those considerations, in fact, which +are held in the West to be the governing principles of legislation, are set +aside by the legists of Irák as being of no account whatever. Legislation +is not a science inductive and experimental, but logical and +deductive."[25] + +Imám Ibn Málik was born at Madína (A.H. 93) and his system of jurisprudence +is founded, as might be expected from his connection with the sacred city, +on the "Customs of Madína." His business was to arrange and systematize the +Traditions current in Madína, and to form out of them and the "Customs" a +system of jurisprudence embracing the whole sphere of life. The treatise +composed by him was called the "Muwatta" or "The Beaten Path." The greater +part of its contents are legal maxims and opinions {21} delivered by the +Companions. His system of jurisprudence, therefore, has been described as +historical and traditional. In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'far +it is said: "His Traditions were of the greatest authority; his gravity was +impressive; and when he delivered them, all his auditors were plunged in +admiration."[26] The Traditions were his great delight. "I delight," said +he, "in testifying my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of +God, and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of perfect +purity,"[27] (_i.e._, after performing a legal ablution.) As death +approached, his one fear was lest he should have exercised his private +judgment in delivering any legal opinion. In his last illness a friend went +to visit him, and enquiring why he wept, received the following answer: +"Why should I not weep, and who has more right to weep than I? By Allah! I +wish I had been flogged and reflogged for every question of law on which I +pronounced an opinion founded on my own private judgment."[28] + +Imám As-Sháfa'í, a member of the Quraish tribe, was born A.H. 150. He +passed his youth at Mecca but finally settled in Cairo where he died (A.H. +204). Ibn Khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge +of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Companions. "Never," said +Imám Ibn Hanbal, "have I passed a night without praying for God's mercy and +blessing upon As-Sháfi'í." "Whosoever pretends," said Abu Thaur, "that he +saw the like of As-Sháfi'í for learning is a liar." Having carefully +studied the systems of the two preceding Imáms he then proceeded on an +eclectic system to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of +Abu Hanífa. As-Sháfi'í follows rather the traditional plan of Ibn Málik. +The Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the absence of a clear and a direct +statement, he finds one {22} passage in the Qurán, or one Tradition from +which the required judgment may be deduced. The Sháfi'ite in the same +circumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduction, will require a +considerable number of Traditions from which to make it. + +Imám Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox Imáms. He was born at +Baghdád (A.H. 164). His system is a distinct return to Traditionalism. He +lived at Baghdád during the reign of the Khalíf Mamun, when Orthodox Islám +seemed in danger of being lost amid the rationalistic speculations, (that +is, from an Orthodox Muslim stand-point), and licentious practices of the +Court. The jurists most in favour at Court were followers of Abu Hanífa. +They carried the principle of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths in +order to satisfy the latitudinarianism of the Khalíf. Human speculation +seemed to be weakening all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal met the +difficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction. +At the same time he saw that the Máliki system, founded as it was on the +"Customs of Madína," was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and +growing Empire. It needed to be supplemented. What better, what surer +ground could he go upon than the Traditions. These at least were inspired, +and thus formed a safer foundation on which to build a system of +jurisprudence than the analogical deductions of Abu Hanífa did. The system +of Ibn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist. There is now no Muftí of this +sect at Mecca, though the other three are represented there. Still his +influence is felt to this day in the importance he attached to Tradition. + +The distinction between the four Imáms has been put in this way. Abu Hanífa +exercised his own judgment. Málik and Hanbal preferred authority and +precedent. As-Sháfi'í entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, as +regards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them an authentic +Tradition is an incontestable authority. Their {23} opinion on points of +doctrine and practice forms the third basis of the Faith. + +The Ijmá' of the four Imáms is a binding law upon all Sunnís. It might be +supposed that as the growing needs of the Empire led to the formation of +these schools of interpretation; so now the requirements of modern, social +and political life might be met by fresh Imáms making new analogical +deductions. This is not the case. The orthodox belief is, that since the +time of the four Imáms there has been no Mujtahid who could do as they did. +If circumstances should arise which absolutely require some decision to be +arrived at, it must be given in full accordance with the 'mazhab,' or +school of interpretation, to which the person framing the decision +belongs.[29] This effectually prevents all change, and by excluding +innovation, whether good or bad, keeps Islám stationary. Legislation is now +purely deductive. Nothing must be done contrary to the principles contained +in the jurisprudence of the four Imáms. "Thus, in any Muhammadan State +legislative reforms are simply impossible. There exists no initiative. The +Sultán, or Khalíf can claim the allegiance of his people only so long as he +remains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the Law." + +The question then as regards the politics of the "Eastern {24} Question" is +not whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived, an apostle or an +impostor; whether the Qurán is on the whole good or bad; whether Arabia was +the better or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought; but what Islám as +a religious and political system has become and is, how it now works, what +Orthodox Muslims believe and how they act in that belief. The essence of +that belief is, that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalífs and Imáms is +absolutely perfect.[30] Innovation is worse than a mistake. It is a crime, +a sin. This completeness, this finality of his system of religion and +polity, is the very pride and glory of a true Muslim. To look for an +increase of light in the knowledge of his relation to God and the unseen +world, in the laws which regulate Islám on earth is to admit that +Muhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission no Muslim will +make. + +It has been stated on high authority that all that is required for the +reform of Turkey is that the Qánúns or orders of the Sultán should take the +place of the Sharí'at or law of Islám. Precisely so; if this could be done, +Turkey might be reformed; but Islám would cease to be the religion of the +State. That the law as formulated by the Imám Abu Hanífa ill suits the +conditions of modern life is more than probable; but it is the very +function of the Khalíf of Islám, {25} which the Sultán claims to be, to +maintain it. He is no Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst the +Sunnís, to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of circumstances +some new law must be made, orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly in +accordance with the opinions of the Imáms. The Shía'hs, in opposition to +the Sunnís, hold that there are still Mujtahidín, but this opinion arises +from their peculiar doctrine of the Imámat, a subject we shall discuss a +little later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can be +Mujtahidín who are now able to give authoritative opinions, there may be +some hope of enlightened progress amongst Shía'h people--the Persians for +example. There is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest, more +mysticism, more heresy, but they are no further on the road of progress +than their neighbours; and the apparent advantage of the presence of a +Mujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his decisions must be +strictly in accordance with the Qurán and the Sunnat, or rather with what +to the Shía'h stands in the place of the Sunnat. The Shía'h, as well as the +Sunní, must base all legislation on the fossilized system of the past, not +on the living needs of the present. Precedent rules both with an iron sway. +The Wahhábís reject all Ijmá' except that of the Companions, but that they +accept; so when they are called the Puritans of Islám, it must be +remembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the Qurán, but the +Sunnat, and some Ijmá'. + +In order to make Ijmá' binding, it is necessary that the Mujtahidín should +have been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice. + +The whole subject of Ijtihád is one of the most important in connection +with the possibility of reforms in a Muslim state. A modern Muhammadan +writer[31] seeking to show that Islám does possess a capacity for progress +and that so far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adapt +itself to new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in {26} "an age of +active principles," uses the story I have already related when describing +the origin of Ijtihád (Ante. p. 17) to prove the accuracy of his statement. +He makes Mu'áz to say:--"I will look first to the Qurán, then to precedents +of the Prophet, and lastly rely upon my _own judgment_." It is true that +Ijtihád literally means 'great effort,' it is true that the Companions and +Mujtahidín of the first class had the power of exercising their judgment in +doubtful cases, and of deciding them according to their sense of the +fitness of things, provided always, that their decision contravened no law +of the Qurán or the Sunnat; but this in no way proves that Islám has any +capacity for progress, or that "an age of active principles" was ushered in +by Muhammad, or that his "words breathe energy and force, and infuse new +life into the dormant heart of humanity." For, though the term Ijtihád +might, in reference to the men I have mentioned, be somewhat freely +translated as "one's own judgment," it can have no such meaning now. It is +a purely technical term, and its use and only use now is to express the +"referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the Qurán and the +Sunnat." But even were the meaning not thus restricted, even though it +meant now as it sometimes meant at first, "one's own judgment;" still Syed +Amír 'Alí's position would remain to be proved for, since the days of the +four Imáms, the orthodox believe that there has been no Mujtahid of the +first class, and to none but men of this rank has such power ever been +accorded. Thus granting, for the sake of argument merely, that the Syed's +translation is grammatically and technically correct, all that results from +it is that the "age of active principles" lasted only for two centuries. I +do not admit that there ever was such an age in Islám, and certainly +neither its theological development, nor its political growth negative the +opposite assertion, _viz._, that Muhammad gave precepts rather than +principles. The Turks are included in "the dormant heart of humanity," but +it is difficult to see what "energy and {27} force" is breathed, what "new +life is infused" into them by the "wonderful words" of the Prophet, or what +lasting good the "age of active principles" has produced. + +4. QÍÁS is the fourth foundation of Islám. The word literally means +reasoning, comparing. It is in common use in Hindustani and Persian in the +sense of guessing, considering, &c. Technically, it means the analogical +reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Qurán, the +Sunnat and the Ijmá'. For example, the Qurán says:--"Honour thy father and +thy mother and be not a cause of displeasure to them." It is evident from +this that disobedience to parents is prohibited, and prohibition implies +punishment if the order is disobeyed. Again, if the Qurán and the Sunnat +hold children responsible, according to their means, for the debts of their +father, does it not follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their +parents all those obligations which for some reason or other the parents +may not be able to perform, such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. A +Tradition said to come from the Companions runs thus:--"One day, a woman +came to the Prophet and said, 'my father died without making the +Pilgrimage.' The Prophet said, 'If thy father had left a debt what wouldest +thou do,' 'I would pay the debt.' 'Good, then pay this debt also.'" The +Qurán forbids the use of Khamar, an intoxicating substance, and so it is +argued that wine and opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. The +Wahhábís would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco. + +From cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the Mujtahidín of +the earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which they +call Qíás. It is also called I'tibár-ul-Amsál, or "imitation of an +example." The idea is taken from the verse: "Profit by this example, ye who +are men of insight" (Súra lix. 2). There are strict rules laid down which +regulate Qíás, of which the most important is, that in all cases it must be +based on the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. In fact, the fundamental +idea of Islám {28} is that a perfect law has been given, even unto details, +of social and political life. The teaching of Muhammad contains the +solution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law not provided by the +Prophet must be deduced analogically. This produces uniformity after a +fashion, but only because intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceases +and moral stagnation follows. Thus all who come within the range of this +system are bound down to political servitude. Whatever in feeling or +conviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn set of laws is swept away. +There is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all Musalmán States, +which seems to point to a common cause. All first principles are contained +in the Qurán and the Sunnat; all that does not coincide with them must be +wrong. They are above all criticism. + +Qíás, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, removes no fetter of +the past, for in it there must be no divergence in principle from a +legislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in its +essence.[32] In the Niháyat-ul-Murád it is written:--"We are shut up to +following the four Imáms." In the Tafsír-i-Ahmadí we read:--"To follow any +other than the four Imáms is unlawful." An objector may say that such +respect is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors. To this +an answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqáyah. The +writer there says that it is nothing of the kind. "The Mujtahidín are not +the source of the orders of the Law, but they are the medium by which we +obtain the Law. Thus Imám Abu Hanífa said: 'We select first from the Qurán, +then from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the Companions; we act +on what the Companions agreed upon; where they doubt, we doubt.' The +Commentator Jelál-ud-dín Mahlí says, 'The common people and others who have +{29} not reached the rank of a Mujtahid, must follow one of the four +Imáms.' Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he must not change. Again, it +may be objected that God gave no order about the appointment of four Imáms. +Now, it is recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said, 'Follow the way +of the great company; whosoever departs from it will enter hell.' The +Followers of the Imáms are a great company." It is moreover the unanimous +opinion, the "Ijmá'-i-Ummat," that the Imáms rightly occupy the position +accorded to them. It is a great blessing, as we read in the +Tafsír-i-Ahmadí: "It is of the grace of God, that we are shut up to these +four Imáms. God approves of this, and into this matter proofs and +explanations do not enter." Should any one further object that, in the days +of the Prophet, there were no Mujtahidín, that each man acted on a "saying" +as he heard it, that he did not confine his belief or conduct to the +deductions made by some "appointed Companion," he may be answered +thus:--"For a long time after the death of the Prophet many Companions were +alive, and consequently the Traditions then current were trustworthy; but +now it is not so, hence the need for the Imáms and their systems." + +These four foundations,--the QURÁN, the SUNNAT, IJMÁ' and QÍÁS--form in +orthodox Muslim opinion and belief a perfect basis of a perfect religion +and polity. They secure the permanence of the system, but they repress an +intelligent growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is very +plain. Take again the case of Turkey. The constitution of the Government is +theocratic. The germs of freedom are wanting there as they have never been +wanting in any other country in Europe. The ruling power desires no change; +originality of thought, independence of judgment is repressed. Nothing good +has the Turk ever done for the world.[33] This rule has been one continued +display of brute {30} force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory which +shone for a while in Cordova and in Baghdád. No nation can possibly +progress, the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are what has +been described in this chapter. When brought into diplomatic and commercial +intercourse with States possessing the energy and vigour of a national life +and liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the long run, fail and +pass away. It has been well said that "Spain is the only instance of a +country once thoroughly infused with Roman civilisation which has been +actually severed from the empire; and even then the severance, though of +long duration, was but partial and temporary. After a struggle of nearly +eight centuries, the higher form of social organisation triumphed over the +lower and the usurping power of Islám was expelled." So it ought to be, and +so indeed it must ever be, for despotism must give way to freedom; the life +latent in the subject Christian communities must sooner or later cast off +the yoke of a barbarian rule, which even at its best is petrified and so is +incapable of progress. However low a Christian community may have fallen, +there is always the possibility of its rising again. A lofty ideal is +placed before it. All its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward. +In Islám there is no regenerative power. Its golden age was in the past. +When the work of conquest is done, when a Muhammadan nation has to live by +industry, intelligence and thrift, it always miserably fails. + +In this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have tried to prove from +authentic and authoritative sources that {31} the Qurán alone is to no +Muslim the sole guide of life. The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten +alike around the individual and the community. Islám is sterile, it gives +no new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of new forms +of truth, and so it can give no real life, no lasting vitality to a +nation.[34] + +{32} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER I. + + IJTIHÁD. + + Questions connected with Ijtihád are so important in Islám, that I + think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical + account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This + account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalmán, and is, + therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an + article in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrième Série, tome, 15, on "Le + Marche et les Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes orthodoxes + Musalmanes" by Mirza Kázim Beg, Professor in the University of St. + Petersburg. It entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid + character of Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of systems founded + thereon. + + "Orthodox Musalmáns admit the following propositions as axioms. + + 1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people + whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He + has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly in the eternal + Qurán, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to + posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. That way is + called the "Sharí'at." The rules thereof are called Ahkám. + + 2. The Qurán and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are the + primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, + _viz._, Ilm-i-Tafsír, or the interpretation of the Qurán and + Ilm-i-Hadís, or the study of Tradition. + + 3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Dín), + or to the belief (Imán) of the Mukallifs.[35] + + 4. As the Qurán and the Sunnat are the principal sources from whence + the precepts of the Sharí'at have been drawn, so the rules recognized + as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of + Ilm-í-Fiqh, or the science of Law. + + Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus Muhammad + prayed for Ibn Mas'úd: "May God make him {33} comprehend (Faqqihahu), + and make him know the interpretation of the Qurán." Muhammad in his + quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or + contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a + guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first + Khalífs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Qurán + and the Sunnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation, + became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that + men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the + Qurán and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate + science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the + early Musalmáns did not possess books which would serve for such + teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the + great jurisconsult of Syria died (A.H. 80) N'imán bin Sabit, surnamed + Abu Hanífa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the + schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim + seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the + Mufassirs,[36] the Muhaddis,[37] and the Fuqihá,[38] had all their + knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly + esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Qurán with the comments + made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the + Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands (Ahkám) which + proceed from the Qurán, and the Sunnat. Such men enjoyed the right of + Mujtahidín. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. + It was not till towards the middle of the second century A.H. that + treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after + which six schools (Mazhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders, + all Imáms of the first class, were Abu Hanífa, the Imám-i-A'zam or + great Imám (A.H. 150),[39] Safian As-Sáurí (A.H. 161), Málik (A.H. + 179), As-Sháfa'í (A.H. 204), Hanbal (A.H. 241) and Imám Dáúd Az-Zaharí + (A.H. 270). The two sects founded by Sáurí and Zaharí became extinct in + the eighth century of the Hijra. The other four still remain. These men + venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the + elder. Thus Sháfa'í said:--"No one in the world was so well versed in + jurisprudence as Abu Hanífa was, and he who has read neither his works, + nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence." Hanbal when + sick wore a shirt which had belonged to Sháfa'í, in order that he might + be cured of his malady; but all this {34} did not prevent them starting + schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihád is granted to those who + are real Mujtahidín. There are three degrees of Ijtihád. + + 1. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation + + 2. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Mazhab: authority in the judicial systems founded by + the Mujtahidín of the first class. + + 3. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Masáil: authority in cases which have not been + decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence. + + The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second + relative, the third special. + + THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. + + Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it + is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not + bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This + gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some in the + second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely + connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their + posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidín + of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries. + Thus Abu Hanífa says:--"That which comes to us from the Companions is + on our head and eyes (_i.e._, to be received with respect): as to that + which comes from the Tábi'ín, they are men and we are men." + + Since the time of the Tábi'ín this degree of Ijtihád has only been + conferred on the six great Imáms. Theoretically any Muslim can attain + to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that + the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so + no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:-- + + 1. The knowledge of the Qurán and all that is related to it; that is to + say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance + with the orders of the Qurán and all their sub-divisions, their + relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the + Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each verse of the Qurán + was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal + meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the + abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the + meaning of the 'obscure' passages (Mutashábih), to discriminate between + the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular. + + 2. He must know the Qurán by heart with all the Traditions and + explanations. {35} + + 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of + three thousand of them. + + He must know their source, history, object and their connection with + the laws of the Qurán. He should know by heart the most important + Traditions. + + 4. A pious and austere life. + + 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law. + + Should any one _now_ aspire to such a degree another condition would be + added, _viz_:-- + + 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence. + + The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there + is the severity of the 'Ulamá, which requires from the candidate things + almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the 'Ulamá + to their own Imáms, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to + listen to him. Imám Hanbal said:--"Draw your knowledge from whence the + Imáms drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others + for that is certainly blindness of sight". Thus the schools of the four + Imáms remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the + 'Ulamá recognise since the time of these Imáms no Mujtahíd of the first + degree. Ibn Hanbal was the last. + + The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. + He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between + the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of + legislation, without any one having the right to make any objection. He + had the right to explain the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' according + as he understood them. He used the Prophet's words, whilst his + disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy + between a decision of his own Imám and the Qurán or Traditions, he must + abide by the decision of the Imám. The Law does not permit him to + interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the + sect of one Imám he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the + right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first class can + dispute the decision of one of the Imáms. Theoretically such Mujtahidín + may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do + not. + + THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. + + This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great + Imáms who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed + the special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulamá, and of their + respective Imáms who in some cases have allowed them {36} to retain + their own opinion.' The most famous of these men are the two disciples + of Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad bin al Hasan. In a secondary + matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule + that a Muftí may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it + goes against that of Abu Hanífa. + + THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. + + This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it + should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence + according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. + They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their + judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous + Mujtahidín; but in either case their decisions must always be in + absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidín of the first + and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of + these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most + of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since Imám + Qází Khán died (A.H. 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnís as + a Mujtahid even of the third class. + + There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidín, + or followers of the Mujtahidín; but all that the highest in rank + amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of + the older jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulamá they are considered to + be equal to the Mujtahidín of the third class. If there are several + conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on + which to base their decision. This a mere Qází cannot do. In such a + case he would have to refer to those men, or to their writings for + guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems + without originating anything new. The author of the Hidáyah, who lived + at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. + + Such is Mirza Kázim Beg's account. The whole article, of which I have + only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. It shows + how "the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a guide to deeper + insight or wider knowledge; tramples upon the teaching of the past; + pays no heed to differences of climate, character, or history; but + regards itself as a body of absolute truth, one jot or tittle of which + cannot be rejected without incurring the everlasting wrath of God."[40] + +{37} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER II. + +EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS. + +The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically called +'Ilm-i-Usúl, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of +inspiration according to Islám, though that is not strictly speaking a +portion of this study. + +There are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, Wahí +and Ilhám. Wahí is the term applied to the inspiration of the Qurán, and +implies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into Wahí +Záhir (external inspiration), and Wahí Bátin (internal inspiration). The +whole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, is +simply the medium through which the revelation of Wahí Záhir reaches man. +The Wahí Qurán, _i.e._, the highest form of inspiration, always came to the +ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In Muhammadan +theology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it is +related that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noah +fifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to Jesus ten times, to +Muhammad twenty-four thousand times. + +Ilhám means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he, +though rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, and +is not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is a +lower form of Wahí Záhir, which is called Ishárat-ul-Malak (literally, +"sign of the Angel.") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: "The +Holy Ghost has entered into my heart." In other words, he received the +inspiration through {38} Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form of +inspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually applied +to the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who say that +except when delivering the Qurán Muhammad spoke by Ilhám and not by Wahí. +The practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahí +inspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Qurán. +Sharastani speaks of "the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have the +marks of Wahí."[41] This opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to be +supported by the first verse of the fifty-third Súra, entitled the Star. +"By the Star when it setteth; your companion Muhammad _erreth not_, nor is +he _led astray_, neither doth he _speak of his own will_. It is none other +than a revelation which hath been revealed to him." In any case the +inspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christian +idea of inspiration, which is to Musalmáns a very imperfect mode of +transmitting a revelation of God's will. + +That there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is an +idea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The Qurán +is not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Qurán +describes the revelation given to Moses thus:--"We wrote for him upon the +tables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive them thyself +with steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them for the +observance of its most goodly precepts.'" (Súra vii. 142). It is such an +inspiration as this the Qurán claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was that +it should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter for +all mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by God. It +proceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes, or +is understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the highest +form of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as {39} divine. It is +acknowledged that the Injíl--the Gospel--was given by Jesus; but as that, +too, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from heaven by the angel +Gabriel during the month of Ramazán, it is now asserted that it has been +lost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament are simply Traditions +collected by the writers whose names they bear. Their value is, therefore, +that of the second foundation of the Islámic system. + +The question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made known +his message to Muhammad. The Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theological +work, gives some details on this point.[42] Though the Qurán is all of God, +both as to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet in +one and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:-- + +1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Áyesha, one of Muhammad's wives, +that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the Prophet. +According to some commentators this brightness remained six months. In some +mysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or vision, made known the +will of God. + +2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of the +Prophet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute has +arisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the +bodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel overcame +Muhammad, who was then translated to the world of angels. This always +happened when the revelation was one of bad news, such as denunciations or +predictions of woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel was +one of consolation and comfort, the human nature of the Prophet overcame +the angelic nature of the angel, who, in such case, having assumed a human +form, proceeded to deliver the message. {40} + +3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To him +alone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish in, +and through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The +effect of this mode of Wahí was more marvellous than that of any of the +other ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated. +On the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll down +his face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a +ghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed the +intensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If riding, the camel +on which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, when +reclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known sound: +Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so heavy became +the head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he could +support the weight. + +4. At the time of the Mi'ráj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke to the +Prophet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed point +whether the face of the Lord was veiled or not. + +5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on the +Prophet's shoulders made known his will. + +6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought the +message from God. + +7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart of +the Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words of +God. This is technically called Ilká, and is by some supposed to be the +degree of inspiration to which the Traditions belong. + +Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by any +chance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, another +was always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of +abrogation, according to which some verses of the Qurán abrogate others. +Muhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once, +and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation. + +Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At first +there seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest +after all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in +himself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness in +his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God and man; but more +often the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--"He roared like +a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some +strange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or +more the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to +the Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,[43] to the Warrior-Chief, as +the founder of political unity among the Arab tribes. + +A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction in +grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage +when he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usúl," or the +exegesis of the Qurán, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done, +he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the +Fathers of Islám have to say. This science in one way fits him to be a +commentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things +"new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the things +old. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islám which can reveal +to the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to +deeper and more profound knowledge. + +The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Qurán by +heart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators +have said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the +{42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by the +Companions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can point +out a flaw in the Isnád (_i.e._ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted +by an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, the +authority of the Isnád of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory, +not critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The +chief qualification of a Háfiz, a man who can repeat the whole Qurán by +heart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be +able to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth, +this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. The +Sunnís say that no Shía'h can ever become a Háfiz, from which fact they +draw the conclusion that the Shía'hs are heretics. In the early days of +Islám, the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation +of the Qurán were the Khalífs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, and ten of +the Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which +Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islám. The +effort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Qurán +failed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca, +and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became +current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu Ibn +Káb, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that the +Prophet himself said: "read the Qurán under Abu Ibn Káb." These men +remembered that Abu Ibn Káb had stated, that one day when scandalized at +man after man who entered the mosque repeating the Qurán in different ways, +he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O Abu Ibn Káb! +intelligence was sent to me to read the Qurán in one dialect, and I was +attentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy the reading of the +Qurán to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me a second time +saying: 'read the {43} Qurán in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the +Court of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Qurán to my sects.' Then +a voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Qurán in seven +dialects.'" + +This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet in +thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked +upon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the "haft qirá,at," or seven +readings of the Qurán, now recognised. + +In the Qurán compiled by the order of the Khalíf Osmán there were no +vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islám they found +great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, +then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven +famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes of +reading, are Imám Nafi of Madína, Imám Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imám Abu 'Umr +of Basra, Imám Hamza of Kufa, Imám Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imám 'Ásim of Kufa, +Imám Kisáe of Kufa.[44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points in +many places in the Qurán, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In +India the "qirá,at--reading,--of Imám 'Ásim is followed by both Sunnís and +Shía'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the +Qurán privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service. +During the month of Ramazán the Qurán is repeated every night in the +mosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each +night. The Imám of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qárí) who commences +according to one of the seven recognised readings (qirá,at), must keep to +the same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a +great exercise of the memory. A good Háfiz will know the whole seven +varieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant in +their nature,[45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following are +a few illustrations. In the second Súra Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye be +questioned concerning that which _they_ have done;" but 'Ásim reads: "That +which _ye_ have done." This is caused by putting two dots above the line +instead of below it. Again 'Ásim reads: "_Enter ye_ the gates of hell" +(Súra xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: "_Ye will be made to enter_ hell,"--that +is, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice. +These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is +touched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation +of the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islám. At times, too, +fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous +Readers whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud, +a resident of Baghdád, ventured to introduce some different readings in his +recital of the Qurán. The people of Baghdád, not knowing these, were +furious, and the Khalíf was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A +Council of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn +Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his +"readings," but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce my +manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the +manuscript drawn up by the Khalíf Osmán, and that which is generally +received."[46] + +Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the +science of grammar. As Islám spread, it became necessary to expound the +Qurán to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then +became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a +necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to the +lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was +no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any +directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that is, +neither a command based on the Qurán nor one based on any saying or act of +the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty. + +Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalíf of Baghdád, was a +patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his, +Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that +the Quránists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly +reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in +connection with the Qurán, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to +whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is +recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw +the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbás +Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" The Prophet +had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islám. +Muslims now quote the Qurán as a perfect model of style; it may be well to +remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is +but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of +Arabic grammar.[47] + +The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very +important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usúl." It is said that the Qurán was +brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The +Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46} +answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The +infidels say, 'unless the Qurán be sent down to him all at once'--but in +this way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it out +to thee_" (Súra xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective; +it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet it +is a glorious Qurán, _written on the preserved Table_." (Súra lxxxv. 22). +Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have _recited_ it then follow +thou the _recital_." (Súra lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is +referred to in the verse: "We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Qurán." +(Súra xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Qurán was given[48] was +not without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some were +difficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The +knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as +they are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions, +that _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them." +(Súra xvi. 46). + +Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between +abrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge to +his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the +verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being +made."[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with +the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to +their followers, the Tába'ín, who in their turn passed it on to their +followers the Taba-i-Tába'ín. The art of writing then became common, and +the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the +sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the +Qurán was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion +was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second +must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were +perfect. Thus early in the history of Islám were the principles of exegesis +fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class. +The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,[50] +though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition +hitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It +will thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, +with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islám. The +perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature-- + + "While as the world rolls on from age to age, + And realms of thought expand, + The letter stands without expanse or range, + Stiff as a dead man's hand." + +The technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitions +of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the +words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Qurán, and the deduction +of arguments from passages in the book. + +I. The words of the Qurán are divided into four classes. + +1. _Kháss_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes. +First, words which relate to genus, _e.g._ mankind. Secondly, words which +relate to species, _e.g._ a man, which refers to men as distinguished from +women. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e.g._ Zeid, +which is the name of a special individual. + +2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as "people." + +3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic +word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word +"Sulát," if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulát Ulláh," the mercy +of God; if with man, it may mean either "namáz," a stated liturgical +service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, _e.g._ Sulát-ul-Istisqá +(prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namáz. + +4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which are +possible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Súra +cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lord +and _slay_ (the victims)." The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr," +which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanífa +render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the "victims"). The followers of +Ibn Sháfa'í say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer." + +This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the +former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context +settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right. + +These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of +defining any word in the Qurán gained, the {49} student passes on to +consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great +classes,--the "Obvious," and the "Hidden." + +This division is referred to in the following passage of the Qurán. "He it +is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves +_perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, and +others are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its +figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its +interpretation, but God.[51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe +in it, it is all from God.'" (Súra iii. 3). + +This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and +allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator +must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the +particular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it +abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or +not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which +the context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon +it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines +the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the +Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply +reproduce their opinions.[52] But to return from this digression. Sentences +are Záhir--"Obvious," or Khafí--"Hidden." Obvious sentences are divided +into four classes. + +I. (1). _Záhir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who +hears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for any +explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, +action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of +God. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one +religious act for another, _e.g._ almsgiving instead of fasting, must be +based on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences. + +(2). _Nass_, a word commonly used for a text of the Qurán, but in its +technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning +of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following +sentence illustrates both Záhir and Nass: "Take in marriage of such other +women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is Záhir, because +marriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words "one, two, +three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having +more than four wives. + +(3). _Mufassir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in +it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostrated +themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the +words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of +sentence may be abrogated. + +(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of +which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "God +knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on +such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest +degree of obedience to God's command. + +The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or +apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must +give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or +changed by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c. + +The other great division of sentences is that of + +II. (1). _Khafí_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which other +persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or +expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female, +cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Súra v. 42). The +word for thief is "Sáriq," and in this passage it is understood to include +highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are +Khafí or hidden under it. + +(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration: +"And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver +and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here +is that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say, +however, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilst +silver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that the +bottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and +like silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to +ascertain the meaning. + +(3.) _Mujmal._ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of +interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several +meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the +Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the +sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be +doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Súra lxx. 19.) In this +verse the word "halú'"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it +not been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full of +complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly," its meaning +would not have been at all easy to understand. + +The following is an illustration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences: +"Stand for prayer (salát) and give alms," (zakát.) Both salát and zakát are +'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so +they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that +"salát" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say the +words "God is great," or standing to repeat a few verses of the Qurán; or +it might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakát" is growing. +The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and +said, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part." + +(4.) _Mutashábih._ These are sentences so difficult that men cannot +understand them, a fact referred to in Súra iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will +they do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their +meaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the +commencement of some of the Súras.[53] Such expressions also as "God's +hand," "The face of God," "God sitteth," &c., come under this category. + +The next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Qurán, and +here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found, +_viz_:-- + +(1.) _Haqíqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as +"rukú'," a prostration, and "salát" in the sense of prayer. + +(2.) _Majáz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salát" in +the sense of "námáz" a liturgical service. + +(3.) _Saríh_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art +_divorced_," "Thou art _free_." + +(4.) _Kinayáh_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require +the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou art +separated," which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced." +This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be +known from the context, _e.g._ one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked +at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I." Muhammad +answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou +art." The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayáh.' + +The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlál," or +the science of deducing arguments from the Qurán. This too is divided into +four sections, as follows:-- + +(1.) _Ibárat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced, +shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be +obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is +reasonable." (Súra ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made. +First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it +must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of +supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the +relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother. +Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind. + +(2.) _Ishárat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order +in which the words are placed. + +(3.) _Dalálat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some +special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic +"uff") (Súra xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that +children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on +"dalálat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God +loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Súra v. 69.) The word translated +"aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'úna, "they run." From this the argument +is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those +whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be +given to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of +"dalálat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal +laws. + +(4.) _Iqtizá._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions: +"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a +believer from slavery." (Súra iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free +his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, +is that the slave should be his own property. + +The Qurán is divided into:-- + +(1). _Harf_ (plural _Hurúf_), letters. The numbers given by different +authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606 +letters. + +(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimát_), words, stated by some to amount to +79,087; by others to 77,934. + +(3). _Áyat_ (plural _Áyát_), verses. Áyat really means a sign, and was the +name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Qurán. The end of +a verse is determined by the position of a small circle (.). The early +Qurán Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so +five different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a +variation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:-- + +(1). _Kúfa_ verses. The Readers in the city of Kúfa say that they followed +the custom of 'Alí. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India. +They reckon 6,239 verses. + +(2). _Basra_ verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjáj, a +Companion. They reckon 6,204. + +(3). _Shámi_ verses. The Readers in Syria (Shám) followed Abd-ulláh bin +'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses. + +(4). _Mecca_ verses. According to this arrangement there are 6,219 verses. + +(5). _Madína_ verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 verses. + +{55} + +In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismilláh" (in the name of God) +is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Qurán. + +This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any +important passage. The third verse of the third Súra is an important +exception. The position of the circle (.), the symbol denoting a full stop, +in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of +scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalám) in Islám. + +Most of the cases, however, are like the following:-- + +In Súra xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a +letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings, +when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most +powerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." Many +Readers put the full stop after the word "hereof," and say that God is the +speaker of the words "and so will they do." + +(4). _Súra_, or chapter. The word Súra means a row or series, such as a +line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used for +chapters in the Qurán. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. The +Súras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some +approximate name, (as Baqr--the cow, Nisá--women, &c.,) generally taken +from some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged in +chronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, the +shorter Súras which contain the theology of Islám, belong to the Meccan +period of the Prophet's career,[54] and the longer ones relating chiefly to +social duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islám as a civil +polity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madína. The best +way, therefore, to {56} read the Qurán, is to begin at the end. The attempt +to arrange the Súras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all, +can only be approximately correct.[55] Carlyle referring to the confused +mass of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude, +incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European +through the Qurán." When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible. +The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. There +is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier +and later Súras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue. +Individual Súras are often very composite in their character, but, such as +they are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in +the reign of the Khalíf Osmán, has been handed down unaltered in its form. +The only variations (qirá'at) now to be found in the text have been already +noticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Súras. + +5. _Sípára_ a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from _sí_, +thirty, and _pára_, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a +_Juz_. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Qurán in a +month, taking one Sípára each day. Musalmáns never quote the Qurán as we do +by Súra and Áyat, but by the Sípára and Rukú', a term I now proceed to +explain. + +6. _Rukú'_ (plural _Rukúát_). This word literally means a prostration made +by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of verses +recited from the Qurán, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various +ritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a +"rak'at." After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshipper +makes a _Rukú'_, or prostration, the {57} portion then recited takes the +name of _Rukú'_. Tradition states that the Khalíf Osmán, when reciting the +Qurán during the month of Ramazán, used to make twenty rak'ats each +evening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Qurán, +beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he +recited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses in +each rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Qurán in this +way in Ramazán, and also to quote it by the rukú', _e.g._, "such a passage +is in such a Sípára and in such a rukú'." + +The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the +Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imám, or leader, being in front +facing the Qibla, the service commences thus:--Each worshipper stands and +says the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words declaring his +intention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great." After this, +looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be to +Thee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but +Thee." Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan." Then the +Tasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful." +Then follows the Fátiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement of +the Qurán. After this has been recited, the Imám proceeds, on the first +night of the month Ramazán, with the first verse of the second chapter.[56] +After saying a few verses, he makes a rukú'; that is, he bends his head and +body down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says: +"God is great." Then he repeats three times the words: "I extol the +holiness of my Lord, the Great." He then stands up and says: "God hears him +who praises Him." To this the people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised." +Again, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: "God is great." Then he +puts first his nose, and then his forehead on the {58} ground and says +three times: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High." Then sitting +on his heels, he says: "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "I +extol, etc." He then rises and says: "God is great." This is one rak'at. On +each night in the month of Ramazán this is gone through twenty times, the +only variation being that after the Fátiha and before the first +prostration, fresh verses of the Qurán are introduced. The whole is, of +course, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The +name of the prostration (rukú') has been transferred to the portion of the +Qurán recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukúát. + +(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a _Sumn_, _Ruba'_, +_Nisf_, _Suls_, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of a +Sípára respectively. + +In reciting the Qurán the worshipper must be careful to say the "Takbír," +_i.e._ "God is great," after the several appointed places. Such a place is +after the recital of the 93rd Súra. The custom arose in this way. The +hypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the +"Seven Sleepers." He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but he forgot to +add the words "if God will." By way of warning, God allowed no inspiration +to descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh and +say: "God has left him." As it was not God's purpose to put his messenger +to ridicule, the Súra entitled "The brightness" (xciii) was immediately +brought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By the brightness of the +morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, _thy Lord hath not forsaken +thee_, neither doth He hate thee." In remembrance of this signal +interposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the +recital of this Súra with the words: "God is great." The practice thus +became a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it should be done because the +Prophet did it. + +The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in {59} connection with +the study of the Qurán. It is referred to in the verses: "Whatever verses +we cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or +the like thereof." (Súra ii. 100). This is a Madína Súra. "What He pleaseth +will God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of revelation." +(Súra xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the Prophet's +life-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masúd states that the Prophet +one day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The next morning +he found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written. +Astonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informed +that the verse in question had been revoked. There are, however, many +verses still in the Qurán, which have been abrogated. It was an exceedingly +convenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the change of front which +Muhammad made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have been +laid down to regulate the practice. The verse which abrogates is called +_Núsikh_, and the abrogated verse _Mansúkh_. _Mansúkh_ verses are of three +kinds:--first, where the words and the sense have both been abrogated; +secondly, where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains; +thirdly, where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imám Málik +gives as an instance of the first kind the verse: "If a son of Adam had two +rivers of gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he would +covet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but +with dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent." The Imám states that +originally this verse was in the Súra (ix.) called Repentance. The verse, +called the "verse of stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. It +reads: "Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If a +man and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it +is a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise." The Khalíf +Omar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it {60} is +now lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into +'Ilm-i-usúl. Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Sale +states that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. The +principal ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon. +I give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occur +chiefly, if not almost entirely, in Súras delivered at Madína. There, where +Muhammad had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in +his aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found them +obstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seen +plainly in the following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not +stand facing any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the +following passage refers:--"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore, +whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God." (Súra +ii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madína, he entered into friendship with +the Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) towards +which the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was Jerusalem. This +went on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophet +for the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the Prophets, when he +asserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that his revelations were +the same as those contained in their own Scriptures, they utterly refused +allegiance to him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra the +breach between them was complete. It was now time to reconcile the leaders +of the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse quoted above was abrogated by: +"We have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have thee +turn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then thy face toward the +Holy Temple (of Mecca), and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward that +part." (Súra ii. 139.) The Faithful were consoled by the assurance that +though they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their {61} +faith be fruitless, "for unto man is God merciful, gracious." (v. 138.) The +doctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in the +following case: "It is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter, +nor to change thy present wives for other women, though their beauty charm +thee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall possess." (Súra xxxiii. 52.) +This is said by Beidawi, and other eminent Muslim divines, to have been +abrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of +verses, was really delivered after it. The verse is: "O Prophet, we allow +thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right hand +possesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughters +of thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side, +and on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madína), and any +other believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if the +Prophet desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the +rest of the Faithful." (Súra xxxiii. 49.) + +The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulamá, in one of the +meetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign, +propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry. +The lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. "Of +other women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three and +three, and four and four." (Súra iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not +restricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had told +him that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question, +Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned men +counted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting to +decide the point. + +Again, the second verse of Súra lxxiii reads: "Stand up all night, except a +small portion of it, for prayer." According to a Tradition handed down by +'Áyesha the last verse {62} of this Súra was revealed a year later. It +makes the matter much easier. "God measureth the night and the day; he +knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and therefore turneth to you +mercifully. Recite _then so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you_." (v. +20.) + +The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is no +verse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijmá' it has been +abrogated. "But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to +those who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to Islám." (Súra +ix. 60.) The clause--"to those whose hearts are won to Islám"--is now +cancelled.[57] Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, who lately enemies, +had now become friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them large +presents from the spoils he took in war; but when Islám spread and became +strong, the 'Ulamá agreed that such a procedure was not required and said +that the order was "mansukh." + +The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazán fast, to Jihád, the law of +retaliation, and other matters of social interest. + +The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by Musalmán +controversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say are +abrogated by the Qurán. "His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of every +other law."[58] This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine. +According to the best and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refers +entirely to the Qurán and the Traditions, and even then is confined to +commands and prohibitions. "Those who imagine it to be part of the +Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another, are utterly +mistaken--we hold no such doctrine."[59] In the Tafsír-i-Itifáq it is +written: "Abrogation affects those {63} matters which God has confined to +the followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief advantages of it is that +the way is made easy." In the Tafsír-i-Mazhirí we find: "Abrogation refers +only to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or historical +statements."[60] Again, no verse of the Qurán, or a Tradition can be +abrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it in +meaning. If it is a verse of the Qurán, we must have the authority of +Muhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of a Companion. +Thus "the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not sufficient unless +there is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadís-i-Sahíh), to show the matter clearly. +The question of the abrogation of any previous command depends on +historical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion of +a commentator." It cannot be shown that either Muhammad or a Companion ever +said that the Bible was abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that the +assertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation, +also illustrates another point to which I have often called attention, +_viz._; that in Islám all interpretation must be regulated by +traditionalism. + +Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those who +stay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdullah and +Ibn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind.' The Prophet asked for +the shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He then had a spasmodic +convulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the words, "free from +trouble." So now the whole verse reads thus: "Those believers who sit at +home _free from trouble_ (_i.e._, bodily infirmity), and those who do +valiantly in the cause of God, with their substance and their persons, +shall not be treated alike." (Súra iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: "I +fancy I see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack." + +{64} + +The question of the eternal nature of the Qurán does not properly come +under the head of 'Ilm-i-usúl, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many +Muslims. In the days of the Khalíf Al-Mamun this question was fiercely +debated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad, +asserted that the Qurán was created, by which statement they meant that the +revelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language was his +own. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In the year +212, A.H. the Khalíf issued a decree to the effect that all who held the +Qurán to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalíf +himself was a notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they +remained quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodox +side are, that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal, that the +attempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the Divine +Mind and as it appears in the Qurán is highly dangerous. In vain do their +opponents argue that, if the Qurán is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in +existence. To this it is answered: "This is the honourable Qurán, written +in the preserved Tablet." (Súra lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced which +states: "God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His own hand +He created Adam; and also in the Qurán it is written, 'and We wrote for him +upon the tables a monition concerning every matter,' in reference to the +tables of the Law given to Moses." If God did this for former prophets and +their works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have done it for +the last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble Qurán? It is not easy +to get a correct definition of the term "the uncreated Qurán," but it has +been put thus: "The Word as it exists in the mind of God is 'Kalám-i-Nafsí' +(spiritual word), something unwritten and eternal. It is acknowledged by +the Ijmá'-i-Ummat (consent of the Faithful), the Traditions, and by other +prophets that God {65} speaks. The Kalám-i-Nafsí then is eternal, but the +actual words, style, and eloquence are created by God; so also is the +arrangement and the miraculous nature of the book." This seems to be a +reasonable account of the doctrine, though there are theologians who hold +that the very words are eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes with +this idea, but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute +predestination. This accounts for the circumstances which necessitated the +abrogation, for the circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, were +determined on from all eternity. + +This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Qurán, a book +difficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which has +engaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of the +human race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological schools +of Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding through this +very subject of which I have here been treating; soon will they go forth as +teachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that training +is to make them wise men in any true sense of the word, how calculated to +render them proud, conceited, and scornful of other creeds, its rigid and +exclusive character shows. Still, it is a marvellous book; for twelve +hundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate the +courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether dwellers in the wild +uplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on the shores of the +Mediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alike +learn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, and +pray in its words as their fathers prayed before them. + +Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Qurán is the great +bond of Islám. No matter from what race the convert may have come, no +matter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat by +rote portions of the Qurán in every act of public worship. + +The next subject for consideration is that of the {66} Traditions, or the +second branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usúl. The Traditions contain the +record of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim, +to whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also acted +under a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is different from +that of the Qurán. There the revelation was objective. In the Prophet's +sayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is subjective, but still +a true inspiration. This belief places the Traditions in a place second +only to the Qurán; it makes them a true supplement to that book, and thus +they not only throw light on its meaning, but themselves form the basis on +which doctrines may be established. Without going so far as to say that +every Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islám, it +may be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed of +that system if the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. So +important a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of the +Traditions is included in the 'Ilm-i-usúl, or science of exegesis. Some +account of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter. + +The first four Khalífs were called the Khulafá-i-Ráshidín that is, those +who could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions of the +Prophet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt. +The Prophet had declared that Islám must be written in the hearts of men. +There was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing. They +were handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so effectual in a +dispute as "a saying" of the Prophet, the door was opened by which spurious +Traditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a number +of strict rules were framed, at the head of which stands the Prophet's +saying, itself a Tradition: "Convey to other persons none of my words +except those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely represents +my {67} words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire." +To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the relator of a Tradition must +also repeat its "Isnád," or chain of authorities, as: "I heard from such an +one, who heard from such an one," and so on, until the chain reaches the +Prophet himself. Each person, too, in this "Isnád," must have been well +known for his good character and retentive memory. This failed, however, to +prevent a vast number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current; so +men set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of +Tradition that in the second century of Islám had begun to work untold +evil. These men are called "Muhadisín," or "collectors of Tradition." The +Sunnís and the Wahhábís recognise six such men, and their collections are +known as the "Sihah-Sittah," or six correct books. They are the +following:-- + +(1). The _Sahíh-i-Bukhárí_, called after Abu Abdullah Muhammad +Ibn-i-Ismá'íl, a native of Bukhárá. He was born A.H. 194. He was a man of +middle height, spare in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his +father was on this account intense; but one day in a dream he saw the +Patriarch Abraham, who said to him: "God on account of thy grief and sorrow +has granted sight to thy son." The sight being thus restored, at the age of +ten he went to school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. After +his education was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dákhlí came to Bukhárá. +One day the youthful Bukhárí ventured to correct the famous man. It was an +astounding piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right. +This set him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At the +early age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course of +time he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result of his examination and +selection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and +seventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, the +Sahíh-i-Bukhárí. It {68} is said that he never sat down to examine a +Tradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two +rak'at prayers. He then said: "O Lord, let me not make a mistake." For +sixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of +sixty-four. + +(2). _Sahíh-i-Muslim._ Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjáj was born at Nishápúr, a city of +Khorásán. He collected about 300,000 Traditions, from which he made his +collection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing to oblige +all who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige was the +indirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in the mosque +when some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he could not +discover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house to search +there. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating and +searching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died. (A.H. 261.) + +(3). _Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd._ Abu Dáúd Sajistání, a native of Seistán, was born +A.H. 202. He was a great traveller, and went to all the chief places of +Musalmán learning. In knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety, +he was unrivalled. He collected about 500,000 Traditions, of which he +selected four thousand eight hundred for his book. + +(4). _Jámí'-i-Tirmizí._ Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizí was born at Tirmiz in the +year A.H. 209. He was a disciple of Bukhárí. Ibn Khallikan says this work +is "the production of a well-informed man: its exactness is +proverbial."[61] + +(5). _Sunan-i-Nasáí._ Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasáí was born at Nasá, in +Khorásán, in the year A.H. 214, and died A.H. 303. It is recorded of him, +with great approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wives +and many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with his +death in rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Alí, +and as the people of {69} Damascus were at that time inclined to the heresy +of the Khárigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place. +After he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him whether he knew +aught of the praises of Muavia, 'Alí's deadly enemy. He replied that he did +not. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that he died +soon after. + +(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Májah._ Ibn Májah[62] was born at 'Irak A.H. 209. This +work contains 4,000 Traditions. + +The Shía'hs reject these books and substitute five books[63] of their own +instead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been +compiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra. + +The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditions +is that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved Table,' on which +all that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind +of man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium of Gabriel, the +Prophet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophet +are the words of God. + +Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islám, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was the +greatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no less +than one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system +of jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanífa, who is +said to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded a +system which is to this day the most powerful in Islám. The Hanifites, +however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collections +of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} God. They range +over a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Qurán. The +Prophet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, +his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of +religious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them +we must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islám. It is very +difficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse +with Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their +thought and actions, are based on the Traditions. + +Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to enter +a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them. +The classification adopted by different authors may vary in some +subordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard +Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadís-i-Qualí, that is, an account of +something the Prophet said; or Hadís-i-Fa'lí, a record of something which +he did; or Hadís-i-Taqrírí, a statement of some act performed by other +persons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid. + +The Traditions may be classed under two general heads:-- + +First.--_Hadís-i-Mutawátír_, that is, "an undoubted Tradition," the Isnád, +or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narrator +possessed all the necessary qualifications for his office.[64] Some +authorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most +allow that the following is one: "There are no good works except with +intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention +of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing. + +Second.--_Hadís-i-Ahád._ The authority of this class is {71} theoretically +somewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same. + +This class is again sub-divided into two:-- + +(1). _Hadís-i-Sahíh_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to go +into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahíh if the +narrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowed +with a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace with +their neighbours. The following also are Sahíh, though their importance as +authorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. Sahíh +Traditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhárí and +Muslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both; +or, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has been +retained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of +Traditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any +other approved collector. For each of these classes there is a distinct +name. + +(2). _Hadís-i-Hasan._ The narrators of this class are not of such good +authority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; but +these Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any +practical use.[65] It is merely as a matter of classification that they +rank second. + +In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical terms +which have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnád, +and other points. A few may be mentioned. + +(1). _Hadís-i-Z'aíf_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have been +persons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad, +or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at," innovation, a habit now, as +then, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} "weak +Tradition" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to which +are, and which are not, "weak Traditions." + +(2). _Hadís-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnád of which there is some +break. If it begins with a Tábi' (one in the generation after that of the +Companions), it is called "_Mursal_" the one link in the chain, the +Companion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators +begins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on. + +(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator +concealed the name of his Imám, or where different narrators disagree, or +where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or +has been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an +account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this +class would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base +any important doctrine.[66] + +It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can be +contrary to the Qurán. The importance attached to Tradition has been shown +in the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation of +an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and the +Sunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of the Prophet, +are the foundation and sum of Islám, a fact not always taken into account +by modern panegyrists of the system. + +{73} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE SECTS OF ISLÁM. + +It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that the +Muhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and the +unanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how the +great sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, and +their consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is common +ground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter on +the "Foundations of Islám." + +It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the essential +foundations of the Faith. The Sunnís recognise four foundations, the +Wahhábís two; whilst the Shía'hs reject altogether the Traditions held +sacred by both Sunní and Wahhábí. The next chapter will contain a full +account of the doctrines held by the Sunnís, and so no account of this, the +orthodox sect, is given in this chapter. + +The first breach in Islám arose out of a civil war. The story has been so +often told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Alí, the +son-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalíf of Islám. He is described as +"the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmáns who imbibed his +religious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet himself, and who +followed to the last the simplicity of his character." He was a man +calculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his own natural +graces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. A +strong opposition, however, arose, and 'Alí was assassinated in a mosque at +Kúfa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting statements of historians of the +rival sects, to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events which +happened then; {74} but the generally received opinion is, that after the +assassination of 'Alí, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the Khalifate +in favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned by +his wife, who, it is said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, in +order to leave the coast clear for his son Yezíd. The most tragic event has +yet to come. Yezíd, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious and +irreligious man. The people of Kúfa, being disgusted at his conduct, sent +messengers to Husain, the remaining son of 'Alí, with the request that he +would assume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuade +him to let the people of Kúfa first revolt, and thus show the reality of +their wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a small +band of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of +Karbalá he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. "We are +few in number," said Husain, "and the enemy is in force. I am resolved to +die. But you--I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all those who +wish to do so leave me." "O Son of the Apostle of God!" was the reply, +"what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrection +did we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?" One by one these brave +men fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his infant son +alone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon the ground. The enemy +drew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrow +pierced the ear of the little boy and he died. "We came from God, and we +return to him," were the pathetic words of Husain, as with a sorrowful +heart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. He then stooped down to +drink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus stooping, the +enemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which wounded him in the mouth. +He fought bravely for a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds. +The schism between the Sunní and the Shía'h was now complete. {75} + +The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to these +historical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to suppose that +the only difference between the Shía'h and the Sunní is a mere dispute as +to the proper order of the early Khalífs would be a mistake. Starting off +with a political quarrel, the Shía'hs have travelled into a very distinct +religious position of their own. The fundamental tenet of the Shía'h sect +is the "divine right" of 'Alí the Chosen and his descendants. From this it +follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the Imám +(or Pontiff); from which position some curious dogmas issue. The whole +question of the Imámat is a very important one. The word Imám comes from an +Arabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term Imám then becomes +equal to the word leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense to +Muhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions, and to the +Khalífs, his successors. It is also, in its religious import only, applied +to the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a +restricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. It +is with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so used +in the Qurán--"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he +fulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imám to mankind;' he +said: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant,' said God, 'embraceth not the +evil-doers.'" (Súra ii. 118.) From this verse two doctrines are deduced. +First, that the Imám must be appointed by God, for if this is not the case, +why did Abraham say "of my offspring also?" Secondly, the Imám is free from +sin, for God said: "My covenant embraceth not the evil-doer." + +The first dispute about the Imámat originated with the twelve thousand who +revolted from 'Alí after the battle of Siffin (657 A.D.), because he +consented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and Muavia. +Some years after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Alí. A few {76} +survivors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled in Omán, and +there preached their distinctive doctrines. In course of time the people of +Omán adopted the doctrine that the Imámat was not hereditary but elective, +and that in the event of misconduct the Imám might be deposed. +'Abdullah-ibn-Ibádh (744 A.D.) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine, +and from him the sect known as the 'Ibádhiyah takes its rise. The result of +this teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the +Imám of Omán. The 'Ibádhiyah seem to have always kept themselves +independent of the Sunní Khalífs of Baghdád, and, therefore, would consider +themselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultán of Turkey. From the +ordinary Shía'hs they differ as regards the "divine right" of 'Alí and his +children. The curious in such matters will find the whole subject well +treated in Dr. Badger's "Seyyids of Omán." + +The term Khárigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for a +group of sects which agree as to the need of an Imám, though they differ as +to the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Khárigite +stands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shía'h. The Shía'hs +hold that the Imámat must continue in the family of 'Alí, and that religion +consists mainly in devotion to the Imám. The tragic end of 'Alí and his +sons invested them with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of +their leaders, the Shí'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soon +found development, _viz._, that it was God's will that the Imámat should +continue in the family of 'Alí. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet +said: "He of whom I am master has 'Alí also for a master." "The best judge +among you is 'Alí." Ibn Abbás, a Companion says: "I heard the Prophet say: +'He who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of God; he who blasphemes +the name of 'Alí blasphemes my name.'" A popular Persian hymn shows to what +an extent this feeling deepened. {77} + + "Mysterious being! none can tell + The attributes in thee that dwell; + None can thine essence comprehend; + To thee should every mortal bend-- + For 'tis by thee that man is given + To know the high behests of heaven." + +The general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, God took a +ray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to the body +of Muhammad, to which He said: "Thou art the elect, the chosen, I will make +the members of thy family the guides to salvation." Muhammad said: "The +first thing which God created was my light, and my spirit."[67] The body of +the Prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world +was created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of glory +appear. It is well known to all Musalmáns as the "Núr-i-Muhammadí"--light +of Muhammad. + +This "Núr" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind God created His +Throne, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third Paradise, and from +the fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all created beings. According +to a statement made by 'Alí, Muhammad said that he was created from the +light of God, whilst all other created beings were formed from the "light +of Muhammad."[68] + +This "light" descended to 'Alí, and from him passed on to the true Imáms, +who alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion against them +is sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion. + +The doctrine of the Imámat has given rise to endless discussion and +dissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shía'h sect will show. +They are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shía'h proper is the largest +and most influential of them. The following are the Shí'ah tenets regarding +the Imám, based on one of their standard books of {78} divinity.[69] The +Imám is the successor of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities which +he possessed. He is wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier than +the most pious. He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all +sin original or actual: hence the Imám is called ma'sum (innocent.)[70] God +rules the world by wisdom, hence the sending forth of prophets was a +necessity; but it was equally necessary to establish the Imámat. Thus the +Imám is equal to a prophet. 'Alí said: "In me is the glory of every prophet +that has ever been." The authority of the Imám is the authority of God, for +(I quote the Hyát-un-Nafís) "his word is the word of God and of the +Prophet, and obedience to his order is incumbent." The nature of the Imám +is identical with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Alí say: "I am +Muhammad, and Muhammad is me." This probably refers to the possession by +the Imám of the "light of Muhammad." The bodies of the Imáms are so pure +and delicate that they cast no shadow.[71] They {79} are the beginning and +the end of all things. To know the Imáms is the very essence of the +knowledge which men can gain of God. "The Holy God calls the Imáms His +word, His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions, +their actions too, He recognises as His own." As mediums between God and +man they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for "the grace of +God, without their intervention, reaches to no created being." These +extravagant claims for the Imáms culminate in the assertion that "for them +a pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by which the +actions of the Faithful are made known to them." The Imám is the supreme +Pontiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an infallible book is +not sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such wisdom and discernment +as such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants of +the Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some cases, +almost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'Alí and his +descendants.[72] + +The Usúl, or fundamental tenets of the Shía'h sect are five in number. (1) +To believe in the unity of God, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) To +believe in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is the +chief of all, (4) To consider 'Alí the Khalíf next in order after Muhammad, +(5) To believe 'Alí's descendants from Hasan to Mahdí, the twelfth Imám, to +be his true successors, and to consider all of them in character, position +and dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine of +the Imámat. + +{80} + +The first principal divisions of the Shía'h sect are the Ismá'ílians and +the Imámites. The latter believe in twelve Imáms, reckoning 'Alí as the +first.[73] The last of the twelve Abu'l-Qásim, is supposed to be alive +still, though hidden in some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdí, +"the guided." It is expected that he will reappear at the second advent of +Christ. They say that he was born near Baghdád in the year 258 A.H. He +afterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he was born the words, "Say: +'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: Verily falsehood is a thing that +vanisheth,'" (Súra xvii. 83) were found written on his right arm. When he +came into the world, he pointed with his fingers to heaven, sneezed, and +said: 'Praise be to God, the Lord of the world.' A person one day visited +Imám Hasan 'Askarí (the eleventh Imám) and said: 'O son of the Prophet who +will be Khalíf and Imám after thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'if +thou hadst not found favour in the eyes of God, He would not have shown +thee this child; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is his +patronymic,' (Abu 'l-Qásim). The sect who believe Mahdí to be alive at +present, say that he rules over cities in the far west, and he is even said +to have children. God alone knows the truth.[74] + +The other large division, the Ismá'ílians, agree with the Imámites in all +particulars save one. They hold that after Sádiq, the sixth Imám, commenced +what is called the succession of the "concealed Imáms." They believe that +there never can be a time when there shall be no Imám, but that he is now +in seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies, +and has paved the way for a mystical religion, which often lands its +votaries in atheism.[75] {81} + +The Ghair-i-Mahdí (literally "without Mahdí") are a small sect who believe +that Al-Mahdí will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad of Jeypore +was the real Mahdí, the twelfth Imám, and that he has now gone never more +to return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, and consider +all other Musalmáns to be unbelievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr, +in the month of Ramazán, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. After +that act of devotion is over, they say: "God is Almighty, Muhammad is our +Prophet, the Qurán and Mahdí are just and true. Imám Mahdí is come and +gone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel." They are a very fanatical +sect. + +There is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdís called the Dá,irí, +settled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point. +About four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some +followers in the dominions of the Nizám of Hyderabad. He called himself the +Imám Mahdí, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and his +disciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmáns, fled to a +village in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants, +fifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do not +intermarry with other Musalmáns. The usual Friday service in the mosque is +ended by the leader saying: "Imám Mahdí came and went away," to which the +people respond: "He who does not believe this is a Káfir" (infidel). + +There are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. "When of time +one day shall be left, God shall raise up a man from among my descendants, +who shall fill the world with justice, just as before him the world was +full of oppression." And again: "The world shall not come to an end till +the king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my family, and whose +name is the same as mine." When Islám entered upon the tenth century of its +existence, there was throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement. +Men {82} declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons arose +who claimed to be Al-Mahdí. I have already mentioned two. Amongst others +was Shaikh 'Aláí of Agra. (956 A.H.) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of +Abu'l-Fazl--the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh +'Aláí and from him imbibed Mahdaví ideas. This brought upon him the wrath +of the 'Ulamá who, however, were finally overcome by the free-thinking and +heretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a better ruler in India +than Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox Islám is +concerned. The Emperor delighted in the controversies of the age. The Súfís +and Mahdavís were in favour at Court. The orthodox 'Ulamá were treated with +contempt. Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He started a +new era, and a new religion called the 'Divine Faith.' There was toleration +for all except the bigoted orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others like +him, who professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all +religions contained truth. Thus:-- + + "O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language + I hear spoken, people praise Thee! + Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee, + Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal.' + If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a + Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee, + Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the + mosque, + But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple." + +In this reign one Mír Sharíf was promoted to the rank of a Commander of a +thousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyes +was that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the +close advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmúd of Busakhwán, +the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another offshoot of the +Shía'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmúd lived in the reign of +Timur and {83} professed to be Al-Mahdí. He also called himself the +Shakhs-i-Wáhíd--the Individual one. He used to quote the verse, "It may be +that thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmúd) station." (Súra +xvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in +purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree, +one Mahmúd (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation of +Muhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmúd. He also taught +the doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything was +the Nuqtah-i-khák--earth atom. It is on this account that they are called +the Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmúdiah and +Wáhídiah. Shah 'Abbás king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, but +Akbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to high +offices of State. + +This Mahdaví movement, arising as it did out of the Shía'h doctrine of the +Imámat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and claim the +name and office of Al-Mahdí is not to be wondered at, but that large bodies +of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts, and +how they longed for a personal leader and guide. + +The whole of the Shía'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there is +in the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator--some Word of the +Father, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight it would seem, +as if the doctrine of the Imámat might to some extent reconcile the +thoughtful Shía'h to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and +Mediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect revealer of God's +will; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. The mystic lore +connected with Shía'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and +vigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental part of +the system in its mystical developments, whilst all Shía'hs may lawfully +practise "takía," or religious {84} compromise in their daily lives. It +thus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shía'h may profess, +as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes a +mystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictions +imposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a sin almost, if +not quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of Mahdí is the +good time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the utmost +freedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, becomes +deadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with these +people can hardly credit. The practice of "takía," religious compromise, +and the legality of "muta'h" or temporary marriages, have done much to +demoralise the Shía'h community. The following words of a recent author +descriptive of the Shía'h system are in the main true, though they do not +apply to each individual in that system:-- + + "There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the + hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should + escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme + law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine + as the goal of human existence."[76] + +The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do not +exist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the next +chapter. + +In the doctrine of the Imámat, common to all the offshoots of the Shía'h +sect, is to be found the chief point of difference between the Sunní and +the Shía'h, a difference so great that there is no danger of even a +political union between these two great branches of Islám. I have already +described, too, how the Shía'hs reject the Sunnat, though they do not +reject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by the +recollection--a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of the +Muharram fast--of the sad {85} fate of 'Alí and his sons. The Sunnís are +blamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith, whilst the Khalífs Abu +Bakr, Omar, and Osmán are looked upon as usurpers. Not to them was +committed the wonderful ray of light. In the possession of that alone can +any one make good a claim to be the Imám, the Guide of the Believers. The +terrible disorders of the early days of Islám can only be understood when +we realise to some extent the passionate longing which men felt for a +spiritual head--an Imám. It was thought to be impossible that Muhammad, the +last--the seal--of the prophets should leave the Faithful without a guide, +who would be the interpreter of the will of Allah. + +We here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends beyond +the Shía'h sect, and is of some importance in its bearing upon the Eastern +Question. Apart from the superhuman claims for the Imám, what he is as a +ruler to the Shía'h, the Khalíf is to the Sunní--the supreme head in Church +and State, the successor of the Prophet, the Conservator of Islám as made +known in the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' of the early Mujtahidín. To +administer the laws, the administrator must have a divine sanction. Thus +when the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered Egypt, (A.D. 1516) he +sought and obtained, from an old descendant of the Baghdád Khalífs, the +transfer of the title to himself, and in this way the Sultáns of Turkey +became the Khalífs of Islám. Whether Mutawakal Billál, the last titular +Khalíf of the house of 'Abbás, was right or wrong in thus transferring the +title is not my purpose now to discuss. I only adduce the fact to show how +it illustrates the feeling of the need of a Pontiff--a divinely appointed +Ruler. Strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultáns are not +Khalífs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that the Khalíf (or +the Imám) must be of the tribe of the Quraish, to which the Prophet himself +belonged. + +Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said:--"The Khalífs shall be in the +Quraish tribe as long as there are two {86} persons in it, one to rule and +another to serve."[77] "It is a necessary condition that the Khalíf should +be of the Quraish tribe."[78] Such quotations might be multiplied, and they +tend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox Sunnís, other than +the Turks, to rush to the rescue of the Sultán, whilst to the Shía'hs he is +little better than a heretic. Certainly they would never look upon him as +an Imám, which personage is to them in the place of a Khalíf. In countries +not under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer for the ruler, said on +Fridays in the mosques, is said for the "ruler of the age," or for the +Amír, or whatever happens to be the title of the head of the State. Of late +years it has become more common in India to say it for the Sultán. This is +not, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, which declares that +the Khutbah can only be said with the permission of the ruler, and as in +India that ruler is the British Government, the prayers should be said for +the Queen. Evidently the law never contemplated large bodies of Musalmáns +residing anywhere but where the influence of the Khalíf extended. + +In thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by Turkish Sultáns +to the Khalifate of Islám, I do not deny that the Law of Islám requires +that there should be a Khalíf. Unfortunately for Islám, there is nothing in +its history parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of Church and +State. "The action and re-action of these powerful and partially +independent forces, their resistance to each other, and their ministry to +each other, have been of incalculable value to the higher activity and life +of Christendom." In Islám the Khalíf is both Pope and Emperor. Ibn Khaldoun +states that the difference between the Khalíf and any other ruler is that +the former rules according to divine, the latter according to human law. +The Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the Khalífs, his +successors, conveyed to {87} them absolute powers. Khalífs can be +assassinated, murdered, banished, but so long as they reign anything like +constitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal mistake in European +politics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultán as the Khalíf of +Islám, for, if he be such, Turkey can never take any step forward to +newness of political life.[79] + +This, however, is a digression from the subject of this chapter. + +There has been from the earliest ages of Islám a movement which exists to +this day. It is a kind of mysticism, known as Súfíism. It has been +especially prevalent among the Persians. It is a re-action from the burden +of a rigid law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a thousand +years, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it is the salt of +Islám some fruit should now be seen. But what is Súfíism? The term Súfí is +most probably derived from the Arabic word Súf, "wool," of which material +the garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally made. Some +persons, however, derive it from the Persian, Súf, "pure," or the Greek +[Greek: sophia], "wisdom." Tasawwuf, or Súfíism, is the abstract form of +the word, and is, according to Sir W. Jones, and other learned +orientalists, a figurative mode, borrowed mainly from the Indian +philosophers of the Vedanta school, of expressing the fervour of devotion. +The chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree, but not {88} in +kind, from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, and to which +they will ultimately return. The Spirit of God is in all He has made, and +it in Him. He alone is perfect love, beauty, etc.--hence love to him is the +only _real_ thing; all else is illusion. Sa'dí says: "I swear by the truth +of God, that when He showed me His glory all else was illusion." This +present life is one of separation from the beloved. The beauties of nature, +music, and art revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affections +from wandering from Him to other objects. These sublime affections men must +cherish, and by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on God, and so +approximate to His essence, and finally reach the highest stage of +bliss--absorption into the Eternal. The true end and object of human life +is to lose all consciousness of individual existence--to sink "in the ocean +of Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged into the stream on the +surface of which it has for a moment risen."[80] + +Súfís, who all accept Islám as a divinely established religion, suppose +that long before the creation of the world a contract was made by the +Supreme Soul with the assembled world of spirits, who are parts of it. Each +spirit was addressed separately, thus: "Art thou not with thy Lord?" that +is, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they all answered with one +voice, "Yes." + +Another account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) was placed in +the ground in the time of Adam; that the plant {89} came forth in the days +of Noah, was in flower when Abraham was alive and produced fruit before +Moses passed away. The grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time of +Jesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure wine was made from +them. Then those intoxicated with it, having attained to the highest degree +of the knowledge of God, could forget their own personality and +say:--"Praise to me, is there any greater than myself? I am the Truth." + +The following verse of the Qurán is quoted by Súfís in support of their +favourite dogma--the attaining to the knowledge of God: "When God said to +the angels, 'I am about to place a viceregent on the earth,' they said: +'Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and shed blood? +Nay; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness.' God answered them, 'Verily I +know that ye wot not of.'" (Súra ii. 28.) It is said that this verse proves +that, though the great mass of mankind would commit abomination, some would +receive the divine light and attain to a knowledge of God. A Tradition +states that David said: "'Oh Lord! why hast Thou created mankind?' God +replied, 'I am a hidden treasure, and I would fain become known.'" The +business of the mystic is to find this treasure, to attain to the Divine +light and the true knowledge of God. + +The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and formal +ritual, and though the seeds of Pantheism were planted in their system from +the first, they maintained that they were orthodox. "Our system of +doctrine," says Al-Junaid, "is firmly bound up with the dogmas of the +faith, the Qurán and the Traditions." There was a moral earnestness about +many of these men which frequently restrained the arm of unrighteous power, +and their sayings, often full of beauty, show that they had the power of +appreciating the spiritual side of life. Some of these sentences are worthy +of any age. "As neither meat nor drink," says one, "profit the diseased +body, so no warning avails {90} to touch the heart full of the love of this +world." "The work of a holy man doth not consist in this, that he eats +grain, and clothes himself in wool, but in the knowledge of God and +submission to His will." "Thou deservest not the name of a learned man till +thy heart is emptied of the love of this world." "Hide thy good deeds as +closely as thou wouldst hide thy sins." A famous mystic was brought into +the presence of the Khalíf Hárún-ur-Rashíd who said to him: "How great is +thy abnegation?" He replied, "Thine is greater." "How so?" said the Khalíf. +"Because I make abnegation of this world, and thou makest abnegation of the +next." The same man also said: "The display of devotional works to please +men is hypocrisy, and acts of devotion done to please men are acts of +polytheism." + +But towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, this earlier +mysticism developed into Súfíism. Then Al-Halláj taught in Baghdád thus: "I +am the Truth. There is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, and +He whom I love is I; we are two souls dwelling in one body. When thou seest +me, thou seest Him; and when thou seest Him thou seest me." This roused the +opposition of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Halláj was condemned to be +worthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalíf flogged, tortured and +finally beheaded. Thus died one of the early martyrs of Súfíism, but it +grew in spite of bitter persecution. + +In order to understand the esoteric teaching of Súfíistic poetry, it is +necessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller, the +knowledge of God the goal, the doctrines of this ascent, or upward progress +is the Tarikat, or the road. The extinction of self is necessary before any +progress can be made on that road. A Súfí poet writes:-- + + "Plant one foot upon the neck of self, + The other in thy Friend's domain; + In everything His presence see, + For other vision is in vain." + +{91} + +Sa'dí in the Bustán says: "Art thou a friend of God? Speak not of self, for +to speak of God and of self is infidelity." Shaikh Abu'l-Faiz, a great poet +and a friend of the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honourable +title of Málik-ush-Shu'ará--Master of the Poets, says: "Those who have not +closed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage from the +calm of this world and of the world to come." Khusrau, another well-known +poet says:-- + + "I have become Thou: Thou art become I, + I am the body, Thou the soul; + Let no one henceforth say + That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me." + +The fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Súfíistic. It is +difficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of these +writings. Kitmán, or the art of hiding from the profane religious beliefs, +often contrary to the revealed law, has always been a special quality of +the East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated.[81] Thus:-- + + "I was, ere a name had been named upon earth; + Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth; + When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign, + And Being was none, save the Presence Divine! + Named and name were alike emanations from Me, + Ere aught that was 'I' existed, or 'We.'" + +The poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace in +Christianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the Parsee. Even Islám gave him +no satisfaction, for-- + + "Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view, + I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone, + Of the globe-girding Kaf[82]:--but the 'Anka[83] had flown! + {92} + The sev'nth heaven I traversed--the sev'nth heaven explored, + But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord! + I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate, + But they whisper'd not where He pavilions His state; + My vision I strain'd; but my God-scanning eye + No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry. + My glance I bent inward; within my own breast, + Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd! + In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd, + _Till each atom of separate being I lost_." + +These are the words of the greatest authority among the Súfís, the famous +Maulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí, founder of the order of the Mauláví Darwíshes. +He also relates the following story: "One knocked at the door of the +beloved, and a voice from within said: 'Who is there?' Then he answered, +'_It is I._' The voice replied, 'This house will not hold _me_ and _thee_!' +So the door remained shut. The lover retired to a wilderness, and spent +some time in solitude, fasting, and prayer. One year elapsed, when he again +returned, and knocked at the door. 'Who is there?' said the voice. The +lover answered, '_It is thou._' Then the door was opened." + +The great object of life, then, being to escape from the hindrances to pure +love and to a return to the divine essence, the Tálib, or seeker, attaches +himself to a Murshid, or teacher. If he prosecutes his studies according to +Súfíistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders of Darwíshes. +After due preparation under his Murshid, he is allowed to enter on the +road. He then becomes a Sálik, or traveller, whose business henceforth is +súlúk that is, devotion to one idea--the knowledge of God. In this road +there are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve God and obey the +Law for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It is supposed that now the +Divine influence has so attracted his soul that he really loves God. (3) +Seclusion. Love having expelled all worldly desires, he arrives at this +stage, and passes his time in meditation on the deeper doctrines {93} of +Súfíism regarding the Divine nature. (4) Knowledge. The meditation in the +preceding stage, and the investigation of the metaphysical theories +concerning God, His nature, His attributes and the like make him an +'Árif--one who knows. (5) Ecstasy. The mental excitement caused by such +continued meditation on abstruse subjects produces a kind of frenzy, which +is looked upon as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from God. It +is known as Hál--the state; or Wajd--ecstasy. Arrival at this stage is +highly valued, for it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat--the +Truth. Now to the traveller is revealed the true nature of God, now he +learns the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking. This +admits him to the highest stage in his journey, as far as this life is +concerned. (7) That stage is Wasl--union with God. + + "There was a door to which I found no key; + There was a veil past which I could not see: + Some little talk of Me and Thee + There seemed--and then no more of Thee and Me." + +He cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few reach that exalted +stage. Thus arose a "system of Pantheism, which represents joy and sorrow, +good and evil, pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changeless +essence." Religion, as made known by an outward revelation, is, to the few +who reach this stage, a thing of the past. Even its restraints are not +needed. The soul that is united to God can do no evil. The poet Khusrau +says: "Love is the object of my worship, what need have I of Islám?" + +Death ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) It is +Faná--extinction. The seeker after all his search, the traveller after all +his wearisome journey passes behind the veil and finds--nothing! As the +traveller proceeds from stage to stage, the restraints of an objective +revelation and of an outward system are less and less heeded. "The {94} +religion of the mystic consists in his immediate communication with God, +and when once this has been established, the value of ecclesiastical forms, +and of the historical part of religion, becomes doubtful." What law can +bind the soul in union with God, what outward system impose any trammels on +one who, in the "Ecstasy," has received from Him, who is the Truth, the +direct revelation of His own glorious nature? Moral laws and ceremonial +observances have only an allegorical signification. Creeds are but fetters +cunningly devised to limit the flight of the soul; all that is objective in +religion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated.[84] + +Pantheistic in creed, and too often Antinomian in practice, Súfíism +possesses no regenerative power in Islám. "It is not a substantive religion +such as shapes the life of races or of nations, it is a state of opinion." +No Muslim State makes a national profession of Súfíism. + +In spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much that is sublime +in its idea of the search after light and truth, Súfíism ends in utter +negation of all separate existence. The pantheism of the Súfís, this +esoteric doctrine of Islám, as a moral doctrine leads to the same +conclusions as materialism, "the negation of human liberty, the +indifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments." + +The result of Súfíism has been the establishment of a large number of +religious orders known as Darwíshes.[85] These men are looked upon with +disfavour by the {95} orthodox; but they flourish nevertheless, and in +Turkey at the present day have great influence. There are in Constantinople +two hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Darwíshes are not organized with +such regularity, nor subject to discipline so severe as that of the +Christian Monastic orders; but they surpass them in number. Each order has +its own special mysteries and practices by which its members think they can +obtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible world. They are also +called Faqírs--poor men, not, however, always in the sense of being in +temporal want, but as being poor in the sight of God. As a matter of fact +the Darwíshes of many of the orders do not beg, and many of the Takiahs are +richly endowed. They are divided into two great classes, the Ba Shara' +(with the Law) Darwíshes; and the Be Shara' (without the Law). The former +prefer to rule their conduct according to the law of Islám and are called +the Sálik--travellers on the path (taríqat) to heaven; the latter though +they call themselves Muslims do not conform to the law, and are called Azád +(free), or Majzúb (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciation +of all worldly cares and pursuits. + +The Sálik Darwíshes are those who perform the Zikrs.[86] What little hope +there is of these professedly religious men working any reform in Islám +will be seen from the following account of their doctrines.[87] + +1. God only exists,--He is in all things, and all things are in Him. +"Verily we are _from_ God, and _to_ Him shall we return." (Súra ii. 151.) + +{96} + +2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are not +really distinct from Him. Creation is only a pastime with God. + +3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive religions, are only so +many allegories, the spirit of which is only known to the Súfí. + +4. Religions are matters of indifference; they, however, serve as a means +of reaching to realities. Some, for this purpose, are more advantageous +than others. Among which is the Musalmán religion, of which the doctrine of +the Súfís is the philosophy. + +5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, for all is +reduced to unity, and God is the real author of the acts of mankind. + +6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, is not free in his +actions. + +7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined within it as in a +cage. At death the soul returns to the Divinity from which it emanated. + +8. The principal occupation of the Súfí is to meditate on the unity, and so +to attain to spiritual perfection--unification with God. + +9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this unity; but God does +not refuse His aid to those who are in the right path. + +The power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. The following +account of the admission of a Novice, called Tawakkul Beg, into an Order, +and of the severe tests applied, will be of some interest.[88] Tawakkul Beg +says:--"Having been introduced by Akhúnd Moollá Muhammad to Sheikh Moolla +Sháh, my heart, through frequent intercourse with him, was filled with such +a burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical science that +I found no sleep by night, nor rest by day. When the initiation commenced, +{97} I passed the whole night without sleep, and repeated innumerable times +the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás:-- + + "Say: He is God alone: + God the eternal: + He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; + And there is none like unto Him." (Súra cxii.) + +Whosoever repeats this Súra one hundred times can accomplish all his vows. +I desired that the Sheikh should bestow on me his love. No sooner had I +finished my task than the heart of the Sheikh became full of sympathy for +me. On the following night I was conducted to his presence. During the +whole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me, whilst I gave +myself up to inward meditation. Three nights passed in this way. On the +fourth night the Sheikh said:--'Let Moollá Senghim and Sálih Beg, who are +very susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual energies to +Tawakkul Beg.' + +They did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my face +turned toward Mecca. As the morning drew near, a little light came into my +mind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the morning +prayers, I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of my mental +state. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On hearing +this, the Sheikh became animated and said: 'Thy heart is dark, but the time +is come when I will show myself clearly to thee.' He then ordered me to sit +down in front of him, and to impress his features on my mind. Then having +blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him. I +did so, and in an instant by the spiritual help of the Sheikh my heart +opened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and +another Moollá Sháh. The bandage was then removed, and I saw the Sheikh in +front of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him with my inward +eye. Astonished, I cried; 'O master! whether I look with my bodily eye, or +with my spiritual {98} sight, it is always you I see.' I then saw a +dazzling figure approach me. The Sheikh told me to say to the apparition, +'What is your name?' In my spirit I put the question, and the figure +answered to my heart: 'I am 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jilání, I have already aided +thee, thy heart is opened.' Much affected, I vowed that in honour of the +saint, I would repeat the whole Qurán every Friday night. + +Moollá Sháh then said: 'The spiritual world has been shown to thee in all +its beauty.' I then rendered perfect obedience to the Sheikh. The following +day I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints and +angels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region in which the +figures appeared no more. During the whole of this time, the Sheikh +continued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and of +the knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality. +It was not until a year had passed that I arrived at the true conception of +unity. Then in words such as these I told the Sheikh of my inspiration. 'I +look upon the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my heart nor my +soul, alas! that in separation from Thee (God) so much of my life has +passed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.' The Sheikh was delighted, and said +that the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed to me. Then +addressing those who were present, he said: 'Tawakkul Beg learnt from me +the doctrine of the Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres of +colours and of images have been shown to him. At length, he entered the +colourless region. He has now attained to the Unity, doubt and scepticism +henceforth have no power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outward +eye, till the inward eye gains strength and power.'" + +I cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few remarks +on Omar Khayyám, the great Astronomer-Poet of Persia. He is sometimes +confounded with the Súfís, for there is much in his poetry which is similar +{99} in tone to that of the Súfí writers. But his true position was that of +a sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has written will live. As an +astronomer he was a man of note. He died in the year 517 A.H. There are two +things which may have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligence +the hard and fast system of Islám was an intolerable burden. Then, his +scientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, the earnest +enthusiasts of which were too often followed by hollow impostors. It is +true, that there was much in the spirit of some of the better Súfís that +seemed to show a yearning for something higher than mere earthly good; +above all, there was the recognition of a Higher Power. But with all this +came spiritual pride, the world and its duties became a thing of evil, and +the religious and the secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin of +both. The Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man's +will to act, for his conscience to guide. So the moral law become a dead +letter. Irreligious men, to free themselves from the bondage and restraints +of law, assumed the religious life. "Thus a movement, animated at first by +a high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill. +The stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has become +a vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged with disease and death." + +Omar Khayyám saw through the unreality of all this. In vain does he try, by +an assumed air of gaiety, to hide from others the sadness which fills his +heart, as all that is bright is seen passing away into oblivion. + + One moment in annihilation's waste, + One moment, of the well of life to taste-- + The stars are setting and the Caravan + Starts for the dawn of nothing--oh, make haste! + + Ah, fill the cup:--what boots it to repeat + How Time is slipping underneath our feet: + Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday, + Why fret about them if To-day be sweet. + +{100} + +Omar held to the earthly and the material. For him there was no spiritual +world. Chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men. A pitiless destiny +shaped out the course of each human being. + + "'Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days + Where destiny with men for pieces plays: + Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, + And one by one back in the closet lays. + + The moving finger writes; and, having writ, + Moves on: nor all thy piety nor wit + Shall lure it back to cancel half a line, + Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it." + +Neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry. With +sages and saints he discussed, and heard, "great argument, but evermore +came out by the same door as in he went." He left the wise to talk, for one +thing alone was certain, and all else was lies,--"the flower that once has +blown for ever dies." Leaving men he turned to nature, but it was all the +same. + + "Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate + I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate, + And many knots unravell'd by the road; + But not the knot of human death and fate. + + And that inverted bowl we call the sky, + Where under crawling coop'd we live and die, + Lift not thy hands to it for help--for it + Rolls impotently on as thou or I." + +Omar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. Both were materialists, +both believed not in a future life. "Lucretius built a system for himself +in his poem ... it has a professed practical aim--to explain the world's +self-acting machine to the polytheist, and to disabuse him of all spiritual +ideas." Omar builds up no system, he only shows forth his own doubts and +difficulties, "he loves to balance antitheses of belief, and settle himself +in the equipoise of the sceptic." {101} + +The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no pain, but Omar who, +if only his reason could let him, would believe, records his utter despair +in words of passionate bitterness. He is not glad that there is no help +anywhere.[89] And though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to the +voice within the tavern cry, + + "Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup + Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry," + +yet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted with those who +professed to know, and could say: + + "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow, + And with my own hand laboured it to grow." + +The founder of the Wahhábí sect was Muhammad-ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháb, who was +born at a village in Nejd in the year 1691 A.D. The Wahhábís speak of +themselves as Muwahhid--Unitarians; but their opponents have given to them +the name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them Wahhábís. +Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, of a strong constitution and +generous spirit. After going through a course of Arabic literature he +studied jurisprudence under a teacher of the Hanífi school. He then set out +in company with his father to perform the Hajj. At Madína he received +further instruction in the Law. He spent sometime at Ispahán in the society +of learned men. Full of {102} knowledge, he returned to his native village +of Ayína where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He was +shocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what seemed to him the +strict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. Luxury in the form of rich +dresses and silken garments, superstition in the use of omens, auguries, +and the like, in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be altering +the character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. He saw, or +thought he saw, that in the veneration paid to saints and holy men, the +great doctrine of the "Unity" was being obscured. The reason was very +plain. The Qurán and the Traditions of the Companions had been neglected, +whilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the jurisprudence of the four +great Imáms had been too readily followed. Here was work to do. He would +reform the Church of Islám, and restore men to their allegiance to the Book +and the Sunnat, as recorded by the Companions. It is true, that the Sunnís +would rise up in opposition, for thus the authority of the four Imáms, the +"Canonical Legists" of the orthodox sect, would be set aside; but what of +that? Had he not been a follower of Abu Hanífa? Now he was prepared to let +Aba Hanífa go, for none but a Companion of the Prophet could give an +authoritative statement with regard to the Sunnat--the Prophet's words and +acts. He must break a lance with the glorious Imám, and start a school of +his own. + +He said: "The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the Prophet, and the +sepulchre of 'Alí, and of other saints who have died in the odour of +sanctity. They run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers. By +this means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporal +needs, From what do they seek this benefit? From walls made of mud and +stones, from corpses deposited in tombs. If you speak to them they will +reply, 'We do not call these monuments God; we turn to them in prayer, and +we pray the saints to intercede for us on high.' Now, the true {103} way of +salvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is ever present, and to +venerate Him--the one without associate or equal." Such outspoken language +raised up opposition, and he had to seek the protection of +Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now vigorously supported +the Wahhábí movement. He was a stern and uncompromising man. "As soon as +you seize a place," he said to his soldiers, "put the males to the sword. +Plunder and pillage at your pleasure, but spare the women and do not strike +a blow at their modesty." On the day of battle he used to give each soldier +a paper, a safe conduct to the other world. This letter was addressed to +the Treasurer of Paradise. It was enclosed in a bag which the warrior +suspended to his neck. The soldiers were persuaded that the souls of those +who died in battle would go straight to heaven, without being examined by +the angels Munkar and Nakír in the grave. The widows and orphans of all who +fell were supported by the survivors. Nothing could resist men who, fired +with a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth, received a share of the +booty, if conquerors; who went direct to Paradise if they were slain. In +course of time, Muhammad-Ibn-Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháb +and founded the Wahhábí dynasty which to this day rules at Ryadh.[90] + +Such was the origin of this great movement, which spread, in course of +time, over Central and Eastern Arabia, and in the beginning of this century +found acceptance in India. In the year 1803 A.D. both Mecca and Madína fell +into the hands of the Wahhábís. A clean sweep was made of all things, the +use of which was opposed to Wahhábí principles. Not only rosaries and +charms, but silk robes and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smoking +is a {104} deadly sin. On this point there is a good story told by +Palgrave--"'Abd-ul-Karím said: 'The first of the great sins is the giving +divine honours to a creature.' Of course I replied, 'The enormity of such a +sin is beyond all doubt. But if this be the first, there must be a second; +what is it?' 'Drinking the shameful!' (in English idiom, 'smoking tobacco') +was the unhesitating answer. 'And murder, and adultery, and false witness?' +I suggested. 'God is merciful and forgiving,' rejoined my friend; that is, +these are merely little sins."[91] + +After holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were driven +out by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, the fourth Wahhábí ruler, was +captured by Ibrahím Pasha, and afterwards executed in the square of St. +Sophia (1818 A.D.) The political power of the Wahhábís has since been +confined to parts of Arabia; but their religious opinions have widely +spread. + +The leader of the Wahhábí movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, a reformed +freebooter. He was now born at Ráí Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 A.D. When about +thirty years of age he gave up his wild way of living and settled down in +Delhi as a student of the Law of Islám. After a while, he went on +pilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, so similar to those of the noted +Wahhábí, attracted the attention of the orthodox theologians, through whose +influence he was expelled from the sacred city. Persecution deepened his +religious convictions, and he returned to India a pronounced Wahhábí. He +soon gained a large number of disciples, and in 1826 A.D. he preached a +Jihád against the Sikhs. This war was not a success. In the year 1831 the +Wahhábís were suddenly attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and Sayyid +Ahmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the spread of Wahhábí +principles, for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an enthusiastic +disciple. This man, {105} Muhammad Ismá'íl, was born near Delhi in the year +1781 A.D. He was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjects +which form the curriculum of a liberal education amongst Musalmáns. His +first preaching was in a Mosque at Delhi on Tauhíd (Unity), and against +Shirk (Polytheism). He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired great +influence over his new disciple. Ismá'íl told him one evening that he could +not offer up his prayers with Huzúr-i-Kalb, presence of heart. The Sayyid +took him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first of the +prayers after him, and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and was able +to so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he remained engaged +in prayer till the morning. Henceforward he was a devoted adherent of his +spiritual teacher. In the public discussions, which now often took place, +none were a match for Ismá'íl. This fervent preacher of Wahhábíism is now +chiefly remembered by his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, the book from +which the account of Wahhábí doctrine given in this chapter is taken. If I +make no special reference to the quotations given, it will be known that my +authority for the statements thus made is Muhammad Ismá'íl, the most famous +of all Sayyid Ahmad's disciples. This book was followed by the +Sirát-ul-Mustaqím, said to have been written by one of Ismá'íl's followers. +Wahhábí doctrines are now spread throughout India. In the South there is +not much religious excitement or inquiry, yet Wahhábís are to be found +there.[92] It was and is a remarkable movement. In one sense it is a +struggle against the traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense can it +be said that the Wahhábís reject Tradition. They acknowledge as the +foundation of the faith--first, the Qurán; secondly, the Traditions which +are recorded on the authority of the Companions, and also the Ijmá' of the +Companions, that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion +{106} or in practice. Thus to the Wahhábí as to the Sunní, Muhammad is in +all his _acts_ and _words_ a perfect guide. + +So far from Wahhábíism being a move onward because it is a return to first +principles, it rather binds the fetters of Islám more tightly. It does not +originate anything new, it offers no relaxation from a system which looks +upon the Qurán and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law, social and +political, moral and religious. + +The Wahhábí places the doctrine of the "Tauhíd," or Unity, in a very +prominent position. It is true that all Musalmán sects put this dogma in +the first rank, but Wahhábís set their faces against practices common to +the other sects, because they consider that they obscure this fundamental +doctrine. It is this which brings them into collision with other Musalmáns. +The greatest of all sins is Shirk (_i.e._ the ascribing of plurality to the +Deity). A Mushrik (Polytheist) is one who so offends. All Musalmáns +consider Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhábís consider all other +Musalmáns also to be Polytheists, because they look to the Prophet for +intercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, and do other unlawful acts. + +The Takwiat-ul-Imán says that "two things are necessary in religion--to +know God as God, and the Prophet as the Prophet." The two fundamental bases +of the faith are the "Doctrine of the Tauhíd (Unity) and obedience to the +Sunnat." The two great errors to be avoided are Shirk (Polytheism) and +Bida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked upon as evil, it is somewhat +difficult to see what hope of progress can be placed upon this latest phase +of Muhammadan revival. + +Shirk is defined to be of four kinds: Shirk-ul-'Ilm, ascribing knowledge to +others than God; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, ascribing power to others than God; +Shirk-ul-'Ibádat, offering worship to created things; Shirk-ul-'ádat, the +performance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others than God. {107} + +The first, Shirk-ul-'Ilm, is illustrated by the statement that prophets and +holy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as revealed to them by +God. Thus some wicked persons made a charge against 'Áyesha. The Prophet +was troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of the matter till God made it +known to him. To ascribe, then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, and +saints is Polytheism. "All who pretend to have a knowledge of hidden +things, such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers and interpreters of dreams, as +well as those who profess to be inspired are all liars." Again, "should any +one take the name of any saint, or invoke his aid in the time of need, +instead of calling on God, or use his name in attacking an enemy, or read +passages to propitiate him, or make him the object of contemplation--it is +Shirk-ul-'Ilm." + +The second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that any one has power +with God. He who looks up to any one as an intercessor with God commits +Shirk. Thus: "But they who take others beside Him as lords, saying, 'We +only serve them that they may bring us near God,'--God will judge between +them (and the Faithful) concerning that wherein they are at variance." +(Súra xxxix. 4.) Intercession may be of three kinds. For example, a +criminal is placed before the King. The Vizier intercedes. The King, having +regard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. This is called +Shafá'at-i-Wajahat, or 'intercession from regard.' But to suppose that God +so esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of +it is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes intercede for the criminal. +The King, from love to them, pardons him. This is called +Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, or 'intercession from affection.' But to consider that +God so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his account is to give that +loved one power, and this is Shirk, for such power is not possible in the +Court of God. "God may out of His bounty confer on His favourite servants +the epithets of Habíb--favourite, or Khalíl--friend, {108} &c.; but a +servant is but a servant, no one can put his foot outside the limits of +servitude, or rise beyond the rank of a servant." Again, the King may +himself wish to pardon the offender, but he fears lest the majesty of the +law should be lowered. The Vizier perceives the King's wish, and +intercedes. This intercession is lawful. It is called +Shafá'at-i-ba-izn--intercession by permission, and such power Muhammad will +have at the day of Judgment. Wahhábís hold that he has not that power now, +though all other Musalmáns consider that he has, and in consequence (in +Wahhábí opinion) commit the sin of Shirk-ut-tasarruf. The Wahhábís quote +the following passages in support of their view. "Who is he that can +intercede with Him but by _His own permission_." (Súra ii. 256) "Say: +Intercession is wholly with God! His the kingdoms of the heavens and of the +earth." (Súra xxxix. 46). They also say: "whenever an allusion is made in +the Qurán, or the Traditions to the intercession of certain prophets or +apostles, it is this kind of intercession and no other that is meant." + +The third Shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea of +worshipping it. It also includes perambulating the shrines of departed +saints. Thus: "Prostration, bowing down, standing with folded arms, +spending money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect to his +memory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling out +the name of the saint whilst so going is Shirk-ul-'Ibádat." It is wrong "to +cover the grave with a sheet (ghiláf), to say prayers at the shrine, to +kiss any particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast against the walls of +the shrine, &c." This is a stern condemnation of the very common practice +of visiting the tombs of saints and of some of the special practices of the +pilgrimage to Mecca. All such practices as are here condemned are called +Ishrák fi'l 'Ibádat--'association in worship.' + +The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs, such as the +Istikhára--seeking guidance from beads {109} &c., trusting to omens, good +or bad, believing in lucky and unlucky days, adopting such names as +'Abd-un-Nabi (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the denouncing of +such practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhábíism into daily contact +with the other sects, for scarcely any people in the world are such +profound believers in the virtue of charms and the power of astrologers as +Musalmáns. The difference between the first and fourth Shirk, the +Shirk-ul-'Ilm and the Shirk-ul-'ádat, seems to be that the first is the +_belief_, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the second the _habit_ +of consulting him. + +To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'Alí, of the Imáms, or of Pírs +(Leaders) is to give them the honour due to God alone. It is Ishrák fi'l +adab--'Shirk in association.' + +Another common belief which Wahhábís oppose is that Musalmáns can perform +the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), say prayers, read the Qurán, abide in +meditation, give alms, and do other good works, the reward of which shall +be credited to a person already dead.[93] Amongst other Musalmáns it is a +common practice to read the Qurán in the belief that, if done with such an +intention, the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire. +Wahábís entirely object to this. + +The above technical exposition of Wahhábí tenets shows how much stress they +lay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the "Unity." "Lá-il-láha, +Il-lal-lá-hu" (there is no God but God) is an eternal truth. Yet to the +Musalmán God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood of God he has +accepted as the object of his worship, hardly of his affections, a Being +despotic in all He does, arbitrary in all His ways. He has accepted the +position of a slave instead of that of a son. Wahhábíism emphasizes the +ideas which flow from the first article of the Muslim creed. But {110} on +this subject we prefer to let Palgrave speak. He of all men knew the +Wahhábí best, and he, at least, can be accused of no sectarian bias. The +extract is rather long, but will repay perusal; indeed, the whole passage +from which this extract is taken should be read. + + "'There is no God but God,' are words simply tantamount in English to + the negation of any deity save one alone; and thus much they certainly + mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. Their full sense is, not + only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of + nature or of person in the Supreme Being, not only to establish the + unity of the Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in all its simple and + incommunicable oneness, but besides this, the words, in Arabic and + among Arabs, imply that this one Supreme Being is the only Agent, the + only Force, the only Act existing throughout the universe, and leave to + all beings else, matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical + or moral, nothing but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement + or in quiescence, in action or in capacity. Hence in this one sentence + is summed up a system which, for want of a better name, I may be + permitted to call the 'Pantheism of Force.' 'God is One in the totality + of omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, + standard, or limit, save one sole and absolute will. He communicates + nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain + His alone, and in return He receives nothing from them.' 'It is His + singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they + are nothing else than His slaves, that they may the better acknowledge + His superiority.' 'He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, + neither loving nor enjoying aught save His own and self-measured + decree, without son, companion, or councillor, is no less barren for + Himself than for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone egoism + in Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregarding + despotism around.'[94] + +Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous, but maintains +that it is the "truest mirror of the mind and scope of the writer of the +Book" (Qurán), and that, as such, it is confirmed by authentic Tradition +and learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave possessed {111} the two +essential qualifications for a critic of Islam--a knowledge of the +literature, and intercourse with the people. So far as my experience goes I +have never seen any reason to differ from Palgrave's statement. Men are +often better than their creeds. Even the Prophet was not always consistent. +There are some redeeming points in Islám. But the root idea of the whole is +as described above, and from it no system can be deduced which will grow in +grace and beauty as age after age rolls by. + +The Arab proverb states that "The worshipper models himself on what he +worships."[95] Thus a return to "first principles," sometimes proclaimed as +the hope of Turkey, is but the "putting back the hour-hand of Islám" to the +place where indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for + + "Islám is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. + Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme + Original in all that constitutes true life--for life is love, + participation, and progress, and of these the Quránic Deity has + none--it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all + development."[96] + +Muhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahháb was a man of great intellectual power and +vigour. He could pierce through the mists of a thousand years, and see with +an eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith. He +had the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change (Bida't) and +progress were alien to the truth. This recognition of his ability is due to +him; but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest, by +the worship of the letter, all hope of progress, and to make "the +starting-point of Islám its goal." That he was a good Musalmán in so doing +no one can doubt, but that his work gives any hope of the rise of an +enlightened form of Islám no one who really has studied Islám can believe. + +Wahhábíism simply amounts to this, that while it denounces all other +Musalmáns as polytheists, it enforces the {112} Sunnat of the Prophet with +all its energy.[97] It breaks down shrines, but insists on the necessity of +a pilgrimage to a black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, but +attaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of God on the +fingers. It would make life unsocial. The study of the Fine Arts with the +exception of Architecture can find no place in it. Ismá'íl quotes with +approval the following Tradition. "'Áyesha said: 'I purchased a carpet on +which were some figures. The Prophet stood in the doorway and looked +displeased.' I said: 'O messenger of God, I repent to God and His +Messenger; what fault have I committed that you do not enter?' His Highness +then said: 'What is this carpet?' I replied; 'I have bought it for you to +sit and rest upon.' Then the messenger of God replied: 'Verily, the maker +of pictures will be punished on the day of resurrection, when God will +desire them to bring them to life. A house which contains pictures is not +visited by the angels.'" In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbás, the Prophet +classes artists with murderers and parricides. Wahhábíism approves of all +this, and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society "an +organised hypocrisy." It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for all +mankind except its own followers, and, where it had the power, it would +force its convictions on others at the point of the sword. + +Wahhábíism was reform after a fashion, in one direction; in the history of +Islám there have been attempts at reform in other directions; there will +yet be such attempts, but so long as the Qurán and the Sunnat (or, in the +case of the Shía'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have hitherto +{113} done for every sect, the sole law to regulate all conditions and +states of life, enlightened and continued progress is impossible. The +deadening influence of Islám is the greatest obstacle the Church of God has +to overcome in her onward march; its immobility is the bane of many lands; +connection with it is the association of the living with the dead; to speak +of it, as some do, as if it were a sort of sister religion to Christianity, +is but to show deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus it +is plain that Musalmáns are not all of one heart and soul.[98] In the next +chapter I hope to show that Islám is a very dogmatic and complex system in +spite of the simple form of its creed. + +{114} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER III. + + WAHHÁBÍISM. + + In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Série, tome 11, a curious account is + given of the voyage of Mirzá Muhammad 'Alí Khán, some time Persian + Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one of his voyages + from Persia to India he met with a Wahhábí, who had in his possession a + tract written by the founder of the sect. This small pamphlet he + allowed Mirzá Muhammad to copy. I give the substance of the pamphlet in + this note. The original Arabic will be found in the Journal Asiatique. + It is of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as + follows:--I know that God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanífa is + orthodox and identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast + known that God has created His servants for the purpose of being served + by them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, One + and alone; just as prayer (Salát) is not prayer (Salát), unless it is + accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said: "It is + not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against + themselves of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These! vain + their works: and in the fire shall they abide for ever!" (Súra ix. 17.) + + Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the hope of + obtaining by them that which God alone can give--those bring unto their + prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect, "and who + erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth upon that which shall not + answer him until the day of resurrection." (Súra xlvi. 4) On the + contrary, when the day of resurrection comes, they will become their + enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than God. + "But the gods whom ye call on beside Him have no power over the husk of + a date-stone! If ye cry to them they will not hear your cry; and if + they heard they would not answer you, and in the day of resurrection + they will disown your joining them with God." (Súra xxxv. 14,15.) + + He who says: "O thou Prophet of God! O 'Ibn 'Abbás! O 'Abd-ul-Qádir!" + &c. with the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can obtain + from God that of which the suppliant has need, or that they can protect + him, is an infidel whose blood any one may shed, and whose goods any + one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent. There are four + different classes of idolaters. + + {115} + + First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These + acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports all + living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. "Say: who supplieth + you from the heavens and the earth? who hath power over hearing and + sight? and who bringeth forth the living from the dead, and bringeth + forth the dead from the living? who ruleth all things? they will surely + say: 'God,' then say: 'What! will ye not therefore fear Him.'" (Súra x. + 32.) It is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an + outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray; for they have recourse to + divinities of their own choosing and pray to them. + + Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these + intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, and that + what they desire they seek from God. The Qurán furnishes a proof + against them. "They worship beside God what cannot hurt or help them, + and say, these are our advocates with God! say: will ye inform God of + aught in the heavens and in the earth which He knoweth not?" (Súra x. + 19.) + + Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, or + rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become attached to + one saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves under the + protection of Guardian Angels. Against them we cite the verse: "Those + whom ye call on, themselves desire union with their Lord, striving + which of them shall be nearest to Him; they also hope for His mercy, + and fear His chastisement." (Súra xvii. 59.) We see here that the + Prophet drew no distinction between the worship of an idol and the + worship of such and such a saint; on the contrary, he treated them all + as infidels, and made war upon them in order to consolidate the + religion of God upon a firm basis. + + Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, but + at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus: "Lo! when they + embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him sincere worship, + but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold they join partners with + Him." (Súra xxix. 65.) + + In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The + idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divinities + when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time were + less culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, had + recourse to God in time of great evil; these in good and evil states, + seek the aid of their patrons, other than God, and pray to them. + +{116} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CREED OF ISLÁM.[99] + +Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as: "Confession with the tongue and +belief with the heart."[100] It is said to "stand midway between hope and +fear." It is sub-divided into Imán-í-mujmal and Imán-í-mufassal. The former +is an expression of the following faith: "I believe in God, His names and +attributes, and accept all His commands."[101] The latter is the acceptance +of the following dogmas: "I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the +Last Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and the +Resurrection after death."[102] These form the articles of faith which +every Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it perfect, +he must add the performance of the "acts of practice," _viz._: (1) "The +recital of the Kalima or creed:--'There is no deity but God, and Muhammad +is the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulát. The five daily prayers. (3) Roza. The +thirty days fast of Ramazán. (4) Zakát. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the +pilgrimage to Mecca." This chapter will contain an account of the Imán--the +dogmas of Islám. An account of the Dín--the practical duties, will be given +in the next chapter. {117} + +1. GOD.--This article of the faith includes a belief in the existence of +God, His unity and attributes, and has given rise to a large number of +sects. Some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thus +arisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of Islám. I commence the +consideration of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunní, or +orthodox treatise known as the Risála-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M. +Garcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such authority that in his +"L'Islamisme d'après le Coran" he has inserted a translation of the +Risála.[103] Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes, +says:-- + + (1). Life. (Hyát). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither + associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He + is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without + figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor + end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a + moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant. + Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or + that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from + whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the + irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if + all Believers became Infidels, He would suffer no loss. + + (2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or + manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the + leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past + and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man + and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He + has revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from + forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is + not posterior to His essence. + + (3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the + dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the + earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those + destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to + the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His + power is eternal à priori and à posteriori. It is not posterior to His + essence. + + {118} + + (4). Will (Irádah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills + comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in + this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and + the piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would + be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the + unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and, + without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All + we do we do by His will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If + one should ask why God does not will that all men should believe we + answer: "We have no right to enquire about what God wills and does. He + is perfectly free to will and to do what He pleases." In creating + unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in + making serpents, scorpions and pigs: in willing, in short, all that is + evil God has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should + know. We must acknowledge that the will of God is eternal and that it + is not posterior to His essence. + + (5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He + hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men. + + (6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant + on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have. + + (7). Speech. (Kalám). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He + speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another, + even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the + ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of + Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates His will to + the prophets. It follows from this that the Qurán is the word of God, + and is eternal and uncreated. + +These are the "haft sifát," or seven attributes of God. There is unanimity +of opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards their nature +and the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain. +Thus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to acquire; but +Imám Sháfa'í and the Mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the +_idea_ of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the expression "Knowledge of +God" is the ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positive +and privative attributes, as far as the human understanding can enter into +these matters. The unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute, for +the number one is the first of a series and implies a second, but God has +not a {119} second. He is "singular without anything like Him, separate +having no equal;" for, "had there been either in heaven or earth gods +beside God, both surely had gone to ruin." (Súra xxi. 22). God is not a +substance, for substance has accidents, but God has none: otherwise His +nature would be that of "dependent existence." God is without parts, for +otherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed, and His +existence would depend on the parts, that is, on something beside Himself. + +The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, for +say they, "just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds +darkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding finds +itself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God." The +Prophet said: "We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;" and +to his followers he gave this advice: "Think of God's gifts, not of His +nature: certainly you have no power for that." The Khalíf Akbar is reported +to have said: "to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge and +to enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity)."[104] A moderate +acquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of the +Prophet nor the warning of the Khalíf has been heeded. + +According to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers, +enquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. The +Prophet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of +salvation and had taught them:-- + + "Say: He is God alone: + God the eternal! + He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; + And there is none like unto Him." (Súra cxii) + +This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. God is +far beyond the reach of the human {120} understanding. He alone embraces +all in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their own +perceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator +Muhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, and knowing +better than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both what they ought +to believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men must exercise +their reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divine +attributes.[105] + +Dogma is divided into two portions, usúl and farú'--(_i.e._, roots and +branches.) The former include the doctrine about God; the latter, as the +name implies, consist of truths which result from the acceptance of the +former. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the "farú'," +for the usúl being founded on the Qurán and Sunnat have an objective basis. + +Differences of opinion about various branches of the "farú'," led to +discussions which did not stop there but went on to the "usúl," and so +paved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalám.) I have +already in the chapter on the exegesis of the Qurán explained the +difference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashábih +(intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of the +present subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into detail. + +The question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of the +3rd Súra: "He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book.' Some of its +signs are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of the +{121} Book--and others are figurative (mutashábih.) But they whose hearts +are given to err, follow its figures, craving discord, craving an +interpretation; yet none knoweth its interpretation but God. And the stable +in knowledge say, 'We believe in it: it is all from our Lord.' But none +will bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding." Here it is +clearly stated (1) that no one except God can know the interpretation of +mutashábih verses, and (2) that wise men though they know not their +interpretation, yet believe them all. Many learned men, however, say that +the full stop should not be placed after the word "God" but after +"knowledge," and so this portion of the verse would read thus: "None +knoweth its interpretation but God and the stable in knowledge. They say: +'we believe, &c.'" On this slight change in punctuation, which shows that +the 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashábih verses, opposite +schools of theology have arisen in Islám. + +The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects +which all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In the early +days of Islám it was held that all parts of the Qurán, except the muhkam +verses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashábih; that is, all +verses which related to the attributes of God, to the existence of angels +and genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the period and signs of the day +of judgment, and generally all matters which are beyond the daily +experience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there be no +discussion on them,[106] but no attempt should be made to understand or act +on them. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says: "One must believe the mutashábih +verses, but not take them for a rule of conduct." Ibn Jubair was once {122} +asked to put the meaning of the Qurán into writing. He became angry and +said: "I should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so."[107] +'Ayesha said: "Avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of the +Qurán, for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 'whose +hearts are given to err.'" + +The first reading is the one adopted by the Asháb, the Tábi'ín and the +Taba-i-Tábi'ín and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnís +generally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-dín Rází (A.H. +544-606), the Sháfa'í sect are of the same opinion. + +Those who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujáhid (died A.H. +101), Rábí' bin Ans and others. The scholastic theologians[108] +(Mutakallimán) generally adopt the latter reading.[109] They argued thus: +how could men believe what they did not know; to which their opponents +answered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing here +praised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the Qurán was sent +to be a guide and direction to men, were not all its verses muhkam? The +answer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One kind +was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that the +meaning might be at once apparent, the other was to speak in figurative +language. Now, if the Qurán had not contained both these styles of +composition, it could not have claimed the position it does as a book +absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.[110] + +Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now pass on +to the consideration of the attributes. + +{123} The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, for +without these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing, +Seeing, Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the +"Sifát-i-Sabútiah," or affirmative attributes, the privation of which would +imply loss; there are also Sifát-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, such +as--God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, &c. The acts of +sitting, rising, descending, the possession of face, hands, eyes, &c., +being connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfection +and apparently contradict the doctrine of "exemption" (tenzih) according to +which God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the creatures He has +made. This was a difficulty, but the four great Imáms all taught that it +was impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions were +mutashábih. "The Imám Hanbal and other early divines followed in the path +of the early Muslims and said: 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, and +do not desire explanations. We know that the High God is not to be compared +to any created object: nor any creature with Him.'"[111] Imám As-Sháfa'í +said that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake, +and carried about, and that the following proclamation should be made +before him: "This is the reward of him who left the Qurán and the +Traditions for the study of scholastic theology." Imám Hanbal says: +"Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Qurán the words, 'I have +created with my hand,' ought to have his hand cut off; and whoever +stretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heart +of the believer is between two fingers of the Merciful,' deserves to have +his finger cut off." At-Tirmízí when consulted about the statement of the +Prophet that God had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said: +"The descent is intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein +{124} is obligatory; and the asking about it is a blameable innovation." +But all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed. + +The two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether the +attributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of His +essence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not. + +The two leading Sects were the Sifátians (or Attributists) and the +Mutazilites. The Sifátians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taught +that the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence without +separation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life with +knowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashábih +verses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show a +resemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not attempt +to give the meaning of the terms, "hands, eyes, face, &c.," when applied to +God. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course of time, as will be +seen, differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions of +this sect. + +The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifátians. They rejected +the idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the formal +attribute of the essence of God. "If," said they, "we admit the eternal +existence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of +eternal existences." They also rejected the attributes of hearing, seeing +and speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences. They +looked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions, and not as having +a real existence in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphatically +the Free thinkers of Islám. The origin of the sect was as follows: Al +Hasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in the Mosque at Basra when a +discussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortal +sin became thereby an unbeliever. The Khárigites (Ante p. 76) {125} +affirmed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, though +guilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.[112] +One of the scholars Wásil Ibn Atá, (who was born at Madína A.H. 80), then +rose up and said: "I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin +should be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as +occupying a middle station between the two." He then retired to another +part of the Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and +others. They resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katáda, entering +the Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party in +which Al Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila).' Al Hasan +soon expelled them from his school. Wásil then founded a school of his own +of which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head. + +Wásil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same degree of +punishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question of +_degrees_ of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of man's +responsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him into +conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that again +to the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the eternity of +the Qurán, and of the divine attributes. His followers rejected the +doctrine of the "divine right" of the Imám, and held that the entire body +of the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, who need +not necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill that office. The +principles of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear on +the precepts of religion. According to Shahrastání the Mutazilites hold:-- + + "That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of His + essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as + distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to {126} + His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not + through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal + attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence, + otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the + Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities." + + "They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the province + of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld with + the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything else + is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that + Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according + to them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the + ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates." + + "Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human + actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men + are the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and + forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At + the same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and + he who works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all + knowledge is attained through reason, and must necessarily be so + obtained. They hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within + the province of reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong + until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction; and that + thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by + reason, even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject. They + also maintain that man has perfect freedom; is the author of his + actions both good and evil, and deserves reward or punishment hereafter + accordingly." + +During the reigns of the 'Abbásside Khalífs Mámún, Mutasim and Wathik +(198-232 A.H.) at Baghdád, the Mutazilites were in high favour at Court, +Under the 'Abbásside dynasty[113] the ancient Arab Society was +revolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State; +Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered bitter +persecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. The +Khalíf Wathik at length relented. {127} An old man, heavily chained, was +one day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained permission to put +a few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd, a Mutazilite and the President of +the Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue took place. "Ahmad," said +the prisoner, "what is the dogma which you desire to have established." +"That the Qurán is created," replied Ahmad. "This dogma, then, is without +doubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that the latter cannot +without it be said to be complete?" "Certainly." "Has the Apostle of God +taught this to men or has he left them free?" "He has left them free." "Was +the Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not?" "He was acquainted +with it." "Wherefore, then, do you desire to impose a belief regarding +which the Apostle of God has left men free to think as they please?" Ahmad +remaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, "O Prince of +Believers, here is my first position made good." Then turning to Ahmad, he +said, "God has said, 'This day have I perfected religion for you, and have +filled up the measures of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that +Islám be your religion.' (Súra v. 5). But according to you Islám is not +perfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Qurán is created. Which +now is most worthy of credence--God, when He declares Islám to be complete +and perfect, or you when you announce the contrary?" Ahmad was still +silent. "Prince of Believers," said the old man, "there is my second point +made good." He continued, "Ahmad, how do you explain the following words of +God in His Holy Book?--'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down to +thee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed His +message at all.' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the +Faithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?" +Ahmad remained silent. The old man resumed, "Prince of Believers, such is +my third argument." Then turning to Ahmad he said: "If the Prophet was +acquainted with the doctrine {128} which you desire to impose upon us, had +he the right to pass by it in silence?" "He had the right." "And did the +same right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Ali?" "It did," "Prince +of Believers," said the prisoner, "God will, in truth, be severe on us, if +He deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet and his +Companions." The Khalíf assented, and at once restored the old man to +liberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever +had to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriers +of traditionalism.[114] The next Khalíf, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious and +cruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued a +fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Qurán was created was an +utter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against Christians, Jews, +Shía'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd was one of the first to be +disgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished. + +The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalíf but a +little later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'arí (270-340 A.H.) + +The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdád, still flourished at Basra +where one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Alí Al-Jubbai, a +Mutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'arí propounded +the following case to his master: "There were three brothers, one of whom +was a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an infidel, a debauchee +and a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all died. What became of +them?" Al-Jubbai answered: "The virtuous brother holds a high station in +Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is among +those who have obtained salvation." {129} "Suppose now," said Al-Ash'arí, +"that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuous +brother, would he be allowed to do so?" "No," replied Al-Jubbai, "it would +be said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this place through His numerous +works of obedience to God, and thou hast no such works to set forward.'" +"Suppose then," said Al-Ash'arí, "that the child should say: 'this is not +my fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither did you give me the +means of proving my obedience.'" "In that case," said Al-Jubbai, "the +Almighty would say: 'I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldest +have been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell: I acted, +therefore, for thy advantage.'" "Well," said Al-Ash'arí, "and suppose the +infidel brother were here to say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thou +knowest what awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me; why then +didst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine?'"[115] Al-Jubbai was +silent, though very angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that the +Mutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false, and that God elects some for +mercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing with +his teacher on this point, he soon began to find other points of +difference, and soon announced his belief that the Qurán was not created. +This occurred on a Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair +he cried out in a loud voice: "They who know me know who I am; as for those +who do not know me I shall tell them; I am 'Alí Ibn Ismá'íl Al-Ash'arí, and +I used to hold that the Qurán was created, that the eyes (of men) shall not +see God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, I +have returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take the +engagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy and +turpitude."[116] + +He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of {130} thought of +his own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'arían +doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifátians of which sect +Al-Ash'arí's disciples form a branch. The Ash'aríans hold-- + +(i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such +a way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures. +They say they are not "_'ain_ nor _ghair_:" not of His essence, nor +distinct from it: _i.e.,_ they cannot be compared with any other things. + +(ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the good +and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on +the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the +Sifátians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they +say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot +create anything new for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they +say that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a man +desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the +desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to +the desire." Thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of the +man, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) because +it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to +the obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: the term is, therefore, +inapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillání, a disciple of Al-Ash'arí, +says: "The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of +God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of +disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which +proceed from the power of man." The Imám Al-Haramain (419-478 A.H.) held +"that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created +in man." Abu Isháq al Isfarayain says: "That which maketh impression, or +hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power +of man." {131} + +(iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge +that the vocal sounds used in the Qurán, which is the manifestation of that +word, are created. They say, in short, that the Qurán contains (1) the +eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2) +the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. This last +they call the created word. + +Thus Al-Ash'arí traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying +that man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of good +and evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed. He +has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of +God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will be +rewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach +God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the +actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not +cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law.[117] + +The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifátians need not +be entered into at any length. + +The Mushábihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the mutashábih +verses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God and His +creatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of ascending, +descending, &c. These they called "declarative attributes." The +Mujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be corporeal, by which some +of them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the Deity to +be finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics. + +{132} + +The Jabríans gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man, and +thus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadríans, that is, +they deny "Al-Kadr," God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free will in +man. + +These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. The +Sunnís follow the teaching of Al-Ash'arí, whilst the Shí'ahs incline to +that of the Mutazilites. + +Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the names to +be used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the names "The +Living, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker," &c., +are to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is that all such names +must be "tauqífi," that is dependent on some revelation. Thus it is not +lawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of His attributes, unless +there is some statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize it. +God is rightly called Sháfí (Healer), but He cannot be called Tabíb which +means much the same thing, for the simple reason that the word Tabíb is +never applied in the Qurán or the Traditions to God. In like manner the +term 'Álim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Áqil (Wise). The +Mutazilites say that if, in the Qurán or Traditions, there is any praise of +an attribute, then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute can +be applied to God even though the actual word does not occur in any +revelation. Al-Ghazzálí (A.H. 450-505), who gave in the East the death-blow +to the Muslim philosophers, says: "The names of God not given in the Law, +if expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as expressive of +His attributes, not of His nature." On the ground that it does not occur in +the Law, the Persian word "Khuda" has been objected to, an objection which +also holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott, +&c. To this it is answered, that as "Khuda" means "one who comes by +himself" it is equivalent to the term Wájib-ul-Wajúd, {133} "one who has +necessary existence," and therefore so long as it is not considered as the +"Ism-i-Zát (name of His nature) it may with propriety be used."[118] + +The current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the term +Alláh, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such a name +is not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, &c, still +remain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Qurán and Traditions +are, exclusive of the term Alláh, ninety-nine in number. They are called +the Asmá-i-Husná[119] (noble names); but in addition to these there are +many synonyms used on the authority of Ijmá'. Such are Hanán, equal to +Rahím (Merciful) and Manán, "one who puts another under an obligation." In +the Tafsír-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of God; +one thousand of which are known to angels; one thousand to prophets; whilst +one thousand are thus distributed, _viz._, in the Pentateuch there are +three hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred, +in the Qurán ninety-nine, and one still hidden. + +The following texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove the nature of the +divine attributes:-- + +(1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal." (Súra ii. +256). "Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not." (Súra xxv. 60). + +(2). Knowledge. "Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the +heavens, and all that is in the earth." (Súra lviii. 8). "With Him are the +keys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth whatever is +on the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neither +is there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a thing green or sere, +but it is noted in a distinct writing." (Súra vi. 59). + +{134} + +(3). Power. "If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would He +surely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty." (Súra ii. 19). "Is He not +powerful enough to quicken the dead." (Súra lxxv. 40). "God hath power over +all things." (Súra iii. 159.) + +(4). Will. "God is worker of that He willeth." (Súra lxxxv. 16). "But if +God pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance." +(Súra vi. 35). "God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will He +guideth--God doeth His pleasure." (Súra xiv. 4, 32). + +As this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed which +refers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will be +stated under that head. + +There has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of these +four attributes so clearly described in the Qurán: the difference is with +regard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There is, first, +the ancient Sifátian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the +essence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are not eternal; +and, thirdly, the Ash'arían dogma that they are eternal, but distinct from +His essence. + +There is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next three +attributes--hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the two first of +these the following verses are quoted, "He truly heareth and knoweth all +things." (Súra xliv. 5). "No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in all +vision." (Súra vi. 103). + +The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c., hands, face, eyes, and so on, +gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the Sifátians. +Al-Ghazzálí says: "He sits upon His throne after that manner which He has +Himself described and in that sense which He Himself means, which is a +sitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or local +situation." This is the Ash'arían idea, but between the Ash'aríans and +those who fell into the error of the {135} Mujassimians,[120] there was +another school. The followers of Imám Ibn Hanbal say that such words +represent the attributes existing in God. The words "God sits on His +throne" mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, "We keep the +literal meaning of the words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To do +so is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation, for the +negation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken the +authority of revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain the +act, for it is written: 'There is none like unto Him.' (Súra cxii.) 'Nought +is there like Him.' (Súra xlii. 9.) 'Unworthy the estimate they form of +God.'" (Súra xxii. 73.) To prove that God occupies a place they produce the +following Tradition: "Ibn-al-Hákim wished to give liberty to a female slave +Saouda and consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where is +God?' 'In heaven,' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a true +believer.'" Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that God +occupied a place but because she took the words in their literal +signification. The Shí'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to God movement, +quiescence, &c, for these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too, +in opposition to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that which +is seen is limited by space. + +The seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long and +important controversy connected with the nature of the Qurán, for the word +"Kalám" means not mere speech, but revelation and every other mode of +communicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzálí says:-- + + "He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal + ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word + of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the + commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters {136} + which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion + of the tongue. The Qurán, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books + sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Qurán, indeed, is read with + tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in + the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and + division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus + Moses also heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the + saints behold the essence of God without substance or accident." + +The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites deny +this, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the originator +of words and sounds. + +They also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine of +the eternity of the Qurán. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, is +read, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It is +divided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events are +described in the past tense, but if the Qurán had been eternal the future +tense would have been used. (3) The Qurán contains commands and +prohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished? +(4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so even +in the last day, and in the next world, men will be under the obligation of +performing the same religious duties as they do now, and of keeping all the +outward precepts of the law. (5) If the Qurán is eternal, then there are +two eternals. + +The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of Islám. +It was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the opposition of +the Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become +not only stout assertors of the eternity of the Qurán, but to give up their +lives in defence of what they believed to be true. The Mutazilites by +asserting the subjective nature of the Quránic inspiration brought the book +itself within the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox Islám +to bear even though the Khalíf Mámún in the {137} year 212 A.H. issued a +fatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Qurán were guilty +of heresy. Some six years after this, the Imám Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was +severely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to the +truth of the decree issued by the Khalíf. Al Buwaiti, a famous disciple of +As-Sháfa'í, used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when being +punished by the order of the Khalíf. He was taken all the way from Cairo to +Baghdád and told to confess that the Qurán was created. On his refusal, he +was imprisoned at Baghdád and there remained in chains till the day of his +death. As Ar-Rábí Ibn Sulaimán says: "I saw Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule: +round his neck was a wooden collar, on his legs were fetters, from these to +the collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing +fifty pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words, +'Almighty God created the world by means of the word _Be!_ Now, if that +word was created, one created thing would have created another.'"[121] Al +Buwaiti here refers to the verse, "Verily our speech unto a thing when we +will the same, is that we only say to it, 'Be,' and it is,--Kun fayakúna." +(Súra xxxvi. 82). This, in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standing +argument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the Qurán. + +When times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion. +The Imám As-Sháfa'í held a public disputation in Baghdád with Hafs, a +Mutazilite preacher, on this very point. Sháfa'í quoted the verse, "God +said _be, and it was_," and asked, "Did not God create all things by the +word _be?_" Hafs assented. "If then the Qurán was created, must not the +word _be_ have been created with it?" Hafs could not deny so plain a +proposition. "Then," said Sháfa'í, "All things, according to you, were +created by a created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest +{138} impiety." Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect had +Sháfa'í's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to death as a pestilent +heretic. Thus did the Ash'arían opinions on the subject of the Divine +attributes again gain the mastery.[122] + +The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a rule, +influenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere quibblers. +They sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction by the +rigid system they combated, they would have made reason alone their chief +guide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faith +they professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, and at one +time, it threatened to change the whole nature of Islám. This period of +Muslim history, famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off the +fetters of the rigid system which Islám was gradually tightening by the +increased authority given to traditionalism, and to the refinements of the +four Imáms, was undoubtedly a period of, comparatively speaking, high +civilization. Baghdád, the capital of the Khalífate, was a busy, populous, +well-governed city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian +family of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the Khalíf +Hárún-ur-Rashíd. Hárún's fame as a good man is quite undeserved. It is true +that he was a patron of learning, that his Empire was extensive, that he +gained many victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arab +grandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel man, thoroughly +given up to pleasures of a very questionable nature. Drunkenness and +debauchery were common at court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work. +Such was the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods +{139} of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable for the +development of any good which Islám might have possessed. It should be +remembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period is +connected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy +was weak in Baghdád. The culture of the time was in spite of, not on +account of, the influence of orthodox Islám. + +2. ANGELS.--Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:-- + + "We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order and + who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is there + amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of God; + those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are on + earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate + themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and + record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are + possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibrá,íl) who in the + space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one + wing can lift up a mountain. + + We must believe in 'Izrá,íl who receives the souls of men when they + die, and in Isráfíl into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This + trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to + blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow + such a terrible blast that all living things will die.[123] This is the + commencement of the last day. The world will remain in this state of + death forty years. Then God Most High will revive Isráfíl who will blow + a second blast, at the sound of which all the dead will rise to + life."[124] + +This confession of faith makes no mention of Míká,íl (Michael), the fourth +of the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created beings have +what is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain and +all that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c. +Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to prophets. +The words "one terrible in power" (Súra liii. 5) {140} are generally +applied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness to God. +Tradition says that on the night of the Mi'ráj, the Prophet saw that +Gabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that from one +shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying bird +would require five hundred years to pass over it. + +Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed of +light. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position he +occupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he commands +they do. "All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and they who +are in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they wearied: they +praise Him day and night." (Súra xxi. 19, 20.) They are free from all +sin.[125] It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, and +this may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, that +their object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of the +doubts they had in the matter. Thus "when the Lord said to the angels, +'Verily, I am about to place one in my stead on earth,' they said: 'Wilt +Thou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when we +celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness.' God said: 'Verily I know what +ye know not.'" It is true that Iblís was disobedient, but then he belonged +not to the angelic order but to that of the jinn. "When we said to the +angels, 'prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated themselves +save Iblís, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest." +(Súra xviii. 48.) (See also Súra ii. 33.) + +Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they are +invisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils. +This accounts for the saying, "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for +it has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with God, +for it has seen a devil." + +{141} + +The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of their +Lord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Súra xlii. 3.) They +also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before him +and behind him who watch over him by God's behest." (Súra xiii. 12.) "Is it +not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels +sent down from on high?" (Súra iii. 120.) "Supreme over His servants He +sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when death overtaketh any +one of you our messengers take his soul and fail not." (Súra vi. 61.) + +In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man two +angels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on the +right hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say that +they reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen and the +saliva of the mouth the ink.[126] They protect the actions of men and +record them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibát, +_i.e._, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name of +Kirám-ul-Kátibín, "the exalted writers." They are referred to in the Qurán. +"Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? Yes, and +our angels who are at their sides write them down." (Súra xliii. 80). + +There are eight angels who support the throne of God. "And the angels shall +be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne +of thy Lord." (Súra lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it are +nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire." (Súra lxxiv. +30). + +There is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the evils of +Satanic interference. "Iblís," says Jábir Maghrabí, "though able to assume +all other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity, +or {142} any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be much +danger to human salvation, as he might, under the appearance of one of the +prophets, or of some superior being, make use of this power to seduce men +to sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, fire +comes down from heaven and repulses him." + +The story of Hárút and Márút is of some interest from its connection with +the question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those who +reject God's Apostle the Qurán says: "And they followed what the Satans +read in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, but the +Satans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had been +revealed to the two angels Hárút and Márút at Bábel. Yet no man did these +two teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be not thou an +unbeliever.'" (Súra ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two angels teach +sorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some explanation has to +be given. Commentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The story +goes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the angels saw the bad +actions of men they said: "O Lord! Adam and his descendants whom Thou has +appointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently." To which the +Lord replied: "If I were to send you on earth, and to give you lustful and +angry dispositions, you too would sin." The angels thought otherwise; so +God told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal. +They selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted in +them the passions of lust and anger said: "All day go to and fro on the +earth, put an end to the quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not +commit adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam, +the exalted name (of God) and return to heaven." This they did for some +time, but at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray. +One day she brought them a cup of wine. One said: {143} "God has forbidden +it;" the other, "God is merciful and forgiving." So they drank the wine, +killed the husband of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the "exalted name," and +fell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that the "name" had +gone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual. +They were very much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for +them. The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels were +allowed to choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected to +be punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their heads +downwards in a well at Bábel. Some say that angels came and whipped them +with rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the +reach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assert +that it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Others +say that she is the star Venus. + +It is only right to state that the Qází 'Ayáz, Imám Fakhr-ud-dín Rází +(544-606 A.H.), Qází Násir-ud-dín Baidaví (620-691 A.H.) and most +scholastic divines deny the truth of this story. They say that angels are +immaculate, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty which +the Qurán itself raises in connection with Hárút and Márút. They want to +know how beings in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely that +men would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the +woman, they think the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venus +was created before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivable +that one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for +ever. A solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic is +a great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the order +of prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly +hurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguish +between the miracles of prophets, the signs of {144} saints, the wonders of +magicians and others. Then Hárút and Márút always discouraged men from +learning magic. They said to those who came to them: "We are only a +temptation. Be not thou an unbeliever." Others assert that it is a Jewish +allegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, the +woman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents death. + +To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of the +Traditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a Hadís-i-Sahíh, +and that the Isnád is sound and good. I name only a few of the great +divines who hold this view. They are Imám Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'súd, Ibn 'Umr, +Ibn 'Abbás, Háfiz 'Asqallání[127] and others. Jelál-ud-din Syútí in his +commentary the Dúrr-i-Mashúr, has given all the Traditions in order and, +though there is some variety in the details, the general purport accords +with the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer the +objections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculate +only so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined, +Hárút and Márút can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient for +that purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is quite +conceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality of +devils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they grant that to be +changed into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; but they say the +desire to learn the "exalted name" was so meritorious an act that the good +she desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to the date of the +creation of the star Venus, it is said that all our astronomical knowledge +is based on observations made since the Flood, whereas this story relates +to the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. So the dispute +goes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in the +story. + +{145} + +Munkir and Nakír are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes who +visit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his faith in +God and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Álam-i-barzakh, a +state of existence intervening between the present life and the life of +mankind after the resurrection.[128] This is the meaning of the word +"grave" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffer +trouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer to the +angels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for this +purpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that of +Nakír and that, just as each man has two recording angels during his +lifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after death. +There is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The general +belief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but that the +angels will teach them to say: "Alláh is my Lord, Islám my religion, and +Muhammad my Prophet." With regard to the children of unbelievers being +questioned, Imám Abu Hanífa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubted +about their punishment. Some think they will be in A'ráf, a place between +heaven and hell; others suppose that they will be servants to the true +believers in Paradise. + +Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire +called jinn (genii.) It is said that they were created thousands of years +before Adam came into existence. "We created man of dried clay, of dark +loam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire." (Súra +xv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject to +death, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in the +Koh-i-Káf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:[129] {146} +some are believers in Islám; some are infidels, and will be punished. "I +will wholly fill hell with jinn and men." (Súra xi. 120.) The Súra called +Súrat-ul-Jinn (lxxii.) refers to their belief in Islám. The passage is too +long to quote. They try to hear[130] what is going on in heaven. "We guard +them (_i.e._, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a hearing." +(Súra xv. 18.) They were under the power of Solomon and served him. (Súra +xxxviii. 36.) An 'Ifrít of the jinn said, "I will bring it thee (Solomon) +ere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and am trusty." (Súra +xxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also will be questioned. Imám Hanífa +doubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelieving +jinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the following +order: (1) Jánn, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitán, (4) 'Ifrít, (5) Márid. Many fables +have been invented concerning these beings, and though intelligent Muslims +may doubt these wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is +imperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Qurán. Those who +wish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on +it in Lane's Modern Egyptians. + +3. THE BOOKS.--Al Berkevi says:-- + + "It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent + through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The + books are never sent except to prophets. The Qurán was sent to Muhammad + portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to + Moses, the Injíl to Jesus, the Zabúr to David, and the other books to + other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Qurán, + the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can + neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have + been abrogated by the Qurán and ought not to be followed." + +The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following +order:--To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to Abraham, +ten; to Moses, the {147} Taurát (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabúr (Psalms); +to Jesus, the Injíl; to Muhammad, the Qurán. The one hundred to which no +distinctive name is given are known as the "Suhúf-ul-Anbiya,"--Books of the +Prophets. The Qurán is also known as the Furqán, the distinguisher; the +Qurán-i-Sharíf, noble Qurán; the Quran-i-Majíd, glorious Qurán; the Mushaf, +the Book. It is said to be the compendium of the Taurát, Zabúr and +Injíl[131]; so Muslims do not require to study these books.[132] The +orthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Qurán,[133] +though Syed Ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmáns who say +so.[134] Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered to be of a +lower order than that of the Qurán. A large {148} portion of the Injíl is +considered to be mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are looked +upon as the revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case of +the Old Testament Prophets. "However, it was the rule to call a book by the +name of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or +whether it was mixed up with narrative also." "It is to be observed that, +in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intended +to impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down, +literally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated without +any narrative being inserted in them."[135] The writings of the Apostles +are not considered to be inspired books. "We do not consider that the Acts +of the Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very good +books, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself; +nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light as +we do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to say, as +entitled to veneration and respect."[136] There are many verses in the +Qurán which speak of previous revelations, thus: "We also caused Jesus, the +son of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law +(Taurát) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injíl with its +guidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and a +warning to those that fear God." (Súra v. 50). "We believe in God, and that +which hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down to +Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been given +to Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets from their +Lord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God are we +resigned." (Súra ii. 130). "In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book, +which confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the {149} Law +and the Injíl aforetime, as man's guidance; and now hath He sent down the +Furqán." (Súra iii. 2).[137] + +Practically, Musalmáns reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so is +manifestly against the letter of the Qurán, and, as some reason for this +neglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the +Jewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technical +expression is "tahríf," a word signifying, to change, to turn aside +anything from the truth. Then tahríf may be of two kinds, tahríf-i-m'anaví, +a change in the meaning of words; tahríf-i-lafzí, an actual change of the +written words. Most Musalmáns maintain that the latter kind of corruption +has taken place, and so they do not feel bound to read or study the +previous revelations so frequently referred to in the Qurán. The charge +brought against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on the +following verse of the Qurán: "Some truly are there among you who torture +the Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to be +from the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say: 'this +is from God,' yet it is not from God; and they utter a lie against God, and +they know they do so." (Súra iii. 72.) All the ancient commentators assert +that this only proved tahríf-i-m'anaví; that is, that the Jews referred to +either misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read from +the Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean that +they altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuse +Musalmáns for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodox +divines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--the +tahríf-i-lafzí, has taken place. The question is fully discussed, and the +opinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by Syed Ahmad in his +Commentary on the Bible.[138] + +{150} + +4. PROPHETS.--Muhammad Al Berkevi says:-- + + "It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is + the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is + the last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a + great number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all + and that his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the + preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some + without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii; + that his law will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles + are many in number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow, + that he divided the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and + stones said to him: 'Thou art a true prophet.' + + We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to + Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and + hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before + morning. After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of + the prophets." + +The number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies according +to the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand is the usual +number stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Qurán, of whom six +are distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ulláh, the chosen of God; +Noah, Nabí Ulláh, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalíl Ulláh, the friend of +God; Moses, Kalím Ulláh, the speaker with God; Jesus, Rúh Ulláh, the spirit +of God; Muhammad, Rasúl Ulláh, the messenger of God. These are called the +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) because they were the heads of +their respective dispensations, and because they will be permitted by God +to intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They are the +greatest and most exalted of the prophets.[139] + +There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for "Some of the Apostles +have We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath spoken, He +hath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave +{151} manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy Spirit." (Súra +ii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in the following order: Noah, +Jesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it is +said: "He is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets." (Súra +xxxiii. 40). + +A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. "I am the chief of the sons +of men." "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the +judgment day."[140] It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and +severe; that by Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given by +Muhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and +that of graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and by +laughing kill."[141] Each prophet is said to have been sent to his own +tribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced to support +this statement: "I was raised up for all men whether white or black, other +prophets were not except for their own tribe." The Qurán also states: "We +have sent thee (Muhammad) for all men." + +There is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are superior +to the angels. The Hanífites hold that the prophets amongst men are +superior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are superior to +the ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than prophets, are +inferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets. +The Shía'hs assert that the twelve Imáms are superior to prophets. + +The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previous +chapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of prophetic +inspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He speaks +somewhat as follows.[142] If we contemplate the world and the creatures it +contains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular {152} system, a +sequence of cause and effect, a connexion between different categories of +existence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to +another. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the +existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, who +is in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must on +the one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and, on the +other, with the existences in the next category of superiority, and one +whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such +are the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency +towards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea +that, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the +universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account +of their nature. + +The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soul +is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it has +to content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thus +it can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in +its own category but cannot pass its limit. + +The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a +natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into a +state of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of +the Saints (Auliya)[143] to whom God has given this divine knowledge. + +The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging +themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise +to the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of time +such {153} a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the sphere +which contains them. It, there and then, hears the speech of the soul and +the divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given to +these souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate from +it God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God with +such a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that they +are naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by an +ardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelic +state they deliver to men the revelations they have received. Sometimes the +revelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse. He +grasps the ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends the +message; sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation, and +what he says the prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return from +the angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there +occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of +prophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's +revelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahí, a word which, +according to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste. + +The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it is +only a Nabí (prophet), and not a Rasúl (apostle or messenger.) The second +mode is employed towards a Rasúl who, on the principle that the greater +contains the less, is also a Nabí. A Hadís records that Muhammad said: +"Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatigued +me much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to +me. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst he was +speaking, I learnt what was said." That a prophet should feel oppressed on +such occasions is hinted at in "With measured tone intone the Qurán, for we +shall devolve on thee mighty words." (Súra lxxiii. 5.) + +{154} + +A Nabí, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slave +of another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or +mind), receives Wahí but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders +of God. A Rasúl who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabí, is one +who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does not +necessarily abrogate what preceding Rasúls have delivered. Neither is it +necessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasúls do so, +but the distinguishing mark of the Rasúl is that he delivers to men +commands direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thus +every Rasúl is a Nabí, whilst every Nabí is not a Rasúl. + +The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which +considerable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodox +belief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom from +sin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulness +they are kept in the right path. The Ash'aríans believe that the power of +sinning is not created in them.[144] The Mutazilites deny this, but admit +the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories do +not agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, but +here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunáh-i-kabíra "great +sins," and gunáh-i-saghíra "little sins." The gunáh-i-kabíra are, murder, +adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuse +of adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to give or to +take usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazán fast, tyranny, +backbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Qurán after reading it, to +avoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without sufficient +reason,[145] to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery +of tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, {155} magic, +gambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety, +calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such +times,[146] dancing, music, neglect when opportunity offers of warning +other persons with regard to the "commands and prohibitions" of God, +disrespect to a Háfiz, to shave the beard, to omit saying the "darúd" +(_i.e._ on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever +the name of Muhammad is mentioned.[147] These are all "great sins" and can +only be forgiven after due repentance: the "little sins" are forgiven if +some good actions are done. "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close +of day, and at the approach of night; for the _good deeds drive away the +evil deeds_." (Súra xi. 116). + +Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal belief +that a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but there is a +difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that they +can do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing connected +with their office. Others again limit even this frailty to the period +before "wahí" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general opinion, however, +is that they are free from all sin, whether great or small. The frailties +which they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not +amounting to sin. + +This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Qurán itself +raises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox +Muslim would call sin. Adam's transgression[148] is referred to in Súra ii. +29-37 and {156} in Súra vii. 10-24. I quote only one verse: "They said, 'O +our Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not and +have not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish.'" The sin of +Noah is not specified in the Qurán, yet it is plainly hinted at. "To Thee +verily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I have no +knowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me I shall be one of +the lost." (Súra xi. 49). There is also a similar request in Súra lxxi. 29. +Abraham is represented as saying to his people: "They whom ye worship, ye +and your fathers of early days, are my foes; but not so the Lord of the +worlds, who hath created me, and guideth me, who giveth me food and drink; +and when I am sick, he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again +quicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day of +reckoning." (Súra xxvi. 75-82). Moses is described as having done "a work +of Satan" in killing a man, and as saying: "'O my Lord, I have sinned to my +own hurt; forgive me.' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the +merciful. He said: 'Lord, because thou hast showed me this grace, I will +never again be the helper of the wicked.'" (Súra xxviii. 15, 16). + +The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and patient; +for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy fault."[149] (Súra +xl. 57). "Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women." +(Súra xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wife +of Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretended +revelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances +will be found fully detailed in Súra xxxiii. 36-38 and in Súra lxvi. 1-5. + +One of the most important verses is: "Verily, we have won for thee an +undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later +fault." (Súra xlviii. 1-2). {157} It is not quite clear what victory is +here referred to. According to the Tafsír-i-Husainí, some commentators say +that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used for +the future. The following explanations are given of the expression "earlier +and later fault." (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after +the descent of wahí, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3) +before the descent of this Súra. (4) The commentator Salmí says: "The +earlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the +loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sin +refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected with +him, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of their +sin." (5) Imám Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to +those of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad, +because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by the +intercession of Muhammad."[150] + +From these extracts from the Qurán it appears that sin is imputed to +prophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have already +referred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinless +member of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islám, is none +other than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Qurán which hints at +sin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to other +prophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His seeking +for pardon. + +It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizát). A +miracle is defined to be "Kharq-i-'ádat," that is, something contrary to +the usual course of nature. + +The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and +chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. Although +Muhammad makes, in the {158} Qurán, no distinct claim to the power of +working miracles,[151] his followers maintain that in this, as in all other +respects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce +various passages of the Qurán in support of their view. Thus, according to +Shaikh Jelál-ud-dín Syutí, if to Adam was given the power of naming every +thing, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, +but Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqáb-i-qausain,' the 'two bows' length,' +where Gabriel, "one mighty in power," appeared to him. (Súra liii. 5-9). +Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of +his chest;[152] Joseph was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the +very perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad +produced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshua +and so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, +for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given +to John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and +understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus +could raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the +special miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, the +Mi'ráj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderful +miracle of the Qurán.[153] + +The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, {159} "The hour of +judgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder." (Súra liv. +1). Imám Záhid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and +demanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with his +little finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of which +remained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew +believed in Islám forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but on +making enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this very +night, distinctly saw the moon in two parts.[154] Some, however, refer the +passage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one +of the signs of the last day. + +The Mi'ráj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, "Glory be to Him who carried +His servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple that +is more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of +our signs." (Súra xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous, +narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on this +eventful night;[155] but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote +the words: "We ordained the vision which we showed thee," in proof of this +assertion.[156] Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain the +superiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, over all other prophets. + +5. THE RESURRECTION AND THE LAST DAY.--These two articles of the faith may +be considered together. The {160} following is a summary of the remarks of +Muhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge:-- + + 1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir + and Nakír (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead person + concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The faithful + will reply: "our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our religion, + Islám; our Qibla, the Ki-'ádataba. + + 2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will + come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjál, or Antichrist; the + descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imám Mahdí and of Gog + and Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c. + + 3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the + air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time + has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the + dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will + find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on + the robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of + God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The + Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to the left. + + 4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of + men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to + Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless + God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them. + If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for + them, nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the + fire will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise. + + 5. That the bridge Sirát, which is sharper than a sword, is raised + above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over + with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their + backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall + and certainly enter into the fire. + + 6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench + their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the + largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the + other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk. + + 7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for + ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no + kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted {161} from the + infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect + will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking + upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the + bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver. + + The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented + by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as + mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they + become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may + endure fresh torments. This will last for ever." + +The following additional remarks are based on the Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí. +They fall under four heads. + +(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Súr). This will not take +place until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: "The +resurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among my +followers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God) +and till others commence to worship monuments." Again, "The last hour will +not be till no one is found who calls on God." Then "There shall be a blast +on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth +shall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. There shall be +another blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze around them." (Súra +xxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking of +the trumpet stated as follows: "After the creation of the heavens and the +earth God created the trumpet and gave it to Isráfíl who, with his mouth +placed to it, is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. He +will blow three times.[157] The first time, the blast of consternation, to +terrify; the second, the blast of examination, to slay; the third, the +blast of resurrection, to quicken the dead." Most persons believe that +everything, save God and His attributes, will perish. The Karamians and +some other sects deny this. + +{162} + +The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Qurán. Thus, "They +say, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first.'" (Súra +xvii. 53). "'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' Say: 'He +shall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all creation +is He skilled.'" (Súra xxxvi. 79). "Man saith: 'What! after I am dead, +shall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in mind that +we made him at first, when he was nought?" (Súra xix. 68). "The infidels +will say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When we have +become rotten bones?' 'This then,' say they, 'will be a return to loss.' +Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the surface of +the earth." (Súra lxxix. 10-14). "Is He not powerful enough to quicken the +dead?" (Súra lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to judgment. "'Never,' +say the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us.' Say: 'Yea, by my Lord +who knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon you, ... to the intent +that God may reward those who have believed, ... but as for those who aim +to invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them.'" +(Súra xxxiv. 3, 4). "A terrible chastisement doth await them _on the Day_ +when faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after your +belief have ye become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that ye +have been unbelievers.' And as to those whose faces shall have become +white, they shall be within the mercy of God." (Súra iii, 102). The Prophet +knew not the time when all this would take place. "They will ask thee of +the 'Hour,' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou of +it? Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with the +warning of those who fear it." (Súra lxxix. 41-45.) These and similar texts +show the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijmá' of the +Faithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel. +The {163} Mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is +necessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed. The +orthodox agree with the conclusion, but hesitate to base it on reason.[158] + +The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease to +be, but that at the last God will gather them together. "Thinketh man that +we shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are able +evenly to replace." (Súra lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, hold that +this verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a belief +supported by the Prophet's saying, "All the sons of men will be +annihilated." It will be a re-creation though the body will return to its +former state. + +The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this period +of the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to its +revival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of the +soul, for it exists in the body as "fire in coal," hence its revival is +included in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it is a +distinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The scholastics +favour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same in both cases. +The resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts, +insects and birds--all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come first +in order and be the first to enter Paradise. + +(2). The descent of the Books (Tatáír-i-sahá,íf). After the resurrection, +men will wander about for forty years, during which time the "Books of +Actions" will be given to them. These books contain the record kept by the +Kirám-ul-Kátibín, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state: +"Men will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand for +forty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens (_i.e._ +expecting the books.) They will perspire profusely through {164} excess of +sorrow.[159] Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on clothes.' He will put on +a robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountain +will flow forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no more." +The Prophet said: "I will also put on a dress and will stand near the +throne, where no one else will be allowed to stand and God will say: 'Ask +and it shall be granted to thee; intercede, thy intercession shall be +accepted.'" Each book flies from the treasury under the Throne of God and +is given to its proper owner. "Every man's fate have We fastened about his +neck; and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man) +a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, there +needeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day.'" +(Súra xvii. 15). "He into whose _right_ hand his book shall be given, shall +be reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his +kindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (_i.e._ into his +_left_ hand) shall invoke destruction." (Súra lxxxiv. 8-11.) "He, who shall +have his book given into his _left_ hand will say: 'O that my book had +never been given me! and that I had not known my reckoning.'" (Súra lxix. +25). It is always said that wicked Musalmáns will be seized by the _right_ +hand before they are cast into the fire, which is a proof that they are not +always to remain there. Some hold that the expression "Read thy book" +implies a literal reading; others that it is a metaphorical expression +which simply means that all the past actions will be known. Those who +believe in a literal reading say that each believer will read the account +of his faults only, and that other persons will read that of his good +deeds. The face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, but +black will be the face of the infidel. + +{165} + +(3). The Balances (Mízán). This belief is based on the authority of the +Qurán, Sunnat and the Ijmá'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt about +it. Thus: "They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; but they +whose balances shall be light,--these are they who shall lose their souls, +abiding in hell for ever." (Súra xxiii. 104). "As to him whose balances are +heavy, his shall be a life that shall please him well: and as to him whose +balances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the pit. And who shall +teach thee what the pit (Al-Háwía) is? A raging fire!" (Súra ci. 5-8). The +Traditions on this point are very numerous. The Ijmá' is also strong on the +reality, the objective existence, of a balance with scales, &c., complete. +They also state that the "Books of Actions" (Sahá,íf-i-A'mál) will be +weighed. In the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí it is said that the Believers will not be +weighed in the balances, for "God will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thy +people, from whom no account is taken, enter into Paradise.'" Prophets and +angels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not required for the +unbelievers, for their state is very evident; "By their tokens shall the +sinners be known, and they shall be seized by their forelocks and their +feet." (Súra lv. 41). Thus it is evident that, with regard to true +believers and unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose need be +weighed. Some, however, maintain that no unbeliever will have this test +applied to his case and quote: "Vain therefore, are their works; and no +weight will we allow them on the day of resurrection." (Súra xviii. 105). +To this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the fact of "a +weighing in _their favour_." The place where the weighing will take place +is situated midway between heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the +movement of the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are not +agreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe of +men, and also for each of the 'good works' {166} of the believers. Those +who hold that there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting and +so on, adduce the use of the plural form, balances (muwázín) in proof of +their statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the +"works" themselves, or the books (sahá,íf) will be weighed. The latter +opinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmízí. "The Prophet said: +'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend as +far as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny this, or have +the recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: 'No! O Lord.' +'Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord.' Then God will display a cloth on +which the Kalima is written. This will be put into one scale, and God will +say: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale, and +this cloth in the other, for the first scale will be light.'" This is +considered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Sahá,íf. +The Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for said they: +"actions are accidents, and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannot +be attributed to accidents." They explained the verses of the Qurán and the +statements of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way of +saying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of Judgment. + +(4). The Bridge (Sirát). The meaning of the word Sirát is a road, a way. It +is so used in the Qurán. In connection with the Day of Judgment it is said: +"If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even then would they +speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirát)." (Súra xxxvi. 66). "Gather +together those who have acted unjustly, and their consorts (demons), and +the gods whom they have adored beside God; and guide them to the road +(Sirát) for hell." (Súra xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the Qurán called a +bridge, but Tradition is very clear on this point. The Prophet said: "There +will be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair, +suspended over {167} hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom God +wills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like a flash +of lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. The angels will call +out, 'O Lord! save and protect.' Some Muslims will be saved, some will fall +headlong into hell." Bukhárí relates a similar Tradition. The infidels will +all fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims will be released +after a while. + +The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. "If we admit it," say +they, "it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not for +them in the Day of Judgment." To this the orthodox reply that the believers +pass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that thus they may +be delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may feel chagrin at +those who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever. + +Al A'ráf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: "On +(the wall) Al A'ráf shall be men who know all, by their tokens,[160] and +they shall cry to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but they +shall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyes +are turned towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord! +place us not with offending people &c.'" (Súra vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary +of the opinions regarding Al A'ráf in his Preliminary Discourse is +exceedingly good. It is as follows:-- + + "They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Aráf, a + word derived from the verb _Arafa_, which signifies to distinguish + between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another + reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who + stand on this partition will _know_ and _distinguish_ the blessed from + the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: and others + way the word properly intends anything that is _high raised_ or + _elevated_, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to {168} be. + Some imagine it to be a sort of _limbo_ for the patriarchs and + prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for + sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal + that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve + neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last + day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act + of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make + the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others suppose this + intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war, + without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being + excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell + because they are martyrs." + +There is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world and +the Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. "Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh), +until the day when they shall be raised again." (Súra xxiii. 102). When +death takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the Angel of +death; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked with +violence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh.[161] + +It is a doctrine founded on Ijmá', that God will not pardon Shirk, that is, +the ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one who does so, +will remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime, +its punishment must also be eternal. "The unbelievers among the people of +the Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the fire of Gehenna to +abide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the worst?" (Súra xcviii. +5). "Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer of the +good, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other Gods with God. Cast ye +him into the fierce torment." (Súra 1. 23-25.) + +Muslims who commit great (Kabíra) sins, though they die unrepentant, will +not remain in hell for ever, for, "whosoever shall have wrought an atom's +weight of good shall {169} behold it." (Súra xcix. 7). It is asserted that +the fact of believing in Islám is a good work and merits a reward: this +cannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins, and +therefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. "Perfect +faith (Imán-i-Kámil) consists in believing with sincerity of heart and +acting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith itself. +Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from having "perfect faith," but do +not destroy faith (Imán), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only a +sinner."[162] The Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will +remain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, having committed +great sins, dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be a +believer and hence suffers as the infidels do. + +The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be so +at the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is the +'great intercession' to which the words, "it may be that thy Lord will +raise thee to a _glorious station_," (Súra xvii. 81) are supposed to refer. +The Maqám-i-mahmúd, (glorious station), is said to be the place of +intercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet.[163] In the +Zád-ul-Masír it is said that the Maqám-i-mahmúd refers to the fact that God +will place the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place in +which a standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the other +prophets will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is, +however, the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will +say: "O my people! I am appointed for intercession." Their fear will then +pass away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter into +Paradise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regard +to this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who {170} +ought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one but +the Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an +increase of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained +that there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, and +adduced in favour of their opinion the verse: "Fear ye the day when soul +shall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be accepted +from them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped." +(Súra ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadís-i-Sahíh: "The Prophet +said: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committed +great sins.'" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that the verse +in the Qurán just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to the +Infidels.[164] + +According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: "In the day of +resurrection Musalmáns will not be able to move, and they will be greatly +distressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create some one +to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and be +delivered from tribulation and sorrow.'" The Tradition goes on to state how +they sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old dispensation, who, +one and all, excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. At +length Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of +God and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: "Go to Muhammad who is +a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last." The Prophet +continued, according to the Tradition, "then the Musalmáns will come to me, +and I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede for +them."[165] + +The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. "Jesus is no more +than a servant whom We favoured ... {171} and he shall be a sign of the +last hour." (Súra xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Qurán, come as +a judge, but like other prophets to be judged. "We formed with them (_i.e._ +prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the men of truth as to +their truth, (_i.e._ how they have discharged their prophetic functions)." +(Súra xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear witness against the Jews who +reject him: "In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness against +them." (Súra iv. 158). + +It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. This +faith is founded on the verse "Truly we have given thee an _abundance_." +(Súra cviii. 1). Bukhárí says: "The meaning of Kausar is the 'abundance of +good' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Básh said to one Sa'íd, 'the +people think that Kausar is a river of Paradise.' Sa'íd replied, 'Kausar is +a river in which there is abundance of good.'" According to the same +authority Muhammad said: "My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk, +its perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks thereof will thirst +no more." + +There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers are +admitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmízí, said there were one hundred. +Some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give to +Paradise. (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the _Garden of Eternity_ +which was promised to the God-fearing, best?" (Súra xxv. 16.) (2.) +Jannat-us-Salám. "For them is a _Dwelling of Peace_ with their Lord." (Súra +vi. 127.) (3.) Dár-ul-Qarár. "The life to come is the _Mansion which +abideth_." (Súra xl. 42.) (4.) Jannat-ul-'Adan. "To the Faithful, both men +and women, God promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the _Garden of +Eden_." (Súra ix. 73.) (5.) Jannat-ul-Mawá. "Near which is the _Garden of +Repose_." (Súra liii. 15.) (6) Jannat-un-Na'ím. "Amid _delights_ shall the +righteous dwell." (Súra lxxxii. 13.) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyún. "The register +of the righteous is {172} in _Illiyún_." (Súra lxxxiii. 18,) (8.) +Jannat-ul-Firdaus. "Those who believe and do the things that are right, +they shall have the _Gardens of Paradise_ for their abode." (Súra xviii. +107.) + +Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Qurán, though it mentions the +names of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will be +sent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed information. +They classify them thus:--(1.) Jahannam, for sinners who die without +repentance. (2.) Lazwá, for the infidels (_i.e._, Christians.) (3.) Hutama, +a fire for Jews, and according to some for Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for +devils, the descendants of Iblís. (5.) Saqar, for the magians: also for +those who neglect prayer. (6.) Jahím, a boiling caldron for idolaters: also +for Gog and Magog. (7.) Háwía, a bottomless pit for hypocrites. It is said +that heaven has one division more than hell to show that God's mercy +exceeds His justice. + +The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the events +connected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of those who are +lost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent summary of +these opinions, that it is not necessary to enter into details here. The +orthodox belief is that the statements in the Qurán and the Traditions +regarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally.[166] + +6. THE PREDESTINATION OF GOOD AND EVIL.--I have already in the section in +which the attribute "will" is described (p. 118) given some account of the +dogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as it +always forms a distinct chapter in Musalmán books, I treat it separately +here. Having, however, in the passage referred {173} to, given Al Berkevi's +words on the attribute "will," it is only necessary to make a short extract +from his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He says:-- + + "It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the + predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and + all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the _preserved + table_;[167] that the faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and + good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the + writing on the _preserved table_, produced and approved by God; that + the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad + actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and + decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any + ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may + have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend." + +Another confession of faith has:-- + + "Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith, + and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good + and evil with equal complacency is an infidel." + +There are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject:-- + +First.--The Jabríans, so called from the word "_jabr_" compulsion, deny all +free agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the force +of God's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does.[168] They hold +that as {174} God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit all +men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of the branches +of the Ash'aríans with whom on most points they agree. + +Secondly.--The Qadríans, who deny _Al-Qadr_, or God's absolute decree, say +that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to God but to man, who +is altogether a free agent. God has given him the power to do or not to do +an act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the Mutazilite +body, though in reality it existed before Wásil quitted the school of his +master Hasan (Ante. p. 125). As Wásil, however, followed the opinions of +Mábad-al-Johní, the leading Kadrían divine, the Mutazilites and Qadríans +are practically one and the same. + +Thirdly.--The Ash'aríans, of whom I have already given some account, +maintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever He +willeth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He willeth that +which He knoweth and what is written on the _preserved table_; that He +willeth both good and evil. So far they agree with the Jabríans; but then +they seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have already explained when +describing their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. p. 130). The orthodox, or Sunní +belief is theoretically Ash'arían, but practically the Sunnís are confirmed +Jabríans. The Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical. + +No subject has been more warmly discussed in Islám than that of +predestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions will +present the points of difference. + +The Ash'aríans, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views, +formulate their objections to the Mutazilite system thus:-- + +(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, then +he should also have the power of controlling the result of that action. + +(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to _originate_ {175} an act +it is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator should be +independent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by knowledge. +To this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of a +road before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks. + +(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time wills +it to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be a +collection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if the +exaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference. + +(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than some +of the works of God, _e.g._ a man determines to have faith: now faith is a +better thing than reptiles, which are created by God. + +(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; why +does he need to thank God for grace and faith? + +(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimony +of the Book. "All things have we created under a fixed decree." (Súra liv. +49). "When God created you and _that ye make_." (Súra xxxvii. 94). "Some of +them there were whom God guided and there were others decreed to err." +(Súra xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedience He must be the causer of +it, for "on the hearts of these hath God graven the Faith." (Súra lviii. +22). "It is he who causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive." +(Súra liii. 44). "If God pleased He would surely bring them, one and all, +to the guidance." (Súra vi. 36). "Had God pleased, He had guided you all +aright." (Súra vi. 150). "Had the Lord pleased, He would have made mankind +of one religion." (Súra xi. 120). "God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and +whom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path." (Súra vi. 39.) +Tradition records that the Prophet said: "God is the maker of all makers +and of their actions."[169] + +{176} + +The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and +said:-- + +(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the difference +between praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and infidelity; +good and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards and +punishments; promises and threats; what is the use of prophets, books, &c. + +(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If these +are created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe plurality +to the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'aríans reply that +orders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they call +"Amr-i-takwíti," is the order, "Be and it was." This comprehends all +existences, and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass. The +latter they call "Amr-i-tashri'í," an order given in the Law. This comes to +men through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience is to act +according to that which is revealed, not according to the secret intentions +of God, for that we know not. + +(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of that +which he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny a +tyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy. + +(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophet +desires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the orthodox +reply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an +infidel. {177} If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation to +such an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, he would be doing +wrong; but as he does not know the secret decrees of God, his duty is to +deliver his message according to the Hadís: "A prophet has only to deliver +the clear message." + +(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Qurán, in +which the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c., are applied +to men. Such are the verses: "Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth +is God's that He may reward those who _do_ evil according to their deeds: +and those who _do_ good will He reward with good things." (Súra liii. 32). +"Whoso shall have _wrought_ evil shall not be recompensed but with its +like: but whoso shall have _done_ the things that are right, whether male +or female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise." (Súra xl. 43). +Say: "the truth is from the Lord; let him then who will believe; and let +him who will, be an infidel." (Súra xviii. 28).[170] "Those who add Gods to +God will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given Him +companions.' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye utter lies.'" (Súra +vi. 149). The Hadís is also very plain. "All good is in Thy hands and evil +is not to Thee." (Al-khair kuluhu fí yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.) + +The Ash'aríans have one famous text which they bring to bear against all +this reasoning and evidence. It is: "This truly is a warning; and whoso +willeth, taketh the way of his Lord; but _will it ye shall not_, unless God +will it, for God is knowing, wise." (Súra lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadís they +reply (1) that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil and +decreeing it. Thus the expression "God willeth not tyranny for His +servants," does not mean {178} that God hath not decreed it, but that +tyranny is not one of His attributes: so "evil is not to Thee" means it is +not an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadís must be explained in accordance +with the teaching of the Qurán. + +The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. Averhoes +says: "We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is always +determined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something which +pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is thus +bound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain order +of things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone knows +before hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. The +connection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of +nature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees and +predestination.'"[171] + +I have already shown how, as Islám grew into a system, the Muslims fell +into a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters and +words of the Qurán. With this declension came a still more distorted view +of the character of God. The quotations made from the Qurán in the last few +pages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedom +to man and speak of his consequent responsibility, others teach a clear and +distinct fatalism. The great strength of Islám lay in the energy with which +Muhammad preached the doctrine that God was a divine Ruler, one who would +deal righteous judgment, who "taught man that which he knew not." As the +system became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of its +first principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became an +unapproachable being. A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of the +Omnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalism which, whatever the Qurán may +teach on the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim {179} +communities. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations decay. Careless +of self-improvement,[172] heedless of the need of progress, the Muslim +nations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher aspects +of intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west. + +The subject of _'Ilm-i-Aqáíd_, or the science of dogma properly ends here, +but most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a few +practical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. The believer who +commits murder, fornication, &c., does not cease to be a Muslim provided +that he does not say that these are allowed: should he die unrepentant, God +can punish him for a while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. The +Hadd, a punishment based on a Záhir, or obvious sentence of the Qurán +requires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death.[173] In the +case of an apostate woman, Imám Abu Hanífa ruled that she should be +imprisoned and beaten every day. The other three Imáms, Málik, Sháfa'í and +Hanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with the +Tradition which says: "He who changes his religion, kill." The Arabic word +"man," usually translated "He who" is of common gender, and so these Imáms +include women in the list of those who, after apostasy, are to be +killed.[174] God does not pardon polytheism and infidelity; but He can, if +He willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any one is asked, "dost thou +believe?" he should reply, "I am truly a believer," and not say: "If God +{180} willeth."[175] If any one says to him: "Wilt thou die in the faith?" +he should reply: "I do not know, God knows." Except when speaking of +prophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr, +Omar, Osmán and 'Alí, it must not be said of any one, "he is gone to +Paradise," for God only knows his state. Prayer should be made for a +deceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give alms, to read the +Qurán, to perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus gained to +the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act. + +{181} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER IV. + + MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY. + + I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or + the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the + orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the + subject of this note. The Khalíf Mámún (813-833 A.D.), a notorious + free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic + researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated + into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly, + because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of + the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly, + because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the + daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite + natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. "The Musalmán mind was + trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed + dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to + cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle + systematist like Aristotle was the very man they required."[176] Some + idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an + account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of a meeting held under + the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous Barmecide family.[177] + Yahya thus addressed the meeting: "You have discussed at length the + theory of concealment (Al-Kumún) and manifestation (Al-Zahúr), of + pre-existence and creation, of duration and stability, of movement and + quiescence, of the union and separation (of the Divine substance), of + existence and non-existence, of bodies and accidents, of the approval + and the refutation (of the Isnáds of the Traditions), of the absence or + the existence of attributes in God, of potential and active force, of + substance, quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation. + You have examined the question as to whether the Imám rules by divine + right, or by popular election; you have had an exhaustive discussion on + metaphysical subjects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy + yourselves to-day with the subject of love," &c. + + The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek + authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and {182} + especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour + with the liberal Khalífs of the 'Abbásside dynasty. In some cases the + translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time + of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the + latter language. The most celebrated translator was the historian + physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 A.D.), a man profoundly acquainted + with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was at the head of a + school of interpreters in Baghdád, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein + and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century + (A.D.) Yahya-ben-Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and + corrected earlier translations of others. It is to these men that the + Arabs owe their chief acquaintance with Plato. + + The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people, + especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave + suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse. + The historian Makrizi says: "The doctrine of the Philosophers has + worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment + the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety."[178] It came + into contact with Muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the + world, the special providence of God and the nature of the divine + attributes. To a certain extent the Mutazilites were supported by the + philosophical theories they embraced, but this did not diminish the + disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy. + Still it grew, and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic + methods. Thus arose a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system + was confined mainly to matters of religion; the later school occupied + itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went + farther and farther away from orthodox Islám. + + The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier + period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but orthodoxy + finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the form + known as that of the Ash'arían School became again supreme.[179] The + great intellectual movement of the Philosophers proper, the later + scholastics (Mutakallimán), lasted longer, but by the end of the + twelfth century (A.D.) the whole Muhammadan world had again become + orthodox. Saláh-ud-dín (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were + strong supporters of the Ash'aríans. + + {183} + + The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar, + rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of + philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers + were then, and are now, considered heretics.[180] + + Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870 + A.D. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in + theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In his + great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from Muslim + dogmas. + + Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbássides, seems to + have denied not only the rigid and formal Islámic view of inspiration, + but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true + inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were + real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his + philosophical training at Baghdád, where for a while he taught; but + finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 A.D. + + Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a + Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the + concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not + find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of + Islám. He was born near Bukhárá, in the year 980 A.D. For a while he + taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahán. + + Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim + Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the + eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical + tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzálí, and for maintaining that + speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true + conception of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the + orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was "a + calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good + way." + + Al-Ghazzálí was born A.D. 1059 in Khorásán. He was a famous Muslim + divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was President of + the Nizámiah College at Baghdád. He travelled much, and wrote many + books to prove the superiority of Islám over all other religions and + over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive study of + the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that he fell + into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy. From + this he emerged into Súfíism, in {184} which his restless spirit found + satisfaction. On Súfíism, however, he exercised no very notable + influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards + philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were + trying to bring Islám into accord with philosophic theories. His works, + "Tendency of Philosophers," and "Destruction of the Philosophers" had + an immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of + "those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in + their pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the + authority of certain great men, instead of revealed religion." It is, + however, and with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzálí did not + really object to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox + he wrote what he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzálí + later on in life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select + friends, in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in + the "Destruction of Philosophers." Be that as it may, it is + acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East + it has never recovered; that is, as far as the Muslim world is + concerned. His course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious + principle of Islám against philosophical speculation, which in spite of + all accommodation never made itself orthodox. + + In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashíd, + better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in + the year 1126 A.D., or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He came of a + noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever occupy a + distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. "Without dispute + he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one of the + profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences then + accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer."[181] One of + his most famous works was the "Refutation of the destruction of + Philosophers." Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes + claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths + are the highest object of research; but that only a few men could by + speculation arrive at them, and that, therefore, a divine revelation + through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men + the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and + religion. He held, it is true, that the orthodox had paid too much + attention to the letter, and too little to the spirit, and that false + interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in + religion. This {185} profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms + of worship, however, did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of + preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of + religion. He was deprived of his honours and banished by the Khalíf + Al-Mansúr to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer + many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with his + son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco in 1198 + A.D. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers + worthy of the name.[182] In Spain a strict prohibition was issued + against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable works were + committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the Moors in Spain + began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, and liberal + culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of + Islám. In Spain,[183] as in Baghdád, orthodoxy gained the day. There + was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim + Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their + efforts to rationalize Islám, they also tried to cast off what to them + seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical + Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no + gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could + enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject. + Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove + was a logical development of the foundations of Islám, and these + foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual + one to uproot. They were men of good position in life, voluminous + writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and "more or less devoted to + science, especially to medicine." Yet they did not advance philosophy, + and science they left much as they found it. They preserved something + of what Grecian thought had achieved, and so far their labour is not + lost. + + Thus Islám has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory which + Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. {186} The + founders of Islám, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of + note.[184] The first impetus to the study was given by heretical + Khalífs employing Christians at Baghdád to translate Greek books; + whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was due largely + to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews. Even there, + the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects of bitter persecution. + Now and again, a liberal minded Khalíf arose, but a system such as + Islám survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. From the close + of the twelfth century (A.D.) downwards it would be difficult to point + to any Muslim Philosopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of + any real value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest + raged, a contest such as Islám has never since seen. This great effort + to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to + introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson + is plain. Any project of reform in Islám which admits in any degree its + fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the only + hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when it enters + into the circle of civilized nations. + +{187} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM. + +The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected with +Imán (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Dín (practical +religion). The five principal acts are called Irkán-i-Dín, pillars of +religion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession of +faith; (2) Sulát, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirty +days' fast of Ramazán; (4) Zakát, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to +Mecca. These are all _farz_ duties, being based on a Nass-i-Záhir, or +"obvious," sentence of the Qurán, a proof derived from which is called +dalíl-i-qata'í. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs. + +The authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good Muslims +should perform. Such are the seven duties which are _wájib_, or duties +based on the more obscure texts of the Qurán, called Khafi, or "hidden" +sentences, a proof derived from which is called dalíl-i-zaní. These duties +are: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in addition to the Hajj; +(2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a wife to her husband; (4) +the giving of alms after a fast; (5) the offering of sacrifice; (6) the +saying of Namáz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) the +support of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and (5) are _wájib_ orders +to the rich; but only _mustahab_ to the poor: that is, it is meritorious if +they perform them, but not sinful if they leave them undone. + +The duties next in order as regards authority are the _sunnat_ ones. They +are three in number and are based either on the practice of the Prophet, or +are _fitrat_, that is practices of previous prophets, the continuance of +which {188} Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shaving +off the hair from the head and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. In +addition to these there are actions which are _mustahab_. They are those +which Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lower +class of action which are _mubáh_. These are works of supererogation. If +omitted there is no fear of punishment. + +It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are (1) +_Harám_, actions and food forbidden either in the Qurán or the Traditions; +(2) _Mahrúh_, actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain, +but which are generally considered wrong; (3) _Mufsid_, actions corrupting +or pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will now +frequently occur. + +1. TASHAHHUD.--This is the recital of a confession of faith. There are +several forms of this. A common one is: "I testify that there is no deity +but God, I testify to His unity and that He has no partner; I testify that +Muhammad is His servant and His messenger." The shorter form is: "There is +no deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle of God." The power contained +in this latter confession is extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of +Islám. "It has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for +twelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it has been passed +from lip to lip, as no other word has ever been passed, by thousands of +millions of the human race." The power of Islám, its proclamation of the +Unity, is here seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslim +theologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of Muhammad, a +dogma which retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, and +causes the prostration of Islám, as the world around grows luminant with +the light of science and truth, of faith and reason. + +2. SULÁT.[185]--All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of {189} these +Irkán-i-dín, give in connection with Sulát the rules regarding the +necessary purifications. It will be convenient to follow the same order. + +Tahárat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazú, the lesser +lustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, or +purification by sand. + +(1). Wazú is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Those +which are 'farz' are four in number, viz:--to wash (1) the face from the +top of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the hands +and arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet hand a fourth +part of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The authority for these +actions is the text: "O Believers! when ye address yourselves to prayer, +wash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the +ankles" (Súra v. 8). The Sunnís wash the feet: the Shía'hs are apparently +more correct, for they only wipe, or rather rub, (masah) them. In these +ablutions, if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched, +the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain. + +The act of making wazú, however, has not been allowed to remain in this +simple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number. +They are, (1) to make the intention of wazú, thus: I make this wazú for the +purpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to the wrist, but +care must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until each +has been rubbed three times with water poured on it; (3) to say one of the +names of God at the commencement of the wazú[186] thus: "In the name of the +Great God," or "Thanks be to God for the religion of Islám;" (4) to clean +the teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water into the +{190} nostrils three times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) to +do all without any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to be +purified three times; (10) the space between the fingers of one hand must +be rubbed with the wet fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be combed +with the fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the ears +must be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last +operation; (14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of +the left hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between +each toe in succession. Imám Sháfa'í holds that (1) and (7) are farz duties +and that (12) should be done three times. Imám Málik considers (8) to be +farz. + +The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a +recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A +specimen of these prayers is given in a note.[187] + +(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal +defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean +clothes and perform the wazú, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put away +impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the following order. +He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left +three times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times. +The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water +be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair +even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other +particulars are sunnat or mustahab. + +There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a +purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given +here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the +subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islám how much +the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have +raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest +importance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islám is not to be +denied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer +depends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless +unless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men +formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making +wazú washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth, +he cannot lawfully say the daily Namáz enjoined on all Muslims. None but +those who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the +puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial, +but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned +Muslims of great importance. + +(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following +circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of +one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water +might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring +danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of +the Namáz of a Feast day or the Namáz at a funeral, the worshipper is late +and has no time to perform the wazú. On ordinary days this substitution of +tayammum for wazú is not allowable. + +{192} + +The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make tayammum to +put away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. I +commence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises are +in the religion of Islám." He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubs +his mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be left +untouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make the +intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. "If ye are sick, or +on a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if ye +have touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your +faces and your hands with it." (Súra v. 9.) + +Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used +for purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:--rain, sea, +river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first +kind is authorized by the Qurán. "He sent you down water from heaven that +He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from +you." (Súra viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned by the +Traditions. I give one illustration. A man one day came to the Prophet and +said: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh +water; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench my +thirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: "The water of the sea is +pure." Tirmízí states that this is a Hadís-i-Sahíh. Great difference of +opinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and so +renders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader to +enter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, +it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into +flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used, +provided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for +this reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits +square. If of {193} that size, it is called a _dah dar dah_, (literally 10 +x 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one +foot deep. + +The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence the +Namáz. + +(4). Salát or Namáz. The Namáz can be said either in private or in public. +All that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper +should be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face be +turned towards Mecca. Whether the Namáz is said in public or in private, it +must be preceded by wazú, except when tayammum is allowed. If the +Namáz[188] is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious +than repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azán, or call to +prayers, and the Iqámat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in +which the Musallí, one who says the Salát, must stand and the words he is +to say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea +of a Namáz, or Service.[189] + +The Mu,azzin[190] calls out loudly in Arabic:-- + +"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar[191]!" + +All who hear it respond:-- + +"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar!" + +The Mu,azzin says:-- + +"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God." + +Each of his auditors replies:-- + +"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God." + +{194} + +Mu,azzin:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." + +Auditor:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." + +Mu,azzin:--"Come to prayer." + +Auditor:--"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great." + +Mu,azzin:--"Come to do good." + +Auditor:--"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be." + +If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: "Prayer +is better than sleep," to which the response is given: "Thou hast spoken +well." "Alláhu Akbar," and "There is no God but God" are then repeated +twice and so the Azán ends. + +The Iqámat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the Azán, but +after the words, "come to do good," the statement "prayer has commenced" is +made. + +These preliminaries being now over, the Namáz can commence. It is as +follows: + +The Musallí, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side and +says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):-- + +"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning +(or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may +be) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be)." + +Then follows the Takbír-i-Tahrímah, said with the thumbs touching the lobes +of the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The +fingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the +Musallí says:--"Alláhu Akbar!" + +The Qíám, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed on +the back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize the +wrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel,[192] the +eyes are {195} directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper +will touch the ground in prostration, and the Saná is said. It is:-- + + "Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee! + Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness! + There is no God but Thee!" + +The Ta'awwuz is then said:-- + + "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan." + +Then follows the Tasmíyah:-- + + "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." + +Then follows the Fátiha,[193] or first chapter of the Qurán:-- + +"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful! +King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do we +cry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whom +Thou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go not +astray." + +After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Qurán as he +likes.[194] Some verses he must repeat. + +The Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (Súra 112) is generally said:-- + +"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not +begotten; and there is none like unto Him." + +The Takbír-i-rukú'--Alláhu Akbar!--is said whilst the Musallí makes an +inclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little, +places his hands upon his knees. + +The Tasbíh-i-rukú' is said in the same position. It is:-- + + "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!" + +The Tasmía' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed on +either side. Thus:-- + +{196} + +"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195]." + +The Takbír-i-Sijdar--Alláhu Akbar!--is said as the worshipper drops on his +knees. + +The Musallí then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close to +each other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side of +the feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch +the side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. The +eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with his +nose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch +the lobe of the ears.[196] All this being carefully attended to, the +Musallí can say the Tasbíh-i-Sijda thus:-- + + "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!" + +He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, places +his hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the +Takbír-i-Jalsa[197]--"Alláhu Akbar!" + +After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the +Takbír-i-Sijda and the Tasbíh-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when in +the act of rising up the Musallí says the Takbír-i-Qíám--"Alláhu Akbar!" + +This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fátiha, so +that after saying the Takbír-i-Qíám a Musallí would have to begin again at +that place (p. 195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the only +change being that after the Fátiha, he recites different verses of the +Qurán to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been +said, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the {197} Musallí, +unless he is a Shía'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. He +then places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbír-i-Jalsa, and with +his eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahíyát:-- + +"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of the +body, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God and +His blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!" + +Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the +Tashahhud[198]:-- + +"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad is +the servant of God and the messenger of God." + +Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musallí, whilst in the same posture, +says the Darúd:-- + +"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst have +mercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art +great. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless +Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great." + +Then comes the Du'á, which may be in the worshipper's own words though he +usually says[200]:-- + +"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings +of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell." + +Then turning the head to the right the Musallí repeats the Salám:-- + +"The peace and mercy of God be with you." + +Then turning the head to the left he says:-- + +"The peace and mercy of God be with you." + +At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises {198} his hands +as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his own +face, and offers up a Munáját, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the +vernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey the +blessing received from above to every part of the body. + +The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which the +following text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masá), +and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and in +the earth,--and at twilight ('ashí) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr)." (Súra +xxx. 17). The Commentators say that masá includes both sunset and the +period after sunset; that is both the Salát-ul-Maghrib and the +Salát-ul-'Ishá. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in +the following verse: "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of the +day, and at the approach of night." (Súra xi. 116). + +These daily Namáz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are those +distinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer. + +Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said the +Prophet repeated them. + +Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be said +after the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually they +are added to the Salát-ul-'Ishá. Imám Abu Hanífa says they are wájib, that +is ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Qurán, but by +Traditions each of which is generally received as a Hadís-i-Sahíh, and so +witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imám Sháfa'í, +however, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained. + +The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namáz one Namáz +more: know that it is witr, say it between the Salát-ul-'Ishá and dawn." On +the authority of Buzár, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet +{199} said: "Witr is wájib upon Muslims," and in order to enforce the +practice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not my +follower." The Prophet, the Companions, the Tába'ín and the Taba-i-Tába'ín +all observed it. The word witr literally means "odd number." A Tradition +says: "God is odd, He loves the odd." (Alláhu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra). +Musalmáns pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is considered +unlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date of +which is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearly +always an odd number. + +Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab, +or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must be +understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They +simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have +already given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five +daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I +have described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observes +the three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five more +rak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to +omit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of +repetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very +mechanical. + +A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namáz might be recited in Hindustani +was publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday, +February 13th, 1880.[201] + +The table on the next page will make the matter clear.[202] The optional +Sunnat rak'ats are called {200} 'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat +rak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said. + +---+------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------- +No.| Time. | THE NAMES OF THE TIME OF PRAYER. | THE NUMBER OF + | | | RAK'ATS SAID. + | +-----------+-----------------------+---------------- + | | | Witr + | | |--------------------------------------+ + | | | Nafl| + | | |-----------------------------------+ | + | | | Sunnat after Farz| | + | | |--------------------------------+ | | + | | | Farz| | | + | | |-----------------------------+ | | | + | | | Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'| | | | + | | |--------------------------+ | | | | + | | | Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'| | | | | + | | |-----------+-----------+ | | | | | + | | Arabic | Persian | Urdu | | | | | | +---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+- + 1 | From dawn to | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Fajr Kí | | 2| | | | + | sunrise. | Fajr. | Subh. | Namáz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 2 | When the sun | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhr Kí | | 4| 4| 2| 2| + | has begun to | Zuhr. | Peshín. | Namáz. | | | | | | + | decline. | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 3 | Midway between | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Asr Kí | 4| | 4| | | + | No. 2 and 4. | 'Asr. | Dígar. | Namáz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 4 | A few minutes | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Maghrib | | | 3| 2| 2| + | after sunset. | Maghrib. | Shám. | Kí Namáz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 5 | When the night | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Ishá Kí | 4| | 4| 2| 2|7 + | has closed in. | 'Ishá. | Khuftan. | Namáz. | | | | [203] + | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 1 | When the sun | Salát-ul- | Namúz-i- | Ishráq Kí | | | | | 8| + | has well risen. | Ishráq. | Ishráq. | Namáz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 2 | About 11 o'clock | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhá Kí | | | | | 8| + | A.M. | Zuhá. | Chast. | Namáz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 3 | After mid-night. | Salát-ut- | Namáz-i- | Tahajjud | | | | | 9| + | | Tahajjud.| Tahajjud.| Kí Namáz. | | | | | | +---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+- + +In addition to these there are several kinds of Namáz which have to be said +at different times, or under special circumstances. + +(i). Salát-ul-Juma'--The Friday Namáz. This is a farz duty. It has the +threefold authority of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. Thus: "O ye +who believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the _day of the assembly_ +(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic." +(Súra lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz," and, "God will make +a mark on the heart of him who misses the Salát-ul-Juma'[204]." There are, +however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, _viz_: a +traveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad {201} +person, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namáz +obligatory are:-- + +(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qází (judge) +dwells. + +(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy. + +(3). It must take the place of the Salát-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees, +except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'ats +are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two which +follow the farz ones are said. + +(4). One, or according to the followers of Imám Sháfa'í two Khutbas, or +sermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imám after the four sunnat +rak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba should +consist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety. + +(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imám. The +Sháfa'ítes say there should be at least forty worshippers. + +(6). The Azán, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinction +of rank. + +Any person who is qualified to act as Imám at the other prayers can conduct +this Namáz. The Imám and Khatíb (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily, +one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad said +that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of +the latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imám sits down to rest +before the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up a +Du'á, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at, +(innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the +Traditionists, Bukhárí, Abu Dáúd and Tirmízí, it is a mustahab act to wear +clean clothes on Friday. + +The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with a +large club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.[205] + +{202} + +The following is a specimen of the Khutbas. + + SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has + opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the + best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without + partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from + darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His + Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, + his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I + advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! + that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, + and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Míká,íl the Khatíb, + Isráfíl the Imám and 'Izrá,íl the Mukabbir[206] and all the angels join + in the Namáz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to + me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká,íl: "I give + mine to the Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá,íl: "I + give mine to the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the + company of the Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday + last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls + from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for + every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on + a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr." + + Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the Word + of God,--the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and + righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from + cursed Satan." + + In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + "When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to + the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, + will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse + yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it + may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of + merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing + alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares. + God is the best provider.'" (Súra lxii. 9-11.) God {203} by means of + the Holy Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching + will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, + Holy, Clement. + +Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences the +second. + + In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of + light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. + He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save + you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out + error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of + God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his + descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of + God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created + life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased + with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár,[207] and with Omar + Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor + of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon + 'Alí Murtuzá, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased + with the great Imáms Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother + Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the + uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions). + O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of + their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof + from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to + show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity + and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the + Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!" + +The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated +contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer, +the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. The +form in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are +practically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special +subject of the sermon. The second of the two {204} sermons is always the +same; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Both +are said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an +explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in the +Qurán, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be done +in an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moollá, or any +learned man who could collect an audience. + +(ii). Salát-ul-Musáfir.--Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes a +journey which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose, +considered a traveller.[208] The length of a day's journey is estimated at +the distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller +intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usual +Namáz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he can +shorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit +the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats he +must recite at the Salát-ul-'Ishá. If a traveller passing through a place +is, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imám, he being a +traveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers then +complete the Namáz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place is +the Imám and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imám is bound to recite +the whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole +after him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippers +must not recite less than the Imám.[209] + +(iii). Salát-ul-Khauf.--Prayers of fear. This is a Namáz said during the +time of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy +the Imám should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should be +placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if they +are on the march, one rak'at; if stationary {205} in a place, two rak'ats. +This division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will +recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namáz. The Salám +(Ante. p. 197) will be recited by the Imám alone. The first division of +troops will not say the qir,at, _i.e._ the Fátiha and the other verses of +the Qurán recited after it (Ante. p. 195); but the second division will +supply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not +dismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and +make the rukú' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards the +Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction most +convenient. During the recital of the Namáz he must not fight, or allow his +horse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When ye go forth +to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers, +if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are your +undoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shalt +pray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let them +take their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let them +retire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed come +forward, and let them pray with you." (Súra iv. 102, 103). + +(iv). Salát-ut-Taráwíh.--This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited +every night during the month of Ramazán. They must be said after the farz +and sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salát-ul-'Ishá. +The Salát-ut-Taráwíh is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice dates +from the time of the Khalíf Omar. Abd-ur-Rahmán, a Traditionist, states +that one night in Ramazán he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some +persons saying the Namáz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said: +"If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imám +it will be good." He did so, and the next night the people of their own +accord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: "this +{206} bid'at is good." This is good authority for the institution, for the +Prophet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafá-i-Rashídín." There +is also a Hadís-i-Sahíh to the effect that "God has made the fast of +Ramazán farz, and its qíám[210] sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum síámu Ramazána wa +sunna qíámuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tiráwíh Namáz should +become farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successive +nights in Ramazán, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for so +doing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a +farz and not a sunnat duty.[211] The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty, +as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalíf Omar. The +Shía'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such +occasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four +Khalífs--the first three of whom they hate. + +(v). Salát-ul-Kusúf and Salát-ul-Khusúf--Prayer said when an eclipse of the +sun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imám recites with +the congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azán and the Iqámat are +both omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one rukú' is read. The +Sháfa'ítes read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remain +in prayer (Du'á) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namáz during an +eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with +this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. Each +Muslim can say the Namáz privately in his own house. The practice is +founded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse then remember +God, pray (Du'á) and recite the Namáz until it becomes light again." + +(vi). Salát-ul-Istisqá.--Prayer in time of drought. When {207} there is a +scarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer up +prayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be taken +that no Zimmí[212] is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer +for a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmí is +present. + +These prayers are simple Du'á and not a Namáz. There is no +well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namáz +on such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'á. +This is a very good example of the use of the term Salát as a _Mushtarik_ +word, _i.e._ one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning is +Namáz; here it means Du'á. + +(vii). Salát-ul-Janáza.--Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about to +die, the attendants should place him on his right side with his face +Qibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the "Kalima-i-Shahádat," the +creed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, without a partner; that +truly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle." After death has taken +place, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed +an _odd_ number of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixed +upon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd and +not even. The lesser lustration (wazú) is then made. The head and beard are +washed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater +lustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda +(prostration) _i.e._, forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed +with camphor. + +To recite the Salát-ul-Janáza is a duty called Farz-i-kifáya, that is, if +some few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if no +one repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namáz is farz +the following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that thou +mayest {208} cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thy +prayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth." (Súra ix. +104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (_i.e._, incumbent on all), but +Farz-i-kifáya is drawn from an account given in a Hadís, to the effect that +the Prophet one day did not recite the Namáz over one of his deceased +followers. Now, if the Namáz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could +not have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the +farz command contained in the verse of the Qurán just quoted. + +The Namáz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in the +open space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never in +the graveyard. + +When all are assembled the Imám or leader says: "Here begins the Namáz for +the dead." + +The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the +direction of Mecca. The Imám stands a little in front, near the head or +waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all +assume the Qíám, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:-- + +"I recite Namáz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'á) for this +deceased person, and I follow the Imám (who is about to officiate.)" + +Then all at the first[213] Takbír put the hands to the lobe of the ears and +say: "God is Great!" + +Then they say the Saná (Ante, p. 195.):-- + +"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great is +Thy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!" + +Then follows the second Takbír: "God is Great!" + +Then all say the Darud-i-Ibráhím:-- + +"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst +bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness +upon {209} Abraham and upon his descendants." "Thou art praised, and Thou +art Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless, +and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his +descendants." + +Then follows the third Takbír: "God is Great!" + +The Du'á is then repeated:-- + +"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those o£ us who are present, +and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, our +men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep +alive in Islám, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the +Faith."[214] + +Then follows the fourth Takbír: "God is Great!" + +Then all say:-- + +"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy +mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell." + +Then each one in a low voice says the Salám, as in an ordinary Namáz. +(Ante, p. 197.)[215] + +The Namáz is now over and the people make another Du'á thus:-- + +"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast once +guided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He who +giveth.' (Súra iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his[216] Master, and Thou createdst +him, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islám, and Thou +hast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life. +Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the +most Merciful." + +{210} + +Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:-- + +"No doubt is there about this Book (Qurán.) It is a guidance to the +God-fearing, who believe in the unseen,[217] who observe prayer (salát), +and out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe +in that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been +sent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: these +are guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well." (Súra ii. 1-4). + +Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:-- + +"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, as +do the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Books +and His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles.[218] +And they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for +unto Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power. +It shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for +the acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we +forget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that +which Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! and +lay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and +forgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory +therefore over the infidel nations." (Súra ii. 285, 286). + +{211} + +The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Ámm, that is, he says:-- + +"All have permission to depart." + +Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard. +When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the +people say:-- + +"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the +Prophet." + +If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the +grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir +and Nakír come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is +excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the +lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a +position that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face +towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people +say:-- + +"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not +in trouble." + +Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says; +"Bismilláh" (in the name of God), and the Súrat-ul-Iklás (Súra cxii) and +then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or +boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present +with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first +time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and into +it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you a +second time." (Súra xx. 57). + +Then they say this Du'á: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not +to trouble the deceased." + +When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:-- + +"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of +the grave." + +When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, or +five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220] + +One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the +Talqín (instruction):-- + +"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God. + +O son of (such an one),[221] remember the faith you professed on earth to +the very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and that +certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the +Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment, +and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islám my religion, Muhammad (on +whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Qurán my guide, the +K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the +deceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination +(by Munkir and Nakír) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou +most Merciful." + +The other persons present then offer a Fátiha.[222] + +After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín +(xxxvi) and the Súrat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then +retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fátiha, for by this +time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one +of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that +night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl +rak'ats of a Namáz should be said. After the Fátiha in each rak'at the +worshipper should repeat the Áyat-ul-Kursí {213} (Throne-verse)[223] three +times; then the Súrat-ut-Takísur (102) eleven times; then the +Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times. + +After the Salám and the Darúd the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with +great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be +bestowed on the deceased. + +(viii). Salát-ul-Istikhára.--This is a Namáz said before undertaking any +special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he +says the following Du'á: "O God, make me know what is best for me, and keep +me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is +best for me." He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to +receive a special inspiration (Ilhám) which will give him the needed +directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand. + +(ix). Salát-ut-Taráwih.--This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each +evening during the month of Ramazán. An account of these will be given in +the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazán fast are +described. + +3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZÁN.--Fasting is defined to be +abstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There +must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should +say: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and +future sin." When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sake +and had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftár) the +fast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act." + +It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month +Ramazán. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribed +to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the month Ramazán, +in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation +of that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of you +observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 179-181). The +Ijmá' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are +excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time. +"He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. +God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil +the number of days." (Súra ii. 181). This is called a qazá fast, that is, a +fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted. + +If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast +(roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed +(roza-i-kafára), in both cases it is a wájib duty to keep the fast. Some +hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse: +"Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay +their vows." (Súra xxii. 30). + +All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Such +are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyám-i-Bíz (bright +days)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'abán, +that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barát, and on the 30th of +each month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the +person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According +to Bukhárí, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her +husband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women on +account of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above the +other, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for +them." (Súra iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet +and said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him +for doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from +heaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of +the inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those +{215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them +into beds apart, and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the +month Shawwál, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the +fast of Ramazán and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwál, it +is as if his whole life were a fast." + +If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not +visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person +who declares that Ramazán has commenced. Imám Sháfa'í requires two, but the +following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet and +said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe +that there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His +Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billál, the Mu,azzin, +said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This proves that the +evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter. + +The fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teeth +a little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten under +compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or +a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it +was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazán +fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a +portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in +a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a +qazá fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken. + +In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone +for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be +done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he +must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals +daily for sixty days. + +The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applying +antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by +kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during +the day-time. The Imám As-Sháfa'í declared that it was very wrong indeed to +do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following +Tradition handed down by Tabrání. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast, +cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who +fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of +judgment.'" + +If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast, +he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is +based on a sentence in the Qurán, which has caused a good deal of dispute: +"As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiation +of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Súra ii. 180). This seems +to make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit +that at first it was so, but they say that the words have been +abrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse: +"As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." +Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before +"able," in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain +the expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have great +difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the +best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on. + +In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children, +sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is +sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when +convenient make a qazá fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding of +the poor is not required. Thus Abu Dáúd says: "The Prophet said, 'God +allows travellers to shorten the Namáz and to postpone the fast. Women also +are allowed to fast another time.'" The Qurán is also clear on the point: +"He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days." +(Súra ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to +fast. These are, 'Íd-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'íd and the three following days, _viz_: +the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazán, a +person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep +the fast during the remaining days of the month. + +To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of +Ramazán, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhárí, Muslim and +Tirmízí, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a +blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the +Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra." + +The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftár, or the breaking of +the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit +is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as +the fruit with which the fast should be broken. + +The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during +the day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its +rigour. + +They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be +done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalmán world is strongly +against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of +Ramazán. In this matter it may be said + + "Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher, + Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime." + +Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast +very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not +swallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower classes observe it +strictly.[225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In +such circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then +the Iftár can be commenced. The month of Ramazán brings with it other +duties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter. + +4. ZAKÁT.--There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is +Zakát (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certain +exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the +feast day known as 'Íd-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226] It is the first of +these that has now to be considered. + +On the authority of the Qurán and the Ijmá'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a +farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to +give the Zakát on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient +for his subsistence and is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb, or one who possesses an income +equivalent to about £5 per annum. The Qurán says: "Observe prayer (Salát) +and the legal impost (Zakát)." (Súra ii. 40). The Khalíf 'Umr Ibn +'Abd-ul-'Azíz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting +brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." The +three conditions without which Zakát would not be compulsory are Islám, +Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakát is +said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibádat (worship), and that, as the +Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with +Zakát. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisáb is +required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisáb is required for +daily use the zakát is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for +personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household +furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition +records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given +on the authority of Bukhárí states that for slaves employed in domestic +service only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes a +debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his +property and the Zakát given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God, +such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the +neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the +property on which Zakát is due. + +The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisáb is 20 miskats, or of silver +200 dirhems (=£5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not, +one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are +exempt, but Imám Sháfa'í does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Dáúd the +following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden +bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakát had been given for +them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God in +the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then +took them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of His +Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikáz, that is, buried treasure found +by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the +value must be paid, whether the land be Khárijí, rented at its proper +market value; or 'Usharí possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikáz +is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole +belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220} +land he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a +Musalmán Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return +them to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after +having given one-fifth as Zakát, he may retain four-fifths for himself. + +Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the +Prophet said: "There is no Zakát for stones." + +As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and +goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give +one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every +hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep. + +For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or +goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel +(bint-i-mukház); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel +(bint-i-labún); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah); +from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two +bint-i-labún; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a +bint-i-labún for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow +this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead. +For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a +two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten +cows. + +Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down +(from heaven) to me about them." + +If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisáb (£5 4s.), Zakát must be given +on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per +cent. The Hanífites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Sháfa'ítes +count such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakát to be paid +on it. + +Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel {221} loads,[228] +must according to Imám Abu Hanífa pay one-tenth; but the Sáhibain and Imám +Sháfa'í say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakát is +required. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally watered +one-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he +said nothing about the quantity, the Hanífites adduce the fact of the +omission as a proof on their side. + +The Zakát should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the +following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to +those who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islám_, and +for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the +wayfarer." (Súra ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the +Tafsír-i-Husainí, are now cancelled (mansúkh). The reference is to the Arab +Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H. 8). +This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Súra. "God hath +helped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr +abolished this giving of Zakát to converts, and the Khalíf Omar said to +these or similar persons: "This Zakát was given to incline your hearts +toward Islám. Now God has prospered Islám. If you be converted it is well; +if not, a sword is between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and +so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the +Ijmá'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy +motives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that +a reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the +ground of the triumphant nature of Islám which now needs no such support. +Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the +change. + +In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakát may be +given to assist a Mukátib, or slave {222} who is working in order to +purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihád or to make +the Hajj must be assisted. + +The Zakát must not be given for building mosques,[229] for funeral +expenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a +slave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakát to +parents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband to +give it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave. +The Sáhibain[230] maintain that a wife can apply the Zakát to her husband's +wants and quote this Tradition: "A woman asked the Prophet if she could +give the Zakát to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has two +rewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the +duties of relationship.'" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to his +son, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hásham and the descendants of the +Prophet should not be the recipients of the Zakát. The Prophet said: "O +Ahl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakát, +for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty." So some +say that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now +get a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakát must not be given to a +Zimmí (a non-muslim subject). + +In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the +Zakát; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilst +there is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given for +the care which Musalmáns take of their poor. + +The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. A +full account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which +treats of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr. + +{223} + +5. THE HAJJ.--The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who +denies this fact is considered to be an infidel. "The pilgrimage to the +temple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither: +and as to him who believeth not--verily God can afford to dispense with all +creatures." (Súra iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbás the +following Tradition has been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has made +the Hajj farz.' Then Aqra' bin Hábis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it +to be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say--yes, it will be a +wájib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj +is necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in +addition is nafl.'" + +The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and of +full age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly +providing for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, or +a child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the +latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose +residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca, +goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near +relative. Imám As Sháfa'í denies the necessity of such attendance, stating +that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is, +however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came to the Prophet +and said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on a +warlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war and +accompany thy wife in the Hajj.'" Imám Abu Yúsuf considered that a man who +possessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed more +than a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imám Muhammad, and most +others think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but if +death should overtake the man before he has made {224} the pilgrimage, he +will be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay is +dangerous. + +Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five +which are wájib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisites +are: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihrám,[231] two seamless +wrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the +shoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfát; (3) to make the Tawáf, that is to go +round the K'aba seven times. + +The wájib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalífah; (2) to run between Mount +Safá and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Ramí-ul-Jamár, or the casting of +the pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extra +Tawáf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over. + +The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage (Hajj) +be made in the months already known." (Súra ii. 193). These months are +Shawwál, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajj +must be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat, +or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The +'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year except +on the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of the +various roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or +six miles from the city stages called Míqát. The following are the names. +On the Madína road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iráq +road, Zát-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; on +the Yaman road, Yalamlam.[232] + +{225} + +The Hájís from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary and +worn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinary +clothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namáz of two nafl +rak'ats they put on the Ihrám. The Hájí, having now really entered upon the +Hajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: "O God, I +purpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it from +me." He then says the Talbíyah[233]: "Here I am! O Alláh! Here I am! Here I +am! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom are +to Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!" + +The persons who reside permanently in any of these Míqát can assume the +pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself; +whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihrám in the precincts of +the temple. + +The Hájí having assumed the Ihrám must now abstain from worldly affairs, +and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed to +hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill no game while +ye are on pilgrimage." (Súra v. 96). The Prophet also said: "He who shows +the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills +it." The Hájí must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair +be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with the +open palm of his hand.[234] The face and head must be left uncovered, the +hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not your heads until +the {226} offering reach the place of sacrifice." (Súra ii, 192). On +arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one, +on entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Harám[235] the Hájí should +continually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik." + +As soon as he sees the K'aba[236] he must say the Takbír and the Tahlíl. +The Traditionist 'Atá says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up +his hands and pray. + +On entering the enclosure, the Hájí says the Labbaik, Takbír and the +Tahlíl, then a Du'á. A Namáz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of +one of the four great Imáms. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black +stone) the Hájí again says the Takbír and the Tahlíl, after which he kisses +the stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to do +this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that with +which he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O Alláh, (I +do this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuance +of Thy Prophet's example--may Alláh bless and preserve him. O accept Thou +my supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously +grant me Thy pardon." Then he again repeats the Takbír and the {227} +Tahlíl, the Darúd and the Tahríf (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). He +then encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat he +had made, thus: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Omnipotent! I purpose +to make the circuit seven times."[237] This is called the Tawáf. The Hájí +runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times he +proceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not perform +the Tawáf. The Hájí then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek against +the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his arms +on high says: "O Alláh, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck from +hell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented with +that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hast +granted!" He then says the Istigfár--"I beg pardon of Alláh, the Most High, +the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent." + +The Hájí next proceeds to the Maqám-i-Ibráhím[238] (place of Abraham) and +then recites two rak'ats[239] called Sunnat-ut-Tawáf. Some water from the +sacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Hájí returns to the +Hajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it. + +Hájí Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:-- + + "We began the prayer 'O Alláh (I do this) in Thy belief and in + verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after + the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Alláh bless and preserve him!' + till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black + stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Alláh, Thou hast + rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we + repeated, 'O Alláh, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary + Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy {228} safeguard, and this is the + place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building + called Maqám-i-Ibráhím, we said: 'O Alláh, verily this is the place of + Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny + my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we + paced slowly round the north or Irák corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, + 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and + disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts + concerning family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the + Mízáb, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Alláh, verily I beg of Thee + faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish, + and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve + him! O Alláh, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no + shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet + Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught, + after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.' + Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shámí, we exclaimed: 'O + Alláh, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and + a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store + which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was + repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemaní, or southern corner, + where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the + right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the + finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where + our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge + with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and + from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death. + And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore + Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this + life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the + punishment of fire.'" + +The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safá and Marwah. +Starting from the former, the Hájí runs seven times between the two +summits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers +charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mocked +the Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madína had made +them weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the {229} +calumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said during +the S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that +(sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verily +Thou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in +both worlds prosperity, and save us from fire." The Hájí should also quote +passages from the Qurán. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawáf, +either the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imám must preach +in Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches +again on the ninth and eleventh days. + +On the eighth day, (Rúz-i-Tarwiáh), the Hájí goes to Miná, a place three +miles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hájís he says the usual +Namáz, and there spends the night.[240] This is a sunnat observance. On the +morning of the ninth day, starting after the Salát-ul-Fajr, the Hájí goes +to 'Arifát.[241] On arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I put +my trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy +to me, supply my need in 'Arifát, Thou art powerful over all." He then says +Labbaik, the Takbír and the Tahlíl. + +The noontide, and the afternoon Namáz are said together there: they are +thus shortened.[242] This done he should stand upon the mountain, if +possible at or near the place the Prophet {230} is said to have occupied. +This is called the Wukúf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He +must also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imám, explaining what still +remains of the ritual of the Hajj, _i.e._, how the Hájís are to stand in +Muzdalífah, to throw the stones in Miná, to make the sacrifice, &c. + +All the time the Hájí should constantly shout out the Talbíyah, and the +Tahlíl, and weep bitterly. + +The Hájí then proceeds to Muzdalífah, a place situated about half-way +between Miná and 'Arifát, where he should pass a portion of the night. +After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Harám, he should collect seven +pebbles and proceed to Miná. + +When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Íd-ul-Azhá arrives, he again goes +to Miná, where there are three different pillars, called respectively the +Jamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabír[243] (great +devil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holding +the jamár, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, +the Hájí throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: "In +the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the +Fiend and to his shame." The remaining six stones are thrown in like +manner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there. +The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone is +thrown the Takbír must be said. This ceremony is called Ramí-ul-Jamár, the +throwing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this +ceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stones +are miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says that if the +pilgrimage of a Hájí is approved of by God, the stones are secretly +removed. Mujáhid, a well known Traditionist, {231} says that he put a mark +on his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then +returns to Miná, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Íd-ul-Azhá. +An account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly +speaking, concludes the Hajj. The Hájí can now shave his head, pare his +nails and remove the Ihrám. + +The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are called +the Aiyám-ut-Tashríq "days of drying flesh" because now the pilgrims +prepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from the +victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Hájí should +spend this time at Miná, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the +pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes the +Tawáf-ul-Widá' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water from +the well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel +stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famed +well Zemzem. Finally, the Hájí kisses the threshold, and then, with hands +uplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he +prays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart +from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes his +exit and the Hajj is complete.[244] The Umráh or little pilgrimage can be +made at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It is +usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ but +slightly from the Hajj. The Ihrám must {232} be put on, and the obligations +of abstinence which it entails must be observed. + +The usual course is then to make the Ziárat, or visit to the tomb of the +Prophet at Madína. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of +Hájí and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the +community in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though +it is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrim +who otherwise could not go. + +This account of the Irkán-i-dín, or five pillars of religion, must now draw +to a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islám, +whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an +authority for many of the details, shows how largely Islám is based on the +Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imáms +hold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which side +holds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition, +the value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is a +weak (z'aif) Tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to +disprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmáns that they are not +priest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one +may use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken +there can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken +Islám will cease to be Islám, for this foundation of the Faith and the +edifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the +one will be the fall of the other. + +{233} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER V. + + _The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque, + Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880._ + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + QUESTION. + + "O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is + your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz + (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language + has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text + is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as + the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic + editions; such as--toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, and (.).[245] At the end of + the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná, + Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these + must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation + he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and + style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions + as to the ritual of the Namáz, and has stated that to those who do not + know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz duty to recite the translation; + otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz is vain. As regards the past, + he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the + 'Ulamá of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not + telling the people to use translations of the Qurán. Further, in + support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, according to which the + Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read a translation of the + Qurán in the Namáz." He claims, as on his side, the four great Imáms. + He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in Hindustani and + influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes + no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India. + + Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, + and what is the decree in the case of those who follow {234} him, or + who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a + guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made + to be the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, + state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward." + + THE ANSWER. + + "After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on + Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an + atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. + His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the + four Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám + Málik, and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán + when saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or + not. Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in + any case to use Persian[246] in the Namáz." Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of + Málik says: "Persian is unlawful." To these opinions Káfí, a disciple + of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namáz from a + translation of the Qurán is unlawful." Moreover from the Qurán itself, + the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). + The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, for God speaks of it as a + revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Qurán as may be + easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic + Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to be used is an Arabic + one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain (Imám Muhammad and + Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short + verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation. + If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a + sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he learns + this he may use a translation.[247] In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is + written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart + is farz-i-'ain" (_i.e._, incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is + written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic, + he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by + Imám Abu Hanífa that a person might use for a {235} time a translation, + it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The + statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is + not correct. In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written + that some Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a + Persian translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request + and they used it in the Namáz, _until they could pronounce Arabic + properly_. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. + This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is + true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be + remembered, a translation may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to + read a translation is farz or wájib. So if the person referred to says + that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to + read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now + such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Káfir, for he tries to + make out that the 'Ulamá of all preceding ages who have instructed the + people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the + Namáz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned + canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the + Namáz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is + equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'á-i-qunút, + Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that these + translations should be used in the Namáz. Thus, it is plain that he + wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a + course would be that soon a number of different translations would be + circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injíl would + be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it is written: "Whosoever + considers that the unlawful is lawful or _vice versâ_ is a Káfir." "If + any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulamá, his + orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after committing a fault declines to + repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel." In the + Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate the Qurán into + Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the + Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the + Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqán it is + written: "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as + having rhymes."[248] In the Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To + translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity." + + Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to + this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmán {236} + cemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, + according to the rule laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of + the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs + of the law here adduced, the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be + an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider + his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to + be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To + send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which + advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is + unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter entitled Murtád it + is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the + future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the Qurán: + "Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not + helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." (Súra v. 3). In another + place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an + infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a + person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán in the Namáz is + not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of + it is incumbent (farz). + + "Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best + Knower." + + This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other + leading Moulvies of the city of Madras. + + This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very + considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is + to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The + law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for + the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the + vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that + country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, + precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further + demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs + of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the + least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to + the statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the + Fatvá is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which + their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they + are regarded as the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly + orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first + chapter on the "Foundations of Islám." + +{237} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM. + +1. MUHARRAM.--Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, +has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by +the Shía'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sons +Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already +described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an +account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in +different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram. + +Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-day +house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather +together in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some sherbet +or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: "O God, +grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and sugar are +then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, or hole for +the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires +are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with +swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Alí! Noble Husain! Noble +Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c." These words they +repeat hundreds of times. + +In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). This is +often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for +the founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána only is known. +This is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted up +for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered +with texts of the Qurán written in a large and elegant style. The place is +brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Tázíahs or +Tábúts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely +ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the +plains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Tázíah is +constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madína. Large sums of money +are spent on these Tázíahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant +appearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are laid the several articles +similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbalá,--a turban +of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is +so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which +are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of +silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand +placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the +family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shía'hs. These +standards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of +'Alí, the Lady Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to +represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to +mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the +scene. + +Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. In +the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the +Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a +monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect +on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and +attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain! +Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and +tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved +for a later ceremony. + +{239} + +This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends the +Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He +proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories +gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of +glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the +audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that +of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The first +Wáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own +tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old +gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then +rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out +amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was +marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from +the adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though +not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the +assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a +few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their +bodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! Husain! Each one then +began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense +and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures." + +In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is +the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh +exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over +again in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several each +evening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán. + +During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant Marsiyas +to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated +with great earnestness. + +For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventh +day the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is to +represent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favourite +daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now +commemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It is +usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he +reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: +Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, +the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the standard +which represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, +covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for +one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, after which the +standard is again set up in its own place. + +The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to +remembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carried +about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib +(literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is +meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are +frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I +through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your +procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years +old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the +Na'l Sáhib. + +If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they +are made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective processions pass +on their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by +Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p. 159) is +also taken out. + +On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of +computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and the 'Alams +are taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for +men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the +carnival of the Musalmán year. + +On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the Alláwas, +and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and the Tázías +are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain +of Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken +off the Tázías, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249] +Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds +the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only +the 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The people +then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the +'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night +reading the Qurán, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On +the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has been +said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebrate +the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according +to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is +known as the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast). + +The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram +ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often +much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns +'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, and +that no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and the +Shía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends +to keep alive the distinction. + +{242} + +The tenth day--the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is +observed by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on +it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the +seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death. + +The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet +and khichrí--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified +butter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of those who were +martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such +cases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'á is added. +On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and +say Fátiha over the graves of their friends. + +Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The +procession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is very +similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250] when +on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the +Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those +offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers. + +The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an +allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the +senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart; +consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a variety of +pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done +much to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it has no doubt +softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider the Shía'h +observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The +fact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace may +have something to do with this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in India +live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the +Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets, +indeed, are both Sunnís and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with a +brief encomium on the four first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on +'Alí and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world." + +The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:-- + + I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the + ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, + the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of + virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a + distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb[251] of the + faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship + of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of + the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of + the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the + resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, + the Imám of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, + he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, + the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imám of the Faithful, + 'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the victorious lion of the Most High. I + pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalíf may favourably hear the + vows which I offer to Him." + +The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and Husain:-- + + I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make + for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the + martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the + blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the + twelve Imáms, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two + martyrs of the plain of Karbalá." + +{244} + +2. AKHIR-I-CHÁR SHAMBA.--This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the +month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, +the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next +month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in the +name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom +is the drinking of the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a +piece of paper is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writes +seven short sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wet +is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. +Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are: +(1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Súra xxxvi. +58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3) +"Peace be on Abraham." (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and +Aaron." (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Súra xxxvii. 130). +(6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Súra xxxix. +73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Súra xcvii. 5). The +Shía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Chár +Shamba-i-Súrí."--The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet of +the last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem +it an excellent and auspicious season. + +3. BÁRÁ WAFÁT.--This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month +Rabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, twelve and wafát, death, +because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a +well-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout +the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to +God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, +however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is +some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fátiha {245} every day, from +the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast +as Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, +and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The +Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is +then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh,[253] or +to the place where Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to the +people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a +Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be +made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán is +read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihas +are said. + +Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a +stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on +this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a +company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the +story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the +Qurán are read and the Darúd is said.[254] + +In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, +not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the +"'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical +duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf is +exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the +Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculous +property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is +put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. +Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house in +which this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c., are repeated. + +The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but mustahab. +It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does +not believe in the miraculous growth of the Ásár-i-Sharíf. + +4. SHAB BARÁT.--This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of the +record," is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, or +vigil is kept on the preceding day.[255] It is commonly but erroneously +called Shab-i-Barát. + +The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this +night registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during the +ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a +Fátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. +When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read once, the +Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and then the +Darúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer +the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to +the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. +This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the +Mosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. +This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must be done with +the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper +may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be +increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} The +Súra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other +portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the +various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards +strewn on the graves. A Fátiha is then said. If the worshipper has no +relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the +Arwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the +whole night in going from one cemetery to another. + +These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. nafl), +works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are +esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation." +The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious +signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islám. +Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on +this feast than at any other. + +The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits of the +Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy +night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee +to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of +eternal felicity." + +5. RAMAZÁN AND 'ÍD-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practical +religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. The +subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and +so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with +the religious observance of this month. + +From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the greatest +esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire +for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low +hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or +flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazán should be kept +as a fast. "As to the month {248} Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down +to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that +illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set +about the fast." (Súra ii. 181). + +The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, the +tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on +the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventh +month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation +unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, +when Muhammad first went to Madína he had great hopes of winning over the +Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making +Islám differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the +Qibla was changed (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his +residence at Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assigned +by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán God +gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, +and that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet in +the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, +or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we +have caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall +teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a +thousand nights." (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this +month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, +and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." +"Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven +called Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past +venial sins."[256] + +In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammad +doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth +not your discomfort." (Súra ii. 181). + +The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh Namáz and +'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described already (p. +205). Each night in Ramazán one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán is +recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikáf is a +Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes +'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there +meditate. Bukhárí says that the Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days of +each Ramazán, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his +death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between +the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbed +by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imám +Muhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold +that 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community does +it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes +a vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can be +performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then it +is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the +Sháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the +nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif +must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and +for making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, +drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may +speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may +give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no +account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him +to read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} a +man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257] + +When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called +Iftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the +'Íd-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the +Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa +of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If +any one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he will not +merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this +is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh +themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. The Sadqa are given +for the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and +female--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife +or elder children. + +In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one +person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is +great! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, except that only +two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namáz is +sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is +itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, +visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves. + +A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached in +Arabic is as follows:-- + + SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + "Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and + in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into + heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is + great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and + favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will + give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent + blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who + certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and + who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! + and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, + that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He + is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity + will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to + Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all + famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. + From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as + the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside + Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of + Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on + you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to + the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers + will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the + sadqa.[258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib + duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. + Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make + supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the + Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the + mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of + the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God + has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its + nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that + night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning + breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its + clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is + God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of + Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and + wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your + God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other + days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" + and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God + will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it + is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the + {252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, + the Clement."[259] + +"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the amusements +and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. +Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing +honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The +Zanána rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of +friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to +the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy +day of 'Íd, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive +presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."[260] + +6. The Baqr-'Íd.--This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is +also known as the 'Íd-i-Qurbán, and as the 'Íd-ul-Azhá, commonly called the +Íd-uz-Zuhá, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called +Bairám. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight +from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madína, observed that the Jews kept, on +the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A +Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He +was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the +children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. "We have a greater right in +Moses than they," said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded +his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when +Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madína, who occasionally came to +hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then +came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not +so ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the +second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in +the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Íd. +The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage +to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice +formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That +portion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now, +at Madína, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to +attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. +Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was +a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the +tenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca +were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at +Madína, and assembling his followers instituted the Íd-uz-Zuhá or Baqr-'Íd. +Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "O +Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to +Thy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the +family of Muhammad." + +Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Áyesha relates how the +Prophet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Íd-ul-Azhá more +pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will +come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will +make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the +acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in +it." + +Musalmáns say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael, +and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son. +Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and compassion for me +that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice +me." Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew his +knife, repeated the Bismilláh, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his +son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the +lad. This event is commemorated in this feast. + +On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various +kinds is prepared, over which a Fátiha is offered, first, in the name of +the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others +for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The +food is then sent as a present to friends. + +On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Íd-gáh +or, if there is no 'Íd-gáh, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way +the Takbír "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the one true +God, God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making wazú, the +worshipper should say: "O God, make this (_i.e._ the sacrifice I shall +offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil +away from me." + +The Service at the 'Íd-gáh, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats, +as in the Salát-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will, +however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four +more rak'ats. + + SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UZ-ZUHÁ. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Alláhu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God + is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should + praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. + Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for + the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! + I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. + This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the + glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. + On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of + God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimín, may the + {255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is + to fear God and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who + fear Me and are kind." + + Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign + and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in + Paradise (Dár-ul-Qarár), especially on the day of resurrection will + they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is + no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to + utter the praises of God. (Tasbíh.) Read the Kalíma, the Takbír and the + Tamhíd. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read + now the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. God is great! God is great! There is no God + but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the + morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for + a person to repeat the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. The woman before whom is a + man as Imám, and the traveller whose Imám is a permanent resident + (Muqím) should also repeat this Takbír. It should be said at each Namáz + until the Salát-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say + that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the + thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashríq (p. 231).[261] If + the Imám forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O + believers, that every free man who is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb (_i.e._ worth Rs. + 52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is + exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods + and slaves. It is wájib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, + but it is not a wájib order that he should do it for his children.[262] + A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven + persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin. + + If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you + across the Sirát. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the + mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this + was the Sunnat of Ibráhím, on whom be peace." + + In the Kitáb-uz-zád-ut-Taqwá, it is said that on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr and + the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namáz + {256} of the 'Íd. In the first rak'at after the Súrat-ul-Fátiha recite + the Súrat-ul-A'lá (Súra lxxvii); in the second, the Súrat-ush-Shams + (Súra xci); in the third, the Súrat-uz-Zuhá (Súra xciii); in the + fourth, the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (cxii). + + O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which + are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Súras are + equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent + by His prophets. + + May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act + according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To + all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in + the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the + Qurán. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever + by the grace of the Noble Qurán. May its verses be our guide, and may + its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon + all believers, male and female, the Muslimín and the Muslimát. O + believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the + Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O + believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafá + the mercy and peace of God may rest. + +The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the +sacrifice,[263] for it is a wájib order that every Muslim should keep this +feast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has +to incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will +in some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should +be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at +least be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it +must not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without +a blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the +household should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he +cannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his +hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257} +victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front +legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand +side of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force +that the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. +Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim +the following verse of the Qurán should be repeated: "Say! my prayers, and +my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds. +He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the +Muslims." (Súra vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, from Thee, and to +Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" Then having slain the +victim he says: "O God accept this for me." The first meal taken should be +prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the +members of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some +portions. + +It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member +of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it +is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases +men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the +number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities +limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims +wherever they may be. + +The Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Ídain, the two great +Feasts of Islám. A country in which Musalmáns could not observe them both +would at once become Dár-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be +the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jíhád, against the Infidel +rulers of the land. + +This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year. + +Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the +pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmáns to the {258} shrines of Saints, the +ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their +honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnís have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Íd +and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have +described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days +which are peculiar to India. The title of Pír given to a Musalmán devotee +is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a +'religious' takes a Pír as a spiritual guide. "Follow," says the poet Walí, +"the footsteps of thy Pír, like a shadow." After death these Pírs are +venerated as Walís or Saints. The Pírs when alive, are frequently resorted +to for a ta'wíz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked. +The sepulchre of a Walí is called a Dargáh, shrine; Mazár, place of +pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Qurán, and the +Namáz at such places is called a Rauza Khán. As a rule, processions are +made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fátiha +has been said are offered. Usually the Fátiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_ +the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the +erection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these +Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawán and the Áráyish-i-Mahfil by +Afsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs +prevalent:-- + +1. FESTIVAL OF MADÁR.--Sayyid Badr-ud-dín Kutb-ul-Madár is said to have +descended from the Imám Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and +received from Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thus +he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons, +and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people +explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. +The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make +a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer +he will live. Jawán in his account of {259} the festival states: "The tomb +of Madár is at Makanpúr, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore." On the +seventeenth of the month Jamádí-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village +which is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakírs +dance, and through which they leap calling out "Dam Madár, Dam Madár," +(breath of Madár.) An order of Fakírs, called Madária, look to this Saint +as their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an +Alam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to +such days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c. + +2. FESTIVAL OF MU'ÍN-UD-DÍN CHISTÍ.[264]--The tomb of this Saint is in +Ajmír. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Alí, and was born +in Sajistán about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about +fifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakír, Ibráhím +Qandúzí, through whose influence he began to seek the Taríqat, or mystical +road to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received +further instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jílání. After the +conquest of Hindustan by Shaháb-ud-dín Ghorí, Mu'ín-ud-dín retired to +Ajmír, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this +tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each +other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic +though he was as regards orthodox Islám, made a pilgrimage to this shrine, +and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus +also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not +unusual. + +3. FESTIVAL OF SÁLÁR MAS'ÚD GHÁZÍ.--There is some doubt as to the +nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husainí Syed, others that he +was a Pathán, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus +describes the {260} pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gather +from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines. +The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jíth (May-June). The +people believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he +had on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain +oilman, a resident of Radúlí, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage +presents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the +descendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches +of the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by +the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they +desire." The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmáns look +upon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and +so earned the title of Ghází, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was +only by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess. + +4. FESTIVAL OF THE BÍRA OR OF KHÁJA KHIZR.--Of this Saint, M. Garcin de +Tassy says: "Khája Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of +orientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of +Aaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound +him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some +allege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be +the fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmáns, discovered the source of the +Water of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever +in divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held +in his honour." Jawán describes it thus: "In the month of Bhádún +(August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of +duty to set afloat the boat (náú) in honour of Khája Khizr, and to make +according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy +personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the +month {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bíra carry it at +night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and +small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations, +whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bíra into the middle +of the river." Sometimes a number of small bíras, made of clay, are also +launched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is +said that the Musalmán natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a +small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave +it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the +sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of +the waters. + +The following prayer is recited in the Fátiha of Khizr: "To obtain purity +of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who +alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khája Khizr, +the great prophet Elias." + +5. THE FEAST OF PÍR DASTGÍR SÁHIB.--This is held on the eleventh day of the +month of Rabí'-us-Sání. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He +has no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdád. On the tenth of +the month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on the +next day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances +connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasá,id, or elegiac poems +are recited; the Darúd is repeated and Fátihas are said. The Qurán is also +read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any +special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of +this Pír by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. +Fátiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during +their sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharíf, the compiler of the +Qánún-i-Islám speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: "The +author speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he +{262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to +repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pír and vow before the Holy +God, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgír; and through the mercy +of the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgír) presented himself +in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his +behests." + +Syed Ahmad Kabír Rafáí, the founder of the Rafái Darwíshes was a nephew of +this Saint. + +6. FESTIVAL OF QÁDIR WALÍ SÁHIB.--This is the great saint of Southern +India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamádí-us-Sání. The +shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The +sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is +the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they +reach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fátiha in the name of Qádir +Walí. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to +work miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: "A +vessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow +that should Qádir Walí stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value +of the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being +miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast +away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached +itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to +land. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who +requested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished +at this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to +look at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had +saved the ship." + +The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu +influences have acted on Islám, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim +Saints. Qádir Walí is said to {263} have been a Fakír who lived on the +charity of both Hindus and Musalmáns. Indeed both parties claim him as +belonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the +fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to +both classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on +or near his tomb. The fame of the Walí gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah +made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would +enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present +elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now +become that the Musalmáns there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore." The same +reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago, +still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the +commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the +shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tábúts are +taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the +Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still +kept up with the festival of this Musalmán Saint. + +There are many other Walís and Pírs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made, +and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but +all such pilgrimages to a Dargáh (shrine) are no necessary part of Islám. +In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a +local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed. +Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This +brings me to the close of my subject. + +In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main +features of the Faith of Islám, and the religious duties it enjoins. I +might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the +elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the +borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264} +corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also +enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in +the individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond +my present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation +of the Faith of Islám from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers +to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves. + +THE END. + +{265} + + * * * * * + + +INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS. + + A. + + Aiyám-i-Bíz, 214 + Aiyám-ut-Tashríq, 231 + 'Alam, 238 + Al-A'ráf, 167 + Al-Barzakh, 168 + Al-Mahdí, 80 + Akhir-Chár Shambah, 244 + 'Amm, 48 + Amr-i-Takwíti, 176 + Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150 + Ásár-i-Sharíf, 245 + Asháb, 7 + 'Áshúrá, 241 + 'Áshúr Khána, 237 + Asmá-i-Husná, 133 + Attahíyát, 197 + Auliya, 152 + Áyat, 54 + Áyat-ul-Kursí, 212 + Azád, 95 + Azán, 193 + + B. + + Bárá Wafát, 244 + Baqáb-i-Qausain, 158 + Baqr-'íd, 252 + bid'at, 14 + Buráq, 241 + + D. + + Dá,írí, 81 + Dalálat, 53 + Dalíl-i-qata'í, 187 + Dalíl-i-zani, 187 + Darwíshes, 94 + Dargáh, 258 + Du'á, 197 + + F. + + Faná, 93 + Farú', 120 + Farz, 187 + Farz-í-'ain, 208 + Farz-i-kifáya, 207 + Fatrah, 3 + Fitrat, 187 + Fuqihá, 33 + + G. + + Ghair-i-Mahdí, 81 + Ghusl, 190 + Gunáh-i-kabíra, 154 + Gunáh-i-saghíra, 154 + {266} + + H. + + Hadís-i-Ahád, 70 + Hadís-i-Hasan, 71 + Hadís-i-Mua'llaq, 72 + Hadís-i-Mursal, 72 + Hadís-i-Mutawátír, 70 + Hadís-i-Sahíh, 71 + Hadís-i-Z'aíf, 71 + Hadd, 179 + Háfiz, 42 + Haft Sifát, 118 + Hajj, 223 + Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226 + Hál, 93 + Haqíqat, 52, 93 + Harám, 188 + Hárút, 142 + Hasal Khazaf, 230 + + I. + + Ibádhiyah, 76 + Ibárat, 53 + Iblís, 140 + 'Íd-gáh, 245 + 'Íd-ul-Fitr, 247 + Iftár, 250 + Ihlál, 224 + Ihrám, 224 + Ijmá', 16 + Ijmá'-i-Ummat, 17 + Ijtihád, 17, 26, 32 + Ijtihád fi'l-Masá,íl, 34 + Ijtihád fi'l-Mazhab, 34 + Ijtihád fi'l-Sharí', 34 + Ilhám, 37 + Ilká, 40 + 'Ilm-i-usúl, 41 + Imám, 75 + Imám Abu Hanífa, 19 + Imám Ibn Málik, 20 + Imám As-Sháfa'í, 21 + Imám Ibn Hanbal, 22 + Imámat, 75 + Imám Bára, 237 + Imán-i-mufassal, 116 + Imán-i-mujmal, 116 + Istidlál, 53 + Ishárat, 53 + Ishrák fi'l-'ibádat, 108 + Ishrák fi'l-adab, 109 + Isnád, 67 + 'Itikáf, 249 + Iqámat, 194 + Iqtizá, 54 + I'tibár-ul-Amsál, 27 + + J. + + Jabríans, 132 + Jahannum, 172 + Jámí'-i-Tirmizí, 86 + Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230 + Jannat, 171 + Jashn-i-milád-i-sharíf, 245 + Jinn, 145 + Juz, 56 + + K. + + K'aba, 227 + Kalám, 135 + {267} + Kalima, 54, 116 + Karámians, 163 + Kasb, 130 + Kausar, 171 + Kináyah, 52 + Kirám-ul-Kátibín, 141 + Kitmán, 91 + Khafí, 50 + Khárigites, 76 + Kháss, 48 + Kharq-i-'ádat, 157 + Khulafá-i-Ráshidín, 66 + Khutba, 201 + + L. + + Labbaik, 225 + Lahad, 211 + Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2 + + M. + + Mahmúdiah, 83 + Majáz, 52 + Majzúb, 95 + Maukadda', 200 + Makrúh, 188 + Mansúkh, 59 + Maqám-i-Mahmúd, 169 + Marsiya, 238 + Márút, 142 + Mihráb, 243 + Mimbar, 239 + Míqát, 225 + Mízán, 165 + Mua'qqibát, 141 + Muawwal, 48 + Mu,azzin, 193 + Mubáh, 188 + Mufassir, 33, 50 + Mufsid, 188 + Muhaddis, 67 + Mujassimians, 131 + Mu'jizát, 157 + Mujmal, 51 + Mujtahid, 17 + Mukham, 50 + Munkir, 145 + Murshid, 92 + Mutashábih, 52 + Musallí, 193 + Mushábihites, 131 + Mus-haf, 147 + Muharram, 237 + Muskhil, 51 + Mustahab, 188 + Mu'takif, 249 + Mustarik, 48 + Muta'h, 84 + Mutazilites, 125 + + N. + + Nabí, 153 + Nafkhatain-i-Súr, 161 + Nafl, 199 + Nakír, 145 + Namáz, 193 + Nass, 50 + Násikh, 59 + Nisáb, 218 + Niyyat, 194 + Núr-i-Muhammadí, 77 + {268} + + Q. + + Qadam-i-Rasúl, 245 + Qadríans, 174 + Qazá, 214 + Qíám, 194 + Qíás, 27, 28 + Qirá,at, 43 + Qárí, 43 + + R. + + Rak'at, 195 + Ramazán, 247 + Ramí-ul-Jamár, 230 + Rasúl, 153 + Rauza Khán, 258 + Roza, 213 + Roza-i-nazr, 214 + Roza-i-kafára, 214 + Rúh-ul-Ámín, 4 + Rukú', 56 + Rúz-i-Tarwiáh, 229 + + S. + + Sadqa, 250 + Sahá,íf-i-A'mál, 165 + Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, 67 + Sahíh-i-Muslim, 68 + S'ai, 229 + Salát, 193 + Salát-ul-'Asr, 200 + Salát-ul-Fajr, 200 + Salát-ul-'Ishá, 200 + Salát-ul-Ishráq, 200 + Salát-ul-Istisqá, 206 + Salát-ul-Istikhára, 213 + Salát-ul-Janáza, 207 + Salát-ul-Juma', 200 + Salát-ul-Khauf, 204 + Salát-ul-Khusúf, 206 + Salát-ul-Kusúf, 205 + Salát-ul-Maghrib, 200 + Salát-ul-Musáfir, 204 + Salát-ut-Taráwíh, 206 + Salát-ul-Tahajjud, 200 + Salát-uz-Zuhá, 200 + Salát-uz-Zuhr, 200 + Sálik, 92 + Saríh, 52 + Shafá'at-i-ba-izn, 108 + Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, 107 + Shafá'at-i-wajahat, 107 + Shirk, 105 + Shirk-ul-'Ádat, 109 + Shirk-ul-ibádat, 108 + Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107 + Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107 + Sifát-i-Salbiah, 123 + Sifát-i-Sabútiah, 123 + Sihah-Sittah, 67 + Sípára, 56 + Sirát, 166 + Sufíism, 87-101 + Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd, 68 + Sunan-i-Nasáí, 68 + Sunan-i-Májah, 69 + Sunnat, 10 + Súra, 55 + + T. + + Ta'awwuz, 195 + {269} + Taba-i-Tábi'ín, 7 + Tábi'ín, 7 + Tábút, 238 + Tahárat, 189 + Tahríf, 149 + Takbír, 193 + Takía, 84 + Talbíyah, 225 + Talqín, 212 + Tasbíh, 195 + Tashahhud, 188 + Tasmía', 195 + Tasmíyah, 195 + Tatáír-i-Sahá,íf, 163 + Tauhíd, 106 + Tauqífi, 132 + Tawáf, 227 + Tawáf-ul-Widá', 231 + Tayammum, 190 + Tázíah, 238 + + U. + + Usúl, 120 + 'Umráh, 231 + + W. + + Wahhábís, 101 + Wahí, 37 + Wajd, 93 + Wájib, 187 + Wájib-ul-Wajúd, 132 + Wáqi'a Khán, 239 + Wazú, 189 + Witr, 198 + + Z. + + Zakát, 218-222 + Záhir, 49 + Ziárat, 233 + + * * * * * + + +NOTES + +[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád +is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmáns_. + +[2] "Let none touch it but the purified." (Súra lvi. 78.) + +[3] "It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring +down the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the +earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been +published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it +would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he +pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be +published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure +way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from +any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section +III.) + +[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77. + +[5] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195. + +[6] "The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in its +diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous +nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their +crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, +whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which +they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move +around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel +Deutsch, p. 122. + +[7] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194. + +[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called +Asháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their +disciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)." + +[9] "Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of +Cadesia (A.H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the +Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5. + +[10] Muavia. + +[11] The twelve Imáms. + +[12] Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive. + +[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. +(2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3) +Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did not +forbid. + +[14] Risála-i-Berkeví. + +[15] The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will +be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:--"The best of all ways is +to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of His +Apostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own +opinion to be exercised." + +[16] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195. + +[17] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16. + +[18] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285. + +[19] "Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de +conformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuées +au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465. + +[20] In June 1827, A.D., Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting +against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs of +which are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and all +the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of +religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvá +given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín's +proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or +Law. + +[21] "The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost +idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because +although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate +them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he +forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin +by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the +Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern +Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354. + +[22] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009. + +[23] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469. + +[24] Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. xii. + +[25] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29. + +[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594. + +[27] Ibid., p. 546. + +[28] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548. + +[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious +piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the +faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. +Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one +farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny +pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned +against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but +if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in +copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is +then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper +for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling. + +Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and +so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims +doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the +'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be +clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is +very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is. + +[30] "Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, +being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered +unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme +Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is +among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and +this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, +neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four +(Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as +if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none +of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a +knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment +enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat; +(4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single +person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the +reign of the Sunnat-followers.--Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378. + +[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289. + +[32] The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in the +pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes +decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern +Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269. + +[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the +flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music +of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less +churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their +ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to +extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was +touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but +the Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed; +blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, +when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two +hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, C.B., in +_Good Words_ for September 1880. + +[34] "The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems +to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his +belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level +man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, +on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid +disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth +which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is +that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which +pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in +ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with +the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. +The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; +the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."--_British Quarterly, No._ +cxxx. + +[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one +not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus +equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his +religious duties. + +[36] Commentators on the Qurán. + +[37] The Traditionists. + +[38] Plural of Faqíh, a theologian. + +[39] I have given the dates of their death. + +[40] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72. + +[41] Dabistán, p. 214. + +[42] pp. 508-510. + +[43] "It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. +104). + +[44] Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111. + +[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of +Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to +be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of +God." + +[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16. + +[47] "Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticism +as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge +that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result +as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very +book."--Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's +Biographical Dictionary. + +[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al +Khattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (_i.e._, God) in three things. +One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in +Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the +place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O +messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see +that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it +will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, +that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking +honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his +Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better +in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said." + +'Áyesha said:--"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to +the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the +revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt +of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever +thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this +shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in +which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He +doeth.'" + +[49] Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459. + +[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--"La génération suivante, je +veux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du +Prophète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par +ceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui +avaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive +voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397. + +[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it +to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance +with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary +given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any +other. + +[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--"Rien de tout cela +n'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de +leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460. + +[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for +learning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as +follows:--They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such a +degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this +book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All +men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to +express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined." + +On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very +clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of +the passage as:--"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sort +of defiance; as if He had said:--'Voilà les éléments dont se compose le +Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style.'" Ibn +Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68. + +[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your +religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you; +and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful +leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, +will God be indulgent, merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206. + +[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des +Quráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's +English version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of this +order. + +[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the +one generally repeated. + +[57] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216. + +[58] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131. + +[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. +See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.' + +[60] Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250. + +[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679. + +[62] "He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed +in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680. + +[63] The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 329. The +Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí, A.H. 381. The Tahzíb and the +Istibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat by +Sayyud Razí A.H. 406. + +[64] If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it little +weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to +this effect:--"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by +him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is +really the golden chain." + +[65] Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5. + +[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to the +Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah. + +[67] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123. + +[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya,--"Lives of the Prophets." + +[69] Hyát-un-Nafís. + +[70] The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are +more logical than the Romanists, thus:-- + +"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of +persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of +the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be +needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of +all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires +the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, +it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be +infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the +tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the +spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. iii. +p. 260. + +[71] It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts no +shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over +Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last +Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had +learned the art that none might name," he says:-- + + "His form no darkening shadow traced + Upon the sunny wall." + +It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical +honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could +only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he +became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous +belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the +Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the +universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in +magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the +Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets. + +[72] The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of the +House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly +appointed Khalífs. + +[73] The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, +Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, +Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí). + +[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí. + +[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under the +Arabs, pp. 168-184. + +[76] Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139. + +[77] Miskát-ul-Musábih. + +[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah. + +[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the +Council of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, +which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutional +sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:-- +"The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a +power superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as +master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond +that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would +consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, +which should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalíf, to transfer +the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most +important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with all +that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible +that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt to +set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform. + +[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the +Súfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being. + + "That each who seems a separate whole + Should move his rounds, and fusing all + The skirts of self again, should fall + Remerging in the general soul, + + Is faith as vague as all unsweet: + Eternal form shall still divide + The eternal soul from all beside; + And I shall know him when we meet." + Tennyson's "In Memoriam." + +[81] "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du +matérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas +plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie +Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2. + +[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth. + +[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix. + +[84] "Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour +l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de +l'extérieur, pour le _záhir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le +sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse +chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13. + +[85] The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from +'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence +the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' +and the word becomes 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this +idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, +and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, +and "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from +wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express +similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called +Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the more +probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both +derivations. + +[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' +Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51. + +[87] La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin +de Tassy, p. 7. + +[88] Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique +6me Série, tom. 13. + +[89] "That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may +readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his +errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear +strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest +spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was +equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm; +and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was the +thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good +tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who +might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters." +Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of +contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The +same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian +Literature"--_Calcutta Review_, No. lix. + +[90] The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, +died A.D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, +died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830; +Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221. + +[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10. + +[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras +Presidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2,000,000. + +[93] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149. + +[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369. + +[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372. + +[96] Ibid, p. 372. + +[97] Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with +the prayer--"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at +and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly +submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís +do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror +of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress +through their influence. + +[98] "Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," +has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to +speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can +affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In +no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief +(taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very +lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one +common creed of the Qurán and its author."--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. +10. + +[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of +Islám,' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. The +Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one +God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual +sense of a body of dogmas. + +[100] Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni. + +[101] Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a +ahkámihi. + +[102] Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi +wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá +wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti. + +[103] He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane +le plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie," p. 154. + +[104] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27. + +[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the +"Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela +n'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nos +facultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste: +elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit +pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à +l'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable +caractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. +Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45. + +[106] "Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des +verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre +qui se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même +source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67. + +This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and +origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat. + +[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565. + +[108] "The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and later +Mutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely +religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the +Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though +they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de +Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320. + +[109] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250. + +[110] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250. + +[111] Dabistán, p. 218. + +[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343. + +[113] "C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire +des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle +et littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me +Série, Tome xii. p. 104. + +[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took +place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the +Khalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can +be found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter +will be found in a note at the end of this chapter. + +[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669. + +[116] Ibid, p. 228. + +[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la +raison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur +traités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour +arriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la +démonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les +scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de +confirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers +Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs +avaient émises." Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169. + +[118] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63 + +[119] "Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand +aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Súra vii. 179.) + +[120] "The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance +between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's +Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3. + +[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394. + +[122] "The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except +in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were +destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict +between Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's +Khalífs of Baghdád, p. 148. + +[123] Súra xxxix, 68, 69. + +[124] L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135. + +[125] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112. + +[126] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187. + +[127] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58. + +[128] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19. + +[129] "From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, +both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed, +the boundary of the world itself."--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. +48. + +[130] See also Súra xxxviii. 89. + +[131] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140. + +[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih +nákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust."--"The Perfect +one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the +library of all the peoples' creeds." + +[133] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan, +_i.e._ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated. +Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast.--"His +religion abrogates all religions." + +[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. +This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation +for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus +in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that +one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not +believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit +(Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New +Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. We +hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the +contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles +of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberal +Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text +which, literally translated, is as follows:--"Now it should be considered +that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the +Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of the +Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogated _on account +of the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c." + +The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text; +but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the +Syed says in effect: "The books _are abrogated_ but not because they were +imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was +defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the +previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an +apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, at +least, as conservative as the most bigoted. + +[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22. + +[136] Ibid, p. 31. + +[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with +the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. +publication--The Korán--by Sir W. Muir. + +[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. pp. +64-95. + +[139] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59. + +[140] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59. + +[141] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65. + +[142] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205. + +[143] "That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is +maintained on the authority of:--"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, +those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x. +63.) + +[144] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125. + +[145] Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18. + +[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month of +Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act. + +[147] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18. + +[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the +world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; +and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship," +would not have been fulfilled. + +[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawí,--"Thy remissness in +propagating Islám." + +[150] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332. + +[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish +said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to +gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees +and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; +or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; +or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than +a man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to +say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles +were confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was +for all ages. He needed no other sign than this. + +[152] "Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition +relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a +black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event. + +[153] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí. + +[154] Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. 362 + +[155] For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of +Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112. + +[156] "All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the +Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and +that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his +Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is +not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual +bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies +the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the +ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings +preserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a +Muslim. + +[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second +blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán. + +[158] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183. + +[159] According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a +distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of +those who perspire. + +[160] "That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their +whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces." + +[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there +see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55. + +[162] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47. + +[163] Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. p. 397. + +[164] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25. + +[165] Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. ch. 12. + +[166] "Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to +admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as +parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual +acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to +be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's +Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73. + +[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that +on which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are +said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the +Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype. + +[168] "The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of +Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, +who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His +own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in +Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault +which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God +selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve +tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant +and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I +was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in +the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a +matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'" + +[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their +descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness +against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we +witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets +and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, +also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was +formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_., the Jews, +the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into +several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape +in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This +passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the +Takwiyat-ul-Imán. + +[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the +decree, _e.g._ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom +He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." +Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. ii. page 9. + +[171] Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458. + +[172] Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our +free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both +worlds settled our affairs long before we were made." + +[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In +the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, +was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman +residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common +Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent +representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but +he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his +family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the +kind has been done. + +[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582 + +[175] This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong. + +[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160. + +[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368. + +[178] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315. + +[179] For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131. + +[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim +philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was +an Arab. + +[181] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429. + +[182] "Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe +véritablement digne de ce nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par +S. Munk, p. 458. + +[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the +height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a +Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching +of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality +it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, +though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country +in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and +customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36. + +[184] "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first +place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, +and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which +arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, +and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, +this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian; +the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. +p. 34. + +[185] The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India +than Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed. + +[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who +says the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it +not, only the part washed will be pure." + +[187] Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself from +all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of +duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the +name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace +to be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood." + +When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to +purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my +teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of +judgment." + +When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, +perfume me with the odours of Paradise." + +When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place +the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with +favour." + +When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection +the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each +act. + +[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namáz +expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary +sense is 'Du'á.' + +[189] It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33. + +[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people +to prayers. + +[191] "God is Great." + +[192] The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the +hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women +stand with the feet close together. + +[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at +the first rak'at. + +[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, +which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. p. 57.) + +[195] In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people the +second. + +[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and +put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it +is sufficient. + +[197] Here the Shía'hs say:--"I rise and sit by the power of God." + +[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats. + +[199] The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest. + +[200] The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with +the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous +servants." + +[201] The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this +chapter. + +[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent +table. + +[203] The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven. + +[204] Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155. + +[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed. + +[206] One who says, "Alláhu Akbar--God is Great." + +[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when +they fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40. + +[208] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153. + +[209] Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40. + +[210] Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used by +synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference +to this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah. + +[211] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141. + +[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on +payment of a special tax. + +[213] The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four +Takbírs; the other sects do so only at the first. + +[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:-- + +"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him +a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an +intercessor for us." + +[215] The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on his +guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper +makes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his +fellow worshippers and on the Imám. + +[216] _i.e._, the deceased's. + +[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c. + +[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We +accept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference, +though as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the +254th verse. + +[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim +Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word +often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial +observance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from +these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious +man--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing +religious duties. + +[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in. + +[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen +in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the +maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day +each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple +fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue +of women. + +[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person +on whose behalf it is made. + +[223] Súra ii. 256. + +[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement and +cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the +aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. +Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120. + +[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in +Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would +break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should +be the consequence. + +[226] "The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man's +store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue +of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance +from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are +called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship +of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. + +[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor +person. + +[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is +equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one +camel, is about 480 lb. + +[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called +waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque. + +[230] The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad. + +[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (_i.e._, making unlawful), because +now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of +doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (_i.e._, making lawful), for +now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the +world. + +[232] This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and +that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al +Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that +he assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not +approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in the +text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one +of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act. + +[233] Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I +am here." The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is +preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá +Sharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá +Sharíka laka, Labbaik! + +[234] "The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be +kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz._, a crow, a +kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton). + +[235] The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is +a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The +Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba. + +[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be +found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is +far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is +of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred +a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind +(to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to human +beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and +he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to +mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels +as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of +all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the +black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death +of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not +eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbing +themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black +stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions +of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made +of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle. + +[237] The whole seven are one Usbú'. + +[238] The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillars +about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a +fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left +open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain +the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba. + +[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the +second, Súra cxii. + +[240] "Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the +afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton). + +[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parents +forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval +purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, +the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at +Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which +the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his +foot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always be +country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where +our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their +recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till death +took place." (Burton). + +[242] The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a +night and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí +code allows the shortened form only on this day. + +[243] "The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight +feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." +(Burton). + +[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the +shaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the +stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the +sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. +Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his +side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably +have been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in +superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt +about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the +Prophet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then +maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if +he go round about them both." (Súra ii. 153). + +[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when +to pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for +já,íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for +la'zim (necessary to pause), (.) is a full stop. + +[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were +brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other +language. + +[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of +speech could learn these words in a very short time. + +[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity +to human compositions. + +[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of +the martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and +can be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146. + +[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown +into a tank. + +[251] The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of +Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the +expression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward which +the faithful look. + +[252] The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima. + +[253] The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a +long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There +is a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps +doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh. + +[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one +day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the +mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say +eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel +for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told +him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the +stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152. + +[255] The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa. + +[256] Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. ch. 1. + +[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. +170. + +[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty. + +[259] Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104. + +[260] "Observations on the Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. +192." + +[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in +the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61. + +[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said +that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may +purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat +as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for +something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. +Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60. + +[263] According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the +sacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain +his victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61. + +[264] Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144. + + * * * * * + +Corrections made to printed original. + +Page 29 "It is moreover the unanimous opinion" - 'moveover' in original. + +Page 33 "the Imám-i-A'zam or great Imám" - Imám-í-'Azam in original, +corrected by Errata. + +Page 40 "This is technically called Ilká" - Ilka in original, corrected by +Errata. + +Page 91 "Sa'dí in the Bustán says" - Bustun in original, corrected by +Errata. + +Page 92 "the famous Maulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí" - Maolána in original, +corrected by Errata. + +Page 93 "It is Faná--extinction." - Fana in original, corrected by Errata. + +Page 188 "a still lower class of action which are mubáh." - mubah in +original, corrected by Errata. + +Page 190 "(12) the whole head must be rubbed once" - '(13)' in original. + +Page 192 "A man one day came to the Prophet" - 'come' in original. + +Page 218 "Islám, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock)." - Húrriat in +original, corrected by Errata. + +Note 133 "Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64." - Tamíl-ul-Imán in original, +corrected by Errata. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faith of Islam, by Edward Sell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + +***** This file should be named 20660-8.txt or 20660-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/6/20660/ + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Faith of Islam + +Author: Edward Sell + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20660] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;" summary="Transcribers note" title="Transcribers note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h3>THE</h3> + +<h1>FAITH OF ISLAM:</h1> + +<p class="cenhead">BY</p> + +<h3>THE <span class="sc">Rev.</span> EDWARD SELL,<br /> +<span class="scac">FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS.</span></h3> + +<hr class="short" > + +<h3>TRÜBNER & CO., LONDON.</h3> +<h3>ADDISON & CO., MADRAS.</h3> +<h3>1880.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>All rights reserved.</i><p class="cenhead"> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p class="cenhead">MADRAS:<br /> +PRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO., MOUNT ROAD.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>PREFACE.</h3> + + <p>The following pages embody a study of Islám during a residence of + fifteen years in India, the greater part of which time I have been in + daily intercourse with Musalmáns. I have given in the footnotes the + authorities from which I quote. I was not able to procure in Madras a + copy of the Arabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but the French + translation by Baron M. de Slane, to which I so frequently refer, is + thoroughly reliable. The quotations from the Qurán are made from + Rodwell's translation. The original has been consulted when + necessary.</p> + + <p>A few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred, + such as Sulát for Salát, Munkar for Munkir, &c., but in no case is + the meaning affected.</p> + + <p>In some words, such as Khalíf, Khalífate, and Omar, I have retained + the anglicised form instead of using the more correct terms, Khalífa, + Khiláfat, 'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish the + Káf-i-Karashat from the Káf-i-Tází.</p> + + <p class="author">E. S. + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><span class="sc">Madras,</span></p> + <p><i>December 1st, 1880.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>[v]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + + <p>Introduction. ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#pageix">ix</a></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM.</span></p> + + <p>The Qurán—Its revelation—Miraculous + nature—Arrangement of Qurán—Osmán's recension. The + Sunnat—The authority of Sunnat—Tradition—Bid'at or + innovation—Shía'h Traditions. Ijmá'—Ijtihád—Four + orthodox Imáms, Hanífa, Málik, Sháfa'í and Hanbal. Qíás—Established + by the early Mujtahidín—Sterility of Islám ... <span + class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page1">1</a></p> + + <p>Note to Chapter I. Ijtihád ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#page32">32</a></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS.</span></p> + + <p>Inspiration—The seven readings—Work of a + Commentator—Words and Sentences of the Qurán—Use of the + words—Deductions of arguments from the Qurán—Divisions of the + Qurán—Abrogation—Creation of the Qurán—Hadís or + Tradition—Collections of Traditions—Classification of + Traditions ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#page37">37</a></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SECTS OF ISLÁM.</span></p> + + <p>The Shía'hs—The + Imámat—Khárigites—Núr-i-Muhammadí—Imám—Ismá,ílians + and + Imámites—Ghair-i-Mahdís—Dá,irí—Mahmúdíah—Khalífate—Súfíism—Persian + Poetry—Darwíshes—Omar Khayyám—Wahhábís—their + rise—spread in India—doctrines and influence ... <span + class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page73">73</a></p> + + <p>Note to Chapter III. Wahhábíism ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#page114">114</a></p> + +<p><!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"></a>[vi]</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE CREED OF ISLÁM</span></p> + + <p>Imán—God—Attributes of God—Discussions on the nature + of God—The rise of the Mutazilites—The + Sifátíans—Mushábihites—Names of God—Creation of the + Qurán. Angels—Recording Angels—Hárút and Márút—Munkir + and Nakír—Jinn. The Books—Abrogation—Tahríf. The + Prophets—Rank and inspiration of prophets—Nabí and + Rasúl—Sinlessness of prophets—The + Anbiya-ulul-'Azm—Miracles of prophets—The Mi'ráj. The + Resurrection and the last day—The Trumpets—Descent of the + books—Balances—Bridge—Al-A'ráf—Al-Barzakh—Intercession + of Muhammad—Heaven—Hell. The Predestination of good and + evil—Jabríans—Qadríans—Ash'aríans—Free-will—Apostacy + ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + + <p>Note to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... <span + class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page181">181</a></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER V.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM.</span></p> + + <p>Farz, wájib, sunnat, mustahab and mubáh actions—Harám or + unlawful acts. Tashahhud. + Salát—Wazú—Ghusl—Tayammum—Namáz—Farz, + sunnat, witr and nafl rak'ats—Appointed hours of + prayer—Friday Namáz and sermon—Namáz on a journey and in time + of war—Namáz in Ramazán, during an eclipse and in time of + drought—Funeral service—Its ritual and prayers. + Fasting—Its time and nature. Zakát—Nisáb—Proportion of + property to be given as alms—Recipients of the Zakát. The + Hajj—Farz, sunnat, wájib and mustahab duties connected with the + Hajj—Time for the Hajj—Arrival of the Hájí at + Mecca—Tawáf—Ceremonies of the Hajj—Conclusion of the + Hajj—Formal nature of Islám ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#page187">187</a></p> + + <p>Note to Chapter V. Fatvá on the Namáz ... <span + class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page233">233</a></p> + +<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>[vii]</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">CHAPTER VI.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM.</span></p> + + <p>Muharram—'Áshúr Khána—Marsiya—Wáqi'a + Khán—'Alams—Ceremonies of the 'Áshúrá—Fátihas for 'Alí, + for Hasan and Husain—Akhir-i-chár Shamba—Bárá + Wafát—Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharif—Ásár-i-Sharíf—Shab + Barát—Ramazán and + 'Íd-ul-Fitr—'Itikáf—Sadqa—Sermon on the + 'Íd-ul-Fitr—Baqr-'Íd or 'Íd-uz-Zuhá—Sermon on the + 'Íd-uz-Zuhá—The Qurbán or Sacrifice—Festival of + Madár—Festival of Sálár Mas'úd Ghází—Festival of Khája + Khizr—Feast of Pír Dastgír Sáhib—Festival of Qádir Walí Sáhib + ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page237">237</a></p> + + <p>Index of Technical Terms ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a + href="#page265">265</a></p> + +<p><!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"></a>[ix]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + + <p>It is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents + of this work. It does not fall in with its plan to enter into an account + either of the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of the + system founded by him. The first has been done by able writers in + England, France and Germany. I could add nothing new to this portion of + the subject, nor throw new light upon it. The political growth of Muslim + nations has also been set forth in various ways.</p> + + <p>It seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of + the religious system which has grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and + of its effect upon the individual and the community. What the Church in + her missionary enterprise has to deal with, what European Governments in + the political world have to do with is Islám as it is, and as it now + influences those who rule and those who are ruled under it.</p> + + <p>I have, therefore, tried to show from authentic sources, and from a + practical knowledge of it, what the Faith of Islám really is, and how it + influences men and nations in the present day. I think that recent Fatvás + delivered by the 'Ulamá in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim State + is bound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the present + practice of orthodox Muslims all the world <!-- Page x --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"></a>[x]</span>over is a constant carrying + out of the precepts given in the Qurán and the Sunnat, and an + illustration of the principles I have shown to belong to Islám. On this + subject it is not too much to say that there is, except amongst Oriental + scholars, much misconception.</p> + + <p>Again, much that is written on Islám is written either in ignorant + prejudice, or from an ideal standpoint. To understand it aright, one + should know its literature and live amongst its people. I have tried + faithfully to prove every statement I have made; and if, now and again, I + have quoted European authors, it is only by way of illustration. I rest + my case entirely upon Musalmán authorities themselves. Still more, I have + ascertained from living witnesses that the principles I have tried to + show as existing in Islám, are really at work now and are as potent as at + any previous period.</p> + + <p>I have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and + development of the system, seeking wherever possible to link the past + with the present. In order not to interfere with this unity of plan, I + have had to leave many subjects untouched, such as those connected with + the civil law, with slavery, divorce, jihád or religious wars, &c. A + good digest of Muhammadan Law<a name="NtA_1" + href="#Nt_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> will give all necessary information on + these points. The basis of the Law which determines these questions is + what I have described in my first chapter. Ijtihád, for example, rules + quite as effectually in a question of domestic <!-- Page xi --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>[xi]</span>economy or political + jurisprudence as on points of dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for + me to go into details on these points.</p> + + <p>When I have drawn any conclusion from data which Muhammadan + literature, and the present practice of Muslims have afforded me, I have + striven to give what seems to me a just and right one. Still, I gladly + take this opportunity of stating that I have found many Muslims better + than their creed, men with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom I + respect for many virtues and esteem as friends. I judge the system, not + any individual in it.</p> + + <p>In India, there are a number of enlightened Muhammadans, ornaments to + native society, useful servants of the State, men who show a laudable + zeal in all social reforms, so far as is consistent with a reputation for + orthodoxy. Their number is far too few, and they do not, in many cases, + represent orthodox Islám, nor do I believe their counterpart would be + found amongst the 'Ulamá of a Muslim State. The fact is that the wave of + scepticism which has passed over Europe has not left the East untouched. + Hindu and Muslim alike have felt its influence, but to judge of either + the one system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men + who expound their views before English audiences is to yield oneself up + to delusion on the subject.</p> + + <p>Islám in India has also felt the influence of contact with other races + and creeds, though, theologically speaking, the Imán and the Dín, the + faith and the practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have <!-- Page xii + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"></a>[xii]</span>described them + in chapters four and five. If Islám in India has lost some of its + original fierceness, it has also adopted many superstitious practices, + such as those against which the Wahhábís protest. The great mass of the + Musalmán people are quite as superstitious, if not more so, than their + heathen neighbours. Still the manliness, the suavity of manner, the deep + learning, after an oriental fashion, of many Indian Musalmáns render them + a very attractive people. It is true there is a darker side—much + bigotry, pride of race, scorn of other creeds, and, speaking generally, a + tendency to inertness. It is thus that in Bengal, Madras and perhaps in + other places, they have fallen far behind the Hindus in educational + status, and in the number of appointments they hold in the Government + service. Indeed, this subject is a serious one and deserves the special + attention of the Indian Government. In Bengal the proportion of Musalmáns + to Hindus in the upper ranks of the Uncovenanted Civil Service in 1871 + was 77 to 341. In the year 1880 it had declined to 53 to 451. The state + of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yet an intelligent Muslim, as a + rule, makes a good official.</p> + + <p>Looking at the subject from a wider stand-point, I think the Church + has hardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of Islám is to + her onward march in the East. Surely special men with special training + are required for such an enterprise as that of encountering Islám in its + own strongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian <!-- Page xiii + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>[xiii]</span>faith could + be found in the East than men won from the Crescent to the Cross.</p> + + <p>All who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help + in this volume, and I am not without hope that it may also throw some + light on the political questions of the day.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h2>THE FAITH OF ISLÁM.</h2> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<h3>THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM.</h3> + + <p>The creed of Islám, "Lá-iláha-il-lal-láhu wa Muhammad-ur-Rasúl-Ulláh," + (There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God) is very + short, but the system itself is a very dogmatic one. Such statements as: + "The Qurán is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating + everything," "The Qurán contains the <i>entire</i> code of + Islám—that is, it is not a book of religious precepts merely, but + it governs all that a Muslim does," "The Qurán contains the whole + religion of Muhammad," "The Qurán which contains the whole Gospel of + Islám" are not simply misleading, they are erroneous. So far from the + Qurán alone being the <i>sole</i> rule of faith and practice to Muslims, + there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practice is + based on it alone. No one among them disputes its authority or casts any + doubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in all that it concerns, + but its exegesis, the whole system of legal jurisprudence and of + theological science, is largely founded on the Traditions. Amongst the + orthodox Musalmáns, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, the + Qurán, Sunnat, Ijmá' and Qíás. The fact that all the sects do not agree + with the orthodox—the Sunnís—in this matter illustrates + another important fact in Islám—the want of unity amongst its + followers. <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>[2]</span></p> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">The Qurán.</span>—The question of the + inspiration will be fully discussed, and an account of the laws of the + exegesis of the Qurán will be given in the next chapter. It is sufficient + now to state that this book is held in the highest veneration by Muslims + of every sect. When being read it is kept on a stand elevated above the + floor, and no one must read or touch it without first making a legal + ablution.<a name="NtA_2" href="#Nt_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> It is not + translated unless there is the most urgent necessity, and even then the + Arabic text is printed with the translation. It is said that God chose + the sacred month of Ramazán in which to give all the revelations which in + the form of books have been vouchsafed to mankind. Thus on the first + night of that month the books of Abraham came down from heaven; on the + sixth the books of Moses; on the thirteenth the Injíl, or Gospel, and on + the twenty-seventh the Qurán. On that night, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or + "night of power," the whole Qurán is said to have descended to the lowest + of the seven heavens, from whence it was brought piecemeal to Muhammad as + occasion required.<a name="NtA_3" href="#Nt_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> "Verily + we have caused it (the Qurán) to descend on the night of power." (Súra + xcvii. 1.) That night is called the blessed night, the night better than + a thousand months, the night when angels came down by the permission of + their Lord, the night which bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy + dawn. Twice on that night in the solitude of the cave of Hira the voice + called, twice though pressed sore "as if a fearful weight had been laid + upon him," the prophet struggled <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page3"></a>[3]</span>against its influence. The third time he heard + the words:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created—</p> + <p>Created man from clots of blood." (Súra xcvi. 5.)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>"When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from minutest + beginnings man had been called into existence, and lifted up by + understanding and knowledge of the Lord, who is most beneficent, and who + by the pen had revealed that which man did not know, Muhammad woke up + from his trance and felt as if "a book had been written in his heart." He + was much alarmed. Tradition records that he went hastily to his wife and + said—"O Khadíja! what has happened to me!" He lay down and she + watched by him. When he recovered from his paroxysm, he said "O Khadíja! + he of whom one would not have believed (<i>i.e.</i>, himself) has become + either a soothsayer (káhin) or mad." She replied, "God is my protection, + O Ab-ul-kásim. He will surely not let such a thing happen unto thee, for + thou speakest the truth, dost not return evil for evil, keepest faith, + art of a good life and art kind to thy relatives and friends, and neither + art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars. What has befallen thee? Hast + thou seen aught terrible?" Muhammad replied "Yes." And he told her what + he had seen. Whereupon she answered and said:—"Rejoice, O dear + husband and be of good cheer. He in whose hands stands Khadíja's life, is + my witness that thou wilt be the Prophet of this people."<a name="NtA_4" + href="#Nt_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> The next Súra, the 74th, was revealed at + Mecca, after which there seems to have been an intermission, called the + Fatrah. It was during this time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of + the contents of the Jewish and the Christian Scriptures.</p> + + <p>Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This + fact, however, is only once stated in the Qurán:—"Say, whoso is the + enemy of Gabriel—For he it is <!-- Page 4 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>[4]</span>who by God's leave hath + caused the Qurán to descend on thy heart" (Súra ii. 91.) This Súra was + revealed some years after the Prophet's flight to Madína. The other + references to the revelation of the Qurán are:—"Verily from the + Lord of the worlds hath this book come down; the Faithful Spirit + (Rúh-ul-Ámín) hath come down with it" (Súra xxvi. 192.) "The Qurán is no + other than a revelation revealed to him, one terrible in power + (Shadíd-ul-Quá) taught it him." (Súra liii. 5.) These latter passages do + not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium of communication, but the + belief that he was is almost, if not entirely, universal, and the + Commentators say that the terms "Rúh-ul-Ámín" and "Shadíd-ul-Quá" refer + to no other angel or spirit. The use of the word "taught" in the last + Súra quoted, and the following expression in Súra lxxv. 18. "When we have + <i>recited it</i>, then follow thou the recital," show that the Qurán is + entirely an objective revelation and that Muhammad was only a passive + medium of communication. The Muhammadan historian, Ibn Khaldoun, says on + this point:—"Of all the divine books the Qurán is the only one of + which the text, words and phrases have been communicated to a prophet by + an audible voice. It is otherwise with the Pentateuch, the Gospel and the + other divine books: the prophets received them under the form of + ideas."<a name="NtA_5" href="#Nt_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> This expresses the + universal belief on this point—a belief which reveals the + essentially mechanical nature of Islám.</p> + + <p>The Qurán thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle of + Islám. Other divine books, it is admitted, were revelations received + under the form of ideas, but the Qurán is far superior to them all for + the actual text was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus we read in + Súra lxxv. 16-19:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>[5]</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation;</p> + <p>For we will see to the collecting and recital of it;</p> + <p><i>But when we have recited it</i>, then follow thou the recital;</p> + <p>And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The Qurán is, then, believed to be a miraculous revelation of divine + eloquence, as regards both <i>form</i> and <i>substance</i>, arrangement + of words, and its revelation of sacred things. It is asserted that each + well-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department + of human skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the days + of Moses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the magicians of + Pharaoh's court had to submit to the superior skill of the Hebrew + prophet. In the days of Jesus the science of medicine flourished. Men + possessed great skill in the art of healing; but no physician could equal + the skill of Jesus, who not only healed the sick, but raised the dead. In + the days of Muhammad the special and most striking feature of the age was + the wonderful power of the Arabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri + says:—"Wisdom hath alighted on three things—the brain of the + Franks, the hands of the Chinese and the tongue of the Arabs." They were + unrivalled for their eloquence, for the skill with which they arranged + their material and gave expression to their thoughts. It is in this very + particular that superior excellence is claimed for the Qurán.<a + name="NtA_6" href="#Nt_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> It is to the Muhammadan mind + a sure evidence of its miraculous origin that it should excel in this + respect. Muslims say that miracles have followed the revelations given to + other prophets in order to confirm the divine message. In this case the + Qurán is both a revelation and a miracle. <!-- Page 6 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>[6]</span>Muhammad himself + said:—"Each prophet has received manifest signs which carried + conviction to men: but that which I have received is the revelation. So I + hope to have a larger following on the day of resurrection than any other + prophet has." Ibn Khaldoun says that "by this the Prophet means that such + a wonderful miracle as the Qurán, which is also a revelation, should + carry conviction to a very large number."<a name="NtA_7" + href="#Nt_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> To a Muslim the fact is quite clear, and + so to him the Qurán is far superior to all the preceding books. Muhammad + is said to have convinced a rival, Lebid, a poet-laureate, of the truth + of his mission by reciting to him a portion of the now second Súra. + "Unquestionably it is one of the very grandest specimens of Koranic or + Arabic diction.... But even descriptions of this kind, grand as they be, + are not sufficient to kindle and preserve the enthusiasm and the faith + and the hope of a nation like the Arabs.... The poets before him had sung + of valour and generosity, of love and strife and revenge ... of early + graves, upon which weeps the morning cloud, and of the fleeting nature of + life which comes and goes as the waves of the desert sands, as the tents + of a caravan, as a flower that shoots up and dies away. Or they shoot + their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own soul. Muhammad + sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, not the joys of the world, + nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, nor human vengeance, not the glories + of tribe or ancestor. He preached Islám." The very fierceness with which + this is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficient though he may + have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic certainty with which + the Prophet proclaimed his message have tended, equally with the + passionate grandeur of his utterances, to hold the Muslim world + spell-bound to the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the + book.</p> + + <p>So sacred is the text supposed to be that only the <!-- Page 7 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>[7]</span>Companions<a + name="NtA_8" href="#Nt_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> of the Prophet are deemed + worthy of being commentators on it. The work of learned divines since + then has been to learn the Qurán by heart and to master the traditions, + with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon. The revelation + itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by the ordinary + rules of criticism. If only the Isnád, or chain of authorities for any + interpretation, is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted + as the correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no other + book in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought or + expression. It deals with positive precepts rather than with principles. + Its decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the + very letter on all men, at all times and under every circumstance of + life. This follows as a natural consequence from the belief in its + eternal nature.</p> + + <p>The various portions recited by the Prophet during the twenty-three + years of his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of his + followers, or treasured up in their memories. As the recital of the Qurán + formed a part of every act of public worship, and as such recital was an + act of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as much as + he could. He who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour, and + was often the recipient of a substantial reward.<a name="NtA_9" + href="#Nt_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> The Arab love for poetry facilitated the + exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died the revelation ceased. + There was no distinct copy of the whole, nothing to show what was of + transitory importance, what of permanent value. There is nothing which + proves that the Prophet took any special care of any portions. There + seems to have been no definite order in which, when the book was <!-- + Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>[8]</span>compiled, + the various Súras were arranged, for the Qurán, as it now exists, is + utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence. For a year after + the Prophet's death nothing seems to have been done; but then the battle + of Yemana took place in which a very large number of the best Qurán + reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and addressing the Khalíf + Abu Bakr, said, "The slaughter may again wax hot amongst the repeaters of + the Qurán in other fields of battle, and much may be lost therefrom. Now, + therefore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy orders for the + collection of the Qurán." Abu Bakr agreed, and said to Zeid who had been + an amanuensis of the Prophet:—"Thou art a young man, and wise, + against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation; and thou wert wont + to write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the Lord, + wherefore now search out the Qurán and bring it all together." Zeid being + at length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the Qurán + together from "date leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the + hearts of men." In course of time it was all compiled in the order in + which the book is now arranged. This was the authorized text for some + twenty-three years after the death of Muhammad. Owing, however, either to + different modes of recitation, or to differences of expression in the + sources from which Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of + different readings crept into the copies in use. The Faithful became + alarmed and the Khalíf Osmán was persuaded to put a stop to such a + danger. He appointed Zeid with three of the leading men of the Quraish as + assistants to go over the whole work again. A careful recension was made + of the whole book which was then assimilated to the Meccan dialect, the + purest in Arabia. After this all other copies of the Qurán were burnt by + order of the Khalíf, and new transcripts were made of the revised edition + which was now the only authorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of + Islám that the Qurán is incorruptible and absolutely free <!-- Page 9 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>[9]</span>from error, no + little difficulty has been felt in explaining the need of Osmán's new and + revised edition and of the circumstances under which it took place; but + as usual a Tradition has been handed down which makes it lawful to read + the Qurán in seven dialects. The book in its present form may be accepted + as a genuine reproduction of Abu Bakr's edition with authoritative + corrections. We may rest assured that we have in the Qurán now in use the + record of what Muhammad said. It thus becomes a fundamental basis of + Islám. It was a common practice of the early Muslims when speaking of the + Prophet to say:—"His character is the Qurán." When people curious + to know details of the life of their beloved master asked 'Áyesha, one of + his widows, about him, she used to reply:—"Thou hast the Qurán, art + thou not an Arab and readest the Arab tongue? Why dost thou ask me, for + the Prophet's disposition is no other than the Qurán?"</p> + + <p>Whether Muhammad would have arranged the Qurán as we now have it is a + subject on which it is impossible to form an opinion. There are + Traditions which seem to show that he had some doubts as to its + completeness. I give the following account on the authority of M. Caussin + de Percival. When Muhammad felt his end draw near he said:—"Bring + ink and paper: I wish to write to you a book to preserve you always from + error." But it was too late. He could not write or dictate and so he + said:—"May the Qurán always be your guide. Perform what it commands + you: avoid what it prohibits." The genuineness of the first part of this + Tradition is, I think, very doubtful, the latter is quite in accordance + with the Prophet's claim for his teaching. The letter of the book became, + as Muhammad intended it should become, a despotic influence in the Muslim + world, a barrier to freethinking on the part of all the orthodox, an + obstacle to innovation in all spheres—political, social, + intellectual and moral. There are many topics connected with it which can + be better explained in the next chapter. All <!-- Page 10 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>[10]</span>that has now to be here + stated is that the Qurán is the first foundation of Islám. It is an error + to suppose it is the only one: an error which more than anything else has + led persons away from the only position in which they could obtain a true + idea of the great system of Islám.</p> + + <p>The Shía'hs maintain, without good reason, that the following verses + favourable to the claims of 'Alí and of the Shía'h faction were omitted + in Osmán's recension.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"O Believers! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'Alí).</p> + + <p>'Alí is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in the + day of judgment; we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him. We + have honoured him above all this family. He and his family are very + patient. Their enemy<a name="NtA_10" href="#Nt_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> is + the chief of sinners.</p> + + <p>We have announced to thee a race of just men, men<a name="NtA_11" + href="#Nt_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> who will not oppose our orders. My + mercy and peace are on them living<a name="NtA_12" + href="#Nt_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> or dead.</p> + + <p>As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them; they will + certainly gain the mansions of Paradise."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">The Sunnat.</span>—The second foundation of + Islám is based on the Hadís (plural Ahádís) or Tradition. Commands from + God given in the Qurán are called 'farz' and 'wájib.' A command given by + the Prophet or an example set by him is called 'sunnat,' a word meaning a + rule. It is then technically applied to the basis of religious faith and + practice, which is founded on traditional accounts of the sayings and + acts of Muhammad.<a name="NtA_13" href="#Nt_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> It is + the belief common to all Musalmáns, that the Prophet in all that he + <i>did</i>, and in all that he <i>said</i>, was supernaturally guided, + and that his words and acts are to all time and to all his followers a + divine rule of faith and practice. "We should know that God Almighty has + given commands and prohibitions to his <!-- Page 11 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>[11]</span>servants, either by means + of the Qurán, or by the mouth of His Prophet."<a name="NtA_14" + href="#Nt_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> Al-Ghazáli, a most distinguished + theologian, writes:—"Neither is the faith according to His will, + complete by the testimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply saying, + 'There is but one God,' without the addition of the further testimony to + the Apostle, that is, the statement, 'Muhammad is the apostle of God.'" + This belief in the Prophet must extend to all that he has said concerning + the present and the future life, for, says the same author, "A man's + faith is not accepted till he is fully persuaded of those things which + the Prophet hath affirmed shall be after death."</p> + + <p>It is often said that the Wahhábís reject Tradition. In the ordinary + sense of the word Tradition they may; but in Muslim Theology the term + Hadís, which we translate Tradition, has a special meaning. It is applied + only to the sayings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired + divine or teacher. The Wahhábís reject the Traditions handed down by men + who lived after the time of the Companions, but the Hadís, embodying the + sayings of the Prophet, they, in common with <i>all</i> Muslim sects, + hold to be an inspired revelation of God's will to men. It would be as + reasonable to say that Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that + the Wahhábís reject Tradition.<a name="NtA_15" + href="#Nt_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> An orthodox Muslim places the Gospels + in the same rank as the Hadís, that is, he looks upon them as a record of + what Jesus said and did handed down to us by His Companions. "In the same + way as other Prophets received their books under the form of ideas, so + our Prophet has in the same way received a great number of communications + which are found in the collections of the <!-- Page 12 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>[12]</span>Traditions (Ahádís).<a + name="NtA_16" href="#Nt_16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> This shows that the + Sunnat must be placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian + Scriptures; whilst the Qurán is a revelation superior to them all. To no + sect of Musalmáns is the Qurán alone the rule of faith. The Shía'hs, it + is true, reject the Sunnat, but they have in their own collection of + Traditions an exact equivalent.</p> + + <p>The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authoritative + value are questions of the first importance, whether Islám is viewed from + a theological or a political stand-point.</p> + + <p>"Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, of whom only one + would be worthy of Paradise. The Companions inquired which sect would be + so highly favoured. The Prophet replied:—'The one which remains + firm in my way and in that of my friends.' It is certain that this must + refer to the Ahl-i-Sunnat wa Jamá'at." (Sunnís.)<a name="NtA_17" + href="#Nt_17"><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should + be rendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. Thus in the fourth Súra of the + Qurán it is written: "O true believers! obey God and obey the apostle." + "We have not sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the + permission of God." From these and similar passages the following + doctrine is deduced: "It is plain that the Prophet (on whom and on whose + descendants be the mercy and peace of God!) is free from sin in what he + ordered to be done, and in what he prohibited, in all his words and acts; + for were it otherwise how could obedience rendered to him be accounted as + obedience paid to God?"<a name="NtA_18" href="#Nt_18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> + Believers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to His + divinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship; this + is a sign of love, and love is the cause of nearness to God. The Prophet + himself is reported to have <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page13"></a>[13]</span>said, "Obey me that God may regard you as + friends." From this statement the conclusion is drawn that "the love of + God (to man) is conditional on obedience to the Prophet." Belief in and + obedience to the Prophet are essential elements of the true faith, and he + who possesses not both of these is in error.<a name="NtA_19" + href="#Nt_19"><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is said to have + appointed Muhammad as the Mediator between Himself and man. In a lower + sense, believers are to follow the "Sunnat" of the four Khalífs, Abu + Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, who are true guides to men.</p> + + <p>To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly in accord with + the will of God. Moral laws have a different application when applied to + him. His jealousy, his cruelty to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence in + licentiousness, his bold assertion of equality with God as regards his + commands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to men as long + as the world shall last. It is easy for an apologist for Muhammad to say + that this is an accretion, something which engrafted itself on to a + simpler system. It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential + parts of the system. Let Muhammad be his own witness:—"He who loves + not my Sunnat is not my follower." "He who revives my Sunnat revives me, + and will be with me in Paradise." "He who in distress holds fast to the + Sunnat will receive the reward of a hundred martyrs." As might be + expected, the setting up of his own acts and words as an infallible and + unvarying rule of faith accounts more than anything else for the + immobility of the Muhammadan world, for it must be always remembered that + in Islám Church and State are one. The Arab proverb, "Al mulk wa dín + tawáminí"—country and religion are twins—is the popular form + of expressing the unity of Church and State. <!-- Page 14 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>[14]</span>To the mind of the + Musalmán the rule of the one is the rule of the other,—a truth + sometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform of + Turkey or the regeneration of the House of Osmán. The Sunnat as much as + the Qurán covers all law, whether political, social, moral, or religious. + A modern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with Islám + says:—"If Islám is to be a power for good in the future, it is + imperatively necessary to cut off the social system from the religion. + The difficulty lies in the close connection between the religious and + social ordinances in the Kurán, the two are so intermingled that it is + hard to see how they can be disentangled without destroying both." I + believe this to be impossible, and the case becomes still more hopeless + when we remember that the same remark would apply to the Sunnat. To + forget this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoun distinctly speaks of "the + Law derived from the Qurán and the Sunnat," of the "maxims of Musalmán + Law based on the text of the Qurán and the teaching of the Traditions."<a + name="NtA_20" href="#Nt_20"><sup>[20]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The technical term + for anything new is "bida't," and of it, it is said: "Bida't is the + changer of Sunnat." In other words, if men seek after things new, if + fresh forms of thought arise, and the changing condition of society + demands new modes of expression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate + the community, if in internals or externals, any new thing (bida't) is + introduced, it is to be shunned. The law as revealed in the Qurán and the + Sunnat is perfect. Everything not in accordance with the precepts therein + contained is innovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some + <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page15"></a>[15]</span>"bida't" is allowable, such as the teaching + of etymology and syntax, the establishment of schools, guest-houses, + &c., which things did not exist in the time of the Prophet; but it is + distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance with the least Sunnat + (<i>i.e.</i> the obeying the least of the orders of the Prophet, however + trivial) is far better than doing some new thing, however advantageous + and desirable it may be.</p> + + <p>There are many stories which illustrate the importance the Companions + of the Prophet attached to Sunnat. "The Khalíf Omar looked towards the + black stone at Mecca, and said, 'By God, I know that thou art only a + stone, and canst grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known + that the Prophet kissed thee, I would not have done so, but on account of + that I do it.'" Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was seen riding his camel round and + round a certain place. In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so + doing he said: "I know not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here." + Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, one of the four great Imáms, and the founder of the + Hanbalí school of interpretation, is said to have been appointed on + account of the care with which he observed the Sunnat. One day when + sitting in an assembly he alone of all present observed some formal + custom authorised by the practice of the Prophet. Gabriel at once + appeared and informed him that now, and on account of his act, he was + appointed an Imám.<a name="NtA_21" href="#Nt_21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> In + short, it is distinctly laid down that the best of all works is the + following of the practice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been + stated by a learned theologian to consist of three things: first, to + follow the Prophet in morals and in acts; secondly, to eat only lawful + food; thirdly, to be sincere in all actions.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>[16]</span></p> + + <p>The Sunnat is now known to Musalmáns through the collections of + Traditions gathered together by the men whose names they now bear. The + whole are called Sihah-Sittah, or "six correct books." Not one of these + collectors flourished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as + may be easily supposed, their work has not passed unchallenged. There is + by no means an absolute consensus of opinion among the Sunnís as to the + exact value of each Tradition, yet all admit that a 'genuine Tradition' + must be obeyed. Whether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions is + recorded as spoken by him under the influence of the highest kind of + inspiration is, as will be shown in the next chapter, a disputed point; + but it matters little. Whatever may have been the degree, it was + according to Muslim belief a real inspiration, and thus his every act and + word became a law as binding upon his followers as the example of Christ + is upon Christians.</p> + + <p>The Shía'hs do not acknowledge the Sihah-Sittah, the six correct books + of the Sunnís, but it by no means follows that they reject Tradition. + They have five books of Traditions, the earliest of which was compiled by + Abu Ja'far Muhammad <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 329, or a century + later than the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, the most trustworthy of the Sunní set. + Thus all Musalmán sects accept the first and second ground of the + faith—the Qurán and the Sunnat—as the inspired will of God; + the Shía'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions on which the + Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is important to + maintain is this, that the Qurán alone is to no Musalmán an + all-sufficient guide.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">Ijmá'</span>.—The third foundation of the + Faith is called Ijmá', a word signifying to be collected or assembled. + Technically it means the unanimous consent of the leading theologians, or + what in Christian theology would be called the "unanimous consent of the + Fathers." Practically it is a collection of the opinions of the + Companions, the Tábi'ín and the Taba-i-Tábi'ín. "The Law," says Ibn + Khaldoun <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page17"></a>[17]</span>"is grounded on the general accord of the + Companions and their followers." The election of Abu Bakr to the + Khalifate is called Ijmá'-i-Ummat, the unanimous consent of the whole + sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special knowledge of the various + circumstances under which special revelations had been made; they alone + knew which verses of the Qurán abrogated others, and which verses were + thus abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other details + they handed on to their successors, the Tábi'ín, who passed the + information on to their followers, the Taba-i-Tábi'ín. Some Muslims, the + Wahhábís for example, accept only the Ijmá' of the Companions; and by all + sects that is placed in the first rank as regards authority; others + accept that of the 'Fugitives' who dwelt at Madína; and there are some + amongst the orthodox who allow, as a matter of theory, that Ijmá' may be + collected at any time, but that practically it is not done because there + are now no Mujtahidín. The highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach + was that of a Mujtahid, or one who could make an Ijtihád, a word which, + derived from the same root as Jihád (a Crescentade), means in its + technical sense a logical deduction. It is defined as the "attaining to a + certain degree of authority in searching into the principles of + jurisprudence." The origin of Ijtihád was as follows:—Muhammad + wished to send a man named Mu'áz to Yaman to receive some money collected + for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. On appointing him + he said: "O Mu'áz, by what rule will you act?" He replied, "by the Law of + the Qurán." "But if you find no direction therein?" "Then I will act + according to the Sunnat of the Prophet." "But what if that fails?" "Then + I will make an Ijtihád and act on that." The Prophet raised his hands and + said, "Praise be to God who guides the messenger of His Prophet in what + He pleases."<a name="NtA_22" href="#Nt_22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> This is + considered a proof of the authority of Ijtihád for the Prophet clearly + sanctioned it.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>[18]</span></p> + + <p>When the Prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and + fears: an infallible authority was always present ready to give an + inspired direction. The Khalífs who succeeded the Prophet had only to + administer the Law according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had + held. They were busily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest; they + neither attempted any new legislation, nor did they depart from the + practice of him whom they revered. "In the first days of Islám, the + knowledge of the Law was purely Traditional. In forming their judgments + they had no recourse either to speculation, to private opinion, or to + arguments founded upon analogy."<a name="NtA_23" + href="#Nt_23"><sup>[23]</sup></a> However, as the Empire grew, new + conditions of life arose, giving rise to questions, concerning which + Muhammad had given no explicit direction. This necessitated the use of + Ijtihád. During the Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and + 'Alí—the Khulafa-i-Ráshidín, or the Khalífs who could guide men in + the right way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the + course of action to be pursued under some new development of + circumstances; for they knew as none other did the Prophet's sayings and + deeds, they could recall to their memories a saying or an act from which + a decision could be deduced. In this way all Muslims could feel that in + following their judgments and guidance they were walking in the right + path. But after the death of 'Alí, the fourth Khalíf, civil war and + hostile factions imperilled the continuance of the Faith in its purity. + At Madína, where Muhammad's career as a recognised Prophet was best + known, devout men commenced to learn by heart the Qurán, the Sunnat, and + the analogical judgments (Ijtihád) of the four Khalífs. These men were + looked up to as authorities, and their decisions were afterwards known as + the 'Customs of Madína.'</p> + + <p>It is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to regulate all + departments of life, all developments of men's ideas and energies by the + Sunnat and analogical deductions <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>[19]</span>therefrom, was one which not only gave every + temptation a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition, but one + which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use. Hence, it + was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent mass of + Tradition, of judgments given by Khalífs and Mujtahidín. This gave rise + to the systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox Imáms, to + one or other of which all Muslims, except the Shía'hs, belong. These + Imáms, Abu Hanífa, Ibn Málik, As-Sháfi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all + Mujtahidín of the highest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that + there has been no Mujtahid. Thus in a standard theological book much used + in India it is written: "Ijmá' is this, that it is not lawful to follow + any other than the four Imáms." "In these days the Qází must make no + order, the Muftí give no fatvá (<i>i.e.</i> a legal decision), contrary + to the opinion of the four Imáms." "To follow any other is not lawful." + So far then as orthodoxy is concerned, change and progress are + impossible.</p> + + <p>Imám Abu Hanífa was born at Basra (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 80), + but he spent the greater part of his life at Kúfa. He was the founder and + teacher of the body of legists known as 'the jurists of Irák.' His system + differs considerably from that of the Imám Málik who, living at Madína, + confined himself chiefly to Tradition as the basis of his judgments. + Madína was full of the memories of the sayings and acts of the Prophet; + Kúfa, the home of Hanífa, on the contrary, was not founded till after the + Prophet's death and so possessed none of his memories. Islám there came + into contact with other races of men, but from them it had nothing to + learn. If these men became Muslims, well and good: if not, the one law + for them as for the Faithful was the teaching of Muhammad. Various texts + of the Qurán are adduced to prove the correctness of this position. "For + to thee have we sent down the book which cleareth up every thing." (Súra + xvi. 91) "Nothing have we passed over in the book." (Súra vi. <!-- Page + 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>[20]</span>38.) "Neither + is there a grain in the darkness of the earth nor a thing green or sere, + but it is noted in a distinct writing." (Súra vi. 59). These texts were + held to prove that all law was provided for by anticipation in the Qurán. + If a verse could not be found bearing on any given question, analogical + deduction was resorted to. Thus: "He it is who created <i>for you</i> all + that is on earth." (Súra ii. 27). According to the Hanifite jurists, this + is a deed of gift which annuls all other rights of property. The 'you' + refers to Muslims. The earth<a name="NtA_24" + href="#Nt_24"><sup>[24]</sup></a> may be classified under three + heads:—(1) land which never had an owner; (2) land which had an + owner and has been abandoned; (3) the person and property of the + Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulness + of slavery, piracy and constant war against the unbelievers. To return to + Abu Hanífa. He admitted very few Traditions as authoritative in his + system, which claims to be a logical development from the Qurán. "The + merit of logical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and + wishes of men, the previous history of a country—all those + considerations, in fact, which are held in the West to be the governing + principles of legislation, are set aside by the legists of Irák as being + of no account whatever. Legislation is not a science inductive and + experimental, but logical and deductive."<a name="NtA_25" + href="#Nt_25"><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Imám Ibn Málik was born at Madína (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 93) + and his system of jurisprudence is founded, as might be expected from his + connection with the sacred city, on the "Customs of Madína." His business + was to arrange and systematize the Traditions current in Madína, and to + form out of them and the "Customs" a system of jurisprudence embracing + the whole sphere of life. The treatise composed by him was called the + "Muwatta" or "The Beaten Path." The greater part of its contents are + legal maxims and opinions <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page21"></a>[21]</span>delivered by the Companions. His system of + jurisprudence, therefore, has been described as historical and + traditional. In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'far it is said: + "His Traditions were of the greatest authority; his gravity was + impressive; and when he delivered them, all his auditors were plunged in + admiration."<a name="NtA_26" href="#Nt_26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> The + Traditions were his great delight. "I delight," said he, "in testifying + my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of God, and I never + repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of perfect purity,"<a + name="NtA_27" href="#Nt_27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> (<i>i.e.</i>, after + performing a legal ablution.) As death approached, his one fear was lest + he should have exercised his private judgment in delivering any legal + opinion. In his last illness a friend went to visit him, and enquiring + why he wept, received the following answer: "Why should I not weep, and + who has more right to weep than I? By Allah! I wish I had been flogged + and reflogged for every question of law on which I pronounced an opinion + founded on my own private judgment."<a name="NtA_28" + href="#Nt_28"><sup>[28]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Imám As-Sháfa'í, a member of the Quraish tribe, was born <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 150. He passed his youth at Mecca but finally + settled in Cairo where he died (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 204). Ibn + Khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge of the + Qurán, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Companions. "Never," said Imám + Ibn Hanbal, "have I passed a night without praying for God's mercy and + blessing upon As-Sháfi'í." "Whosoever pretends," said Abu Thaur, "that he + saw the like of As-Sháfi'í for learning is a liar." Having carefully + studied the systems of the two preceding Imáms he then proceeded on an + eclectic system to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of + Abu Hanífa. As-Sháfi'í follows rather the traditional plan of Ibn Málik. + The Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the absence of a clear and a direct + statement, he finds one <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>[22]</span>passage in the Qurán, or one Tradition from + which the required judgment may be deduced. The Sháfi'ite in the same + circumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduction, will require + a considerable number of Traditions from which to make it.</p> + + <p>Imám Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox Imáms. He was born + at Baghdád (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 164). His system is a distinct + return to Traditionalism. He lived at Baghdád during the reign of the + Khalíf Mamun, when Orthodox Islám seemed in danger of being lost amid the + rationalistic speculations, (that is, from an Orthodox Muslim + stand-point), and licentious practices of the Court. The jurists most in + favour at Court were followers of Abu Hanífa. They carried the principle + of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths in order to satisfy the + latitudinarianism of the Khalíf. Human speculation seemed to be weakening + all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal met the difficulty by + discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction. At the same + time he saw that the Máliki system, founded as it was on the "Customs of + Madína," was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and growing Empire. + It needed to be supplemented. What better, what surer ground could he go + upon than the Traditions. These at least were inspired, and thus formed a + safer foundation on which to build a system of jurisprudence than the + analogical deductions of Abu Hanífa did. The system of Ibn Hanbal has + almost ceased to exist. There is now no Muftí of this sect at Mecca, + though the other three are represented there. Still his influence is felt + to this day in the importance he attached to Tradition.</p> + + <p>The distinction between the four Imáms has been put in this way. Abu + Hanífa exercised his own judgment. Málik and Hanbal preferred authority + and precedent. As-Sháfi'í entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, + as regards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them an + authentic Tradition is an incontestable authority. Their <!-- Page 23 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>[23]</span>opinion on + points of doctrine and practice forms the third basis of the Faith.</p> + + <p>The Ijmá' of the four Imáms is a binding law upon all Sunnís. It might + be supposed that as the growing needs of the Empire led to the formation + of these schools of interpretation; so now the requirements of modern, + social and political life might be met by fresh Imáms making new + analogical deductions. This is not the case. The orthodox belief is, that + since the time of the four Imáms there has been no Mujtahid who could do + as they did. If circumstances should arise which absolutely require some + decision to be arrived at, it must be given in full accordance with the + 'mazhab,' or school of interpretation, to which the person framing the + decision belongs.<a name="NtA_29" href="#Nt_29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> This + effectually prevents all change, and by excluding innovation, whether + good or bad, keeps Islám stationary. Legislation is now purely deductive. + Nothing must be done contrary to the principles contained in the + jurisprudence of the four Imáms. "Thus, in any Muhammadan State + legislative reforms are simply impossible. There exists no initiative. + The Sultán, or Khalíf can claim the allegiance of his people only so long + as he remains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the Law."</p> + + <p>The question then as regards the politics of the "Eastern <!-- Page 24 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>[24]</span>Question" is not + whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived, an apostle or an + impostor; whether the Qurán is on the whole good or bad; whether Arabia + was the better or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought; but what + Islám as a religious and political system has become and is, how it now + works, what Orthodox Muslims believe and how they act in that belief. The + essence of that belief is, that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalífs + and Imáms is absolutely perfect.<a name="NtA_30" + href="#Nt_30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> Innovation is worse than a mistake. It + is a crime, a sin. This completeness, this finality of his system of + religion and polity, is the very pride and glory of a true Muslim. To + look for an increase of light in the knowledge of his relation to God and + the unseen world, in the laws which regulate Islám on earth is to admit + that Muhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission no Muslim + will make.</p> + + <p>It has been stated on high authority that all that is required for the + reform of Turkey is that the Qánúns or orders of the Sultán should take + the place of the Sharí'at or law of Islám. Precisely so; if this could be + done, Turkey might be reformed; but Islám would cease to be the religion + of the State. That the law as formulated by the Imám Abu Hanífa ill suits + the conditions of modern life is more than probable; but it is the very + function of the Khalíf of Islám, <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page25"></a>[25]</span>which the Sultán claims to be, to maintain + it. He is no Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst the Sunnís, to + which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of circumstances some new + law must be made, orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly in + accordance with the opinions of the Imáms. The Shía'hs, in opposition to + the Sunnís, hold that there are still Mujtahidín, but this opinion arises + from their peculiar doctrine of the Imámat, a subject we shall discuss a + little later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can be + Mujtahidín who are now able to give authoritative opinions, there may be + some hope of enlightened progress amongst Shía'h people—the + Persians for example. There is doubtless amongst them more religious + unrest, more mysticism, more heresy, but they are no further on the road + of progress than their neighbours; and the apparent advantage of the + presence of a Mujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his + decisions must be strictly in accordance with the Qurán and the Sunnat, + or rather with what to the Shía'h stands in the place of the Sunnat. The + Shía'h, as well as the Sunní, must base all legislation on the fossilized + system of the past, not on the living needs of the present. Precedent + rules both with an iron sway. The Wahhábís reject all Ijmá' except that + of the Companions, but that they accept; so when they are called the + Puritans of Islám, it must be remembered that they accept as a rule of + faith not only the Qurán, but the Sunnat, and some Ijmá'.</p> + + <p>In order to make Ijmá' binding, it is necessary that the Mujtahidín + should have been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice.</p> + + <p>The whole subject of Ijtihád is one of the most important in + connection with the possibility of reforms in a Muslim state. A modern + Muhammadan writer<a name="NtA_31" href="#Nt_31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> + seeking to show that Islám does possess a capacity for progress and that + so far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adapt itself to + new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in <!-- Page 26 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>[26]</span>"an age of active + principles," uses the story I have already related when describing the + origin of Ijtihád (Ante. p. <a href="#page17">17</a>) to prove the + accuracy of his statement. He makes Mu'áz to say:—"I will look + first to the Qurán, then to precedents of the Prophet, and lastly rely + upon my <i>own judgment</i>." It is true that Ijtihád literally means + 'great effort,' it is true that the Companions and Mujtahidín of the + first class had the power of exercising their judgment in doubtful cases, + and of deciding them according to their sense of the fitness of things, + provided always, that their decision contravened no law of the Qurán or + the Sunnat; but this in no way proves that Islám has any capacity for + progress, or that "an age of active principles" was ushered in by + Muhammad, or that his "words breathe energy and force, and infuse new + life into the dormant heart of humanity." For, though the term Ijtihád + might, in reference to the men I have mentioned, be somewhat freely + translated as "one's own judgment," it can have no such meaning now. It + is a purely technical term, and its use and only use now is to express + the "referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the Qurán + and the Sunnat." But even were the meaning not thus restricted, even + though it meant now as it sometimes meant at first, "one's own judgment;" + still Syed Amír 'Alí's position would remain to be proved for, since the + days of the four Imáms, the orthodox believe that there has been no + Mujtahid of the first class, and to none but men of this rank has such + power ever been accorded. Thus granting, for the sake of argument merely, + that the Syed's translation is grammatically and technically correct, all + that results from it is that the "age of active principles" lasted only + for two centuries. I do not admit that there ever was such an age in + Islám, and certainly neither its theological development, nor its + political growth negative the opposite assertion, <i>viz.</i>, that + Muhammad gave precepts rather than principles. The Turks are included in + "the dormant heart of humanity," but it is difficult to see what "energy + and <!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>[27]</span>force" is breathed, what "new life is + infused" into them by the "wonderful words" of the Prophet, or what + lasting good the "age of active principles" has produced.</p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Qíás</span> is the fourth foundation of Islám. The + word literally means reasoning, comparing. It is in common use in + Hindustani and Persian in the sense of guessing, considering, &c. + Technically, it means the analogical reasoning of the learned with regard + to the teaching of the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá'. For example, the + Qurán says:—"Honour thy father and thy mother and be not a cause of + displeasure to them." It is evident from this that disobedience to + parents is prohibited, and prohibition implies punishment if the order is + disobeyed. Again, if the Qurán and the Sunnat hold children responsible, + according to their means, for the debts of their father, does it not + follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their parents all those + obligations which for some reason or other the parents may not be able to + perform, such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. A Tradition said to + come from the Companions runs thus:—"One day, a woman came to the + Prophet and said, 'my father died without making the Pilgrimage.' The + Prophet said, 'If thy father had left a debt what wouldest thou do,' 'I + would pay the debt.' 'Good, then pay this debt also.'" The Qurán forbids + the use of Khamar, an intoxicating substance, and so it is argued that + wine and opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. The Wahhábís + would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco.</p> + + <p>From cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the Mujtahidín + of the earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which + they call Qíás. It is also called I'tibár-ul-Amsál, or "imitation of an + example." The idea is taken from the verse: "Profit by this example, ye + who are men of insight" (Súra lix. 2). There are strict rules laid down + which regulate Qíás, of which the most important is, that in all cases it + must be based on the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. In fact, the + fundamental idea of Islám <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page28"></a>[28]</span>is that a perfect law has been given, even + unto details, of social and political life. The teaching of Muhammad + contains the solution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law not + provided by the Prophet must be deduced analogically. This produces + uniformity after a fashion, but only because intellectual activity in + higher pursuits ceases and moral stagnation follows. Thus all who come + within the range of this system are bound down to political servitude. + Whatever in feeling or conviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn + set of laws is swept away. There is a wonderful family likeness in the + decay of all Musalmán States, which seems to point to a common cause. All + first principles are contained in the Qurán and the Sunnat; all that does + not coincide with them must be wrong. They are above all criticism.</p> + + <p>Qíás, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, removes no fetter + of the past, for in it there must be no divergence in principle from a + legislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in + its essence.<a name="NtA_32" href="#Nt_32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> In the + Niháyat-ul-Murád it is written:—"We are shut up to following the + four Imáms." In the Tafsír-i-Ahmadí we read:—"To follow any other + than the four Imáms is unlawful." An objector may say that such respect + is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors. To this an + answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqáyah. The + writer there says that it is nothing of the kind. "The Mujtahidín are not + the source of the orders of the Law, but they are the medium by which we + obtain the Law. Thus Imám Abu Hanífa said: 'We select first from the + Qurán, then from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the Companions; + we act on what the Companions agreed upon; where they doubt, we doubt.' + The Commentator Jelál-ud-dín Mahlí says, 'The common people and others + who have <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>[29]</span>not reached the rank of a Mujtahid, must + follow one of the four Imáms.' Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he + must not change. Again, it may be objected that God gave no order about + the appointment of four Imáms. Now, it is recorded in a Tradition that + the Prophet said, 'Follow the way of the great company; whosoever departs + from it will enter hell.' The Followers of the Imáms are a great + company." It is <span class="correction" title="'moveover' in original" + >moreover</span> the unanimous opinion, the "Ijmá'-i-Ummat," that the + Imáms rightly occupy the position accorded to them. It is a great + blessing, as we read in the Tafsír-i-Ahmadí: "It is of the grace of God, + that we are shut up to these four Imáms. God approves of this, and into + this matter proofs and explanations do not enter." Should any one further + object that, in the days of the Prophet, there were no Mujtahidín, that + each man acted on a "saying" as he heard it, that he did not confine his + belief or conduct to the deductions made by some "appointed Companion," + he may be answered thus:—"For a long time after the death of the + Prophet many Companions were alive, and consequently the Traditions then + current were trustworthy; but now it is not so, hence the need for the + Imáms and their systems."</p> + + <p>These four foundations,—the <span class="sc">Qurán</span>, the + <span class="sc">Sunnat</span>, <span class="sc">Ijmá'</span> and <span + class="sc">Qíás</span>—form in orthodox Muslim opinion and belief a + perfect basis of a perfect religion and polity. They secure the + permanence of the system, but they repress an intelligent growth. The + bearing of all this on modern politics is very plain. Take again the case + of Turkey. The constitution of the Government is theocratic. The germs of + freedom are wanting there as they have never been wanting in any other + country in Europe. The ruling power desires no change; originality of + thought, independence of judgment is repressed. Nothing good has the Turk + ever done for the world.<a name="NtA_33" + href="#Nt_33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> This rule has been one continued + display of brute <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page30"></a>[30]</span>force unrelieved by any of the reflected + glory which shone for a while in Cordova and in Baghdád. No nation can + possibly progress, the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system + are what has been described in this chapter. When brought into diplomatic + and commercial intercourse with States possessing the energy and vigour + of a national life and liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the + long run, fail and pass away. It has been well said that "Spain is the + only instance of a country once thoroughly infused with Roman + civilisation which has been actually severed from the empire; and even + then the severance, though of long duration, was but partial and + temporary. After a struggle of nearly eight centuries, the higher form of + social organisation triumphed over the lower and the usurping power of + Islám was expelled." So it ought to be, and so indeed it must ever be, + for despotism must give way to freedom; the life latent in the subject + Christian communities must sooner or later cast off the yoke of a + barbarian rule, which even at its best is petrified and so is incapable + of progress. However low a Christian community may have fallen, there is + always the possibility of its rising again. A lofty ideal is placed + before it. All its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward. In + Islám there is no regenerative power. Its golden age was in the past. + When the work of conquest is done, when a Muhammadan nation has to live + by industry, intelligence and thrift, it always miserably fails.</p> + + <p>In this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have tried to prove + from authentic and authoritative sources that <!-- Page 31 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>[31]</span>the Qurán alone is to no + Muslim the sole guide of life. The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten + alike around the individual and the community. Islám is sterile, it gives + no new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of new forms + of truth, and so it can give no real life, no lasting vitality to a + nation.<a name="NtA_34" href="#Nt_34"><sup>[34]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>[32]</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<h3>NOTE TO CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">IJTIHÁD.</p> + + <p>Questions connected with Ijtihád are so important in Islám, that I + think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical + account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This + account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalmán, and is, + therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an article + in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrième Série, tome, 15, on "Le Marche et les + Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes orthodoxes Musalmanes" by + Mirza Kázim Beg, Professor in the University of St. Petersburg. It + entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid character of + Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of systems founded thereon.</p> + + <p>"Orthodox Musalmáns admit the following propositions as axioms.</p> + + <p>1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people + whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He + has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly in the eternal + Qurán, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to posterity + by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. That way is called the + "Sharí'at." The rules thereof are called Ahkám.</p> + + <p>2. The Qurán and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are the + primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, + <i>viz.</i>, Ilm-i-Tafsír, or the interpretation of the Qurán and + Ilm-i-Hadís, or the study of Tradition.</p> + + <p>3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Dín), + or to the belief (Imán) of the Mukallifs.<a name="NtA_35" + href="#Nt_35"><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + + <p>4. As the Qurán and the Sunnat are the principal sources from whence + the precepts of the Sharí'at have been drawn, so the rules recognized as + the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of + Ilm-í-Fiqh, or the science of Law.</p> + + <p>Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus Muhammad + prayed for Ibn Mas'úd: "May God make him <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>[33]</span>comprehend (Faqqihahu), + and make him know the interpretation of the Qurán." Muhammad in his + quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or + contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a + guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first Khalífs + acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Qurán and the + Sunnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation, became little + by little the subject of controversy. It was then that men applied + themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the Qurán and the + Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate science. No + science had as yet been systematically taught, and the early Musalmáns + did not possess books which would serve for such teaching. A change soon, + however, took place. In the year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria + died (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 80) N'imán bin Sabit, surnamed Abu + Hanífa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the schools + of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim seats of + learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the Mufassirs,<a + name="NtA_36" href="#Nt_36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> the Muhaddis,<a + name="NtA_37" href="#Nt_37"><sup>[37]</sup></a> and the Fuqihá,<a + name="NtA_38" href="#Nt_38"><sup>[38]</sup></a> had all their knowledge + by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly esteemed. + Many of them knew by heart the whole Qurán with the comments made on it + by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the Traditions and + their explanations, and all the commands (Ahkám) which proceed from the + Qurán, and the Sunnat. Such men enjoyed the right of Mujtahidín. They + transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. It was not till + towards the middle of the second century <span class="scac">A.H.</span> + that treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after + which six schools (Mazhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders, + all Imáms of the first class, were Abu Hanífa, the <span + class="correction" title="Imám-í-'Azam in original, corrected by Errata" + >Imám-i-A'zam</span> or great Imám (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> + 150),<a name="NtA_39" href="#Nt_39"><sup>[39]</sup></a> Safian As-Sáurí + (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 161), Málik (<span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 179), As-Sháfa'í (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> + 204), Hanbal (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 241) and Imám Dáúd Az-Zaharí + (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 270). The two sects founded by Sáurí and + Zaharí became extinct in the eighth century of the Hijra. The other four + still remain. These men venerated one another. The younger ones speak + with great respect of the elder. Thus Sháfa'í said:—"No one in the + world was so well versed in jurisprudence as Abu Hanífa was, and he who + has read neither his works, nor those of his disciples knows nothing of + jurisprudence." Hanbal when sick wore a shirt which had belonged to + Sháfa'í, in order that he might be cured of his malady; but all this <!-- + Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>[34]</span>did not + prevent them starting schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihád is + granted to those who are real Mujtahidín. There are three degrees of + Ijtihád.</p> + + <p>1. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation</p> + + <p>2. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Mazhab: authority in the judicial systems founded + by the Mujtahidín of the first class.</p> + + <p>3. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Masáil: authority in cases which have not been + decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence.</p> + + <p>The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second + relative, the third special.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD.</p> + + <p>Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it + is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not + bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This gift + was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some in the second + and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely connected + with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their posterity the + treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidín of much higher + authority than those of the second and third centuries. Thus Abu Hanífa + says:—"That which comes to us from the Companions is on our head + and eyes (<i>i.e.</i>, to be received with respect): as to that which + comes from the Tábi'ín, they are men and we are men."</p> + + <p>Since the time of the Tábi'ín this degree of Ijtihád has only been + conferred on the six great Imáms. Theoretically any Muslim can attain to + this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that the + confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so no one + now gains the honour. These conditions are:—</p> + + <p>1. The knowledge of the Qurán and all that is related to it; that is + to say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound + acquaintance with the orders of the Qurán and all their sub-divisions, + their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of + the Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each verse of the + Qurán was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal + meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the + abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the + meaning of the 'obscure' passages (Mutashábih), to discriminate between + the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular.</p> + + <p>2. He must know the Qurán by heart with all the Traditions and + explanations. <!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page35"></a>[35]</span></p> + + <p>3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of + three thousand of them.</p> + + <p>He must know their source, history, object and their connection with + the laws of the Qurán. He should know by heart the most important + Traditions.</p> + + <p>4. A pious and austere life.</p> + + <p>5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law.</p> + + <p>Should any one <i>now</i> aspire to such a degree another condition + would be added, <i>viz</i>:—</p> + + <p>6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence.</p> + + <p>The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there + is the severity of the 'Ulamá, which requires from the candidate things + almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the 'Ulamá to + their own Imáms, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to + listen to him. Imám Hanbal said:—"Draw your knowledge from whence + the Imáms drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others + for that is certainly blindness of sight". Thus the schools of the four + Imáms remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the 'Ulamá + recognise since the time of these Imáms no Mujtahíd of the first degree. + Ibn Hanbal was the last.</p> + + <p>The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. + He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between + the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of + legislation, without any one having the right to make any objection. He + had the right to explain the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' according as + he understood them. He used the Prophet's words, whilst his disciples + only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy between a decision + of his own Imám and the Qurán or Traditions, he must abide by the + decision of the Imám. The Law does not permit him to interpret after his + own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the sect of one Imám he + cannot leave it and join another. He loses the right of private judgment, + for only a Mujtahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of + the Imáms. Theoretically such Mujtahidín may still arise; but, as we have + already shown, practically they do not.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD.</p> + + <p>This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great + Imáms who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed the + special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulamá, and of their respective + Imáms who in some cases have allowed them <!-- Page 36 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>[36]</span>to retain their own + opinion.' The most famous of these men are the two disciples of Abu + Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad bin al Hasan. In a secondary matter their + opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule that a Muftí may + follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes against that + of Abu Hanífa.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD.</p> + + <p>This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it + should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence + according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. They + can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their + judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous + Mujtahidín; but in either case their decisions must always be in absolute + accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidín of the first and second + classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of these men + attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most of them this + rank is not accorded till after their death. Since Imám Qází Khán died + (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 592), no one has been recognised by the + Sunnís as a Mujtahid even of the third class.</p> + + <p>There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidín, + or followers of the Mujtahidín; but all that the highest in rank amongst + them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of the older + jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulamá they are considered to be equal to + the Mujtahidín of the third class. If there are several conflicting legal + opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on which to base their + decision. This a mere Qází cannot do. In such a case he would have to + refer to those men, or to their writings for guidance. They seem to have + written commentaries on the legal systems without originating anything + new. The author of the Hidáyah, who lived at the end of the sixth + century, was a Muqallid.</p> + + <p>Such is Mirza Kázim Beg's account. The whole article, of which I have + only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. It shows how + "the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a guide to deeper insight + or wider knowledge; tramples upon the teaching of the past; pays no heed + to differences of climate, character, or history; but regards itself as a + body of absolute truth, one jot or tittle of which cannot be rejected + without incurring the everlasting wrath of God."<a name="NtA_40" + href="#Nt_40"><sup>[40]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>[37]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<h3>EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS.</h3> + + <p>The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically + called 'Ilm-i-Usúl, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of + inspiration according to Islám, though that is not strictly speaking a + portion of this study.</p> + + <p>There are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, + Wahí and Ilhám. Wahí is the term applied to the inspiration of the Qurán, + and implies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into + Wahí Záhir (external inspiration), and Wahí Bátin (internal inspiration). + The whole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, + is simply the medium through which the revelation of Wahí Záhir reaches + man. The Wahí Qurán, <i>i.e.</i>, the highest form of inspiration, always + came to the ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In + Muhammadan theology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the + Traditions it is related that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch + four, to Noah fifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to + Jesus ten times, to Muhammad twenty-four thousand times.</p> + + <p>Ilhám means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he, + though rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, + and is not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is + a lower form of Wahí Záhir, which is called Ishárat-ul-Malak (literally, + "sign of the Angel.") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: + "The Holy Ghost has entered into my heart." In other words, he received + the inspiration through <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page38"></a>[38]</span>Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form + of inspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually + applied to the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who + say that except when delivering the Qurán Muhammad spoke by Ilhám and not + by Wahí. The practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahí + inspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Qurán. + Sharastani speaks of "the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have the + marks of Wahí."<a name="NtA_41" href="#Nt_41"><sup>[41]</sup></a> This + opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to be supported by the first + verse of the fifty-third Súra, entitled the Star. "By the Star when it + setteth; your companion Muhammad <i>erreth not</i>, nor is he <i>led + astray</i>, neither doth he <i>speak of his own will</i>. It is none + other than a revelation which hath been revealed to him." In any case the + inspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christian + idea of inspiration, which is to Musalmáns a very imperfect mode of + transmitting a revelation of God's will.</p> + + <p>That there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration + is an idea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The + Qurán is not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Qurán + describes the revelation given to Moses thus:—"We wrote for him + upon the tables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive + them thyself with steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them + for the observance of its most goodly precepts.'" (Súra vii. 142). It is + such an inspiration as this the Qurán claims for itself. Muhammad's idea + was that it should be a complete and final code of directions in every + matter for all mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by + God. It proceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' + precedes, or is understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim + is the highest form of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as <!-- Page + 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>[39]</span>divine. It is + acknowledged that the Injíl—the Gospel—was given by Jesus; + but as that, too, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from + heaven by the angel Gabriel during the month of Ramazán, it is now + asserted that it has been lost, and that the four Gospels of the New + Testament are simply Traditions collected by the writers whose names they + bear. Their value is, therefore, that of the second foundation of the + Islámic system.</p> + + <p>The question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made + known his message to Muhammad. The Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, a standard + theological work, gives some details on this point.<a name="NtA_42" + href="#Nt_42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> Though the Qurán is all of God, both as + to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet in one + and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:—</p> + + <p>1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Áyesha, one of Muhammad's + wives, that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the + Prophet. According to some commentators this brightness remained six + months. In some mysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or + vision, made known the will of God.</p> + + <p>2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of + the Prophet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute + has arisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he + assumed the bodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of + Gabriel overcame Muhammad, who was then translated to the world of + angels. This always happened when the revelation was one of bad news, + such as denunciations or predictions of woe. At other times, when the + message brought by Gabriel was one of consolation and comfort, the human + nature of the Prophet overcame the angelic nature of the angel, who, in + such case, having assumed a human form, proceeded to deliver the message. + <!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page40"></a>[40]</span></p> + + <p>3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To + him alone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish + in, and through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The + effect of this mode of Wahí was more marvellous than that of any of the + other ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became + agitated. On the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, + would roll down his face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave + place to a ghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head + showed the intensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If + riding, the camel on which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet + one day, when reclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well + known sound: Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so + heavy became the head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest + difficulty he could support the weight.</p> + + <p>4. At the time of the Mi'ráj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke + to the Prophet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed + point whether the face of the Lord was veiled or not.</p> + + <p>5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on the + Prophet's shoulders made known his will.</p> + + <p>6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought + the message from God.</p> + + <p>7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart + of the Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the + words of God. This is technically called <span class="correction" + title="Ilka in original, corrected by Errata">Ilká</span>, and is by some + supposed to be the degree of inspiration to which the Traditions + belong.</p> + + <p>Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by + any chance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, + another was always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a + science of abrogation, according to which some verses of the Qurán + abrogate others. Muhammad found it necessary to shift <!-- Page 41 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>[41]</span>his stand-point + more than once, and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of + his revelation.</p> + + <p>Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At + first there seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. <a + href="#page3">3</a>), the dread lest after all it might be a mockery. But + as years rolled on confidence in himself and in his mission came. At + times, too, there is a joyousness in his utterances as he swears by + heaven and earth, by God and man; but more often the visions were weird + and terrible. Tradition says:—"He roared like a camel, the sound as + of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some strange power moved + him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or more the + revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to the + Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,<a name="NtA_43" + href="#Nt_43"><sup>[43]</sup></a> to the Warrior-Chief, as the founder of + political unity among the Arab tribes.</p> + + <p>A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction in + grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage + when he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usúl," or the + exegesis of the Qurán, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This + done, he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn + what the Fathers of Islám have to say. This science in one way fits him + to be a commentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring + things "new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others + the things old. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islám + which can reveal to the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious + scholar on to deeper and more profound knowledge.</p> + + <p>The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the + Qurán by heart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early + commentators have said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite + manner, the <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page42"></a>[42]</span>Prophet's sayings preserved in the + Traditions handed down by the Companions, their followers, and their + followers' followers, who can point out a flaw in the Isnád (<i>i.e.</i> + chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted by an opponent, or maintain, by + repeating the long list of names, the authority of the Isnád of the + Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory, not critical acumen, is the + great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The chief qualification of a + Háfiz, a man who can repeat the whole Qurán by heart, is not that he + shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be able to pronounce each + word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth, this is only to be + attained after years of practice from childhood. The Sunnís say that no + Shía'h can ever become a Háfiz, from which fact they draw the conclusion + that the Shía'hs are heretics. In the early days of Islám, the great + authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation of the Qurán + were the Khalífs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, and ten of the + Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which + Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islám. The + effort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Qurán + failed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of + Mecca, and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred + book became current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved + surmountable. Abu Ibn Káb, one of the Companions, had become so famous as + a reader that the Prophet himself said: "read the Qurán under Abu Ibn + Káb." These men remembered that Abu Ibn Káb had stated, that one day when + scandalized at man after man who entered the mosque repeating the Qurán + in different ways, he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O + Abu Ibn Káb! intelligence was sent to me to read the Qurán in one + dialect, and I was attentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy + the reading of the Qurán to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me + a second time saying: 'read the <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page43"></a>[43]</span>Qurán in two dialects.' Then I turned myself + to the Court of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Qurán to my + sects.' Then a voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the + Qurán in seven dialects.'"</p> + + <p>This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the + Prophet in thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of + reading was looked upon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the + "haft qirá,at," or seven readings of the Qurán, now recognised.</p> + + <p>In the Qurán compiled by the order of the Khalíf Osmán there were no + vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islám they found + great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great + grammarian, then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. + The seven famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various + modes of reading, are Imám Nafi of Madína, Imám Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, + Imám Abu 'Umr of Basra, Imám Hamza of Kufa, Imám Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imám + 'Ásim of Kufa, Imám Kisáe of Kufa.<a name="NtA_44" + href="#Nt_44"><sup>[44]</sup></a> These learned men affixed different + vowel-points in many places in the Qurán, and thus slight differences of + meaning arose. In India the "qirá,at—reading,—of Imám 'Ásim + is followed by both Sunnís and Shía'hs. There are three readings of + lesser note allowable when reading the Qurán privately, but not when + reading any part in a liturgical service. During the month of Ramazán the + Qurán is repeated every night in the mosque, it being so arranged that + one-thirtieth part shall be recited each night. The Imám of the mosque, + or public Reader, (Qárí) who commences according to one of the seven + recognised readings (qirá,at), must keep to the same all the month. As he + has to recite without a book this involves a great exercise of the + memory. A good Háfiz will know the whole seven varieties. The various + readings thus introduced, though <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>[44]</span>unimportant in their nature,<a name="NtA_45" + href="#Nt_45"><sup>[45]</sup></a> amount to about five hundred in number. + The following are a few illustrations. In the second Súra Abu 'Umr reads: + "Nor shall ye be questioned concerning that which <i>they</i> have done;" + but 'Ásim reads: "That which <i>ye</i> have done." This is caused by + putting two dots above the line instead of below it. Again 'Ásim reads: + "<i>Enter ye</i> the gates of hell" (Súra xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: + "<i>Ye will be made to enter</i> hell,"—that is, by a slight change + the passive is substituted for the active voice. These are fair samples + of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is touched, but the way in + which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation of the difficulty is + instructive to the student of Islám. At times, too, fierce disputes have + arisen between the followers of the seven famous Readers whose names I + have given above. In the year 935 <span class="scac">A.H.</span>, Ibn + Shanabud, a resident of Baghdád, ventured to introduce some different + readings in his recital of the Qurán. The people of Baghdád, not knowing + these, were furious, and the Khalíf was compelled to cast the offender + into prison. A Council of divines was called together, before whom the + unhappy Ibn Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the + correctness of his "readings," but after being whipped seven times he + said: "I renounce my manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no + other than that of the manuscript drawn up by the Khalíf Osmán, and that + which is generally received."<a name="NtA_46" + href="#Nt_46"><sup>[46]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the + science of grammar. As Islám spread, it became necessary to expound the + Qurán to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then + became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a + necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in <!-- Page 45 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>[45]</span>doubt as to the + lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was + no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any + directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that + is, neither a command based on the Qurán nor one based on any saying or + act of the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty.</p> + + <p>Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalíf of Baghdád, was a + patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of + his, Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the + fact that the Quránists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their + heavenly reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all + was, in connection with the Qurán, a science of doubtful legality. The + friend to whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. + It is recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in + which he saw the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to + Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" + The Prophet had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study + in Islám. Muslims now quote the Qurán as a perfect model of style; it may + be well to remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, + therefore, it is but natural that it should be perfect according to the + present canons of Arabic grammar.<a name="NtA_47" + href="#Nt_47"><sup>[47]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very + important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usúl." It is said that the Qurán was + brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The + Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and <!-- + Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>[46]</span>answered + the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The infidels + say, 'unless the Qurán be sent down to him all at once'—but in this + way we establish thy heart in it, <i>in parcels have we parcelled it out + to thee</i>" (Súra xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely + objective; it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of + Gabriel. "Yet it is a glorious Qurán, <i>written on the preserved + Table</i>." (Súra lxxxv. 22). Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When + we have <i>recited</i> it then follow thou the <i>recital</i>." (Súra + lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is referred to in the + verse: "We have <i>sent down</i> to thee an Arabic Qurán." (Súra xx. + 112). The fragmentary way in which the Qurán was given<a name="NtA_48" + href="#Nt_48"><sup>[48]</sup></a> was not without its difficulties. Some + passages contradicted others, some were difficult to understand. To the + Prophet alone was the solution known. The knowledge he communicated to + his immediate followers, the Companions, as they are called, thus: "To + thee have we sent down this book of monitions, that <i>thou mayest make + clear to men</i> what hath been sent down to them." (Súra xvi. 46).</p> + + <p>Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished + between abrogated and abrogating verses, <!-- Page 47 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>[47]</span>and communicated this + knowledge to his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the + meaning of the verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct + revelation being made."<a name="NtA_49" href="#Nt_49"><sup>[49]</sup></a> + The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with the whole + revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their + followers, the Tába'ín, who in their turn passed it on to their followers + the Taba-i-Tába'ín. The art of writing then became common, and the + business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the + sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the + Qurán was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion + was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the + second must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement + were perfect. Thus early in the history of Islám were the principles of + exegesis fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place + and class. The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written + before,<a name="NtA_50" href="#Nt_50"><sup>[50]</sup></a> though he may + in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition hitherto + unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It will thus + be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, with all + its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islám. The perfection + of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"While as the world rolls on from age to age,</p> + <p>And realms of thought expand,</p> + <p>The letter stands without expanse or range,</p> + <p>Stiff as a dead man's hand."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The technical terms which the student must know, and <!-- Page 48 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>[48]</span>the definitions + of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the + words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Qurán, and the + deduction of arguments from passages in the book.</p> + + <p>I. The words of the Qurán are divided into four classes.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Kháss</i>, or special words. These are sub-divided into three + classes. First, words which relate to genus, <i>e.g.</i> mankind. + Secondly, words which relate to species, <i>e.g.</i> a man, which refers + to men as distinguished from women. Thirdly, words which relate to + special individuality, <i>e.g.</i> Zeid, which is the name of a special + individual.</p> + + <p>2. <i>'Amm</i>, or common or collective names, such as "people."</p> + + <p>3. <i>Mushtarik</i>, or words which have several significations, as + the Arabic word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. + Again, the word "Sulát," if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulát + Ulláh," the mercy of God; if with man, it may mean either "namáz," a + stated liturgical service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, + <i>e.g.</i> Sulát-ul-Istisqá (prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not + namáz.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Muawwal</i>, words which have several significations, all of + which are possible, and so a special explanation is required. For + example, Súra cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray + unto the Lord and <i>slay</i> (the victims)." The word translated "slay" + is in Arabic "nahr," which has many meanings. The followers of the great + Legist Abu Hanífa render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the + "victims"). The followers of Ibn Sháfa'í say it means "placing the hands + on the breast in prayer."</p> + + <p>This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the + former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context + settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right.</p> + + <p>These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of + defining any word in the Qurán gained, the <!-- Page 49 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>[49]</span>student passes on to + consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great + classes,—the "Obvious," and the "Hidden."</p> + + <p>This division is referred to in the following passage of the Qurán. + "He it is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of + themselves <i>perspicuous</i>; these are the basis (literally "mother") + of the book, and others are <i>figurative</i>. But they whose hearts are + given to err follow its figures, craving discord, craving an + interpretation; yet none know its interpretation, but God.<a + name="NtA_51" href="#Nt_51"><sup>[51]</sup></a> And the stable in + knowledge say: 'We believe in it, it is all from God.'" (Súra iii. + 3).</p> + + <p>This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and + allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the + commentator must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the + time when, the particular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must + know whether it abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper + order and place or not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or + needs the light which the context throws upon it; he must know all the + Traditions which bear upon it, and the authority for each such Tradition. + This effectually confines the order of commentators in the strict sense + of the word to the Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators + since then simply reproduce their opinions.<a name="NtA_52" + href="#Nt_52"><sup>[52]</sup></a> But to return from this digression. + Sentences are Záhir—"Obvious," or Khafí—"Hidden." Obvious + sentences are divided into four classes.</p> + + <p>I. (1). <i>Záhir</i>, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear + that he who hears it at once understands its meaning <!-- Page 50 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>[50]</span>without seeking + for any explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless + abrogated, action in accordance with it is to be considered as the + express command of God. All penal laws and the rules regulating the + substitution of one religious act for another, <i>e.g.</i> almsgiving + instead of fasting, must be based on this, the clearest of the obvious + sentences.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Nass</i>, a word commonly used for a text of the Qurán, but in + its technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the + meaning of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The + following sentence illustrates both Záhir and Nass: "Take in marriage of + such other women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is + Záhir, because marriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the + words "one, two, three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the + unlawfulness of having more than four wives.</p> + + <p>(3). <i>Mufassir</i>, or explained. This is a sentence which needs + some word in it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels + prostrated themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." + Here the words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This + kind of sentence may be abrogated.</p> + + <p>(4). <i>Mukham</i>, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the + meaning of which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, + thus: "God knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be + abrogated. To act on such sentences without departing from the literal + sense is the highest degree of obedience to God's command.</p> + + <p>The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or + apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must + give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or + changed by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c.</p> + + <p>The other great division of sentences is that of</p> + + <p>II. (1). <i>Khafí</i> or hidden. Such are those sentences in <!-- Page + 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>[51]</span>which other + persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or + expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or + female, cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Súra v. + 42). The word for thief is "Sáriq," and in this passage it is understood + to include highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These + meanings are Khafí or hidden under it.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Muskhil</i>, or ambiguous, The following is given as an + illustration: "And (their attendants) shall go round about them with + vessels of silver and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." + The difficulty here is that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. + The commentators say, however, that glass is dull in colour, though it + has some lustre, whilst silver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now + it may be, that the bottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as + regards their lustre, and like silver as regards their colour. But + anyhow, it is very difficult to ascertain the meaning.</p> + + <p>(3.) <i>Mujmal.</i> These are, first, sentences which may have a + variety of interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of + several meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence + in the Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. + Secondly, the sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its + meaning may be doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Súra lxx. + 19.) In this verse the word "halú'"—hasty—occurs. It is very + rarely used, and had it not been for the following words, "when evil + toucheth him, he is full of complaint; but when good befalleth him, he + becometh niggardly," its meaning would not have been at all easy to + understand.</p> + + <p>The following is an illustration of the first kind of <i>Mujmal</i> + sentences: "Stand for prayer (salát) and give alms," (zakát.) Both salát + and zakát are 'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not + understand this verse, so they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He + explained to them that "salát" might mean the ritual of public prayer, + <!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52"></a>[52]</span>standing to say the words "God is great," or + standing to repeat a few verses of the Qurán; or it might mean private + prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakát" is growing. The Prophet, + however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and said, "Give + of your substance one-fortieth part."</p> + + <p>(4.) <i>Mutashábih.</i> These are sentences so difficult that men + cannot understand them, a fact referred to in Súra iii. 3. (Ante. p. <a + href="#page49">49</a>), nor will they do so until the day of + resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their meaning. Such portions are + the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the commencement of some of the + Súras.<a name="NtA_53" href="#Nt_53"><sup>[53]</sup></a> Such expressions + also as "God's hand," "The face of God," "God sitteth," &c., come + under this category.</p> + + <p>The next point to be considered is the <i>use</i> of words in the + Qurán, and here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is + found, <i>viz</i>:—</p> + + <p>(1.) <i>Haqíqat</i>, that is, words which are used in their literal + meaning, as "rukú'," a prostration, and "salát" in the sense of + prayer.</p> + + <p>(2.) <i>Majáz</i>, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as + "salát" in the sense of "námáz" a liturgical service.</p> + + <p>(3.) <i>Saríh</i>, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, + "Thou art <i>divorced</i>," "Thou art <i>free</i>."</p> + + <p>(4.) <i>Kinayáh</i>, or words which, being used in a metaphorical + sense, require the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: + "Thou art separated," which may, as it <!-- Page 53 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>[53]</span>stands alone, mean "Thou + art divorced." This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which + is only to be known from the context, <i>e.g.</i> one day the Prophet not + knowing who knocked at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, + "It is I." Muhammad answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that + I may know who thou art." The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayáh.'</p> + + <p>The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is + "istidlál," or the science of deducing arguments from the Qurán. This too + is divided into four sections, as follows:—</p> + + <p>(1.) <i>Ibárat</i>, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are + divorced, shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the + father shall be obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to + that which is reasonable." (Súra ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions + are made. First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine + plural, it must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, + as the duty of supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows + that the relationship of the child is closer with the father than with + the mother. Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.</p> + + <p>(2.) <i>Ishárat</i>, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from + the order in which the words are placed.</p> + + <p>(3.) <i>Dalálat</i>, or the argument which may be deduced from the use + of some special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" + (Arabic "uff") (Súra xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is + argued that children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may + be based on "dalálat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the + earth; but God loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Súra v. 69.) The + word translated "aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'úna, "they run." From + this the argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are + included amongst those whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the + severest punishment may be given to <!-- Page 54 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>[54]</span>them, for any deduction + that comes under the head of "dalálat" is a sufficient basis for the + formation of the severest penal laws.</p> + + <p>(4.) <i>Iqtizá.</i> This is a deduction which demands certain + conditions: "whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to + free a believer from slavery." (Súra iv. 94). As a man has no authority + to free his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not + expressed, is that the slave should be his own property.</p> + + <p>The Qurán is divided into:—</p> + + <p>(1). <i>Harf</i> (plural <i>Hurúf</i>), letters. The numbers given by + different authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there + are 338,606 letters.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Kalima</i> (plural <i>Kalimát</i>), words, stated by some to + amount to 79,087; by others to 77,934.</p> + + <p>(3). <i>Áyat</i> (plural <i>Áyát</i>), verses. Áyat really means a + sign, and was the name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of + the Qurán. The end of a verse is determined by the position of a small + circle <img src="images/circledot.png" style="height:1.2ex; width:1.2ex;" + alt="circle with dot" title="circle with dot" />. The early Qurán Readers + did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so five different + ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a variation in the + number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:—</p> + + <p>(1). <i>Kúfa</i> verses. The Readers in the city of Kúfa say that they + followed the custom of 'Alí. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted + in India. They reckon 6,239 verses.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Basra</i> verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin + Hajjáj, a Companion. They reckon 6,204.</p> + + <p>(3). <i>Shámi</i> verses. The Readers in Syria (Shám) followed + Abd-ulláh bin 'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses.</p> + + <p>(4). <i>Mecca</i> verses. According to this arrangement there are + 6,219 verses.</p> + + <p>(5). <i>Madína</i> verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 + verses.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>[55]</span></p> + + <p>In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismilláh" (in the name of + God) is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Qurán.</p> + + <p>This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of + any important passage. The third verse of the third Súra is an important + exception. The position of the circle <img src="images/circledot.png" + style="height:1.2ex; width:1.2ex;" alt="circle with dot" title="circle with dot" / + >, the symbol denoting a full stop, in that verse is of the highest + importance in connection with the rise of scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalám) in + Islám.</p> + + <p>Most of the cases, however, are like the following:—</p> + + <p>In Súra xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a + letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings, + when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most + powerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." + Many Readers put the full stop after the word "hereof," and say that God + is the speaker of the words "and so will they do."</p> + + <p>(4). <i>Súra</i>, or chapter. The word Súra means a row or series, + such as a line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively + used for chapters in the Qurán. These are one hundred and fourteen in + number. The Súras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one + has some approximate name, (as Baqr—the cow, Nisá—women, + &c.,) generally taken from some expression which occurs in it. They + are not arranged in chronological order, but according to their length. + As a general rule, the shorter Súras which contain the theology of Islám, + belong to the Meccan period of the Prophet's career,<a name="NtA_54" + href="#Nt_54"><sup>[54]</sup></a> and the longer ones relating chiefly to + social duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islám as a civil + polity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madína. The + best way, therefore, to <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page56"></a>[56]</span>read the Qurán, is to begin at the end. The + attempt to arrange the Súras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, + after all, can only be approximately correct.<a name="NtA_55" + href="#Nt_55"><sup>[55]</sup></a> Carlyle referring to the confused mass + of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude, + incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European + through the Qurán." When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible. + The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. + There is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the + earlier and later Súras. The references to historical events sometimes + give a clue. Individual Súras are often very composite in their + character, but, such as they are, they have been from the beginning. The + recension made by Zeid, in the reign of the Khalíf Osmán, has been handed + down unaltered in its form. The only variations (qirá'at) now to be found + in the text have been already noticed. They in no way affect the + arrangements of the Súras.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Sípára</i> a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived + from <i>sí</i>, thirty, and <i>pára</i>, a portion. The Arabs call each + of these divisions a <i>Juz</i>. Owing to this division, a pious man can + recite the whole Qurán in a month, taking one Sípára each day. Musalmáns + never quote the Qurán as we do by Súra and Áyat, but by the Sípára and + Rukú', a term I now proceed to explain.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Rukú'</i> (plural <i>Rukúát</i>). This word literally means a + prostration made by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The + collection of verses recited from the Qurán, ascriptions of praise + offered to God, and various ritual acts connected with these, constitute + one act of worship called a "rak'at." After reciting some verses in this + form of prayer, the worshipper makes a <i>Rukú'</i>, or prostration, the + <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page57"></a>[57]</span>portion then recited takes the name of + <i>Rukú'</i>. Tradition states that the Khalíf Osmán, when reciting the + Qurán during the month of Ramazán, used to make twenty rak'ats each + evening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Qurán, + beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he + recited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses + in each rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Qurán in + this way in Ramazán, and also to quote it by the rukú', <i>e.g.</i>, + "such a passage is in such a Sípára and in such a rukú'."</p> + + <p>The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the + Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imám, or leader, being in front + facing the Qibla, the service commences thus:—Each worshipper + stands and says the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words + declaring his intention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great." + After this, looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and + praise be to Thee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no + deity but Thee." Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed + Satan." Then the Tasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the + Compassionate and Merciful." Then follows the Fátiha, that is, the short + chapter at the commencement of the Qurán. After this has been recited, + the Imám proceeds, on the first night of the month Ramazán, with the + first verse of the second chapter.<a name="NtA_56" + href="#Nt_56"><sup>[56]</sup></a> After saying a few verses, he makes a + rukú'; that is, he bends his head and body down, and places his hands on + his knees. In this position he says: "God is great." Then he repeats + three times the words: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great." He + then stands up and says: "God hears him who praises Him." To this the + people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised." Again, falling on his knees, + the worshipper says: "God is great." Then he puts first his nose, and + then his forehead on the <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>[58]</span>ground and says three times: "I extol the + holiness of my Lord, the Most High." Then sitting on his heels, he says: + "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "I extol, etc." He then + rises and says: "God is great." This is one rak'at. On each night in the + month of Ramazán this is gone through twenty times, the only variation + being that after the Fátiha and before the first prostration, fresh + verses of the Qurán are introduced. The whole is, of course, done in + Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The name of the + prostration (rukú') has been transferred to the portion of the Qurán + recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukúát.</p> + + <p>(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a <i>Sumn</i>, + <i>Ruba'</i>, <i>Nisf</i>, <i>Suls</i>, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, + one-half, one-third of a Sípára respectively.</p> + + <p>In reciting the Qurán the worshipper must be careful to say the + "Takbír," <i>i.e.</i> "God is great," after the several appointed places. + Such a place is after the recital of the 93rd Súra. The custom arose in + this way. The hypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the + story of the "Seven Sleepers." He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but + he forgot to add the words "if God will." By way of warning, God allowed + no inspiration to descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites + began to laugh and say: "God has left him." As it was not God's purpose + to put his messenger to ridicule, the Súra entitled "The brightness" + (xciii) was immediately brought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By + the brightness of the morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, + <i>thy Lord hath not forsaken thee</i>, neither doth He hate thee." In + remembrance of this signal interposition of Providence on his behalf, the + Prophet always concluded the recital of this Súra with the words: "God is + great." The practice thus became a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it + should be done because the Prophet did it.</p> + + <p>The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in <!-- Page 59 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>[59]</span>connection with + the study of the Qurán. It is referred to in the verses: "Whatever verses + we cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or + the like thereof." (Súra ii. 100). This is a Madína Súra. "What He + pleaseth will God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of + revelation." (Súra xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the + Prophet's life-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masúd states that + the Prophet one day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The + next morning he found it had vanished from the material on which it had + been written. Astonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, + and was informed that the verse in question had been revoked. There are, + however, many verses still in the Qurán, which have been abrogated. It + was an exceedingly convenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the + change of front which Muhammad made at different periods of his career. + Certain rules have been laid down to regulate the practice. The verse + which abrogates is called <i>Núsikh</i>, and the abrogated verse + <i>Mansúkh</i>. <i>Mansúkh</i> verses are of three kinds:—first, + where the words and the sense have both been abrogated; secondly, where + the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains; thirdly, where the + sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imám Málik gives as an + instance of the first kind the verse: "If a son of Adam had two rivers of + gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he would covet yet + a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but with + dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent." The Imám states that + originally this verse was in the Súra (ix.) called Repentance. The verse, + called the "verse of stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. It + reads: "Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If a + man and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it + is a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise." The Khalíf + Omar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it <!-- + Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>[60]</span>is now + lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into 'Ilm-i-usúl. + Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Sale states that + they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. The principal + ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon. I give a + few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occur chiefly, if + not almost entirely, in Súras delivered at Madína. There, where Muhammad + had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in his aim + to win them over to his side, and then, when he found them obstinate, the + doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seen plainly in the + following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not stand facing + any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the following + passage refers:—"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore, + whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God." (Súra + ii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madína, he entered into friendship + with the Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) + towards which the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was + Jerusalem. This went on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not + merely a Prophet for the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the + Prophets, when he asserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that + his revelations were the same as those contained in their own Scriptures, + they utterly refused allegiance to him. In the first half of the second + year of the Hijra the breach between them was complete. It was now time + to reconcile the leaders of the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse + quoted above was abrogated by: "We have seen thee turning thy face + towards heaven, but we will have thee turn to a Qibla, which shall please + thee. Turn then thy face toward the Holy Temple (of Mecca), and wherever + ye be, turn your faces toward that part." (Súra ii. 139.) The Faithful + were consoled by the assurance that though they had not done so hitherto, + yet God would not let their <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page61"></a>[61]</span>faith be fruitless, "for unto man is God + merciful, gracious." (v. 138.) The doctrine of abrogation is brought in + for a more personal matter in the following case: "It is not permitted to + thee to take other wives hereafter, nor to change thy present wives for + other women, though their beauty charm thee, except slaves, whom thy + right hand shall possess." (Súra xxxiii. 52.) This is said by Beidawi, + and other eminent Muslim divines, to have been abrogated by a verse which + though placed before it in the arrangement of verses, was really + delivered after it. The verse is: "O Prophet, we allow thee thy wives + whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right hand possesseth + out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughters of thy + uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side, and on + thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madína), and any other + believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if the Prophet + desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the rest + of the Faithful." (Súra xxxiii. 49.)</p> + + <p>The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulamá, in one of + the meetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign, + propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry. + The lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. "Of + other women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three and + three, and four and four." (Súra iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not + restricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had told + him that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question, + Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned + men counted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting + to decide the point.</p> + + <p>Again, the second verse of Súra lxxiii reads: "Stand up all night, + except a small portion of it, for prayer." According to a Tradition + handed down by 'Áyesha the last verse <!-- Page 62 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>[62]</span>of this Súra was revealed + a year later. It makes the matter much easier. "God measureth the night + and the day; he knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and + therefore turneth to you mercifully. Recite <i>then so much of the Qurán + as may be easy to you</i>." (v. 20.)</p> + + <p>The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is + no verse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijmá' it has + been abrogated. "But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy + and to those who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to + Islám." (Súra ix. 60.) The clause—"to those whose hearts are won to + Islám"—is now cancelled.<a name="NtA_57" + href="#Nt_57"><sup>[57]</sup></a> Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, + who lately enemies, had now become friends, and to confirm them in the + faith, gave them large presents from the spoils he took in war; but when + Islám spread and became strong, the 'Ulamá agreed that such a procedure + was not required and said that the order was "mansukh."</p> + + <p>The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazán fast, to Jihád, the + law of retaliation, and other matters of social interest.</p> + + <p>The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by + Musalmán controversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say + are abrogated by the Qurán. "His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of + every other law."<a name="NtA_58" href="#Nt_58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> This + is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine. According to the best + and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refers entirely to the Qurán + and the Traditions, and even then is confined to commands and + prohibitions. "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed + that one law has totally repealed another, are utterly mistaken—we + hold no such doctrine."<a name="NtA_59" href="#Nt_59"><sup>[59]</sup></a> + In the Tafsír-i-Itifáq it is written: "Abrogation affects those <!-- Page + 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>[63]</span>matters which + God has confined to the followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief + advantages of it is that the way is made easy." In the Tafsír-i-Mazhirí + we find: "Abrogation refers only to commands and prohibitions, not to + facts or historical statements."<a name="NtA_60" + href="#Nt_60"><sup>[60]</sup></a> Again, no verse of the Qurán, or a + Tradition can be abrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly + opposed to it in meaning. If it is a verse of the Qurán, we must have the + authority of Muhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of + a Companion. Thus "the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not + sufficient unless there is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadís-i-Sahíh), to show + the matter clearly. The question of the abrogation of any previous + command depends on historical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on + the mere opinion of a commentator." It cannot be shown that either + Muhammad or a Companion ever said that the Bible was abrogated. This + rule, whilst it shows that the assertion of modern controversialists on + this point is void of foundation, also illustrates another point to which + I have often called attention, <i>viz.</i>; that in Islám all + interpretation must be regulated by traditionalism.</p> + + <p>Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those + who stay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, + Abdullah and Ibn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind.' The + Prophet asked for the shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He + then had a spasmodic convulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the + words, "free from trouble." So now the whole verse reads thus: "Those + believers who sit at home <i>free from trouble</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, bodily + infirmity), and those who do valiantly in the cause of God, with their + substance and their persons, shall not be treated alike." (Súra iv. 97). + Years after, Zeid said: "I fancy I see the words now on the + shoulder-blade near a crack."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>[64]</span></p> + + <p>The question of the eternal nature of the Qurán does not properly come + under the head of 'Ilm-i-usúl, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many + Muslims. In the days of the Khalíf Al-Mamun this question was fiercely + debated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad, + asserted that the Qurán was created, by which statement they meant that + the revelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language + was his own. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In + the year 212, <span class="scac">A.H.</span> the Khalíf issued a decree + to the effect that all who held the Qurán to be uncreated were to be + declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalíf himself was a notorious + rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they remained quiet, remained + unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodox side are, that both the + words and their pronunciation are eternal, that the attempt to draw a + distinction between the word as it exists in the Divine Mind and as it + appears in the Qurán is highly dangerous. In vain do their opponents + argue that, if the Qurán is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in + existence. To this it is answered: "This is the honourable Qurán, written + in the preserved Tablet." (Súra lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced + which states: "God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His + own hand He created Adam; and also in the Qurán it is written, 'and We + wrote for him upon the tables a monition concerning every matter,' in + reference to the tables of the Law given to Moses." If God did this for + former prophets and their works, how much more, it is argued, should he + not have done it for the last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble + Qurán? It is not easy to get a correct definition of the term "the + uncreated Qurán," but it has been put thus: "The Word as it exists in the + mind of God is 'Kalám-i-Nafsí' (spiritual word), something unwritten and + eternal. It is acknowledged by the Ijmá'-i-Ummat (consent of the + Faithful), the Traditions, and by other prophets that God <!-- Page 65 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>[65]</span>speaks. The + Kalám-i-Nafsí then is eternal, but the actual words, style, and eloquence + are created by God; so also is the arrangement and the miraculous nature + of the book." This seems to be a reasonable account of the doctrine, + though there are theologians who hold that the very words are eternal. + The doctrine of abrogation clashes with this idea, but they meet the + objection by their theory of absolute predestination. This accounts for + the circumstances which necessitated the abrogation, for the + circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, were determined on from + all eternity.</p> + + <p>This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Qurán, a book + difficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which has + engaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of + the human race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological + schools of Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding + through this very subject of which I have here been treating; soon will + they go forth as teachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly + unfit that training is to make them wise men in any true sense of the + word, how calculated to render them proud, conceited, and scornful of + other creeds, its rigid and exclusive character shows. Still, it is a + marvellous book; for twelve hundred years and more it has helped to mould + the faith, animate the courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, + whether dwellers in the wild uplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on + the shores of the Mediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and + the Negro, alike learn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its + opening clauses, and pray in its words as their fathers prayed before + them.</p> + + <p>Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Qurán is the + great bond of Islám. No matter from what race the convert may have come, + no matter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat + by rote portions of the Qurán in every act of public worship.</p> + + <p>The next subject for consideration is that of the <!-- Page 66 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>[66]</span>Traditions, or + the second branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usúl. The Traditions contain + the record of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every + Muslim, to whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but + also acted under a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is + different from that of the Qurán. There the revelation was objective. In + the Prophet's sayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is + subjective, but still a true inspiration. This belief places the + Traditions in a place second only to the Qurán; it makes them a true + supplement to that book, and thus they not only throw light on its + meaning, but themselves form the basis on which doctrines may be + established. Without going so far as to say that every Tradition by + itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islám, it may be distinctly + asserted that there can be no true conception formed of that system if + the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. So important a + branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of the Traditions is + included in the 'Ilm-i-usúl, or science of exegesis. Some account of + them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter.</p> + + <p>The first four Khalífs were called the Khulafá-i-Ráshidín that is, + those who could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions + of the Prophet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of + doubt. The Prophet had declared that Islám must be written in the hearts + of men. There was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to + writing. They were handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so + effectual in a dispute as "a saying" of the Prophet, the door was opened + by which spurious Traditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To + prevent this, a number of strict rules were framed, at the head of which + stands the Prophet's saying, itself a Tradition: "Convey to other persons + none of my words except those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who + purposely represents my <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page67"></a>[67]</span>words wrongly will find a place for himself + nowhere but in fire." To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the + relator of a Tradition must also repeat its "Isnád," or chain of + authorities, as: "I heard from such an one, who heard from such an one," + and so on, until the chain reaches the Prophet himself. Each person, too, + in this "Isnád," must have been well known for his good character and + retentive memory. This failed, however, to prevent a vast number of + manifestly false Traditions becoming current; so men set themselves to + the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of Tradition that in + the second century of Islám had begun to work untold evil. These men are + called "Muhadisín," or "collectors of Tradition." The Sunnís and the + Wahhábís recognise six such men, and their collections are known as the + "Sihah-Sittah," or six correct books. They are the following:—</p> + + <p>(1). The <i>Sahíh-i-Bukhárí</i>, called after Abu Abdullah Muhammad + Ibn-i-Ismá'íl, a native of Bukhárá. He was born <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 194. He was a man of middle height, spare in + frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his father was on this + account intense; but one day in a dream he saw the Patriarch Abraham, who + said to him: "God on account of thy grief and sorrow has granted sight to + thy son." The sight being thus restored, at the age of ten he went to + school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. After his education + was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dákhlí came to Bukhárá. One day the + youthful Bukhárí ventured to correct the famous man. It was an astounding + piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right. This set + him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At the early + age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course of + time he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result of his examination and + selection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and + seventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, the + Sahíh-i-Bukhárí. It <!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page68"></a>[68]</span>is said that he never sat down to examine a + Tradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two + rak'at prayers. He then said: "O Lord, let me not make a mistake." For + sixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of + sixty-four.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Sahíh-i-Muslim.</i> Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjáj was born at Nishápúr, + a city of Khorásán. He collected about 300,000 Traditions, from which he + made his collection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing + to oblige all who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige + was the indirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in + the mosque when some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he + could not discover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house + to search there. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on + eating and searching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he + died. (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 261.)</p> + + <p>(3). <i>Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd.</i> Abu Dáúd Sajistání, a native of Seistán, + was born <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 202. He was a great traveller, + and went to all the chief places of Musalmán learning. In knowledge of + the Traditions, in devotion, in piety, he was unrivalled. He collected + about 500,000 Traditions, of which he selected four thousand eight + hundred for his book.</p> + + <p>(4). <i>Jámí'-i-Tirmizí.</i> Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizí was born at + Tirmiz in the year <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 209. He was a disciple + of Bukhárí. Ibn Khallikan says this work is "the production of a + well-informed man: its exactness is proverbial."<a name="NtA_61" + href="#Nt_61"><sup>[61]</sup></a></p> + + <p>(5). <i>Sunan-i-Nasáí.</i> Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasáí was born at Nasá, + in Khorásán, in the year <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 214, and died + <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 303. It is recorded of him, with great + approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wives and many + slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with his death in + rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Alí, and as + the people of <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page69"></a>[69]</span>Damascus were at that time inclined to the + heresy of the Khárigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of + that place. After he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him + whether he knew aught of the praises of Muavia, 'Alí's deadly enemy. He + replied that he did not. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so + severely that he died soon after.</p> + + <p>(6). <i>Sunan-i-Ibn Májah.</i> Ibn Májah<a name="NtA_62" + href="#Nt_62"><sup>[62]</sup></a> was born at 'Irak <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 209. This work contains 4,000 Traditions.</p> + + <p>The Shía'hs reject these books and substitute five books<a + name="NtA_63" href="#Nt_63"><sup>[63]</sup></a> of their own instead. + They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been compiled + more than four hundred years after the Hijra.</p> + + <p>The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the + Traditions is that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved + Table,' on which all that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or + will enter, the mind of man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the + medium of Gabriel, the Prophet had access to this. It follows then that + the words of the Prophet are the words of God.</p> + + <p>Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islám, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was + the greatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no + less than one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his + system of jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanífa, + who is said to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, + founded a system which is to this day the most powerful in Islám. The + Hanifites, however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six + standard collections of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of + <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page70"></a>[70]</span>God. They range over a vast number of + subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Qurán. The Prophet's personal + appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, his opinions, + are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of religious belief + are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them we must go for + an explanation of much of the ritual of Islám. It is very difficult for + any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse with Muslims, + to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their thought and + actions, are based on the Traditions.</p> + + <p>Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to + enter a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning + them. The classification adopted by different authors may vary in some + subordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard + Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadís-i-Qualí, that is, an account of + something the Prophet said; or Hadís-i-Fa'lí, a record of something which + he did; or Hadís-i-Taqrírí, a statement of some act performed by other + persons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid.</p> + + <p>The Traditions may be classed under two general heads:—</p> + + <p>First.—<i>Hadís-i-Mutawátír</i>, that is, "an undoubted + Tradition," the Isnád, or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in + which chain each narrator possessed all the necessary qualifications for + his office.<a name="NtA_64" href="#Nt_64"><sup>[64]</sup></a> Some + authorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most + allow that the following is one: "There are no good works except with + intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention + of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so + doing.</p> + + <p>Second.—<i>Hadís-i-Ahád.</i> The authority of this class is <!-- + Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page71"></a>[71]</span>theoretically somewhat less than that of the + first, but practically it is the same.</p> + + <p>This class is again sub-divided into two:—</p> + + <p>(1). <i>Hadís-i-Sahíh</i>, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary + to go into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahíh + if the narrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their + habits, endowed with a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who + lived at peace with their neighbours. The following also are Sahíh, + though their importance as authorities varies. I arrange them in the + order of their value. Sahíh Traditions are those which are found in the + collections made by Bukhárí and Muslim, or in the collection of either of + the above, though not in both; or, if not mentioned by either of these + famous collectors, if it has been retained in accordance with their + canons for the rejection or retention of Traditions; or lastly, if + retained in accordance with the rules of any other approved collector. + For each of these classes there is a distinct name.</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Hadís-i-Hasan.</i> The narrators of this class are not of such + good authority as those of the former with regard to one or two + qualities; but these Traditions should be received as of equal authority + as regards any practical use.<a name="NtA_65" + href="#Nt_65"><sup>[65]</sup></a> It is merely as a matter of + classification that they rank second.</p> + + <p>In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical + terms which have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the + Isnád, and other points. A few may be mentioned.</p> + + <p>(1). <i>Hadís-i-Z'aíf</i>, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it + have been persons whose characters were not above reproach, whose + memories were bad, or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at," + innovation, a habit now, as then, a crime in the eyes of all true + Muslims. All agree that a <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page72"></a>[72]</span>"weak Tradition" has little force; but few + rival theologians agree as to which are, and which are not, "weak + Traditions."</p> + + <p>(2). <i>Hadís-i-Mua'llaq</i>, or a Tradition in the Isnád of which + there is some break. If it begins with a Tábi' (one in the generation + after that of the Companions), it is called "<i>Mursal</i>" the one link + in the chain, the Companion, being wanting. If the first link in the + chain of narrators begins in a generation still later, it has another + name, and so on.</p> + + <p>(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator + concealed the name of his Imám, or where different narrators disagree, or + where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or + has been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an + account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this + class would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base + any important doctrine.<a name="NtA_66" + href="#Nt_66"><sup>[66]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can + be contrary to the Qurán. The importance attached to Tradition has been + shown in the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the + formation of an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the + Book and the Sunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of + the Prophet, are the foundation and sum of Islám, a fact not always taken + into account by modern panegyrists of the system.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>[73]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<h3>THE SECTS OF ISLÁM.</h3> + + <p>It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that + the Muhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and + the unanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how + the great sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, + and their consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is common + ground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter on + the "Foundations of Islám."</p> + + <p>It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the + essential foundations of the Faith. The Sunnís recognise four + foundations, the Wahhábís two; whilst the Shía'hs reject altogether the + Traditions held sacred by both Sunní and Wahhábí. The next chapter will + contain a full account of the doctrines held by the Sunnís, and so no + account of this, the orthodox sect, is given in this chapter.</p> + + <p>The first breach in Islám arose out of a civil war. The story has been + so often told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Alí, + the son-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalíf of Islám. He is + described as "the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmáns who + imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet + himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity of his character." + He was a man calculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his + own natural graces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding + generations. A strong opposition, however, arose, and 'Alí was + assassinated in a mosque at Kúfa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting + statements of historians of the rival sects, to arrive at the truth in + all the details of the events which happened then; <!-- Page 74 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>[74]</span>but the generally + received opinion is, that after the assassination of 'Alí, Hasan, his + son, renounced his claim to the Khalifate in favour of his father's + rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned by his wife, who, it is + said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, in order to leave the + coast clear for his son Yezíd. The most tragic event has yet to come. + Yezíd, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious and irreligious + man. The people of Kúfa, being disgusted at his conduct, sent messengers + to Husain, the remaining son of 'Alí, with the request that he would + assume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuade him + to let the people of Kúfa first revolt, and thus show the reality of + their wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a small + band of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of + Karbalá he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. "We are + few in number," said Husain, "and the enemy is in force. I am resolved to + die. But you—I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all + those who wish to do so leave me." "O Son of the Apostle of God!" was the + reply, "what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of + resurrection did we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?" One by + one these brave men fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain + and his infant son alone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon + the ground. The enemy drew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of + the Prophet. An arrow pierced the ear of the little boy and he died. "We + came from God, and we return to him," were the pathetic words of Husain, + as with a sorrowful heart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. + He then stooped down to drink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing + him thus stooping, the enemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which + wounded him in the mouth. He fought bravely for a while, but at last fell + covered with many wounds. The schism between the Sunní and the Shía'h was + now complete. <!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page75"></a>[75]</span></p> + + <p>The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to + these historical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to + suppose that the only difference between the Shía'h and the Sunní is a + mere dispute as to the proper order of the early Khalífs would be a + mistake. Starting off with a political quarrel, the Shía'hs have + travelled into a very distinct religious position of their own. The + fundamental tenet of the Shía'h sect is the "divine right" of 'Alí the + Chosen and his descendants. From this it follows that the chief duty of + religion consists in devotion to the Imám (or Pontiff); from which + position some curious dogmas issue. The whole question of the Imámat is a + very important one. The word Imám comes from an Arabic word meaning to + aim at, to follow after. The term Imám then becomes equal to the word + leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense to Muhammad as the leader + in all civil and religious questions, and to the Khalífs, his successors. + It is also, in its religious import only, applied to the founders of the + four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a restricted sense to the + leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. It is with the first of + these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so used in the + Qurán—"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he + fulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imám to mankind;' he + said: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant,' said God, 'embraceth not the + evil-doers.'" (Súra ii. 118.) From this verse two doctrines are deduced. + First, that the Imám must be appointed by God, for if this is not the + case, why did Abraham say "of my offspring also?" Secondly, the Imám is + free from sin, for God said: "My covenant embraceth not the + evil-doer."</p> + + <p>The first dispute about the Imámat originated with the twelve thousand + who revolted from 'Alí after the battle of Siffin (657 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span>), because he consented to submit to arbitration + the dispute between himself and Muavia. Some years after they were nearly + all destroyed by 'Alí. A few <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page76"></a>[76]</span>survivors, however, fled to various parts. + Two at last settled in Omán, and there preached their distinctive + doctrines. In course of time the people of Omán adopted the doctrine that + the Imámat was not hereditary but elective, and that in the event of + misconduct the Imám might be deposed. 'Abdullah-ibn-Ibádh (744 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span>) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine, and + from him the sect known as the 'Ibádhiyah takes its rise. The result of + this teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the + Imám of Omán. The 'Ibádhiyah seem to have always kept themselves + independent of the Sunní Khalífs of Baghdád, and, therefore, would + consider themselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultán of + Turkey. From the ordinary Shía'hs they differ as regards the "divine + right" of 'Alí and his children. The curious in such matters will find + the whole subject well treated in Dr. Badger's "Seyyids of Omán."</p> + + <p>The term Khárigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for + a group of sects which agree as to the need of an Imám, though they + differ as to the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of + the Khárigite stands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the + Shía'h. The Shía'hs hold that the Imámat must continue in the family of + 'Alí, and that religion consists mainly in devotion to the Imám. The + tragic end of 'Alí and his sons invested them with peculiar interest. + When grieving for the sad end of their leaders, the Shí'ahs found + consolation in the doctrine which soon found development, <i>viz.</i>, + that it was God's will that the Imámat should continue in the family of + 'Alí. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet said: "He of whom I am + master has 'Alí also for a master." "The best judge among you is 'Alí." + Ibn Abbás, a Companion says: "I heard the Prophet say: 'He who blasphemes + my name blasphemes the name of God; he who blasphemes the name of 'Alí + blasphemes my name.'" A popular Persian hymn shows to what an extent this + feeling deepened. <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page77"></a>[77]</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Mysterious being! none can tell</p> + <p>The attributes in thee that dwell;</p> + <p>None can thine essence comprehend;</p> + <p>To thee should every mortal bend—</p> + <p>For 'tis by thee that man is given</p> + <p>To know the high behests of heaven."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, God + took a ray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to + the body of Muhammad, to which He said: "Thou art the elect, the chosen, + I will make the members of thy family the guides to salvation." Muhammad + said: "The first thing which God created was my light, and my spirit."<a + name="NtA_67" href="#Nt_67"><sup>[67]</sup></a> The body of the Prophet + was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world was + created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of glory + appear. It is well known to all Musalmáns as the + "Núr-i-Muhammadí"—light of Muhammad.</p> + + <p>This "Núr" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind God + created His Throne, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third + Paradise, and from the fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all + created beings. According to a statement made by 'Alí, Muhammad said that + he was created from the light of God, whilst all other created beings + were formed from the "light of Muhammad."<a name="NtA_68" + href="#Nt_68"><sup>[68]</sup></a></p> + + <p>This "light" descended to 'Alí, and from him passed on to the true + Imáms, who alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion + against them is sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion.</p> + + <p>The doctrine of the Imámat has given rise to endless discussion and + dissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shía'h sect will show. + They are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shía'h proper is the + largest and most influential of them. The following are the Shí'ah tenets + regarding the Imám, based on one of their standard books of <!-- Page 78 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>[78]</span>divinity.<a + name="NtA_69" href="#Nt_69"><sup>[69]</sup></a> The Imám is the successor + of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities which he possessed. He is + wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier than the most pious. + He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all sin original or + actual: hence the Imám is called ma'sum (innocent.)<a name="NtA_70" + href="#Nt_70"><sup>[70]</sup></a> God rules the world by wisdom, hence + the sending forth of prophets was a necessity; but it was equally + necessary to establish the Imámat. Thus the Imám is equal to a prophet. + 'Alí said: "In me is the glory of every prophet that has ever been." The + authority of the Imám is the authority of God, for (I quote the + Hyát-un-Nafís) "his word is the word of God and of the Prophet, and + obedience to his order is incumbent." The nature of the Imám is identical + with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Alí say: "I am Muhammad, and + Muhammad is me." This probably refers to the possession by the Imám of + the "light of Muhammad." The bodies of the Imáms are so pure and delicate + that they cast no shadow.<a name="NtA_71" + href="#Nt_71"><sup>[71]</sup></a> They <!-- Page 79 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>[79]</span>are the beginning and the + end of all things. To know the Imáms is the very essence of the knowledge + which men can gain of God. "The Holy God calls the Imáms His word, His + hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions, their + actions too, He recognises as His own." As mediums between God and man + they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for "the grace of God, + without their intervention, reaches to no created being." These + extravagant claims for the Imáms culminate in the assertion that "for + them a pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by + which the actions of the Faithful are made known to them." The Imám is + the supreme Pontiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an + infallible book is not sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such + wisdom and discernment as such a guide would require can only be found + amongst the descendants of the Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter + of wonder, that in some cases, almost, if not entirely, divine honour is + paid to 'Alí and his descendants.<a name="NtA_72" + href="#Nt_72"><sup>[72]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Usúl, or fundamental tenets of the Shía'h sect are five in number. + (1) To believe in the unity of God, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) To + believe in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is + the chief of all, (4) To consider 'Alí the Khalíf next in order after + Muhammad, (5) To believe 'Alí's descendants from Hasan to Mahdí, the + twelfth Imám, to be his true successors, and to consider all of them in + character, position and dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. + This is the doctrine of the Imámat.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>[80]</span></p> + + <p>The first principal divisions of the Shía'h sect are the Ismá'ílians + and the Imámites. The latter believe in twelve Imáms, reckoning 'Alí as + the first.<a name="NtA_73" href="#Nt_73"><sup>[73]</sup></a> The last of + the twelve Abu'l-Qásim, is supposed to be alive still, though hidden in + some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdí, "the guided." It is + expected that he will reappear at the second advent of Christ. They say + that he was born near Baghdád in the year 258 <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> He afterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he + was born the words, "Say: 'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: + Verily falsehood is a thing that vanisheth,'" (Súra xvii. 83) were found + written on his right arm. When he came into the world, he pointed with + his fingers to heaven, sneezed, and said: 'Praise be to God, the Lord of + the world.' A person one day visited Imám Hasan 'Askarí (the eleventh + Imám) and said: 'O son of the Prophet who will be Khalíf and Imám after + thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'if thou hadst not found favour + in the eyes of God, He would not have shown thee this child; his name is + that of the Prophet, and so is his patronymic,' (Abu 'l-Qásim). The sect + who believe Mahdí to be alive at present, say that he rules over cities + in the far west, and he is even said to have children. God alone knows + the truth.<a name="NtA_74" href="#Nt_74"><sup>[74]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The other large division, the Ismá'ílians, agree with the Imámites in + all particulars save one. They hold that after Sádiq, the sixth Imám, + commenced what is called the succession of the "concealed Imáms." They + believe that there never can be a time when there shall be no Imám, but + that he is now in seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of + secret societies, and has paved the way for a mystical religion, which + often lands its votaries in atheism.<a name="NtA_75" + href="#Nt_75"><sup>[75]</sup></a> <!-- Page 81 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>[81]</span></p> + + <p>The Ghair-i-Mahdí (literally "without Mahdí") are a small sect who + believe that Al-Mahdí will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad + of Jeypore was the real Mahdí, the twelfth Imám, and that he has now gone + never more to return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, + and consider all other Musalmáns to be unbelievers. On the night called + Lailat-ul-Qadr, in the month of Ramazán, they meet and repeat two rak'at + prayers. After that act of devotion is over, they say: "God is Almighty, + Muhammad is our Prophet, the Qurán and Mahdí are just and true. Imám + Mahdí is come and gone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel." They + are a very fanatical sect.</p> + + <p>There is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdís called the Dá,irí, + settled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point. + About four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some + followers in the dominions of the Nizám of Hyderabad. He called himself + the Imám Mahdí, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and his + disciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmáns, fled to a + village in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants, + fifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do not + intermarry with other Musalmáns. The usual Friday service in the mosque + is ended by the leader saying: "Imám Mahdí came and went away," to which + the people respond: "He who does not believe this is a Káfir" + (infidel).</p> + + <p>There are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. "When of + time one day shall be left, God shall raise up a man from among my + descendants, who shall fill the world with justice, just as before him + the world was full of oppression." And again: "The world shall not come + to an end till the king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my + family, and whose name is the same as mine." When Islám entered upon the + tenth century of its existence, there was throughout Persia and India a + millenarian movement. Men <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page82"></a>[82]</span>declared that the end was drawing near, and + various persons arose who claimed to be Al-Mahdí. I have already + mentioned two. Amongst others was Shaikh 'Aláí of Agra. (956 <span + class="scac">A.H.</span>) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of + Abu'l-Fazl—the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of + Shaikh 'Aláí and from him imbibed Mahdaví ideas. This brought upon him + the wrath of the 'Ulamá who, however, were finally overcome by the + free-thinking and heretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a + better ruler in India than Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far + as orthodox Islám is concerned. The Emperor delighted in the + controversies of the age. The Súfís and Mahdavís were in favour at Court. + The orthodox 'Ulamá were treated with contempt. Akbar fully believed that + the millennium had come. He started a new era, and a new religion called + the 'Divine Faith.' There was toleration for all except the bigoted + orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others like him, who professed to + reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all religions contained truth. + Thus:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language I hear spoken, people praise Thee!</p> + <p class="i4">Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee,</p> + <p class="i4">Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal.'</p> + <p>If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee,</p> + <p class="i4">Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the mosque,</p> + <p class="i4">But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In this reign one Mír Sharíf was promoted to the rank of a Commander + of a thousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in + Akbar's eyes was that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of + souls and the close advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmúd + of Busakhwán, the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another + offshoot of the Shía'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmúd lived + in the reign of Timur and <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page83"></a>[83]</span>professed to be Al-Mahdí. He also called + himself the Shakhs-i-Wáhíd—the Individual one. He used to quote the + verse, "It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmúd) + station." (Súra xvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had + been advancing in purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to + a certain degree, one Mahmúd (glorious) would arise, and that then the + dispensation of Muhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the + Mahmúd. He also taught the doctrine of transmigration, and that the + beginning of everything was the Nuqtah-i-khák—earth atom. It is on + this account that they are called the Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known + by the names Mahmúdiah and Wáhídiah. Shah 'Abbás king of Persia expelled + them from his dominions, but Akbar received the fugitives kindly and + promoted some amongst them to high offices of State.</p> + + <p>This Mahdaví movement, arising as it did out of the Shía'h doctrine of + the Imámat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and + claim the name and office of Al-Mahdí is not to be wondered at, but that + large bodies of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in + men's hearts, and how they longed for a personal leader and guide.</p> + + <p>The whole of the Shía'h doctrine on this point seems to show that + there is in the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator—some + Word of the Father, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight + it would seem, as if the doctrine of the Imámat might to some extent + reconcile the thoughtful Shía'h to the Christian doctrine of the + Incarnation and Mediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect + revealer of God's will; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. + The mystic lore connected with Shía'h doctrine has sapped the foundation + of moral life and vigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a + fundamental part of the system in its mystical developments, whilst all + Shía'hs may lawfully practise "takía," or religious <!-- Page 84 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>[84]</span>compromise in their daily + lives. It thus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shía'h + may profess, as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If + he becomes a mystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as + restrictions imposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a + sin almost, if not quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of + Mahdí is the good time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when + the utmost freedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, + becomes deadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact + with these people can hardly credit. The practice of "takía," religious + compromise, and the legality of "muta'h" or temporary marriages, have + done much to demoralise the Shía'h community. The following words of a + recent author descriptive of the Shía'h system are in the main true, + though they do not apply to each individual in that system:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the + hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should + escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme + law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine + as the goal of human existence."<a name="NtA_76" + href="#Nt_76"><sup>[76]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do + not exist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the + next chapter.</p> + + <p>In the doctrine of the Imámat, common to all the offshoots of the + Shía'h sect, is to be found the chief point of difference between the + Sunní and the Shía'h, a difference so great that there is no danger of + even a political union between these two great branches of Islám. I have + already described, too, how the Shía'hs reject the Sunnat, though they do + not reject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by the + recollection—a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of + the Muharram fast—of the sad <!-- Page 85 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>[85]</span>fate of 'Alí and his + sons. The Sunnís are blamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith, + whilst the Khalífs Abu Bakr, Omar, and Osmán are looked upon as usurpers. + Not to them was committed the wonderful ray of light. In the possession + of that alone can any one make good a claim to be the Imám, the Guide of + the Believers. The terrible disorders of the early days of Islám can only + be understood when we realise to some extent the passionate longing which + men felt for a spiritual head—an Imám. It was thought to be + impossible that Muhammad, the last—the seal—of the prophets + should leave the Faithful without a guide, who would be the interpreter + of the will of Allah.</p> + + <p>We here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends + beyond the Shía'h sect, and is of some importance in its bearing upon the + Eastern Question. Apart from the superhuman claims for the Imám, what he + is as a ruler to the Shía'h, the Khalíf is to the Sunní—the supreme + head in Church and State, the successor of the Prophet, the Conservator + of Islám as made known in the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' of the + early Mujtahidín. To administer the laws, the administrator must have a + divine sanction. Thus when the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered + Egypt, (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1516) he sought and obtained, from + an old descendant of the Baghdád Khalífs, the transfer of the title to + himself, and in this way the Sultáns of Turkey became the Khalífs of + Islám. Whether Mutawakal Billál, the last titular Khalíf of the house of + 'Abbás, was right or wrong in thus transferring the title is not my + purpose now to discuss. I only adduce the fact to show how it illustrates + the feeling of the need of a Pontiff—a divinely appointed Ruler. + Strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultáns are not + Khalífs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that the Khalíf + (or the Imám) must be of the tribe of the Quraish, to which the Prophet + himself belonged.</p> + + <p>Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said:—"The Khalífs shall be + in the Quraish tribe as long as there are two <!-- Page 86 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>[86]</span>persons in it, one to + rule and another to serve."<a name="NtA_77" + href="#Nt_77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> "It is a necessary condition that the + Khalíf should be of the Quraish tribe."<a name="NtA_78" + href="#Nt_78"><sup>[78]</sup></a> Such quotations might be multiplied, + and they tend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox Sunnís, + other than the Turks, to rush to the rescue of the Sultán, whilst to the + Shía'hs he is little better than a heretic. Certainly they would never + look upon him as an Imám, which personage is to them in the place of a + Khalíf. In countries not under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer for + the ruler, said on Fridays in the mosques, is said for the "ruler of the + age," or for the Amír, or whatever happens to be the title of the head of + the State. Of late years it has become more common in India to say it for + the Sultán. This is not, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, + which declares that the Khutbah can only be said with the permission of + the ruler, and as in India that ruler is the British Government, the + prayers should be said for the Queen. Evidently the law never + contemplated large bodies of Musalmáns residing anywhere but where the + influence of the Khalíf extended.</p> + + <p>In thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by Turkish + Sultáns to the Khalifate of Islám, I do not deny that the Law of Islám + requires that there should be a Khalíf. Unfortunately for Islám, there is + nothing in its history parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of + Church and State. "The action and re-action of these powerful and + partially independent forces, their resistance to each other, and their + ministry to each other, have been of incalculable value to the higher + activity and life of Christendom." In Islám the Khalíf is both Pope and + Emperor. Ibn Khaldoun states that the difference between the Khalíf and + any other ruler is that the former rules according to divine, the latter + according to human law. The Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority + to the Khalífs, his successors, conveyed to <!-- Page 87 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>[87]</span>them absolute powers. + Khalífs can be assassinated, murdered, banished, but so long as they + reign anything like constitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal + mistake in European politics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the + Sultán as the Khalíf of Islám, for, if he be such, Turkey can never take + any step forward to newness of political life.<a name="NtA_79" + href="#Nt_79"><sup>[79]</sup></a></p> + + <p>This, however, is a digression from the subject of this chapter.</p> + + <p>There has been from the earliest ages of Islám a movement which exists + to this day. It is a kind of mysticism, known as Súfíism. It has been + especially prevalent among the Persians. It is a re-action from the + burden of a rigid law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a + thousand years, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it is the + salt of Islám some fruit should now be seen. But what is Súfíism? The + term Súfí is most probably derived from the Arabic word Súf, "wool," of + which material the garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally + made. Some persons, however, derive it from the Persian, Súf, "pure," or + the Greek <span title="sophia" class="grk" + >σοφια</span>, "wisdom." Tasawwuf, or + Súfíism, is the abstract form of the word, and is, according to Sir W. + Jones, and other learned orientalists, a figurative mode, borrowed mainly + from the Indian philosophers of the Vedanta school, of expressing the + fervour of devotion. The chief idea is that the souls of men differ in + degree, but not <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page88"></a>[88]</span>in kind, from the Divine Spirit, of which + they are emanations, and to which they will ultimately return. The Spirit + of God is in all He has made, and it in Him. He alone is perfect love, + beauty, etc.—hence love to him is the only <i>real</i> thing; all + else is illusion. Sa'dí says: "I swear by the truth of God, that when He + showed me His glory all else was illusion." This present life is one of + separation from the beloved. The beauties of nature, music, and art + revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affections from wandering + from Him to other objects. These sublime affections men must cherish, and + by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on God, and so approximate to + His essence, and finally reach the highest stage of + bliss—absorption into the Eternal. The true end and object of human + life is to lose all consciousness of individual existence—to sink + "in the ocean of Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged into the + stream on the surface of which it has for a moment risen."<a + name="NtA_80" href="#Nt_80"><sup>[80]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Súfís, who all accept Islám as a divinely established religion, + suppose that long before the creation of the world a contract was made by + the Supreme Soul with the assembled world of spirits, who are parts of + it. Each spirit was addressed separately, thus: "Art thou not with thy + Lord?" that is, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they all + answered with one voice, "Yes."</p> + + <p>Another account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) was placed + in the ground in the time of Adam; that the plant <!-- Page 89 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>[89]</span>came forth in the days of + Noah, was in flower when Abraham was alive and produced fruit before + Moses passed away. The grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time + of Jesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure wine was made + from them. Then those intoxicated with it, having attained to the highest + degree of the knowledge of God, could forget their own personality and + say:—"Praise to me, is there any greater than myself? I am the + Truth."</p> + + <p>The following verse of the Qurán is quoted by Súfís in support of + their favourite dogma—the attaining to the knowledge of God: "When + God said to the angels, 'I am about to place a viceregent on the earth,' + they said: 'Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and + shed blood? Nay; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness.' God answered + them, 'Verily I know that ye wot not of.'" (Súra ii. 28.) It is said that + this verse proves that, though the great mass of mankind would commit + abomination, some would receive the divine light and attain to a + knowledge of God. A Tradition states that David said: "'Oh Lord! why hast + Thou created mankind?' God replied, 'I am a hidden treasure, and I would + fain become known.'" The business of the mystic is to find this treasure, + to attain to the Divine light and the true knowledge of God.</p> + + <p>The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and + formal ritual, and though the seeds of Pantheism were planted in their + system from the first, they maintained that they were orthodox. "Our + system of doctrine," says Al-Junaid, "is firmly bound up with the dogmas + of the faith, the Qurán and the Traditions." There was a moral + earnestness about many of these men which frequently restrained the arm + of unrighteous power, and their sayings, often full of beauty, show that + they had the power of appreciating the spiritual side of life. Some of + these sentences are worthy of any age. "As neither meat nor drink," says + one, "profit the diseased body, so no warning avails <!-- Page 90 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>[90]</span>to touch the + heart full of the love of this world." "The work of a holy man doth not + consist in this, that he eats grain, and clothes himself in wool, but in + the knowledge of God and submission to His will." "Thou deservest not the + name of a learned man till thy heart is emptied of the love of this + world." "Hide thy good deeds as closely as thou wouldst hide thy sins." A + famous mystic was brought into the presence of the Khalíf Hárún-ur-Rashíd + who said to him: "How great is thy abnegation?" He replied, "Thine is + greater." "How so?" said the Khalíf. "Because I make abnegation of this + world, and thou makest abnegation of the next." The same man also said: + "The display of devotional works to please men is hypocrisy, and acts of + devotion done to please men are acts of polytheism."</p> + + <p>But towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, this earlier + mysticism developed into Súfíism. Then Al-Halláj taught in Baghdád thus: + "I am the Truth. There is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I + love, and He whom I love is I; we are two souls dwelling in one body. + When thou seest me, thou seest Him; and when thou seest Him thou seest + me." This roused the opposition of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Halláj + was condemned to be worthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalíf + flogged, tortured and finally beheaded. Thus died one of the early + martyrs of Súfíism, but it grew in spite of bitter persecution.</p> + + <p>In order to understand the esoteric teaching of Súfíistic poetry, it + is necessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller, the + knowledge of God the goal, the doctrines of this ascent, or upward + progress is the Tarikat, or the road. The extinction of self is necessary + before any progress can be made on that road. A Súfí poet + writes:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Plant one foot upon the neck of self,</p> + <p>The other in thy Friend's domain;</p> + <p>In everything His presence see,</p> + <p>For other vision is in vain."</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>[91]</span></p> + + <p>Sa'dí in the <span class="correction" title="Bustun in original, corrected by Errata" + >Bustán</span> says: "Art thou a friend of God? Speak not of self, for to + speak of God and of self is infidelity." Shaikh Abu'l-Faiz, a great poet + and a friend of the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honourable + title of Málik-ush-Shu'ará—Master of the Poets, says: "Those who + have not closed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage + from the calm of this world and of the world to come." Khusrau, another + well-known poet says:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I have become Thou: Thou art become I,</p> + <p>I am the body, Thou the soul;</p> + <p>Let no one henceforth say</p> + <p>That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Súfíistic. It is + difficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of these + writings. Kitmán, or the art of hiding from the profane religious + beliefs, often contrary to the revealed law, has always been a special + quality of the East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated.<a + name="NtA_81" href="#Nt_81"><sup>[81]</sup></a> Thus:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I was, ere a name had been named upon earth;</p> + <p>Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth;</p> + <p>When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign,</p> + <p>And Being was none, save the Presence Divine!</p> + <p>Named and name were alike emanations from Me,</p> + <p>Ere aught that was 'I' existed, or 'We.'"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace in + Christianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the Parsee. Even Islám gave + him no satisfaction, for—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view,</p> + <p>I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone,</p> + <p>Of the globe-girding Kaf<a name="NtA_82" href="#Nt_82"><sup>[82]</sup></a>:—but the 'Anka<a name="NtA_83" href="#Nt_83"><sup>[83]</sup></a> had flown!</p> +<!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>[92]</span> + <p>The sev'nth heaven I traversed—the sev'nth heaven explored,</p> + <p>But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord!</p> + <p>I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate,</p> + <p>But they whisper'd not where He pavilions His state;</p> + <p>My vision I strain'd; but my God-scanning eye</p> + <p>No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry.</p> + <p>My glance I bent inward; within my own breast,</p> + <p>Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd!</p> + <p>In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd,</p> + <p><i>Till each atom of separate being I lost</i>."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>These are the words of the greatest authority among the Súfís, the + famous <span class="correction" title="Maolána in original, corrected by Errata" + >Maulána</span> Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí, founder of the order of the Mauláví + Darwíshes. He also relates the following story: "One knocked at the door + of the beloved, and a voice from within said: 'Who is there?' Then he + answered, '<i>It is I.</i>' The voice replied, 'This house will not hold + <i>me</i> and <i>thee</i>!' So the door remained shut. The lover retired + to a wilderness, and spent some time in solitude, fasting, and prayer. + One year elapsed, when he again returned, and knocked at the door. 'Who + is there?' said the voice. The lover answered, '<i>It is thou.</i>' Then + the door was opened."</p> + + <p>The great object of life, then, being to escape from the hindrances to + pure love and to a return to the divine essence, the Tálib, or seeker, + attaches himself to a Murshid, or teacher. If he prosecutes his studies + according to Súfíistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders + of Darwíshes. After due preparation under his Murshid, he is allowed to + enter on the road. He then becomes a Sálik, or traveller, whose business + henceforth is súlúk that is, devotion to one idea—the knowledge of + God. In this road there are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve + God and obey the Law for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It is supposed + that now the Divine influence has so attracted his soul that he really + loves God. (3) Seclusion. Love having expelled all worldly desires, he + arrives at this stage, and passes his time in meditation on the deeper + doctrines <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page93"></a>[93]</span>of Súfíism regarding the Divine nature. (4) + Knowledge. The meditation in the preceding stage, and the investigation + of the metaphysical theories concerning God, His nature, His attributes + and the like make him an 'Árif—one who knows. (5) Ecstasy. The + mental excitement caused by such continued meditation on abstruse + subjects produces a kind of frenzy, which is looked upon as a mark of + direct illumination of the heart from God. It is known as Hál—the + state; or Wajd—ecstasy. Arrival at this stage is highly valued, for + it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat—the Truth. Now + to the traveller is revealed the true nature of God, now he learns the + reality of that which he has been for so long seeking. This admits him to + the highest stage in his journey, as far as this life is concerned. (7) + That stage is Wasl—union with God.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"There was a door to which I found no key;</p> + <p>There was a veil past which I could not see:</p> + <p>Some little talk of Me and Thee</p> + <p>There seemed—and then no more of Thee and Me."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>He cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few reach that + exalted stage. Thus arose a "system of Pantheism, which represents joy + and sorrow, good and evil, pleasure and pain as manifestations of one + changeless essence." Religion, as made known by an outward revelation, + is, to the few who reach this stage, a thing of the past. Even its + restraints are not needed. The soul that is united to God can do no evil. + The poet Khusrau says: "Love is the object of my worship, what need have + I of Islám?"</p> + + <p>Death ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) It is <span + class="correction" title="Fana in original, corrected by Errata" + >Faná</span>—extinction. The seeker after all his search, the + traveller after all his wearisome journey passes behind the veil and + finds—nothing! As the traveller proceeds from stage to stage, the + restraints of an objective revelation and of an outward system are less + and less heeded. "The <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page94"></a>[94]</span>religion of the mystic consists in his + immediate communication with God, and when once this has been + established, the value of ecclesiastical forms, and of the historical + part of religion, becomes doubtful." What law can bind the soul in union + with God, what outward system impose any trammels on one who, in the + "Ecstasy," has received from Him, who is the Truth, the direct revelation + of His own glorious nature? Moral laws and ceremonial observances have + only an allegorical signification. Creeds are but fetters cunningly + devised to limit the flight of the soul; all that is objective in + religion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated.<a name="NtA_84" + href="#Nt_84"><sup>[84]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Pantheistic in creed, and too often Antinomian in practice, Súfíism + possesses no regenerative power in Islám. "It is not a substantive + religion such as shapes the life of races or of nations, it is a state of + opinion." No Muslim State makes a national profession of Súfíism.</p> + + <p>In spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much that is + sublime in its idea of the search after light and truth, Súfíism ends in + utter negation of all separate existence. The pantheism of the Súfís, + this esoteric doctrine of Islám, as a moral doctrine leads to the same + conclusions as materialism, "the negation of human liberty, the + indifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal + enjoyments."</p> + + <p>The result of Súfíism has been the establishment of a large number of + religious orders known as Darwíshes.<a name="NtA_85" + href="#Nt_85"><sup>[85]</sup></a> These men are looked upon with + disfavour by the <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page95"></a>[95]</span>orthodox; but they flourish nevertheless, + and in Turkey at the present day have great influence. There are in + Constantinople two hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Darwíshes are not + organized with such regularity, nor subject to discipline so severe as + that of the Christian Monastic orders; but they surpass them in number. + Each order has its own special mysteries and practices by which its + members think they can obtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible + world. They are also called Faqírs—poor men, not, however, always + in the sense of being in temporal want, but as being poor in the sight of + God. As a matter of fact the Darwíshes of many of the orders do not beg, + and many of the Takiahs are richly endowed. They are divided into two + great classes, the Ba Shara' (with the Law) Darwíshes; and the Be Shara' + (without the Law). The former prefer to rule their conduct according to + the law of Islám and are called the Sálik—travellers on the path + (taríqat) to heaven; the latter though they call themselves Muslims do + not conform to the law, and are called Azád (free), or Majzúb + (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciation of all worldly + cares and pursuits.</p> + + <p>The Sálik Darwíshes are those who perform the Zikrs.<a name="NtA_86" + href="#Nt_86"><sup>[86]</sup></a> What little hope there is of these + professedly religious men working any reform in Islám will be seen from + the following account of their doctrines.<a name="NtA_87" + href="#Nt_87"><sup>[87]</sup></a></p> + + <p>1. God only exists,—He is in all things, and all things are in + Him. "Verily we are <i>from</i> God, and <i>to</i> Him shall we return." + (Súra ii. 151.)</p> + +<p><!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>[96]</span></p> + + <p>2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are + not really distinct from Him. Creation is only a pastime with God.</p> + + <p>3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive religions, are + only so many allegories, the spirit of which is only known to the + Súfí.</p> + + <p>4. Religions are matters of indifference; they, however, serve as a + means of reaching to realities. Some, for this purpose, are more + advantageous than others. Among which is the Musalmán religion, of which + the doctrine of the Súfís is the philosophy.</p> + + <p>5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, for all is + reduced to unity, and God is the real author of the acts of mankind.</p> + + <p>6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, is not free in + his actions.</p> + + <p>7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined within it as + in a cage. At death the soul returns to the Divinity from which it + emanated.</p> + + <p>8. The principal occupation of the Súfí is to meditate on the unity, + and so to attain to spiritual perfection—unification with God.</p> + + <p>9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this unity; but God + does not refuse His aid to those who are in the right path.</p> + + <p>The power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. The + following account of the admission of a Novice, called Tawakkul Beg, into + an Order, and of the severe tests applied, will be of some interest.<a + name="NtA_88" href="#Nt_88"><sup>[88]</sup></a> Tawakkul Beg + says:—"Having been introduced by Akhúnd Moollá Muhammad to Sheikh + Moolla Sháh, my heart, through frequent intercourse with him, was filled + with such a burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical + science that I found no sleep by night, nor rest by day. When the + initiation commenced, <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page97"></a>[97]</span>I passed the whole night without sleep, and + repeated innumerable times the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Say: He is God alone:</p> + <p>God the eternal:</p> + <p>He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;</p> + <p>And there is none like unto Him." (Súra cxii.)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Whosoever repeats this Súra one hundred times can accomplish all his + vows. I desired that the Sheikh should bestow on me his love. No sooner + had I finished my task than the heart of the Sheikh became full of + sympathy for me. On the following night I was conducted to his presence. + During the whole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me, whilst + I gave myself up to inward meditation. Three nights passed in this way. + On the fourth night the Sheikh said:—'Let Moollá Senghim and Sálih + Beg, who are very susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual + energies to Tawakkul Beg.'</p> + + <p>They did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my + face turned toward Mecca. As the morning drew near, a little light came + into my mind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the + morning prayers, I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of my + mental state. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On + hearing this, the Sheikh became animated and said: 'Thy heart is dark, + but the time is come when I will show myself clearly to thee.' He then + ordered me to sit down in front of him, and to impress his features on my + mind. Then having blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my + thoughts upon him. I did so, and in an instant by the spiritual help of + the Sheikh my heart opened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw + another Tawakkul Beg and another Moollá Sháh. The bandage was then + removed, and I saw the Sheikh in front of me. Again they covered my face, + and again I saw him with my inward eye. Astonished, I cried; 'O master! + whether I look with my bodily eye, or with my spiritual <!-- Page 98 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>[98]</span>sight, it is + always you I see.' I then saw a dazzling figure approach me. The Sheikh + told me to say to the apparition, 'What is your name?' In my spirit I put + the question, and the figure answered to my heart: 'I am 'Abd-ul-Qádir + Jilání, I have already aided thee, thy heart is opened.' Much affected, I + vowed that in honour of the saint, I would repeat the whole Qurán every + Friday night.</p> + + <p>Moollá Sháh then said: 'The spiritual world has been shown to thee in + all its beauty.' I then rendered perfect obedience to the Sheikh. The + following day I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of + saints and angels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region in + which the figures appeared no more. During the whole of this time, the + Sheikh continued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the + Unity and of the knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the + absolute reality. It was not until a year had passed that I arrived at + the true conception of unity. Then in words such as these I told the + Sheikh of my inspiration. 'I look upon the body as only dust and water, I + regard neither my heart nor my soul, alas! that in separation from Thee + (God) so much of my life has passed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.' The + Sheikh was delighted, and said that the truth of the union with God was + now clearly revealed to me. Then addressing those who were present, he + said: 'Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doctrine of the Unity, his inward + eye has been opened, the spheres of colours and of images have been shown + to him. At length, he entered the colourless region. He has now attained + to the Unity, doubt and scepticism henceforth have no power over him. No + one sees the Unity with the outward eye, till the inward eye gains + strength and power.'"</p> + + <p>I cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few + remarks on Omar Khayyám, the great Astronomer-Poet of Persia. He is + sometimes confounded with the Súfís, for there is much in his poetry + which is similar <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page99"></a>[99]</span>in tone to that of the Súfí writers. But his + true position was that of a sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has + written will live. As an astronomer he was a man of note. He died in the + year 517 <span class="scac">A.H.</span> There are two things which may + have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligence the hard and + fast system of Islám was an intolerable burden. Then, his scientific + spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, the earnest enthusiasts of + which were too often followed by hollow impostors. It is true, that there + was much in the spirit of some of the better Súfís that seemed to show a + yearning for something higher than mere earthly good; above all, there + was the recognition of a Higher Power. But with all this came spiritual + pride, the world and its duties became a thing of evil, and the religious + and the secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin of both. The + Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man's will to + act, for his conscience to guide. So the moral law become a dead letter. + Irreligious men, to free themselves from the bondage and restraints of + law, assumed the religious life. "Thus a movement, animated at first by a + high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill. + The stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has + become a vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged with disease and + death."</p> + + <p>Omar Khayyám saw through the unreality of all this. In vain does he + try, by an assumed air of gaiety, to hide from others the sadness which + fills his heart, as all that is bright is seen passing away into + oblivion.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>One moment in annihilation's waste,</p> + <p>One moment, of the well of life to taste—</p> + <p>The stars are setting and the Caravan</p> + <p>Starts for the dawn of nothing—oh, make haste!</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ah, fill the cup:—what boots it to repeat</p> + <p>How Time is slipping underneath our feet:</p> + <p>Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday,</p> + <p>Why fret about them if To-day be sweet.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"></a>[100]</span></p> + + <p>Omar held to the earthly and the material. For him there was no + spiritual world. Chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men. A pitiless + destiny shaped out the course of each human being.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"'Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days</p> + <p>Where destiny with men for pieces plays:</p> + <p>Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays,</p> + <p>And one by one back in the closet lays.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The moving finger writes; and, having writ,</p> + <p>Moves on: nor all thy piety nor wit</p> + <p>Shall lure it back to cancel half a line,</p> + <p>Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry. + With sages and saints he discussed, and heard, "great argument, but + evermore came out by the same door as in he went." He left the wise to + talk, for one thing alone was certain, and all else was lies,—"the + flower that once has blown for ever dies." Leaving men he turned to + nature, but it was all the same.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate</p> + <p>I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate,</p> + <p>And many knots unravell'd by the road;</p> + <p>But not the knot of human death and fate.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And that inverted bowl we call the sky,</p> + <p>Where under crawling coop'd we live and die,</p> + <p>Lift not thy hands to it for help—for it</p> + <p>Rolls impotently on as thou or I."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Omar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. Both were + materialists, both believed not in a future life. "Lucretius built a + system for himself in his poem ... it has a professed practical + aim—to explain the world's self-acting machine to the polytheist, + and to disabuse him of all spiritual ideas." Omar builds up no system, he + only shows forth his own doubts and difficulties, "he loves to balance + antitheses of belief, and settle himself in the equipoise of the + sceptic." <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page101"></a>[101]</span></p> + + <p>The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no pain, but Omar + who, if only his reason could let him, would believe, records his utter + despair in words of passionate bitterness. He is not glad that there is + no help anywhere.<a name="NtA_89" href="#Nt_89"><sup>[89]</sup></a> And + though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to the voice within the + tavern cry,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup</p> + <p>Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry,"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>yet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted with those who + professed to know, and could say:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"With them the seed of wisdom did I sow,</p> + <p>And with my own hand laboured it to grow."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The founder of the Wahhábí sect was Muhammad-ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháb, who + was born at a village in Nejd in the year 1691 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> The Wahhábís speak of themselves as + Muwahhid—Unitarians; but their opponents have given to them the + name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them Wahhábís. + Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, of a strong constitution and + generous spirit. After going through a course of Arabic literature he + studied jurisprudence under a teacher of the Hanífi school. He then set + out in company with his father to perform the Hajj. At Madína he received + further instruction in the Law. He spent sometime at Ispahán in the + society of learned men. Full of <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102"></a>[102]</span>knowledge, he returned to his native + village of Ayína where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He + was shocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what seemed to him the + strict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. Luxury in the form of rich + dresses and silken garments, superstition in the use of omens, auguries, + and the like, in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be + altering the character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. He + saw, or thought he saw, that in the veneration paid to saints and holy + men, the great doctrine of the "Unity" was being obscured. The reason was + very plain. The Qurán and the Traditions of the Companions had been + neglected, whilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the + jurisprudence of the four great Imáms had been too readily followed. Here + was work to do. He would reform the Church of Islám, and restore men to + their allegiance to the Book and the Sunnat, as recorded by the + Companions. It is true, that the Sunnís would rise up in opposition, for + thus the authority of the four Imáms, the "Canonical Legists" of the + orthodox sect, would be set aside; but what of that? Had he not been a + follower of Abu Hanífa? Now he was prepared to let Aba Hanífa go, for + none but a Companion of the Prophet could give an authoritative statement + with regard to the Sunnat—the Prophet's words and acts. He must + break a lance with the glorious Imám, and start a school of his own.</p> + + <p>He said: "The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the Prophet, and the + sepulchre of 'Alí, and of other saints who have died in the odour of + sanctity. They run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers. By + this means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporal + needs, From what do they seek this benefit? From walls made of mud and + stones, from corpses deposited in tombs. If you speak to them they will + reply, 'We do not call these monuments God; we turn to them in prayer, + and we pray the saints to intercede for us on high.' Now, the true <!-- + Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>[103]</span>way + of salvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is ever present, + and to venerate Him—the one without associate or equal." Such + outspoken language raised up opposition, and he had to seek the + protection of Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now + vigorously supported the Wahhábí movement. He was a stern and + uncompromising man. "As soon as you seize a place," he said to his + soldiers, "put the males to the sword. Plunder and pillage at your + pleasure, but spare the women and do not strike a blow at their modesty." + On the day of battle he used to give each soldier a paper, a safe conduct + to the other world. This letter was addressed to the Treasurer of + Paradise. It was enclosed in a bag which the warrior suspended to his + neck. The soldiers were persuaded that the souls of those who died in + battle would go straight to heaven, without being examined by the angels + Munkar and Nakír in the grave. The widows and orphans of all who fell + were supported by the survivors. Nothing could resist men who, fired with + a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth, received a share of the + booty, if conquerors; who went direct to Paradise if they were slain. In + course of time, Muhammad-Ibn-Saud married the daughter of + Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháb and founded the Wahhábí dynasty which to this day rules + at Ryadh.<a name="NtA_90" href="#Nt_90"><sup>[90]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Such was the origin of this great movement, which spread, in course of + time, over Central and Eastern Arabia, and in the beginning of this + century found acceptance in India. In the year 1803 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> both Mecca and Madína fell into the hands of the + Wahhábís. A clean sweep was made of all things, the use of which was + opposed to Wahhábí principles. Not only rosaries and charms, but silk + robes and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smoking is a <!-- Page + 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>[104]</span>deadly + sin. On this point there is a good story told by + Palgrave—"'Abd-ul-Karím said: 'The first of the great sins is the + giving divine honours to a creature.' Of course I replied, 'The enormity + of such a sin is beyond all doubt. But if this be the first, there must + be a second; what is it?' 'Drinking the shameful!' (in English idiom, + 'smoking tobacco') was the unhesitating answer. 'And murder, and + adultery, and false witness?' I suggested. 'God is merciful and + forgiving,' rejoined my friend; that is, these are merely little sins."<a + name="NtA_91" href="#Nt_91"><sup>[91]</sup></a></p> + + <p>After holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were + driven out by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, the fourth Wahhábí ruler, + was captured by Ibrahím Pasha, and afterwards executed in the square of + St. Sophia (1818 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>) The political power of + the Wahhábís has since been confined to parts of Arabia; but their + religious opinions have widely spread.</p> + + <p>The leader of the Wahhábí movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, a + reformed freebooter. He was now born at Ráí Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> When about thirty years of age he gave up his + wild way of living and settled down in Delhi as a student of the Law of + Islám. After a while, he went on pilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, + so similar to those of the noted Wahhábí, attracted the attention of the + orthodox theologians, through whose influence he was expelled from the + sacred city. Persecution deepened his religious convictions, and he + returned to India a pronounced Wahhábí. He soon gained a large number of + disciples, and in 1826 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> he preached a Jihád + against the Sikhs. This war was not a success. In the year 1831 the + Wahhábís were suddenly attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and + Sayyid Ahmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the spread of + Wahhábí principles, for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an + enthusiastic disciple. This man, <!-- Page 105 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>[105]</span>Muhammad Ismá'íl, was + born near Delhi in the year 1781 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> He was a + youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjects which form the + curriculum of a liberal education amongst Musalmáns. His first preaching + was in a Mosque at Delhi on Tauhíd (Unity), and against Shirk + (Polytheism). He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired great + influence over his new disciple. Ismá'íl told him one evening that he + could not offer up his prayers with Huzúr-i-Kalb, presence of heart. The + Sayyid took him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first + of the prayers after him, and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and + was able to so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he + remained engaged in prayer till the morning. Henceforward he was a + devoted adherent of his spiritual teacher. In the public discussions, + which now often took place, none were a match for Ismá'íl. This fervent + preacher of Wahhábíism is now chiefly remembered by his great work, the + Takwiat-ul-Imán, the book from which the account of Wahhábí doctrine + given in this chapter is taken. If I make no special reference to the + quotations given, it will be known that my authority for the statements + thus made is Muhammad Ismá'íl, the most famous of all Sayyid Ahmad's + disciples. This book was followed by the Sirát-ul-Mustaqím, said to have + been written by one of Ismá'íl's followers. Wahhábí doctrines are now + spread throughout India. In the South there is not much religious + excitement or inquiry, yet Wahhábís are to be found there.<a + name="NtA_92" href="#Nt_92"><sup>[92]</sup></a> It was and is a + remarkable movement. In one sense it is a struggle against the + traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense can it be said that the + Wahhábís reject Tradition. They acknowledge as the foundation of the + faith—first, the Qurán; secondly, the Traditions which are recorded + on the authority of the Companions, and also the Ijmá' of the Companions, + that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion <!-- Page 106 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>[106]</span>or in + practice. Thus to the Wahhábí as to the Sunní, Muhammad is in all his + <i>acts</i> and <i>words</i> a perfect guide.</p> + + <p>So far from Wahhábíism being a move onward because it is a return to + first principles, it rather binds the fetters of Islám more tightly. It + does not originate anything new, it offers no relaxation from a system + which looks upon the Qurán and the Traditions as a perfect and complete + law, social and political, moral and religious.</p> + + <p>The Wahhábí places the doctrine of the "Tauhíd," or Unity, in a very + prominent position. It is true that all Musalmán sects put this dogma in + the first rank, but Wahhábís set their faces against practices common to + the other sects, because they consider that they obscure this fundamental + doctrine. It is this which brings them into collision with other + Musalmáns. The greatest of all sins is Shirk (<i>i.e.</i> the ascribing + of plurality to the Deity). A Mushrik (Polytheist) is one who so offends. + All Musalmáns consider Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhábís + consider all other Musalmáns also to be Polytheists, because they look to + the Prophet for intercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, and do other + unlawful acts.</p> + + <p>The Takwiat-ul-Imán says that "two things are necessary in + religion—to know God as God, and the Prophet as the Prophet." The + two fundamental bases of the faith are the "Doctrine of the Tauhíd + (Unity) and obedience to the Sunnat." The two great errors to be avoided + are Shirk (Polytheism) and Bida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked upon + as evil, it is somewhat difficult to see what hope of progress can be + placed upon this latest phase of Muhammadan revival.</p> + + <p>Shirk is defined to be of four kinds: Shirk-ul-'Ilm, ascribing + knowledge to others than God; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, ascribing power to + others than God; Shirk-ul-'Ibádat, offering worship to created things; + Shirk-ul-'ádat, the performance of ceremonies which imply reliance on + others than God. <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page107"></a>[107]</span></p> + + <p>The first, Shirk-ul-'Ilm, is illustrated by the statement that + prophets and holy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as + revealed to them by God. Thus some wicked persons made a charge against + 'Áyesha. The Prophet was troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of the + matter till God made it known to him. To ascribe, then, power to + soothsayers, astrologers, and saints is Polytheism. "All who pretend to + have a knowledge of hidden things, such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers + and interpreters of dreams, as well as those who profess to be inspired + are all liars." Again, "should any one take the name of any saint, or + invoke his aid in the time of need, instead of calling on God, or use his + name in attacking an enemy, or read passages to propitiate him, or make + him the object of contemplation—it is Shirk-ul-'Ilm."</p> + + <p>The second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that any one has + power with God. He who looks up to any one as an intercessor with God + commits Shirk. Thus: "But they who take others beside Him as lords, + saying, 'We only serve them that they may bring us near God,'—God + will judge between them (and the Faithful) concerning that wherein they + are at variance." (Súra xxxix. 4.) Intercession may be of three kinds. + For example, a criminal is placed before the King. The Vizier intercedes. + The King, having regard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. + This is called Shafá'at-i-Wajahat, or 'intercession from regard.' But to + suppose that God so esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner + merely on account of it is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes + intercede for the criminal. The King, from love to them, pardons him. + This is called Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, or 'intercession from affection.' But + to consider that God so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his + account is to give that loved one power, and this is Shirk, for such + power is not possible in the Court of God. "God may out of His bounty + confer on His favourite servants the epithets of Habíb—favourite, + or Khalíl—friend, <!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page108"></a>[108]</span>&c.; but a servant is but a servant, + no one can put his foot outside the limits of servitude, or rise beyond + the rank of a servant." Again, the King may himself wish to pardon the + offender, but he fears lest the majesty of the law should be lowered. The + Vizier perceives the King's wish, and intercedes. This intercession is + lawful. It is called Shafá'at-i-ba-izn—intercession by permission, + and such power Muhammad will have at the day of Judgment. Wahhábís hold + that he has not that power now, though all other Musalmáns consider that + he has, and in consequence (in Wahhábí opinion) commit the sin of + Shirk-ut-tasarruf. The Wahhábís quote the following passages in support + of their view. "Who is he that can intercede with Him but by <i>His own + permission</i>." (Súra ii. 256) "Say: Intercession is wholly with God! + His the kingdoms of the heavens and of the earth." (Súra xxxix. 46). They + also say: "whenever an allusion is made in the Qurán, or the Traditions + to the intercession of certain prophets or apostles, it is this kind of + intercession and no other that is meant."</p> + + <p>The third Shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea + of worshipping it. It also includes perambulating the shrines of departed + saints. Thus: "Prostration, bowing down, standing with folded arms, + spending money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect to + his memory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and + calling out the name of the saint whilst so going is Shirk-ul-'Ibádat." + It is wrong "to cover the grave with a sheet (ghiláf), to say prayers at + the shrine, to kiss any particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast + against the walls of the shrine, &c." This is a stern condemnation of + the very common practice of visiting the tombs of saints and of some of + the special practices of the pilgrimage to Mecca. All such practices as + are here condemned are called Ishrák fi'l 'Ibádat—'association in + worship.'</p> + + <p>The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs, such as + the Istikhára—seeking guidance from beads <!-- Page 109 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>[109]</span>&c., trusting to + omens, good or bad, believing in lucky and unlucky days, adopting such + names as 'Abd-un-Nabi (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the + denouncing of such practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhábíism + into daily contact with the other sects, for scarcely any people in the + world are such profound believers in the virtue of charms and the power + of astrologers as Musalmáns. The difference between the first and fourth + Shirk, the Shirk-ul-'Ilm and the Shirk-ul-'ádat, seems to be that the + first is the <i>belief</i>, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the + second the <i>habit</i> of consulting him.</p> + + <p>To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'Alí, of the Imáms, or of Pírs + (Leaders) is to give them the honour due to God alone. It is Ishrák fi'l + adab—'Shirk in association.'</p> + + <p>Another common belief which Wahhábís oppose is that Musalmáns can + perform the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), say prayers, read the Qurán, + abide in meditation, give alms, and do other good works, the reward of + which shall be credited to a person already dead.<a name="NtA_93" + href="#Nt_93"><sup>[93]</sup></a> Amongst other Musalmáns it is a common + practice to read the Qurán in the belief that, if done with such an + intention, the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire. + Wahábís entirely object to this.</p> + + <p>The above technical exposition of Wahhábí tenets shows how much stress + they lay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the "Unity." + "Lá-il-láha, Il-lal-lá-hu" (there is no God but God) is an eternal truth. + Yet to the Musalmán God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood + of God he has accepted as the object of his worship, hardly of his + affections, a Being despotic in all He does, arbitrary in all His ways. + He has accepted the position of a slave instead of that of a son. + Wahhábíism emphasizes the ideas which flow from the first article of the + Muslim creed. But <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page110"></a>[110]</span>on this subject we prefer to let Palgrave + speak. He of all men knew the Wahhábí best, and he, at least, can be + accused of no sectarian bias. The extract is rather long, but will repay + perusal; indeed, the whole passage from which this extract is taken + should be read.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"'There is no God but God,' are words simply tantamount in English to + the negation of any deity save one alone; and thus much they certainly + mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. Their full sense is, not + only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of nature + or of person in the Supreme Being, not only to establish the unity of the + Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in all its simple and incommunicable + oneness, but besides this, the words, in Arabic and among Arabs, imply + that this one Supreme Being is the only Agent, the only Force, the only + Act existing throughout the universe, and leave to all beings else, + matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or moral, nothing + but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement or in quiescence, + in action or in capacity. Hence in this one sentence is summed up a + system which, for want of a better name, I may be permitted to call the + 'Pantheism of Force.' 'God is One in the totality of omnipotent and + omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, standard, or limit, save + one sole and absolute will. He communicates nothing to His creatures, for + their seeming power and act ever remain His alone, and in return He + receives nothing from them.' 'It is His singular satisfaction to let + created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than His + slaves, that they may the better acknowledge His superiority.' 'He + Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, neither loving nor enjoying + aught save His own and self-measured decree, without son, companion, or + councillor, is no less barren for Himself than for His creatures, and His + own barrenness and lone egoism in Himself is the cause and rule of His + indifferent and unregarding despotism around.'<a name="NtA_94" + href="#Nt_94"><sup>[94]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous, but + maintains that it is the "truest mirror of the mind and scope of the + writer of the Book" (Qurán), and that, as such, it is confirmed by + authentic Tradition and learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave + possessed <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page111"></a>[111]</span>the two essential qualifications for a + critic of Islam—a knowledge of the literature, and intercourse with + the people. So far as my experience goes I have never seen any reason to + differ from Palgrave's statement. Men are often better than their creeds. + Even the Prophet was not always consistent. There are some redeeming + points in Islám. But the root idea of the whole is as described above, + and from it no system can be deduced which will grow in grace and beauty + as age after age rolls by.</p> + + <p>The Arab proverb states that "The worshipper models himself on what he + worships."<a name="NtA_95" href="#Nt_95"><sup>[95]</sup></a> Thus a + return to "first principles," sometimes proclaimed as the hope of Turkey, + is but the "putting back the hour-hand of Islám" to the place where + indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Islám is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. + Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme + Original in all that constitutes true life—for life is love, + participation, and progress, and of these the Quránic Deity has + none—it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all + development."<a name="NtA_96" href="#Nt_96"><sup>[96]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Muhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahháb was a man of great intellectual power and + vigour. He could pierce through the mists of a thousand years, and see + with an eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the + Faith. He had the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change + (Bida't) and progress were alien to the truth. This recognition of his + ability is due to him; but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was + to seek to arrest, by the worship of the letter, all hope of progress, + and to make "the starting-point of Islám its goal." That he was a good + Musalmán in so doing no one can doubt, but that his work gives any hope + of the rise of an enlightened form of Islám no one who really has studied + Islám can believe.</p> + + <p>Wahhábíism simply amounts to this, that while it denounces all other + Musalmáns as polytheists, it enforces the <!-- Page 112 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>[112]</span>Sunnat of the Prophet + with all its energy.<a name="NtA_97" href="#Nt_97"><sup>[97]</sup></a> It + breaks down shrines, but insists on the necessity of a pilgrimage to a + black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, but attaches great + merit to counting the ninety-nine names of God on the fingers. It would + make life unsocial. The study of the Fine Arts with the exception of + Architecture can find no place in it. Ismá'íl quotes with approval the + following Tradition. "'Áyesha said: 'I purchased a carpet on which were + some figures. The Prophet stood in the doorway and looked displeased.' I + said: 'O messenger of God, I repent to God and His Messenger; what fault + have I committed that you do not enter?' His Highness then said: 'What is + this carpet?' I replied; 'I have bought it for you to sit and rest upon.' + Then the messenger of God replied: 'Verily, the maker of pictures will be + punished on the day of resurrection, when God will desire them to bring + them to life. A house which contains pictures is not visited by the + angels.'" In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbás, the Prophet classes + artists with murderers and parricides. Wahhábíism approves of all this, + and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society "an + organised hypocrisy." It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for all + mankind except its own followers, and, where it had the power, it would + force its convictions on others at the point of the sword.</p> + + <p>Wahhábíism was reform after a fashion, in one direction; in the + history of Islám there have been attempts at reform in other directions; + there will yet be such attempts, but so long as the Qurán and the Sunnat + (or, in the case of the Shía'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have + hitherto <!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page113"></a>[113]</span>done for every sect, the sole law to + regulate all conditions and states of life, enlightened and continued + progress is impossible. The deadening influence of Islám is the greatest + obstacle the Church of God has to overcome in her onward march; its + immobility is the bane of many lands; connection with it is the + association of the living with the dead; to speak of it, as some do, as + if it were a sort of sister religion to Christianity, is but to show + deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus it is plain + that Musalmáns are not all of one heart and soul.<a name="NtA_98" + href="#Nt_98"><sup>[98]</sup></a> In the next chapter I hope to show that + Islám is a very dogmatic and complex system in spite of the simple form + of its creed.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>[114]</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<h3>NOTE TO CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">WAHHÁBÍISM.</p> + + <p>In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Série, tome 11, a curious account is + given of the voyage of Mirzá Muhammad 'Alí Khán, some time Persian + Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one of his voyages + from Persia to India he met with a Wahhábí, who had in his possession a + tract written by the founder of the sect. This small pamphlet he allowed + Mirzá Muhammad to copy. I give the substance of the pamphlet in this + note. The original Arabic will be found in the Journal Asiatique. It is + of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as + follows:—I know that God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanífa + is orthodox and identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast + known that God has created His servants for the purpose of being served + by them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, One + and alone; just as prayer (Salát) is not prayer (Salát), unless it is + accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said: "It is + not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against themselves + of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These! vain their works: and + in the fire shall they abide for ever!" (Súra ix. 17.)</p> + + <p>Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the hope of + obtaining by them that which God alone can give—those bring unto + their prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect, "and + who erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth upon that which shall + not answer him until the day of resurrection." (Súra xlvi. 4) On the + contrary, when the day of resurrection comes, they will become their + enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than God. + "But the gods whom ye call on beside Him have no power over the husk of a + date-stone! If ye cry to them they will not hear your cry; and if they + heard they would not answer you, and in the day of resurrection they will + disown your joining them with God." (Súra xxxv. 14,15.)</p> + + <p>He who says: "O thou Prophet of God! O 'Ibn 'Abbás! O 'Abd-ul-Qádir!" + &c. with the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can + obtain from God that of which the suppliant has need, or that they can + protect him, is an infidel whose blood any one may shed, and whose goods + any one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent. There are four + different classes of idolaters.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>[115]</span></p> + + <p>First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These + acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports all + living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. "Say: who supplieth + you from the heavens and the earth? who hath power over hearing and + sight? and who bringeth forth the living from the dead, and bringeth + forth the dead from the living? who ruleth all things? they will surely + say: 'God,' then say: 'What! will ye not therefore fear Him.'" (Súra x. + 32.) It is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an + outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray; for they have recourse to + divinities of their own choosing and pray to them.</p> + + <p>Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these + intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, and that what + they desire they seek from God. The Qurán furnishes a proof against them. + "They worship beside God what cannot hurt or help them, and say, these + are our advocates with God! say: will ye inform God of aught in the + heavens and in the earth which He knoweth not?" (Súra x. 19.)</p> + + <p>Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, or + rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become attached to one + saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves under the protection of + Guardian Angels. Against them we cite the verse: "Those whom ye call on, + themselves desire union with their Lord, striving which of them shall be + nearest to Him; they also hope for His mercy, and fear His chastisement." + (Súra xvii. 59.) We see here that the Prophet drew no distinction between + the worship of an idol and the worship of such and such a saint; on the + contrary, he treated them all as infidels, and made war upon them in + order to consolidate the religion of God upon a firm basis.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, but + at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus: "Lo! when they + embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him sincere worship, + but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold they join partners with + Him." (Súra xxix. 65.)</p> + + <p>In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The + idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divinities + when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time were less + culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, had recourse + to God in time of great evil; these in good and evil states, seek the aid + of their patrons, other than God, and pray to them.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>[116]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<h3>THE CREED OF ISLÁM.<a name="NtA_99" href="#Nt_99"><sup>[99]</sup></a></h3> + + <p>Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as: "Confession with the tongue + and belief with the heart."<a name="NtA_100" + href="#Nt_100"><sup>[100]</sup></a> It is said to "stand midway between + hope and fear." It is sub-divided into Imán-í-mujmal and Imán-í-mufassal. + The former is an expression of the following faith: "I believe in God, + His names and attributes, and accept all His commands."<a name="NtA_101" + href="#Nt_101"><sup>[101]</sup></a> The latter is the acceptance of the + following dogmas: "I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the Last + Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and the + Resurrection after death."<a name="NtA_102" + href="#Nt_102"><sup>[102]</sup></a> These form the articles of faith + which every Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it + perfect, he must add the performance of the "acts of practice," + <i>viz.</i>: (1) "The recital of the Kalima or creed:—'There is no + deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulát. The five + daily prayers. (3) Roza. The thirty days fast of Ramazán. (4) Zakát. The + legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the pilgrimage to Mecca." This chapter will + contain an account of the Imán—the dogmas of Islám. An account of + the Dín—the practical duties, will be given in the next chapter. + <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page117"></a>[117]</span></p> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">God.</span>—This article of the faith + includes a belief in the existence of God, His unity and attributes, and + has given rise to a large number of sects. Some acquaintance with the + various controversies which have thus arisen is necessary to a correct + knowledge of Islám. I commence the consideration of this subject by + giving the substance of a Sunní, or orthodox treatise known as the + Risála-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M. Garcin de Tassy, considered + it to be of such authority that in his "L'Islamisme d'après le Coran" he + has inserted a translation of the Risála.<a name="NtA_103" + href="#Nt_103"><sup>[103]</sup></a> Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the + Divine attributes, says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>(1). Life. (Hyát). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither + associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He is + neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without + figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor + end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a + moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant. + Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or that + of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from whatever + may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the irreligious + pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if all Believers + became Infidels, He would suffer no loss.</p> + + <p>(2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or + manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the + leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past and + future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man and + what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He has + revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from forgetfulness, + negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is not posterior to + His essence.</p> + + <p>(3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the + dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the earth + and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those destroyed. + He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to the west, or + from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His power is eternal + à priori and à posteriori. It is not posterior to His essence.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>[118]</span></p> + + <p>(4). Will (Irádah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills + comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in + this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and the + piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would be + neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the unbelief of + the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and, without that will, + there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by His + will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If one should ask why + God does not will that all men should believe we answer: "We have no + right to enquire about what God wills and does. He is perfectly free to + will and to do what He pleases." In creating unbelievers, in willing that + they should remain in that state; in making serpents, scorpions and pigs: + in willing, in short, all that is evil God has wise ends in view which it + is not necessary that we should know. We must acknowledge that the will + of God is eternal and that it is not posterior to His essence.</p> + + <p>(5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He + hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men.</p> + + <p>(6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant + on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have.</p> + + <p>(7). Speech. (Kalám). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He + speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another, even + as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the ascension to + heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of Gabriel, and this + is the usual way in which He communicates His will to the prophets. It + follows from this that the Qurán is the word of God, and is eternal and + uncreated.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>These are the "haft sifát," or seven attributes of God. There is + unanimity of opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards + their nature and the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men + can attain. Thus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to + acquire; but Imám Sháfa'í and the Mutazilites say that a man must first + attain to the <i>idea</i> of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the + expression "Knowledge of God" is the ascertaining the truth of His + existence, and of His positive and privative attributes, as far as the + human understanding can enter into these matters. The unity is not a mere + numerical unity but absolute, for the number one is the first of a series + and implies a second, but God has not a <!-- Page 119 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>[119]</span>second. He is "singular + without anything like Him, separate having no equal;" for, "had there + been either in heaven or earth gods beside God, both surely had gone to + ruin." (Súra xxi. 22). God is not a substance, for substance has + accidents, but God has none: otherwise His nature would be that of + "dependent existence." God is without parts, for otherwise he would not + exist till all the parts were formed, and His existence would depend on + the parts, that is, on something beside Himself.</p> + + <p>The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, + for say they, "just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds + darkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding finds + itself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God." The + Prophet said: "We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;" and + to his followers he gave this advice: "Think of God's gifts, not of His + nature: certainly you have no power for that." The Khalíf Akbar is + reported to have said: "to be helpless in the search of knowledge is + knowledge and to enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity)."<a + name="NtA_104" href="#Nt_104"><sup>[104]</sup></a> A moderate + acquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of + the Prophet nor the warning of the Khalíf has been heeded.</p> + + <p>According to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers, + enquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. The + Prophet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of + salvation and had taught them:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Say: He is God alone:</p> + <p>God the eternal!</p> + <p>He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;</p> + <p>And there is none like unto Him." (Súra cxii)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. + God is far beyond the reach of the human <!-- Page 120 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>[120]</span>understanding. He alone + embraces all in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their + own perceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired + legislator Muhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, + and knowing better than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both + what they ought to believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men + must exercise their reason, but they must not do so with regard to the + divine attributes.<a name="NtA_105" + href="#Nt_105"><sup>[105]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Dogma is divided into two portions, usúl and farú'—(<i>i.e.</i>, + roots and branches.) The former include the doctrine about God; the + latter, as the name implies, consist of truths which result from the + acceptance of the former. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to + do with the "farú'," for the usúl being founded on the Qurán and Sunnat + have an objective basis.</p> + + <p>Differences of opinion about various branches of the "farú'," led to + discussions which did not stop there but went on to the "usúl," and so + paved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalám.) I have + already in the chapter on the exegesis of the Qurán explained the + difference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashábih + (intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of the + present subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into + detail.</p> + + <p>The question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of + the 3rd Súra: "He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book.' Some of + its signs are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of + the <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page121"></a>[121]</span>Book—and others are figurative + (mutashábih.) But they whose hearts are given to err, follow its figures, + craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none knoweth its + interpretation but God. And the stable in knowledge say, 'We believe in + it: it is all from our Lord.' But none will bear this in mind, save men + endued with understanding." Here it is clearly stated (1) that no one + except God can know the interpretation of mutashábih verses, and (2) that + wise men though they know not their interpretation, yet believe them all. + Many learned men, however, say that the full stop should not be placed + after the word "God" but after "knowledge," and so this portion of the + verse would read thus: "None knoweth its interpretation but God and the + stable in knowledge. They say: 'we believe, &c.'" On this slight + change in punctuation, which shows that the 'stable in knowledge' can + interpret the mutashábih verses, opposite schools of theology have arisen + in Islám.</p> + + <p>The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of + subjects which all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In + the early days of Islám it was held that all parts of the Qurán, except + the muhkam verses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashábih; + that is, all verses which related to the attributes of God, to the + existence of angels and genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the + period and signs of the day of judgment, and generally all matters which + are beyond the daily experience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not + only must there be no discussion on them,<a name="NtA_106" + href="#Nt_106"><sup>[106]</sup></a> but no attempt should be made to + understand or act on them. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says: "One must + believe the mutashábih verses, but not take them for a rule of conduct." + Ibn Jubair was once <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page122"></a>[122]</span>asked to put the meaning of the Qurán into + writing. He became angry and said: "I should rather be palsied in + one-half of my body than do so."<a name="NtA_107" + href="#Nt_107"><sup>[107]</sup></a> 'Ayesha said: "Avoid those persons + who dispute about the meaning of the Qurán, for they are those whom God + has referred to in the words, 'whose hearts are given to err.'"</p> + + <p>The first reading is the one adopted by the Asháb, the Tábi'ín and the + Taba-i-Tábi'ín and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnís + generally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-dín Rází (<span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 544-606), the Sháfa'í sect are of the same + opinion.</p> + + <p>Those who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujáhid (died + <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 101), Rábí' bin Ans and others. The + scholastic theologians<a name="NtA_108" + href="#Nt_108"><sup>[108]</sup></a> (Mutakallimán) generally adopt the + latter reading.<a name="NtA_109" href="#Nt_109"><sup>[109]</sup></a> They + argued thus: how could men believe what they did not know; to which their + opponents answered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very + thing here praised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the + Qurán was sent to be a guide and direction to men, were not all its + verses muhkam? The answer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of + eloquence. One kind was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple + style so that the meaning might be at once apparent, the other was to + speak in figurative language. Now, if the Qurán had not contained both + these styles of composition, it could not have claimed the position it + does as a book absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.<a + name="NtA_110" href="#Nt_110"><sup>[110]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now + pass on to the consideration of the attributes.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>[123]</span></p> + + <p>The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, for without + these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing, Seeing, + Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the + "Sifát-i-Sabútiah," or affirmative attributes, the privation of which + would imply loss; there are also Sifát-i-Salbiah, or privative + attributes, such as—God has no form, is not limited by place, has + no equal, &c. The acts of sitting, rising, descending, the possession + of face, hands, eyes, &c., being connected with the idea of corporeal + existences imply imperfection and apparently contradict the doctrine of + "exemption" (tenzih) according to which God is, in virtue of His essence, + in no way like the creatures He has made. This was a difficulty, but the + four great Imáms all taught that it was impious to enquire into these + matters for all such allusions were mutashábih. "The Imám Hanbal and + other early divines followed in the path of the early Muslims and said: + 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, and do not desire explanations. + We know that the High God is not to be compared to any created object: + nor any creature with Him.'"<a name="NtA_111" + href="#Nt_111"><sup>[111]</sup></a> Imám As-Sháfa'í said that a man who + enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake, and carried about, + and that the following proclamation should be made before him: "This is + the reward of him who left the Qurán and the Traditions for the study of + scholastic theology." Imám Hanbal says: "Whosoever moves his hand when he + reads in the Qurán the words, 'I have created with my hand,' ought to + have his hand cut off; and whoever stretches forth his finger in + repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heart of the believer is between + two fingers of the Merciful,' deserves to have his finger cut off." + At-Tirmízí when consulted about the statement of the Prophet that God had + descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said: "The descent is + intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein <!-- Page 124 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>[124]</span>is obligatory; + and the asking about it is a blameable innovation." But all such attempts + to restrain discussion and investigation failed.</p> + + <p>The two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether + the attributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of + His essence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not.</p> + + <p>The two leading Sects were the Sifátians (or Attributists) and the + Mutazilites. The Sifátians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taught + that the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence without + separation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life with + knowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashábih + verses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show + a resemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not + attempt to give the meaning of the terms, "hands, eyes, face, &c.," + when applied to God. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course + of time, as will be seen, differences of opinion on this point led to + some sub-divisions of this sect.</p> + + <p>The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifátians. They + rejected the idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the + formal attribute of the essence of God. "If," said they, "we admit the + eternal existence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity + of eternal existences." They also rejected the attributes of hearing, + seeing and speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal + existences. They looked upon the divine attributes as mental + abstractions, and not as having a real existence in the divine essence. + The Mutazilites were emphatically the Free thinkers of Islám. The origin + of the sect was as follows: Al Hasan, a famous divine, was one day seated + in the Mosque at Basra when a discussion arose on the question whether a + believer who committed a mortal sin became thereby an unbeliever. The + Khárigites (Ante p. <a href="#page76">76</a>) <!-- Page 125 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>[125]</span>affirmed that it was + so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, though guilty of sin, yet that + as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.<a name="NtA_112" + href="#Nt_112"><sup>[112]</sup></a> One of the scholars Wásil Ibn Atá, + (who was born at Madína <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 80), then rose up + and said: "I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin should + be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as occupying a + middle station between the two." He then retired to another part of the + Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and others. They + resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katáda, entering the Mosque, + went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party in which Al + Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila).' Al Hasan soon + expelled them from his school. Wásil then founded a school of his own of + which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head.</p> + + <p>Wásil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same + degree of punishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question + of <i>degrees</i> of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of + man's responsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him + into conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that + again to the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the + eternity of the Qurán, and of the divine attributes. His followers + rejected the doctrine of the "divine right" of the Imám, and held that + the entire body of the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable + person, who need not necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill + that office. The principles of logic and the teaching of philosophy were + brought to bear on the precepts of religion. According to Shahrastání the + Mutazilites hold:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of + His essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as + distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to <!-- Page + 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>[126]</span>His + nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not + through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal + attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence, + otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the + Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities."</p> + + <p>"They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the + province of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld + with the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything + else is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that + Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according to + them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the ultimate + results of this conduct of man with such dictates."</p> + + <p>"Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human + actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men are + the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and + forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At the + same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and he who + works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all knowledge is + attained through reason, and must necessarily be so obtained. They hold + that the cognition of good and evil is also within the province of + reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong until reason has + enlightened us as to the distinction; and that thankfulness for the + blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by reason, even before the + promulgation of any law upon the subject. They also maintain that man has + perfect freedom; is the author of his actions both good and evil, and + deserves reward or punishment hereafter accordingly."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>During the reigns of the 'Abbásside Khalífs Mámún, Mutasim and Wathik + (198-232 <span class="scac">A.H.</span>) at Baghdád, the Mutazilites were + in high favour at Court, Under the 'Abbásside dynasty<a name="NtA_113" + href="#Nt_113"><sup>[113]</sup></a> the ancient Arab Society was + revolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State; + Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered + bitter persecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. + The Khalíf Wathik at length relented. <!-- Page 127 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[127]</span>An old man, heavily + chained, was one day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained + permission to put a few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd, a Mutazilite + and the President of the Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue + took place. "Ahmad," said the prisoner, "what is the dogma which you + desire to have established." "That the Qurán is created," replied Ahmad. + "This dogma, then, is without doubt an essential part of religion, + insomuch that the latter cannot without it be said to be complete?" + "Certainly." "Has the Apostle of God taught this to men or has he left + them free?" "He has left them free." "Was the Apostle of God acquainted + with this dogma or not?" "He was acquainted with it." "Wherefore, then, + do you desire to impose a belief regarding which the Apostle of God has + left men free to think as they please?" Ahmad remaining silent, the old + man turned to Wathik and said, "O Prince of Believers, here is my first + position made good." Then turning to Ahmad, he said, "God has said, 'This + day have I perfected religion for you, and have filled up the measures of + my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion.' + (Súra v. 5). But according to you Islám is not perfected unless we adopt + this doctrine that the Qurán is created. Which now is most worthy of + credence—God, when He declares Islám to be complete and perfect, or + you when you announce the contrary?" Ahmad was still silent. "Prince of + Believers," said the old man, "there is my second point made good." He + continued, "Ahmad, how do you explain the following words of God in His + Holy Book?—'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down to + thee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed His + message at all.' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the + Faithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?" + Ahmad remained silent. The old man resumed, "Prince of Believers, such is + my third argument." Then turning to Ahmad he said: "If the Prophet was + acquainted with the doctrine <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page128"></a>[128]</span>which you desire to impose upon us, had he + the right to pass by it in silence?" "He had the right." "And did the + same right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Ali?" "It did," + "Prince of Believers," said the prisoner, "God will, in truth, be severe + on us, if He deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet + and his Companions." The Khalíf assented, and at once restored the old + man to liberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox + have ever had to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through + the barriers of traditionalism.<a name="NtA_114" + href="#Nt_114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> The next Khalíf, Al Mutawakhil, a + ferocious and cruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. + He issued a fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Qurán was + created was an utter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against + Christians, Jews, Shía'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd was one of + the first to be disgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were + banished.</p> + + <p>The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalíf + but a little later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'arí (270-340 <span + class="scac">A.H.</span>)</p> + + <p>The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdád, still flourished at + Basra where one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Alí Al-Jubbai, + a Mutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'arí + propounded the following case to his master: "There were three brothers, + one of whom was a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an + infidel, a debauchee and a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all + died. What became of them?" Al-Jubbai answered: "The virtuous brother + holds a high station in Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, + and the child is among those who have obtained salvation." <!-- Page 129 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>[129]</span>"Suppose now," + said Al-Ash'arí, "that the child should wish to ascend to the place + occupied by his virtuous brother, would he be allowed to do so?" "No," + replied Al-Jubbai, "it would be said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this + place through His numerous works of obedience to God, and thou hast no + such works to set forward.'" "Suppose then," said Al-Ash'arí, "that the + child should say: 'this is not my fault, you did not let me live long + enough, neither did you give me the means of proving my obedience.'" "In + that case," said Al-Jubbai, "the Almighty would say: 'I knew that if I + allowed thee to live, thou wouldest have been disobedient and have + incurred the punishment of hell: I acted, therefore, for thy advantage.'" + "Well," said Al-Ash'arí, "and suppose the infidel brother were here to + say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thou knowest what awaited him, Thou + must have known what awaited me; why then didst Thou act for his + advantage and not for mine?'"<a name="NtA_115" + href="#Nt_115"><sup>[115]</sup></a> Al-Jubbai was silent, though very + angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that the Mutazilite dogma of + man's free-will was false, and that God elects some for mercy and some + for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing with his teacher + on this point, he soon began to find other points of difference, and soon + announced his belief that the Qurán was not created. This occurred on a + Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair he cried out in + a loud voice: "They who know me know who I am; as for those who do not + know me I shall tell them; I am 'Alí Ibn Ismá'íl Al-Ash'arí, and I used + to hold that the Qurán was created, that the eyes (of men) shall not see + God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, I have + returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take the + engagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy and + turpitude."<a name="NtA_116" href="#Nt_116"><sup>[116]</sup></a></p> + + <p>He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of <!-- Page + 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>[130]</span>thought of + his own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'arían + doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifátians of which sect + Al-Ash'arí's disciples form a branch. The Ash'aríans hold—</p> + + <p>(i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in + such a way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His + creatures. They say they are not "<i>'ain</i> nor <i>ghair</i>:" not of + His essence, nor distinct from it: <i>i.e.,</i> they cannot be compared + with any other things.</p> + + <p>(ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the + good and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was + written on the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go + with the Sifátians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of + man they say that he has power to convert will into action. But this + power cannot create anything new for then God's sovereignty would be + impaired; so they say that God in His providence so orders matters that + whenever "a man desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action + corresponding to the desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as + it were, fitted on to the desire." Thus it seems as if it came naturally + from the will of the man, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb + (acquisition) because it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It + is an act directed to the obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: + the term is, therefore, inapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillání, + a disciple of Al-Ash'arí, says: "The essence or substance of the action + is the effect of the power of God, but its being an action of obedience, + such as prayer, or an action of disobedience, such as fornication, are + qualities of the action, which proceed from the power of man." The Imám + Al-Haramain (419-478 <span class="scac">A.H.</span>) held "that the + actions of men were effected by the power which God has created in man." + Abu Isháq al Isfarayain says: "That which maketh impression, or hath + influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power of + man." <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page131"></a>[131]</span></p> + + <p>(iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they + acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the Qurán, which is the + manifestation of that word, are created. They say, in short, that the + Qurán contains (1) the eternal word which existed in the essence of God + before time was; and (2) the word which consists of sounds and + combinations of letters. This last they call the created word.</p> + + <p>Thus Al-Ash'arí traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, + denying that man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge + of good and evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is + revealed. He has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the + actions of God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good + will be rewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always + approach God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge + of the actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent + sinner or not cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above + all law.<a name="NtA_117" href="#Nt_117"><sup>[117]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifátians + need not be entered into at any length.</p> + + <p>The Mushábihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the + mutashábih verses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God + and His creatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of + ascending, descending, &c. These they called "declarative + attributes." The Mujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be + corporeal, by which some of them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst + others declared the Deity to be finite. They are acknowledged to be + heretics.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[132]</span></p> + + <p>The Jabríans gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in + man, and thus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadríans, + that is, they deny "Al-Kadr," God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize + free will in man.</p> + + <p>These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. + The Sunnís follow the teaching of Al-Ash'arí, whilst the Shí'ahs incline + to that of the Mutazilites.</p> + + <p>Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the + names to be used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the + names "The Living, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the + Speaker," &c., are to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is + that all such names must be "tauqífi," that is dependent on some + revelation. Thus it is not lawful to apply a name to God expressive of + one of His attributes, unless there is some statement made, or order + given by Muhammad to legalize it. God is rightly called Sháfí (Healer), + but He cannot be called Tabíb which means much the same thing, for the + simple reason that the word Tabíb is never applied in the Qurán or the + Traditions to God. In like manner the term 'Álim (Knower) is lawful, but + not so the expression 'Áqil (Wise). The Mutazilites say that if, in the + Qurán or Traditions, there is any praise of an attribute, then the + adjective formed from the name of that attribute can be applied to God + even though the actual word does not occur in any revelation. Al-Ghazzálí + (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 450-505), who gave in the East the + death-blow to the Muslim philosophers, says: "The names of God not given + in the Law, if expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as + expressive of His attributes, not of His nature." On the ground that it + does not occur in the Law, the Persian word "Khuda" has been objected to, + an objection which also holds good with regard to the use of such terms + as God, Dieu, Gott, &c. To this it is answered, that as "Khuda" means + "one who comes by himself" it is equivalent to the term Wájib-ul-Wajúd, + <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>[133]</span>"one who has necessary existence," and + therefore so long as it is not considered as the "Ism-i-Zát (name of His + nature) it may with propriety be used."<a name="NtA_118" + href="#Nt_118"><sup>[118]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the + term Alláh, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such + a name is not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, + &c, still remain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Qurán + and Traditions are, exclusive of the term Alláh, ninety-nine in number. + They are called the Asmá-i-Husná<a name="NtA_119" + href="#Nt_119"><sup>[119]</sup></a> (noble names); but in addition to + these there are many synonyms used on the authority of Ijmá'. Such are + Hanán, equal to Rahím (Merciful) and Manán, "one who puts another under + an obligation." In the Tafsír-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three + thousand names of God; one thousand of which are known to angels; one + thousand to prophets; whilst one thousand are thus distributed, + <i>viz.</i>, in the Pentateuch there are three hundred, in the Psalms + three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred, in the Qurán ninety-nine, + and one still hidden.</p> + + <p>The following texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove the nature of + the divine attributes:—</p> + + <p>(1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal." (Súra + ii. 256). "Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not." (Súra xxv. + 60).</p> + + <p>(2). Knowledge. "Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the + heavens, and all that is in the earth." (Súra lviii. 8). "With Him are + the keys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth + whatever is on the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He + knoweth it; neither is there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor + a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct writing." (Súra vi. + 59).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[134]</span></p> + + <p>(3). Power. "If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would He + surely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty." (Súra ii. 19). "Is He not + powerful enough to quicken the dead." (Súra lxxv. 40). "God hath power + over all things." (Súra iii. 159.)</p> + + <p>(4). Will. "God is worker of that He willeth." (Súra lxxxv. 16). "But + if God pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the + guidance." (Súra vi. 35). "God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will + He guideth—God doeth His pleasure." (Súra xiv. 4, 32).</p> + + <p>As this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed + which refers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will + be stated under that head.</p> + + <p>There has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of + these four attributes so clearly described in the Qurán: the difference + is with regard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There + is, first, the ancient Sifátian doctrine that the attributes are eternal + and of the essence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are + not eternal; and, thirdly, the Ash'arían dogma that they are eternal, but + distinct from His essence.</p> + + <p>There is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next + three attributes—hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the + two first of these the following verses are quoted, "He truly heareth and + knoweth all things." (Súra xliv. 5). "No vision taketh in Him, but He + taketh in all vision." (Súra vi. 103).</p> + + <p>The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c., hands, face, eyes, and + so on, gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the + Sifátians. Al-Ghazzálí says: "He sits upon His throne after that manner + which He has Himself described and in that sense which He Himself means, + which is a sitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, + or local situation." This is the Ash'arían idea, but between the + Ash'aríans and those who fell into the error of the <!-- Page 135 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page135"></a>[135]</span>Mujassimians,<a name="NtA_120" + href="#Nt_120"><sup>[120]</sup></a> there was another school. The + followers of Imám Ibn Hanbal say that such words represent the attributes + existing in God. The words "God sits on His throne" mean that He has the + power of sitting. Thus, they say, "We keep the literal meaning of the + words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To do so is to introduce a + dangerous principle of interpretation, for the negation of the apparent + sense of a passage may tend to weaken the authority of revelation. At the + same time we do not pretend to explain the act, for it is written: 'There + is none like unto Him.' (Súra cxii.) 'Nought is there like Him.' (Súra + xlii. 9.) 'Unworthy the estimate they form of God.'" (Súra xxii. 73.) To + prove that God occupies a place they produce the following Tradition: + "Ibn-al-Hákim wished to give liberty to a female slave Saouda and + consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where is God?' 'In + heaven,' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a true believer.'" Not, + say the Commentators, because she believed that God occupied a place but + because she took the words in their literal signification. The Shí'ahs + consider it wrong to attribute to God movement, quiescence, &c, for + these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too, in opposition to + the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that which is seen is + limited by space.</p> + + <p>The seventh attribute—speech—has been fruitful of a very + long and important controversy connected with the nature of the Qurán, + for the word "Kalám" means not mere speech, but revelation and every + other mode of communicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzálí says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal + ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word + of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the + commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters <!-- Page + 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[136]</span>which are + separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion of the + tongue. The Qurán, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books sent + down by Him to His Apostles, and the Qurán, indeed, is read with tongues + written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in the + essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and division + whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus Moses also + heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the saints behold + the essence of God without substance or accident."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites + deny this, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the + originator of words and sounds.</p> + + <p>They also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine + of the eternity of the Qurán. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, + is read, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It is + divided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events + are described in the past tense, but if the Qurán had been eternal the + future tense would have been used. (3) The Qurán contains commands and + prohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were + admonished? (4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to + eternity, and so even in the last day, and in the next world, men will be + under the obligation of performing the same religious duties as they do + now, and of keeping all the outward precepts of the law. (5) If the Qurán + is eternal, then there are two eternals.</p> + + <p>The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of + Islám. It was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the + opposition of the Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered + orthodox to become not only stout assertors of the eternity of the Qurán, + but to give up their lives in defence of what they believed to be true. + The Mutazilites by asserting the subjective nature of the Quránic + inspiration brought the book itself within the reach of criticism. This + was too much for orthodox Islám to bear even though the Khalíf Mámún in + the <!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page137"></a>[137]</span>year 212 <span class="scac">A.H.</span> + issued a fatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Qurán + were guilty of heresy. Some six years after this, the Imám Ahmad Ibn + Hanbal was severely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to + assent to the truth of the decree issued by the Khalíf. Al Buwaiti, a + famous disciple of As-Sháfa'í, used an ingenious argument to fortify his + own mind when being punished by the order of the Khalíf. He was taken all + the way from Cairo to Baghdád and told to confess that the Qurán was + created. On his refusal, he was imprisoned at Baghdád and there remained + in chains till the day of his death. As Ar-Rábí Ibn Sulaimán says: "I saw + Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule: round his neck was a wooden collar, on his + legs were fetters, from these to the collar extended an iron chain to + which was attached a clog weighing fifty pounds. Whilst they led him on + he continued repeating these words, 'Almighty God created the world by + means of the word <i>Be!</i> Now, if that word was created, one created + thing would have created another.'"<a name="NtA_121" + href="#Nt_121"><sup>[121]</sup></a> Al Buwaiti here refers to the verse, + "Verily our speech unto a thing when we will the same, is that we only + say to it, 'Be,' and it is,—Kun fayakúna." (Súra xxxvi. 82). This, + in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standing argument of the orthodox + to prove the eternity of the Qurán.</p> + + <p>When times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite + opinion. The Imám As-Sháfa'í held a public disputation in Baghdád with + Hafs, a Mutazilite preacher, on this very point. Sháfa'í quoted the + verse, "God said <i>be, and it was</i>," and asked, "Did not God create + all things by the word <i>be?</i>" Hafs assented. "If then the Qurán was + created, must not the word <i>be</i> have been created with it?" Hafs + could not deny so plain a proposition. "Then," said Sháfa'í, "All things, + according to you, were created by a created being, which is a gross + inconsistency and manifest <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page138"></a>[138]</span>impiety." Hafs was reduced to silence, and + such an effect had Sháfa'í's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to + death as a pestilent heretic. Thus did the Ash'arían opinions on the + subject of the Divine attributes again gain the mastery.<a name="NtA_122" + href="#Nt_122"><sup>[122]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a + rule, influenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere + quibblers. They sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a + reaction by the rigid system they combated, they would have made reason + alone their chief guide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to + regenerate the faith they professed to follow. It was, however, a great + movement, and at one time, it threatened to change the whole nature of + Islám. This period of Muslim history, famed as that in which the effort + was made to cast off the fetters of the rigid system which Islám was + gradually tightening by the increased authority given to traditionalism, + and to the refinements of the four Imáms, was undoubtedly a period of, + comparatively speaking, high civilization. Baghdád, the capital of the + Khalífate, was a busy, populous, well-governed city. This it mainly owed + to the influence of the Persian family of the Barmecides, one of whom was + Vizier to the Khalíf Hárún-ur-Rashíd. Hárún's fame as a good man is quite + undeserved. It is true that he was a patron of learning, that his Empire + was extensive, that he gained many victories, that his reign was the + culminating point of Arab grandeur. But for all that, he was a morose + despot, a cruel man, thoroughly given up to pleasures of a very + questionable nature. Drunkenness and debauchery were common at court. + Plots and intrigues were ever at work. Such was the state of one of the + greatest, if not the greatest, periods <!-- Page 139 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>[139]</span>of Muslim rule. This, + too, was at a time most favourable for the development of any good which + Islám might have possessed. It should be remembered that whatever glory + is rightly attached to this period is connected with an epoch when heresy + was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy was weak in Baghdád. The culture + of the time was in spite of, not on account of, the influence of orthodox + Islám.</p> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">Angels.</span>—Of this article of the creed + Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order + and who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is + there amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of + God; those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are + on earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate + themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and + record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are + possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibrá,íl) who in the + space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one wing + can lift up a mountain.</p> + + <p>We must believe in 'Izrá,íl who receives the souls of men when they + die, and in Isráfíl into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This + trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to + blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow + such a terrible blast that all living things will die.<a name="NtA_123" + href="#Nt_123"><sup>[123]</sup></a> This is the commencement of the last + day. The world will remain in this state of death forty years. Then God + Most High will revive Isráfíl who will blow a second blast, at the sound + of which all the dead will rise to life."<a name="NtA_124" + href="#Nt_124"><sup>[124]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>This confession of faith makes no mention of Míká,íl (Michael), the + fourth of the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created + beings have what is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, + plants, grain and all that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, + fishes, &c. Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's + will to prophets. The words "one terrible in power" (Súra liii. 5) <!-- + Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>[140]</span>are + generally applied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness + to God. Tradition says that on the night of the Mi'ráj, the Prophet saw + that Gabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that + from one shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift + flying bird would require five hundred years to pass over it.</p> + + <p>Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed + of light. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position + he occupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he + commands they do. "All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and + they who are in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they + wearied: they praise Him day and night." (Súra xxi. 19, 20.) They are + free from all sin.<a name="NtA_125" href="#Nt_125"><sup>[125]</sup></a> + It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, and this may + seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, that their + object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of the doubts + they had in the matter. Thus "when the Lord said to the angels, 'Verily, + I am about to place one in my stead on earth,' they said: 'Wilt Thou + place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when we celebrate + thy praise and extol thy holiness.' God said: 'Verily I know what ye know + not.'" It is true that Iblís was disobedient, but then he belonged not to + the angelic order but to that of the jinn. "When we said to the angels, + 'prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated themselves save + Iblís, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest." (Súra + xviii. 48.) (See also Súra ii. 33.)</p> + + <p>Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they are + invisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils. + This accounts for the saying, "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, + for it has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with + God, for it has seen a devil."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[141]</span></p> + + <p>The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of + their Lord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Súra xlii. + 3.) They also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels + before him and behind him who watch over him by God's behest." (Súra + xiii. 12.) "Is it not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three + thousand angels sent down from on high?" (Súra iii. 120.) "Supreme over + His servants He sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when + death overtaketh any one of you our messengers take his soul and fail + not." (Súra vi. 61.)</p> + + <p>In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man two + angels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on the + right hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say + that they reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen + and the saliva of the mouth the ink.<a name="NtA_126" + href="#Nt_126"><sup>[126]</sup></a> They protect the actions of men and + record them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibát, + <i>i.e.</i>, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name of + Kirám-ul-Kátibín, "the exalted writers." They are referred to in the + Qurán. "Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? + Yes, and our angels who are at their sides write them down." (Súra xliii. + 80).</p> + + <p>There are eight angels who support the throne of God. "And the angels + shall be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the + throne of thy Lord." (Súra lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over + it are nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire." + (Súra lxxiv. 30).</p> + + <p>There is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the + evils of Satanic interference. "Iblís," says Jábir Maghrabí, "though able + to assume all other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of + the Deity, or <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142"></a>[142]</span>any of His angels, or prophets. There + would otherwise be much danger to human salvation, as he might, under the + appearance of one of the prophets, or of some superior being, make use of + this power to seduce men to sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to + assume such forms, fire comes down from heaven and repulses him."</p> + + <p>The story of Hárút and Márút is of some interest from its connection + with the question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those + who reject God's Apostle the Qurán says: "And they followed what the + Satans read in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, + but the Satans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what + had been revealed to the two angels Hárút and Márút at Bábel. Yet no man + did these two teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be + not thou an unbeliever.'" (Súra ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two + angels teach sorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some + explanation has to be given. Commentators are by no means reticent on + this subject. The story goes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when + the angels saw the bad actions of men they said: "O Lord! Adam and his + descendants whom Thou has appointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act + disobediently." To which the Lord replied: "If I were to send you on + earth, and to give you lustful and angry dispositions, you too would + sin." The angels thought otherwise; so God told them to select two of + their number who should undergo this ordeal. They selected two, renowned + for devotion and piety. God having implanted in them the passions of lust + and anger said: "All day go to and fro on the earth, put an end to the + quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not commit adultery, drink no + wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam, the exalted name (of God) + and return to heaven." This they did for some time, but at length a + beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray. One day she brought + them a cup of wine. One said: <!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page143"></a>[143]</span>"God has forbidden it;" the other, "God is + merciful and forgiving." So they drank the wine, killed the husband of + Zuhra, to whom they revealed the "exalted name," and fell into grievous + sin. Immediately after, they found that the "name" had gone from their + memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual. They were very + much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for them. The + prophet did so, and with such success that the angels were allowed to + choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected to be + punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their heads + downwards in a well at Bábel. Some say that angels came and whipped them + with rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the + reach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assert + that it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Others + say that she is the star Venus.</p> + + <p>It is only right to state that the Qází 'Ayáz, Imám Fakhr-ud-dín Rází + (544-606 <span class="scac">A.H.</span>), Qází Násir-ud-dín Baidaví + (620-691 <span class="scac">A.H.</span>) and most scholastic divines deny + the truth of this story. They say that angels are immaculate, but it is + plain that this does not meet the difficulty which the Qurán itself + raises in connection with Hárút and Márút. They want to know how beings + in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely that men would have + the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the woman, they think + the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venus was created + before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivable that one + who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for ever. A + solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic is a + great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the order + of prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly + hurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguish + between the miracles of prophets, the signs of <!-- Page 144 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>[144]</span>saints, the wonders of + magicians and others. Then Hárút and Márút always discouraged men from + learning magic. They said to those who came to them: "We are only a + temptation. Be not thou an unbeliever." Others assert that it is a Jewish + allegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, the + woman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents + death.</p> + + <p>To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of the + Traditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a + Hadís-i-Sahíh, and that the Isnád is sound and good. I name only a few of + the great divines who hold this view. They are Imám Ibn Hanbal, Ibn + Ma'súd, Ibn 'Umr, Ibn 'Abbás, Háfiz 'Asqallání<a name="NtA_127" + href="#Nt_127"><sup>[127]</sup></a> and others. Jelál-ud-din Syútí in his + commentary the Dúrr-i-Mashúr, has given all the Traditions in order and, + though there is some variety in the details, the general purport accords + with the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer the + objections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculate + only so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined, + Hárút and Márút can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient + for that purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is + quite conceivable that the two angels may teach through the + instrumentality of devils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they + grant that to be changed into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; + but they say the desire to learn the "exalted name" was so meritorious an + act that the good she desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to + the date of the creation of the star Venus, it is said that all our + astronomical knowledge is based on observations made since the Flood, + whereas this story relates to the times of Enoch who lived before the + days of Noah. So the dispute goes on and men of great repute for learning + and knowledge believe in the story.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>[145]</span></p> + + <p>Munkir and Nakír are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes + who visit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his + faith in God and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in + 'Álam-i-barzakh, a state of existence intervening between the present + life and the life of mankind after the resurrection.<a name="NtA_128" + href="#Nt_128"><sup>[128]</sup></a> This is the meaning of the word + "grave" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims + suffer trouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer + to the angels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed + for this purpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some + that of Nakír and that, just as each man has two recording angels during + his lifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after + death. There is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The + general belief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but + that the angels will teach them to say: "Alláh is my Lord, Islám my + religion, and Muhammad my Prophet." With regard to the children of + unbelievers being questioned, Imám Abu Hanífa hesitated to give an + opinion. He also doubted about their punishment. Some think they will be + in A'ráf, a place between heaven and hell; others suppose that they will + be servants to the true believers in Paradise.</p> + + <p>Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire + called jinn (genii.) It is said that they were created thousands of years + before Adam came into existence. "We created man of dried clay, of dark + loam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire." (Súra + xv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject to + death, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in + the Koh-i-Káf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:<a + name="NtA_129" href="#Nt_129"><sup>[129]</sup></a> <!-- Page 146 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>[146]</span>some are believers in + Islám; some are infidels, and will be punished. "I will wholly fill hell + with jinn and men." (Súra xi. 120.) The Súra called Súrat-ul-Jinn + (lxxii.) refers to their belief in Islám. The passage is too long to + quote. They try to hear<a name="NtA_130" + href="#Nt_130"><sup>[130]</sup></a> what is going on in heaven. "We guard + them (<i>i.e.</i>, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a + hearing." (Súra xv. 18.) They were under the power of Solomon and served + him. (Súra xxxviii. 36.) An 'Ifrít of the jinn said, "I will bring it + thee (Solomon) ere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and + am trusty." (Súra xxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also will be + questioned. Imám Hanífa doubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be + rewarded. The unbelieving jinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition + classifies them in the following order: (1) Jánn, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitán, + (4) 'Ifrít, (5) Márid. Many fables have been invented concerning these + beings, and though intelligent Muslims may doubt these wonderful + accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is imperative, at least, as + long as there is belief in the Qurán. Those who wish to know more of this + subject will find a very interesting chapter on it in Lane's Modern + Egyptians.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">The Books.</span>—Al Berkevi + says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent + through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The + books are never sent except to prophets. The Qurán was sent to Muhammad + portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to + Moses, the Injíl to Jesus, the Zabúr to David, and the other books to + other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Qurán, + the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can + neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have + been abrogated by the Qurán and ought not to be followed."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following + order:—To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to + Abraham, ten; to Moses, the <!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page147"></a>[147]</span>Taurát (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabúr + (Psalms); to Jesus, the Injíl; to Muhammad, the Qurán. The one hundred to + which no distinctive name is given are known as the + "Suhúf-ul-Anbiya,"—Books of the Prophets. The Qurán is also known + as the Furqán, the distinguisher; the Qurán-i-Sharíf, noble Qurán; the + Quran-i-Majíd, glorious Qurán; the Mushaf, the Book. It is said to be the + compendium of the Taurát, Zabúr and Injíl<a name="NtA_131" + href="#Nt_131"><sup>[131]</sup></a>; so Muslims do not require to study + these books.<a name="NtA_132" href="#Nt_132"><sup>[132]</sup></a> The + orthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Qurán,<a + name="NtA_133" href="#Nt_133"><sup>[133]</sup></a> though Syed Ahmad + denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmáns who say so.<a + name="NtA_134" href="#Nt_134"><sup>[134]</sup></a> Be that as it may, + their inspiration is considered to be of a lower order than that of the + Qurán. A large <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>[148]</span>portion of the Injíl is considered to be + mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are looked upon as the + revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case of the Old + Testament Prophets. "However, it was the rule to call a book by the name + of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or + whether it was mixed up with narrative also." "It is to be observed that, + in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intended + to impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down, + literally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated + without any narrative being inserted in them."<a name="NtA_135" + href="#Nt_135"><sup>[135]</sup></a> The writings of the Apostles are not + considered to be inspired books. "We do not consider that the Acts of the + Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very good + books, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself; + nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light + as we do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to + say, as entitled to veneration and respect."<a name="NtA_136" + href="#Nt_136"><sup>[136]</sup></a> There are many verses in the Qurán + which speak of previous revelations, thus: "We also caused Jesus, the son + of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law + (Taurát) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injíl with its + guidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and a + warning to those that fear God." (Súra v. 50). "We believe in God, and + that which hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down + to Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been + given to Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets + from their Lord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God + are we resigned." (Súra ii. 130). "In truth hath He sent down to thee the + Book, which confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the + <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page149"></a>[149]</span>Law and the Injíl aforetime, as man's + guidance; and now hath He sent down the Furqán." (Súra iii. 2).<a + name="NtA_137" href="#Nt_137"><sup>[137]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Practically, Musalmáns reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so is + manifestly against the letter of the Qurán, and, as some reason for this + neglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the + Jewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technical + expression is "tahríf," a word signifying, to change, to turn aside + anything from the truth. Then tahríf may be of two kinds, + tahríf-i-m'anaví, a change in the meaning of words; tahríf-i-lafzí, an + actual change of the written words. Most Musalmáns maintain that the + latter kind of corruption has taken place, and so they do not feel bound + to read or study the previous revelations so frequently referred to in + the Qurán. The charge brought against the Jews of corrupting their + Scriptures is based on the following verse of the Qurán: "Some truly are + there among you who torture the Scriptures with their tongues, in order + that ye may suppose it to be from the Scripture, yet it is not from the + Scripture. And they say: 'this is from God,' yet it is not from God; and + they utter a lie against God, and they know they do so." (Súra iii. 72.) + All the ancient commentators assert that this only proved + tahríf-i-m'anaví; that is, that the Jews referred to either + misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read from the + Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean that they + altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuse + Musalmáns for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the + orthodox divines of modern times maintain that the greater + corruption—the tahríf-i-lafzí, has taken place. The question is + fully discussed, and the opinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by + Syed Ahmad in his Commentary on the Bible.<a name="NtA_138" + href="#Nt_138"><sup>[138]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>[150]</span></p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Prophets.</span>—Muhammad Al Berkevi + says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is + the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is the + last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a great + number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all and that + his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the preceding + prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some without, but + that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii; that his law + will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles are many in + number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow, that he divided + the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and stones said to him: + 'Thou art a true prophet.'</p> + + <p>We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to + Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and + hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before morning. + After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of the + prophets."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies + according to the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand + is the usual number stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the + Qurán, of whom six are distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ulláh, + the chosen of God; Noah, Nabí Ulláh, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalíl + Ulláh, the friend of God; Moses, Kalím Ulláh, the speaker with God; + Jesus, Rúh Ulláh, the spirit of God; Muhammad, Rasúl Ulláh, the messenger + of God. These are called the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) + because they were the heads of their respective dispensations, and + because they will be permitted by God to intercede in the day of judgment + for their followers. They are the greatest and most exalted of the + prophets.<a name="NtA_139" href="#Nt_139"><sup>[139]</sup></a></p> + + <p>There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for "Some of the + Apostles have We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath + spoken, He hath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of + Mary We gave <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page151"></a>[151]</span>manifest signs, and We strengthened him + with the Holy Spirit." (Súra ii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in + the following order: Noah, Jesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, + Muhammad, of whom it is said: "He is the Apostle of God and the seal of + the prophets." (Súra xxxiii. 40).</p> + + <p>A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. "I am the chief of the + sons of men." "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in + the judgment day."<a name="NtA_140" href="#Nt_140"><sup>[140]</sup></a> + It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and severe; that by + Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given by Muhammad is + perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and that of + graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and by laughing + kill."<a name="NtA_141" href="#Nt_141"><sup>[141]</sup></a> Each prophet + is said to have been sent to his own tribe, but Muhammad was sent for all + men. A Tradition is adduced to support this statement: "I was raised up + for all men whether white or black, other prophets were not except for + their own tribe." The Qurán also states: "We have sent thee (Muhammad) + for all men."</p> + + <p>There is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are + superior to the angels. The Hanífites hold that the prophets amongst men + are superior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are + superior to the ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than + prophets, are inferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior + to the prophets. The Shía'hs assert that the twelve Imáms are superior to + prophets.</p> + + <p>The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a + previous chapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of + prophetic inspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He + speaks somewhat as follows.<a name="NtA_142" + href="#Nt_142"><sup>[142]</sup></a> If we contemplate the world and the + creatures it contains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular <!-- + Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page152"></a>[152]</span>system, a sequence of cause and effect, a + connexion between different categories of existence, and a transformation + of beings from one category of existence to another. Then the phenomena + of the visible world indicate to us the existence of an agent whose + nature is different from that of the body, who is in fact a spiritual + existence. This agent, which is the soul, must on the one hand be in + contact with the existences of this world and, on the other, with the + existences in the next category of superiority, and one whose essential + qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such are the + angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency towards the + angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea that, + according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the + universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account + of their nature.</p> + + <p>The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of + soul is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: + it has to content itself with moving in the region of sense and + imagination. Thus it can understand concepts and affirmations. It can + raise itself high in its own category but cannot pass its limit.</p> + + <p>The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and + a natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter + into a state of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the + intuition of the Saints (Auliya)<a name="NtA_143" + href="#Nt_143"><sup>[143]</sup></a> to whom God has given this divine + knowledge.</p> + + <p>The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging + themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise + to the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of time + such <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page153"></a>[153]</span>a soul perceives the sublime company (of + angels) in the sphere which contains them. It, there and then, hears the + speech of the soul and the divine voice. Such are the souls of the + prophets. God has given to these souls the power of leaving the human + body. Whilst thus separate from it God gives to them His revelation. The + prophets are endowed by God with such a purity of disposition, such an + instinct of uprightness, that they are naturally inclined to the + spiritual world. They are animated by an ardour quite peculiar to their + order. When they return from the angelic state they deliver to men the + revelations they have received. Sometimes the revelation comes to the + prophet as the humming of confused discourse. He grasps the ideas and, as + soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends the message; sometimes an + angel in human form communicates the revelation, and what he says the + prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return from the angelic + state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there occupy less + time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of prophets + move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's + revelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahí, a word which, + according to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste.</p> + + <p>The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives + it is only a Nabí (prophet), and not a Rasúl (apostle or messenger.) The + second mode is employed towards a Rasúl who, on the principle that the + greater contains the less, is also a Nabí. A Hadís records that Muhammad + said: "Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and + fatigued me much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been + delivered to me. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst + he was speaking, I learnt what was said." That a prophet should feel + oppressed on such occasions is hinted at in "With measured tone intone + the Qurán, for we shall devolve on thee mighty words." (Súra lxxiii. + 5.)</p> + +<p><!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>[154]</span></p> + + <p>A Nabí, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a + slave of another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of + body or mind), receives Wahí but has not necessarily to deliver to men + the orders of God. A Rasúl who must possess the same qualifications as a + Nabí, is one who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he + does not necessarily abrogate what preceding Rasúls have delivered. + Neither is it necessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. + Some Rasúls do so, but the distinguishing mark of the Rasúl is that he + delivers to men commands direct from God, and is specially commissioned + so to do. Thus every Rasúl is a Nabí, whilst every Nabí is not a + Rasúl.</p> + + <p>The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which + considerable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodox + belief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom from + sin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulness + they are kept in the right path. The Ash'aríans believe that the power of + sinning is not created in them.<a name="NtA_144" + href="#Nt_144"><sup>[144]</sup></a> The Mutazilites deny this, but admit + the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories + do not agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, + but here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunáh-i-kabíra + "great sins," and gunáh-i-saghíra "little sins." The gunáh-i-kabíra are, + murder, adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, + to accuse of adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, + to give or to take usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazán + fast, tyranny, backbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Qurán after + reading it, to avoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without + sufficient reason,<a name="NtA_145" href="#Nt_145"><sup>[145]</sup></a> + to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery of tyrants, + false judgments, giving short weight or measure, <!-- Page 155 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page155"></a>[155]</span>magic, gambling, + approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety, calling + on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such times,<a + name="NtA_146" href="#Nt_146"><sup>[146]</sup></a> dancing, music, + neglect when opportunity offers of warning other persons with regard to + the "commands and prohibitions" of God, disrespect to a Háfiz, to shave + the beard, to omit saying the "darúd" (<i>i.e.</i> on whom and on whose + family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever the name of Muhammad is + mentioned.<a name="NtA_147" href="#Nt_147"><sup>[147]</sup></a> These are + all "great sins" and can only be forgiven after due repentance: the + "little sins" are forgiven if some good actions are done. "Observe prayer + at early morning, at the close of day, and at the approach of night; for + the <i>good deeds drive away the evil deeds</i>." (Súra xi. 116).</p> + + <p>Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal + belief that a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but + there is a difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some + hold that they can do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any + thing connected with their office. Others again limit even this frailty + to the period before "wahí" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general + opinion, however, is that they are free from all sin, whether great or + small. The frailties which they show are merely reckoned as faults and + slight imperfections not amounting to sin.</p> + + <p>This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Qurán + itself raises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the + Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox + Muslim would call sin. Adam's transgression<a name="NtA_148" + href="#Nt_148"><sup>[148]</sup></a> is referred to in Súra ii. 29-37 and + <!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page156"></a>[156]</span>in Súra vii. 10-24. I quote only one + verse: "They said, 'O our Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if + Thou forgive us not and have not pity on us, we shall surely be of those + that perish.'" The sin of Noah is not specified in the Qurán, yet it is + plainly hinted at. "To Thee verily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask + that of Thee wherein I have no knowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be + merciful to me I shall be one of the lost." (Súra xi. 49). There is also + a similar request in Súra lxxi. 29. Abraham is represented as saying to + his people: "They whom ye worship, ye and your fathers of early days, are + my foes; but not so the Lord of the worlds, who hath created me, and + guideth me, who giveth me food and drink; and when I am sick, he healeth + me, and who will cause me to die and again quicken me, and who, I hope, + will forgive me my sins in the day of reckoning." (Súra xxvi. 75-82). + Moses is described as having done "a work of Satan" in killing a man, and + as saying: "'O my Lord, I have sinned to my own hurt; forgive me.' So God + forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the merciful. He said: 'Lord, + because thou hast showed me this grace, I will never again be the helper + of the wicked.'" (Súra xxviii. 15, 16).</p> + + <p>The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and + patient; for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy + fault."<a name="NtA_149" href="#Nt_149"><sup>[149]</sup></a> (Súra xl. + 57). "Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women." + (Súra xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the + wife of Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretended + revelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances + will be found fully detailed in Súra xxxiii. 36-38 and in Súra lxvi. + 1-5.</p> + + <p>One of the most important verses is: "Verily, we have won for thee an + undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later + fault." (Súra xlviii. 1-2). <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page157"></a>[157]</span>It is not quite clear what victory is here + referred to. According to the Tafsír-i-Husainí, some commentators say + that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used + for the future. The following explanations are given of the expression + "earlier and later fault." (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before + and after the descent of wahí, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, + or (3) before the descent of this Súra. (4) The commentator Salmí says: + "The earlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in + the loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later + sin refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected + with him, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of + their sin." (5) Imám Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of + Adam, and to those of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected + with Muhammad, because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the + latter by the intercession of Muhammad."<a name="NtA_150" + href="#Nt_150"><sup>[150]</sup></a></p> + + <p>From these extracts from the Qurán it appears that sin is imputed to + prophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have already + referred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one + sinless member of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islám, + is none other than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Qurán which + hints at sin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to + other prophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His + seeking for pardon.</p> + + <p>It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizát). A + miracle is defined to be "Kharq-i-'ádat," that is, something contrary to + the usual course of nature.</p> + + <p>The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and + chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. + Although Muhammad makes, in the <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page158"></a>[158]</span>Qurán, no distinct claim to the power of + working miracles,<a name="NtA_151" href="#Nt_151"><sup>[151]</sup></a> + his followers maintain that in this, as in all other respects he was + equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce various passages + of the Qurán in support of their view. Thus, according to Shaikh + Jelál-ud-dín Syutí, if to Adam was given the power of naming every thing, + Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, but + Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqáb-i-qausain,' the 'two bows' length,' + where Gabriel, "one mighty in power," appeared to him. (Súra liii. 5-9). + Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of + his chest;<a name="NtA_152" href="#Nt_152"><sup>[152]</sup></a> Joseph + was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the very perfection of + beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad produced it from + his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshua and so it was by + Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, for he + possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given to + John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and + understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus + could raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, + the special miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon + asunder, the Mi'ráj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above + all the wonderful miracle of the Qurán.<a name="NtA_153" + href="#Nt_153"><sup>[153]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, <!-- Page 159 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>[159]</span>"The hour of + judgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder." (Súra liv. + 1). Imám Záhid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and + demanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with + his little finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of + which remained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew + believed in Islám forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but + on making enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this + very night, distinctly saw the moon in two parts.<a name="NtA_154" + href="#Nt_154"><sup>[154]</sup></a> Some, however, refer the passage to + the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one of the + signs of the last day.</p> + + <p>The Mi'ráj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, "Glory be to Him who + carried His servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the + temple that is more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might + show him of our signs." (Súra xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of + the marvellous, narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw + and did on this eventful night;<a name="NtA_155" + href="#Nt_155"><sup>[155]</sup></a> but some maintain that it was only a + vision, and quote the words: "We ordained the vision which we showed + thee," in proof of this assertion.<a name="NtA_156" + href="#Nt_156"><sup>[156]</sup></a> Be that as it may, all orthodox + Muslims maintain the superiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, + over all other prophets.</p> + + <p>5. <span class="sc">The Resurrection and the last + day.</span>—These two articles of the faith may be considered + together. The <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page160"></a>[160]</span>following is a summary of the remarks of + Muhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to + acknowledge:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir + and Nakír (Ante p. <a href="#page145">145</a>) will come and interrogate + the dead person concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. + The faithful will reply: "our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our + religion, Islám; our Qibla, the Ki-'ádataba.</p> + + <p>2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will + come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjál, or Antichrist; the + descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imám Mahdí and of Gog and + Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c.</p> + + <p>3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the + air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time has + thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the dead; + that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will find + near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on the + robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of God. + Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The Faithful will + go to the right, the Infidels to the left.</p> + + <p>4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of + men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to + Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless God + has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them. If, + however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for them, + nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the fire + will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise.</p> + + <p>5. That the bridge Sirát, which is sharper than a sword, is raised + above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over + with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their + backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall + and certainly enter into the fire.</p> + + <p>6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench + their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the + largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the + other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk.</p> + + <p>7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for + ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no + kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted <!-- Page 161 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161"></a>[161]</span>from the + infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect + will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking upon + themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the bricks of + its edifices are of gold and of silver.</p> + + <p>The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented + by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as + mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they + become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may + endure fresh torments. This will last for ever."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The following additional remarks are based on the + Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí. They fall under four heads.</p> + + <p>(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Súr). This will not + take place until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: + "The resurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among my + followers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God) + and till others commence to worship monuments." Again, "The last hour + will not be till no one is found who calls on God." Then "There shall be + a blast on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in + the earth shall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. + There shall be another blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze + around them." (Súra xxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that + the Prophet speaking of the trumpet stated as follows: "After the + creation of the heavens and the earth God created the trumpet and gave it + to Isráfíl who, with his mouth placed to it, is ever looking up and + waiting for the order to blow it. He will blow three times.<a + name="NtA_157" href="#Nt_157"><sup>[157]</sup></a> The first time, the + blast of consternation, to terrify; the second, the blast of examination, + to slay; the third, the blast of resurrection, to quicken the dead." Most + persons believe that everything, save God and His attributes, will + perish. The Karamians and some other sects deny this.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page162"></a>[162]</span></p> + + <p>The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Qurán. Thus, + "They say, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first.'" + (Súra xvii. 53). "'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' + Say: 'He shall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all + creation is He skilled.'" (Súra xxxvi. 79). "Man saith: 'What! after I am + dead, shall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in + mind that we made him at first, when he was nought?" (Súra xix. 68). "The + infidels will say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When + we have become rotten bones?' 'This then,' say they, 'will be a return to + loss.' Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the + surface of the earth." (Súra lxxix. 10-14). "Is He not powerful enough to + quicken the dead?" (Súra lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to + judgment. "'Never,' say the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us.' + Say: 'Yea, by my Lord who knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon + you, ... to the intent that God may reward those who have believed, ... + but as for those who aim to invalidate our signs, a chastisement of + painful torment awaiteth them.'" (Súra xxxiv. 3, 4). "A terrible + chastisement doth await them <i>on the Day</i> when faces shall turn + white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after your belief have ye + become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that ye have been + unbelievers.' And as to those whose faces shall have become white, they + shall be within the mercy of God." (Súra iii, 102). The Prophet knew not + the time when all this would take place. "They will ask thee of the + 'Hour,' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou of it? + Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with the + warning of those who fear it." (Súra lxxix. 41-45.) These and similar + texts show the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijmá' of + the Faithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an + infidel. The <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page163"></a>[163]</span>Mutazilites show from reason that a + resurrection of the body is necessary in order that rewards and + punishment may be bestowed. The orthodox agree with the conclusion, but + hesitate to base it on reason.<a name="NtA_158" + href="#Nt_158"><sup>[158]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease + to be, but that at the last God will gather them together. "Thinketh man + that we shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are + able evenly to replace." (Súra lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, hold + that this verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a + belief supported by the Prophet's saying, "All the sons of men will be + annihilated." It will be a re-creation though the body will return to its + former state.</p> + + <p>The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this + period of the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to + its revival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of + the soul, for it exists in the body as "fire in coal," hence its revival + is included in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it + is a distinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The + scholastics favour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same + in both cases. The resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils + and beasts, insects and birds—all will rise at the last day. + Muhammad will come first in order and be the first to enter Paradise.</p> + + <p>(2). The descent of the Books (Tatáír-i-sahá,íf). After the + resurrection, men will wander about for forty years, during which time + the "Books of Actions" will be given to them. These books contain the + record kept by the Kirám-ul-Kátibín, (Ante p. <a + href="#page141">141</a>). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state: "Men + will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand for + forty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens + (<i>i.e.</i> expecting the books.) They will perspire profusely through + <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page164"></a>[164]</span>excess of sorrow.<a name="NtA_159" + href="#Nt_159"><sup>[159]</sup></a> Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on + clothes.' He will put on a robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad + for whose benefit a fountain will flow forth not far from Mecca. The + people, too, shall thirst no more." The Prophet said: "I will also put on + a dress and will stand near the throne, where no one else will be allowed + to stand and God will say: 'Ask and it shall be granted to thee; + intercede, thy intercession shall be accepted.'" Each book flies from the + treasury under the Throne of God and is given to its proper owner. "Every + man's fate have We fastened about his neck; and on the day of + resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man) a book which shall be + proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, there needeth none but + thyself to make out an account against thee this day.'" (Súra xvii. 15). + "He into whose <i>right</i> hand his book shall be given, shall be + reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his + kindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (<i>i.e.</i> + into his <i>left</i> hand) shall invoke destruction." (Súra lxxxiv. + 8-11.) "He, who shall have his book given into his <i>left</i> hand will + say: 'O that my book had never been given me! and that I had not known my + reckoning.'" (Súra lxix. 25). It is always said that wicked Musalmáns + will be seized by the <i>right</i> hand before they are cast into the + fire, which is a proof that they are not always to remain there. Some + hold that the expression "Read thy book" implies a literal reading; + others that it is a metaphorical expression which simply means that all + the past actions will be known. Those who believe in a literal reading + say that each believer will read the account of his faults only, and that + other persons will read that of his good deeds. The face of the believer + as he reads will shine resplendently, but black will be the face of the + infidel.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page165"></a>[165]</span></p> + + <p>(3). The Balances (Mízán). This belief is based on the authority of + the Qurán, Sunnat and the Ijmá'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt + about it. Thus: "They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; + but they whose balances shall be light,—these are they who shall + lose their souls, abiding in hell for ever." (Súra xxiii. 104). "As to + him whose balances are heavy, his shall be a life that shall please him + well: and as to him whose balances are light, his dwelling-place shall be + the pit. And who shall teach thee what the pit (Al-Háwía) is? A raging + fire!" (Súra ci. 5-8). The Traditions on this point are very numerous. + The Ijmá' is also strong on the reality, the objective existence, of a + balance with scales, &c., complete. They also state that the "Books + of Actions" (Sahá,íf-i-A'mál) will be weighed. In the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí it + is said that the Believers will not be weighed in the balances, for "God + will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thy people, from whom no account is + taken, enter into Paradise.'" Prophets and angels will also be exempt. + Such a test also is not required for the unbelievers, for their state is + very evident; "By their tokens shall the sinners be known, and they shall + be seized by their forelocks and their feet." (Súra lv. 41). Thus it is + evident that, with regard to true believers and unbelievers, the works of + such only as God may choose need be weighed. Some, however, maintain that + no unbeliever will have this test applied to his case and quote: "Vain + therefore, are their works; and no weight will we allow them on the day + of resurrection." (Súra xviii. 105). To this it is answered, that all + that is here denied is the fact of "a weighing in <i>their favour</i>." + The place where the weighing will take place is situated midway between + heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the movement of the scales + and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are not agreed as to whether + there will be a separate balance for each tribe of men, and also for each + of the 'good works' <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>[166]</span>of the believers. Those who hold that + there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting and so on, adduce + the use of the plural form, balances (muwázín) in proof of their + statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the + "works" themselves, or the books (sahá,íf) will be weighed. The latter + opinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmízí. "The Prophet + said: 'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will + extend as far as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny + this, or have the recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: + 'No! O Lord.' 'Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord.' Then God will + display a cloth on which the Kalima is written. This will be put into one + scale, and God will say: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register + in this scale, and this cloth in the other, for the first scale will be + light.'" This is considered conclusive testimony with regard to the + weighing of the Sahá,íf. The Mutazilites objected to statements such as + these, for said they: "actions are accidents, and the qualities of + lightness and heaviness cannot be attributed to accidents." They + explained the verses of the Qurán and the statements of the Traditions on + this point, as being a figurative way of saying that perfect justice will + be done to all in the Day of Judgment.</p> + + <p>(4). The Bridge (Sirát). The meaning of the word Sirát is a road, a + way. It is so used in the Qurán. In connection with the Day of Judgment + it is said: "If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even + then would they speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirát)." (Súra + xxxvi. 66). "Gather together those who have acted unjustly, and their + consorts (demons), and the gods whom they have adored beside God; and + guide them to the road (Sirát) for hell." (Súra xxxvii. 23). It is + nowhere in the Qurán called a bridge, but Tradition is very clear on this + point. The Prophet said: "There will be a bridge sharper than the edge of + a sword, finer than a hair, suspended over <!-- Page 167 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>[167]</span>hell. Iron spikes on it + will pierce those whom God wills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling + of an eye, some like a flash of lightning, others with the speed of a + swift horse. The angels will call out, 'O Lord! save and protect.' Some + Muslims will be saved, some will fall headlong into hell." Bukhárí + relates a similar Tradition. The infidels will all fall into hell and + there remain for ever. Muslims will be released after a while.</p> + + <p>The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. "If we admit it," + say they, "it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not + for them in the Day of Judgment." To this the orthodox reply that the + believers pass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that + thus they may be delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may + feel chagrin at those who were with them on the bridge being now safe for + ever.</p> + + <p>Al A'ráf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: + "On (the wall) Al A'ráf shall be men who know all, by their tokens,<a + name="NtA_160" href="#Nt_160"><sup>[160]</sup></a> and they shall cry to + the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but they shall not yet + enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyes are turned + towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord! place us + not with offending people &c.'" (Súra vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary of + the opinions regarding Al A'ráf in his Preliminary Discourse is + exceedingly good. It is as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Aráf, a + word derived from the verb <i>Arafa</i>, which signifies to distinguish + between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another + reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who + stand on this partition will <i>know</i> and <i>distinguish</i> the + blessed from the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: + and others way the word properly intends anything that is <i>high + raised</i> or <i>elevated</i>, as such a wall of separation must be + supposed to <!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page168"></a>[168]</span>be. Some imagine it to be a sort of + <i>limbo</i> for the patriarchs and prophets, or for the martyrs and + those who have been most eminent for sanctity. Others place here such + whose good and evil works are so equal that they exactly counterpoise + each other, and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment; and + these, say they, will on the last day be admitted into Paradise, after + they shall have performed an act of adoration, which will be imputed to + them as a merit, and will make the scale of their good works to + overbalance. Others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle + for those who have gone to war, without their parents' leave, and therein + suffered martyrdom; being excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, + and escaping hell because they are martyrs."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>There is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world + and the Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. "Behind them shall be a barrier + (barzakh), until the day when they shall be raised again." (Súra xxiii. + 102). When death takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the + Angel of death; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked + with violence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh.<a name="NtA_161" + href="#Nt_161"><sup>[161]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is a doctrine founded on Ijmá', that God will not pardon Shirk, + that is, the ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one + who does so, will remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an + eternal crime, its punishment must also be eternal. "The unbelievers + among the people of the Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the + fire of Gehenna to abide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the + worst?" (Súra xcviii. 5). "Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened + one, the hinderer of the good, the transgressor, the doubter who set up + other Gods with God. Cast ye him into the fierce torment." (Súra 1. + 23-25.)</p> + + <p>Muslims who commit great (Kabíra) sins, though they die unrepentant, + will not remain in hell for ever, for, "whosoever shall have wrought an + atom's weight of good shall <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page169"></a>[169]</span>behold it." (Súra xcix. 7). It is asserted + that the fact of believing in Islám is a good work and merits a reward: + this cannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his + sins, and therefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. + "Perfect faith (Imán-i-Kámil) consists in believing with sincerity of + heart and acting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith + itself. Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from having "perfect faith," + but do not destroy faith (Imán), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only + a sinner."<a name="NtA_162" href="#Nt_162"><sup>[162]</sup></a> The + Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will remain there for + ever. They maintain that the person who, having committed great sins, + dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be a believer and + hence suffers as the infidels do.</p> + + <p>The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be + so at the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is + the 'great intercession' to which the words, "it may be that thy Lord + will raise thee to a <i>glorious station</i>," (Súra xvii. 81) are + supposed to refer. The Maqám-i-mahmúd, (glorious station), is said to be + the place of intercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet.<a + name="NtA_163" href="#Nt_163"><sup>[163]</sup></a> In the Zád-ul-Masír it + is said that the Maqám-i-mahmúd refers to the fact that God will place + the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place in which a + standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the other prophets + will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is, however, + the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will say: "O + my people! I am appointed for intercession." Their fear will then pass + away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter into + Paradise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regard + to this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who <!-- + Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>[170]</span>ought + to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one but the + Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an + increase of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained + that there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, and + adduced in favour of their opinion the verse: "Fear ye the day when soul + shall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be accepted + from them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped." + (Súra ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadís-i-Sahíh: "The + Prophet said: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have + committed great sins.'" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that + the verse in the Qurán just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but + to the Infidels.<a name="NtA_164" href="#Nt_164"><sup>[164]</sup></a></p> + + <p>According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: "In the day + of resurrection Musalmáns will not be able to move, and they will be + greatly distressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create + some one to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and + be delivered from tribulation and sorrow.'" The Tradition goes on to + state how they sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old + dispensation, who, one and all, excused themselves on account of their + own sinfulness. At length Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of + God, the Spirit of God and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: + "Go to Muhammad who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first + and last." The Prophet continued, according to the Tradition, "then the + Musalmáns will come to me, and I will ask permission to go into God's + presence and intercede for them."<a name="NtA_165" + href="#Nt_165"><sup>[165]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. "Jesus is no + more than a servant whom We favoured ... <!-- Page 171 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page171"></a>[171]</span>and he shall be a sign + of the last hour." (Súra xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Qurán, + come as a judge, but like other prophets to be judged. "We formed with + them (<i>i.e.</i> prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the + men of truth as to their truth, (<i>i.e.</i> how they have discharged + their prophetic functions)." (Súra xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear + witness against the Jews who reject him: "In the day of resurrection, He + will be a witness against them." (Súra iv. 158).</p> + + <p>It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. + This faith is founded on the verse "Truly we have given thee an + <i>abundance</i>." (Súra cviii. 1). Bukhárí says: "The meaning of Kausar + is the 'abundance of good' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Básh said + to one Sa'íd, 'the people think that Kausar is a river of Paradise.' + Sa'íd replied, 'Kausar is a river in which there is abundance of good.'" + According to the same authority Muhammad said: "My pond is square, its + water is whiter than milk, its perfume better than that of musk, + whosoever drinks thereof will thirst no more."</p> + + <p>There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers + are admitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmízí, said there were one + hundred. Some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give + to Paradise. (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the <i>Garden of + Eternity</i> which was promised to the God-fearing, best?" (Súra xxv. + 16.) (2.) Jannat-us-Salám. "For them is a <i>Dwelling of Peace</i> with + their Lord." (Súra vi. 127.) (3.) Dár-ul-Qarár. "The life to come is the + <i>Mansion which abideth</i>." (Súra xl. 42.) (4.) Jannat-ul-'Adan. "To + the Faithful, both men and women, God promiseth gardens and goodly + mansions in the <i>Garden of Eden</i>." (Súra ix. 73.) (5.) + Jannat-ul-Mawá. "Near which is the <i>Garden of Repose</i>." (Súra liii. + 15.) (6) Jannat-un-Na'ím. "Amid <i>delights</i> shall the righteous + dwell." (Súra lxxxii. 13.) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyún. "The register of the + righteous is <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page172"></a>[172]</span>in <i>Illiyún</i>." (Súra lxxxiii. 18,) + (8.) Jannat-ul-Firdaus. "Those who believe and do the things that are + right, they shall have the <i>Gardens of Paradise</i> for their abode." + (Súra xviii. 107.)</p> + + <p>Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Qurán, though it mentions + the names of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will + be sent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed + information. They classify them thus:—(1.) Jahannam, for sinners + who die without repentance. (2.) Lazwá, for the infidels (<i>i.e.</i>, + Christians.) (3.) Hutama, a fire for Jews, and according to some for + Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for devils, the descendants of Iblís. (5.) Saqar, + for the magians: also for those who neglect prayer. (6.) Jahím, a boiling + caldron for idolaters: also for Gog and Magog. (7.) Háwía, a bottomless + pit for hypocrites. It is said that heaven has one division more than + hell to show that God's mercy exceeds His justice.</p> + + <p>The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the + events connected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of + those who are lost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an + excellent summary of these opinions, that it is not necessary to enter + into details here. The orthodox belief is that the statements in the + Qurán and the Traditions regarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be + taken literally.<a name="NtA_166" href="#Nt_166"><sup>[166]</sup></a></p> + + <p>6. <span class="sc">The Predestination of good and + evil.</span>—I have already in the section in which the attribute + "will" is described (p. 118) given some account of the dogmatic + statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as it always + forms a distinct chapter in Musalmán books, I treat it separately here. + Having, however, in the passage referred <!-- Page 173 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page173"></a>[173]</span>to, given Al Berkevi's + words on the attribute "will," it is only necessary to make a short + extract from his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He + says:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the + predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and + all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the <i>preserved + table</i>;<a name="NtA_167" href="#Nt_167"><sup>[167]</sup></a> that the + faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and good actions are + foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the writing on the + <i>preserved table</i>, produced and approved by God; that the unbelief + of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad actions come to + pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and decree of God, but + not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any ask why God willeth + and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may have wise ends in view + which we cannot comprehend."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Another confession of faith has:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith, + and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good + and evil with equal complacency is an infidel."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>There are three well-defined schools of thought on the + subject:—</p> + + <p>First.—The Jabríans, so called from the word "<i>jabr</i>" + compulsion, deny all free agency in man and say that man is necessarily + constrained by the force of God's eternal and immutable decree to act as + he does.<a name="NtA_168" href="#Nt_168"><sup>[168]</sup></a> They hold + that as <!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page174"></a>[174]</span>God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so + wills, admit all men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is + one of the branches of the Ash'aríans with whom on most points they + agree.</p> + + <p>Secondly.—The Qadríans, who deny <i>Al-Qadr</i>, or God's + absolute decree, say that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed + to God but to man, who is altogether a free agent. God has given him the + power to do or not to do an act. This sect is generally considered to be + a branch of the Mutazilite body, though in reality it existed before + Wásil quitted the school of his master Hasan (Ante. p. <a + href="#page125">125</a>). As Wásil, however, followed the opinions of + Mábad-al-Johní, the leading Kadrían divine, the Mutazilites and Qadríans + are practically one and the same.</p> + + <p>Thirdly.—The Ash'aríans, of whom I have already given some + account, maintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to + whatsoever He willeth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He + willeth that which He knoweth and what is written on the <i>preserved + table</i>; that He willeth both good and evil. So far they agree with the + Jabríans; but then they seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have + already explained when describing their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. p. <a + href="#page130">130</a>). The orthodox, or Sunní belief is theoretically + Ash'arían, but practically the Sunnís are confirmed Jabríans. The + Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical.</p> + + <p>No subject has been more warmly discussed in Islám than that of + predestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions will + present the points of difference.</p> + + <p>The Ash'aríans, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox + views, formulate their objections to the Mutazilite system + thus:—</p> + + <p>(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, + then he should also have the power of controlling the result of that + action.</p> + + <p>(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to <i>originate</i> <!-- + Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>[175]</span>an + act it is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator + should be independent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by + knowledge. To this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know + the length of a road before he walks, or the structure of the throat + before he talks.</p> + + <p>(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time + wills it to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be + a collection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if the + exaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference.</p> + + <p>(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than + some of the works of God, <i>e.g.</i> a man determines to have faith: now + faith is a better thing than reptiles, which are created by God.</p> + + <p>(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; + why does he need to thank God for grace and faith?</p> + + <p>(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the + testimony of the Book. "All things have we created under a fixed decree." + (Súra liv. 49). "When God created you and <i>that ye make</i>." (Súra + xxxvii. 94). "Some of them there were whom God guided and there were + others decreed to err." (Súra xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and + obedience He must be the causer of it, for "on the hearts of these hath + God graven the Faith." (Súra lviii. 22). "It is he who causeth you to + laugh and weep, to die and make alive." (Súra liii. 44). "If God pleased + He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance." (Súra vi. 36). + "Had God pleased, He had guided you all aright." (Súra vi. 150). "Had the + Lord pleased, He would have made mankind of one religion." (Súra xi. + 120). "God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and whom He pleaseth He will + place upon the straight path." (Súra vi. 39.) Tradition records that the + Prophet said: "God is the maker of all makers and of their actions."<a + name="NtA_169" href="#Nt_169"><sup>[169]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>[176]</span></p> + + <p>The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and + said:—</p> + + <p>(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the difference + between praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and + infidelity; good and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; + rewards and punishments; promises and threats; what is the use of + prophets, books, &c.</p> + + <p>(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If + these are created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe + plurality to the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'aríans + reply that orders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former + which they call "Amr-i-takwíti," is the order, "Be and it was." This + comprehends all existences, and according to it whatever is ordered must + come to pass. The latter they call "Amr-i-tashri'í," an order given in + the Law. This comes to men through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. + True obedience is to act according to that which is revealed, not + according to the secret intentions of God, for that we know not.</p> + + <p>(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of that + which he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny + a tyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy.</p> + + <p>(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophet + desires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the + orthodox reply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man + will die an infidel. <!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page177"></a>[177]</span>If a prophet intends by bringing the + message of salvation to such an one to make God's knowledge become + ignorance, he would be doing wrong; but as he does not know the secret + decrees of God, his duty is to deliver his message according to the + Hadís: "A prophet has only to deliver the clear message."</p> + + <p>(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Qurán, + in which the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c., are + applied to men. Such are the verses: "Whatever is in the heavens and in + the earth is God's that He may reward those who <i>do</i> evil according + to their deeds: and those who <i>do</i> good will He reward with good + things." (Súra liii. 32). "Whoso shall have <i>wrought</i> evil shall not + be recompensed but with its like: but whoso shall have <i>done</i> the + things that are right, whether male or female and is a believer, these + shall enter Paradise." (Súra xl. 43). Say: "the truth is from the Lord; + let him then who will believe; and let him who will, be an infidel." + (Súra xviii. 28).<a name="NtA_170" href="#Nt_170"><sup>[170]</sup></a> + "Those who add Gods to God will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor + our fathers had given Him companions.' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a + conceit, ye utter lies.'" (Súra vi. 149). The Hadís is also very plain. + "All good is in Thy hands and evil is not to Thee." (Al-khair kuluhu fí + yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.)</p> + + <p>The Ash'aríans have one famous text which they bring to bear against + all this reasoning and evidence. It is: "This truly is a warning; and + whoso willeth, taketh the way of his Lord; but <i>will it ye shall + not</i>, unless God will it, for God is knowing, wise." (Súra lxxvi. 29, + 30). To the Hadís they reply (1) that there is a difference between + acquiescence in evil and decreeing it. Thus the expression "God willeth + not tyranny for His servants," does not mean <!-- Page 178 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page178"></a>[178]</span>that God hath not + decreed it, but that tyranny is not one of His attributes: so "evil is + not to Thee" means it is not an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadís must + be explained in accordance with the teaching of the Qurán.</p> + + <p>The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. + Averhoes says: "We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is + always determined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something + which pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is + thus bound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain + order of things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone + knows before hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. The + connection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of + nature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees and + predestination.'"<a name="NtA_171" + href="#Nt_171"><sup>[171]</sup></a></p> + + <p>I have already shown how, as Islám grew into a system, the Muslims + fell into a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters + and words of the Qurán. With this declension came a still more distorted + view of the character of God. The quotations made from the Qurán in the + last few pages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to + attribute freedom to man and speak of his consequent responsibility, + others teach a clear and distinct fatalism. The great strength of Islám + lay in the energy with which Muhammad preached the doctrine that God was + a divine Ruler, one who would deal righteous judgment, who "taught man + that which he knew not." As the system became more complex and + dogmatic—a very necessary result of its first principles—men + lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became an unapproachable being. + A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of the Omnipotent Ruler. It is this + dark fatalism which, whatever the Qurán may teach on the subject, is the + ruling principle in all Muslim <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page179"></a>[179]</span>communities. It is this which makes all + Muhammadan nations decay. Careless of self-improvement,<a name="NtA_172" + href="#Nt_172"><sup>[172]</sup></a> heedless of the need of progress, the + Muslim nations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher + aspects of intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the + west.</p> + + <p>The subject of <i>'Ilm-i-Aqáíd</i>, or the science of dogma properly + ends here, but most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the + subject a few practical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. + The believer who commits murder, fornication, &c., does not cease to + be a Muslim provided that he does not say that these are allowed: should + he die unrepentant, God can punish him for a while in hell, or forgive + him without punishment. The Hadd, a punishment based on a Záhir, or + obvious sentence of the Qurán requires that a Muslim who apostatizes + shall be put to death.<a name="NtA_173" + href="#Nt_173"><sup>[173]</sup></a> In the case of an apostate woman, + Imám Abu Hanífa ruled that she should be imprisoned and beaten every day. + The other three Imáms, Málik, Sháfa'í and Hanbal said that she should be + put to death in accordance with the Tradition which says: "He who changes + his religion, kill." The Arabic word "man," usually translated "He who" + is of common gender, and so these Imáms include women in the list of + those who, after apostasy, are to be killed.<a name="NtA_174" + href="#Nt_174"><sup>[174]</sup></a> God does not pardon polytheism and + infidelity; but He can, if He willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any + one is asked, "dost thou believe?" he should reply, "I am truly a + believer," and not say: "If God <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page180"></a>[180]</span>willeth."<a name="NtA_175" + href="#Nt_175"><sup>[175]</sup></a> If any one says to him: "Wilt thou + die in the faith?" he should reply: "I do not know, God knows." Except + when speaking of prophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, + such as Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí, it must not be said of any one, + "he is gone to Paradise," for God only knows his state. Prayer should be + made for a deceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give + alms, to read the Qurán, to perform other good works, and to apply the + merit thus gained to the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial + act.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page181"></a>[181]</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<h3>NOTE TO CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY.</p> + + <p>I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or + the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the orthodox + party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the subject of + this note. The Khalíf Mámún (813-833 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>), a + notorious free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic + researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated + into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly, + because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of the + Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly, because + his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the daily + quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite natural that + Aristotle should be thus followed. "The Musalmán mind was trained in + habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed dogmas. The + Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to cultivate their own + intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle systematist like + Aristotle was the very man they required."<a name="NtA_176" + href="#Nt_176"><sup>[176]</sup></a> Some idea of the range of subjects + then discussed may be gained from an account given by the Arab historian, + Masoudi, of a meeting held under the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the + famous Barmecide family.<a name="NtA_177" + href="#Nt_177"><sup>[177]</sup></a> Yahya thus addressed the meeting: + "You have discussed at length the theory of concealment (Al-Kumún) and + manifestation (Al-Zahúr), of pre-existence and creation, of duration and + stability, of movement and quiescence, of the union and separation (of + the Divine substance), of existence and non-existence, of bodies and + accidents, of the approval and the refutation (of the Isnáds of the + Traditions), of the absence or the existence of attributes in God, of + potential and active force, of substance, quantity, modality and + relation, of life and annihilation. You have examined the question as to + whether the Imám rules by divine right, or by popular election; you have + had an exhaustive discussion on metaphysical subjects, in their + principles and corollaries. Occupy yourselves to-day with the subject of + love," &c.</p> + + <p>The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek + authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and <!-- Page 182 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>[182]</span>especially by + the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour with the liberal + Khalífs of the 'Abbásside dynasty. In some cases the translation into + Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time of the Emperor + Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the latter language. + The most celebrated translator was the historian physician + Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>), a man + profoundly acquainted with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was + at the head of a school of interpreters in Baghdád, to which his son + Ishak-ben-Honein and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the + tenth century (<span class="scac">A.D.</span>) Yahya-ben-Adi and + Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and corrected earlier translations + of others. It is to these men that the Arabs owe their chief acquaintance + with Plato.</p> + + <p>The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people, + especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave + suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse. + The historian Makrizi says: "The doctrine of the Philosophers has worked + amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment the + errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety."<a name="NtA_178" + href="#Nt_178"><sup>[178]</sup></a> It came into contact with Muslim + dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the world, the special + providence of God and the nature of the divine attributes. To a certain + extent the Mutazilites were supported by the philosophical theories they + embraced, but this did not diminish the disfavour with which the orthodox + looked upon the study of philosophy. Still it grew, and men in self + defence had to adopt philosophic methods. Thus arose a later system of + scholasticism. The earlier system was confined mainly to matters of + religion; the later school occupied itself with the whole range of + philosophic investigation, and thus went farther and farther away from + orthodox Islám.</p> + + <p>The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the + earlier period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but + orthodoxy finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the + form known as that of the Ash'arían School became again supreme.<a + name="NtA_179" href="#Nt_179"><sup>[179]</sup></a> The great intellectual + movement of the Philosophers proper, the later scholastics + (Mutakallimán), lasted longer, but by the end of the twelfth century + (<span class="scac">A.D.</span>) the whole Muhammadan world had again + become orthodox. Saláh-ud-dín (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were + strong supporters of the Ash'aríans.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183"></a>[183]</span></p> + + <p>The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar, + rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of + philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers + were then, and are now, considered heretics.<a name="NtA_180" + href="#Nt_180"><sup>[180]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870 + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> He was a very scientific man, but a + thorough rationalist in theology. He composed commentaries on the logic + of Aristotle. In his great work on the unity of God he has strayed far + away from Muslim dogmas.</p> + + <p>Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbássides, seems to + have denied not only the rigid and formal Islámic view of inspiration, + but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true + inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were real + prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his + philosophical training at Baghdád, where for a while he taught; but + finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span></p> + + <p>Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a + Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the + concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not find + favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of Islám. + He was born near Bukhárá, in the year 980 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + For a while he taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahán.</p> + + <p>Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim + Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the + eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical + tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzálí, and for maintaining that + speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true conception + of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the orthodox + divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was "a calamity for + religion and an affliction to those who were in the good way."</p> + + <p>Al-Ghazzálí was born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1059 in Khorásán. + He was a famous Muslim divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while + he was President of the Nizámiah College at Baghdád. He travelled much, + and wrote many books to prove the superiority of Islám over all other + religions and over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive + study of the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that + he fell into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and + philosophy. From this he emerged into Súfíism, in <!-- Page 184 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page184"></a>[184]</span>which his restless + spirit found satisfaction. On Súfíism, however, he exercised no very + notable influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards + philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were + trying to bring Islám into accord with philosophic theories. His works, + "Tendency of Philosophers," and "Destruction of the Philosophers" had an + immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of "those + who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in their + pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the authority + of certain great men, instead of revealed religion." It is, however, and + with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzálí did not really object + to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox he wrote what he + did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzálí later on in life + wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select friends, in which he + withdrew many of the objections he had raised in the "Destruction of + Philosophers." Be that as it may, it is acknowledged that he dealt a blow + to philosophy from which in the East it has never recovered; that is, as + far as the Muslim world is concerned. His course marks a reaction of the + exclusively religious principle of Islám against philosophical + speculation, which in spite of all accommodation never made itself + orthodox.</p> + + <p>In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashíd, + better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in the + year 1126 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, or about 520 of the Muhammadan + era. He came of a noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever + occupy a distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. "Without + dispute he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one + of the profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences + then accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer."<a + name="NtA_181" href="#Nt_181"><sup>[181]</sup></a> One of his most famous + works was the "Refutation of the destruction of Philosophers." + Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes claimed to pass for a + good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths are the highest object + of research; but that only a few men could by speculation arrive at them, + and that, therefore, a divine revelation through the medium of prophets + was necessary for spreading amongst men the eternal verities which are + proclaimed alike by philosophy and religion. He held, it is true, that + the orthodox had paid too much attention to the letter, and too little to + the spirit, and that false interpretations had educed principles not + really to be found in religion. This <!-- Page 185 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page185"></a>[185]</span>profession and a rigid + adherence to outward forms of worship, however, did not save him from + suspicion. He was accused of preaching philosophy and the ancient + sciences to the detriment of religion. He was deprived of his honours and + banished by the Khalíf Al-Mansúr to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace + he had to suffer many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the + mosque with his son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at + Morocco in 1198 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> Thus passed away in + disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers worthy of the name.<a + name="NtA_182" href="#Nt_182"><sup>[182]</sup></a> In Spain a strict + prohibition was issued against the study of Greek philosophy, and many + valuable works were committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the + Moors in Spain began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, + and liberal culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic + system of Islám. In Spain,<a name="NtA_183" + href="#Nt_183"><sup>[183]</sup></a> as in Baghdád, orthodoxy gained the + day. There was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim + Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their + efforts to rationalize Islám, they also tried to cast off what to them + seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical + Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no + gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could + enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject. Another + strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove was a + logical development of the foundations of Islám, and these foundations + are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual one to uproot. + They were men of good position in life, voluminous writers, profound + admirers of Aristotle, and "more or less devoted to science, especially + to medicine." Yet they did not advance philosophy, and science they left + much as they found it. They preserved something of what Grecian thought + had achieved, and so far their labour is not lost.</p> + + <p>Thus Islám has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory + which Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. <!-- Page + 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page186"></a>[186]</span>The + founders of Islám, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of note.<a + name="NtA_184" href="#Nt_184"><sup>[184]</sup></a> The first impetus to + the study was given by heretical Khalífs employing Christians at Baghdád + to translate Greek books; whilst in Spain, where philosophy most + flourished, it was due largely to the contact of intelligent Muslims with + learned Jews. Even there, the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects + of bitter persecution. Now and again, a liberal minded Khalíf arose, but + a system such as Islám survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. + From the close of the twelfth century (<span class="scac">A.D.</span>) + downwards it would be difficult to point to any Muslim Philosopher, much + more to an Arab one, whose work is of any real value to the human race. + For four hundred years the contest raged, a contest such as Islám has + never since seen. This great effort to bring it into accordance with the + main stream of human thought, to introduce into it some element of + progress utterly failed. The lesson is plain. Any project of reform in + Islám which admits in any degree its fundamental principles must fail. + Revolution, not reform, is the only hope for the permanence of an + independent Muslim state when it enters into the circle of civilized + nations.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page187"></a>[187]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<h3>THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM.</h3> + + <p>The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected + with Imán (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Dín (practical + religion). The five principal acts are called Irkán-i-Dín, pillars of + religion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession of + faith; (2) Sulát, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirty + days' fast of Ramazán; (4) Zakát, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to + Mecca. These are all <i>farz</i> duties, being based on a Nass-i-Záhir, + or "obvious," sentence of the Qurán, a proof derived from which is called + dalíl-i-qata'í. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs.</p> + + <p>The authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good + Muslims should perform. Such are the seven duties which are <i>wájib</i>, + or duties based on the more obscure texts of the Qurán, called Khafi, or + "hidden" sentences, a proof derived from which is called dalíl-i-zaní. + These duties are: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in + addition to the Hajj; (2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a + wife to her husband; (4) the giving of alms after a fast; (5) the + offering of sacrifice; (6) the saying of Namáz-i-witr, a term which will + be explained later on; (7) the support of relatives. The duties numbered + as (4) and (5) are <i>wájib</i> orders to the rich; but only + <i>mustahab</i> to the poor: that is, it is meritorious if they perform + them, but not sinful if they leave them undone.</p> + + <p>The duties next in order as regards authority are the <i>sunnat</i> + ones. They are three in number and are based either on the practice of + the Prophet, or are <i>fitrat</i>, that is practices of previous + prophets, the continuance of which <!-- Page 188 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page188"></a>[188]</span>Muhammad did not + forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shaving off the hair from the head + and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. In addition to these there are + actions which are <i>mustahab</i>. They are those which Muhammad + sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lower class of + action which are <i><span class="correction" title="mubah in original, corrected by Errata" + >mubáh</span></i>. These are works of supererogation. If omitted there is + no fear of punishment.</p> + + <p>It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are + (1) <i>Harám</i>, actions and food forbidden either in the Qurán or the + Traditions; (2) <i>Mahrúh</i>, actions the unlawfulness of which is not + absolutely certain, but which are generally considered wrong; (3) + <i>Mufsid</i>, actions corrupting or pernicious. It is necessary to bear + these terms in mind as they will now frequently occur.</p> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">Tashahhud.</span>—This is the recital of a + confession of faith. There are several forms of this. A common one is: "I + testify that there is no deity but God, I testify to His unity and that + He has no partner; I testify that Muhammad is His servant and His + messenger." The shorter form is: "There is no deity but God and Muhammad + is the apostle of God." The power contained in this latter confession is + extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of Islám. "It has led + everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for twelve centuries in + the morning air from its minarets, it has been passed from lip to lip, as + no other word has ever been passed, by thousands of millions of the human + race." The power of Islám, its proclamation of the Unity, is here seen in + the closest contact with what is to Muslim theologians the equally + fundamental truth—the apostleship of Muhammad, a dogma which + retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, and causes the + prostration of Islám, as the world around grows luminant with the light + of science and truth, of faith and reason.</p> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">Sulát.</span><a name="NtA_185" + href="#Nt_185"><sup>[185]</sup></a>—All the books on Fiqh (Law) + which treat of <!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page189"></a>[189]</span>these Irkán-i-dín, give in connection with + Sulát the rules regarding the necessary purifications. It will be + convenient to follow the same order.</p> + + <p>Tahárat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazú, the lesser + lustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, or + purification by sand.</p> + + <p>(1). Wazú is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. + Those which are 'farz' are four in number, viz:—to wash (1) the + face from the top of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; + and (2) the hands and arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the + wet hand a fourth part of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The + authority for these actions is the text: "O Believers! when ye address + yourselves to prayer, wash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your + heads, and your feet to the ankles" (Súra v. 8). The Sunnís wash the + feet: the Shía'hs are apparently more correct, for they only wipe, or + rather rub, (masah) them. In these ablutions, if the least portion of the + specified part is left untouched, the whole act becomes useless and the + prayer which follows is vain.</p> + + <p>The act of making wazú, however, has not been allowed to remain in + this simple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in + number. They are, (1) to make the intention of wazú, thus: I make this + wazú for the purpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to + the wrist, but care must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the + water, until each has been rubbed three times with water poured on it; + (3) to say one of the names of God at the commencement of the wazú<a + name="NtA_186" href="#Nt_186"><sup>[186]</sup></a> thus: "In the name of + the Great God," or "Thanks be to God for the religion of Islám;" (4) to + clean the teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water + into the <!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page190"></a>[190]</span>nostrils three times; (7) to do all the + above in proper order; (8) to do all without any delay between the + various acts; (9) each part is to be purified three times; (10) the space + between the fingers of one hand must be rubbed with the wet fingers of + the other; (11) the beard must be combed with the fingers; (<span + class="correction" title="'13' in original">12</span>) the whole head + must be rubbed once; (13) the ears must be washed with the water + remaining on the fingers after the last operation; (14) to rub under and + between the toes with the little finger of the left hand, drawing it from + the little toe of the right foot and between each toe in succession. Imám + Sháfa'í holds that (1) and (7) are farz duties and that (12) should be + done three times. Imám Málik considers (8) to be farz.</p> + + <p>The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a + recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. + A specimen of these prayers is given in a note.<a name="NtA_187" + href="#Nt_187"><sup>[187]</sup></a></p> + + <p>(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal + defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on + clean clothes and perform the wazú, then he should say: "I make ghusl to + put away impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the + following order. He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, + then over the left three times and, lastly, on his head <!-- Page 191 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191"></a>[191]</span>also the same + number of times. The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be + rinsed, (2) water be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be + washed. If one hair even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and + useless. All other particulars are sunnat or mustahab.</p> + + <p>There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which + vitiate a purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, + cannot be given here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals + fully with the subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of + Islám how much the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The + Traditions have raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into + duties of the greatest importance. That there may be spiritually minded + men in Islám is not to be denied; but a system of religion which declares + that the virtue of prayer depends practically on an ablution, and that + that ablution is useless unless done in the order prescribed, is one well + calculated to make men formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, + that, if a man when making wazú washes his left hand before his right, or + his nose before his teeth, he cannot lawfully say the daily Namáz + enjoined on all Muslims. None but those who have studied Muslim treatises + on the subject can conceive of the puerile discussions which have taken + place on points apparently trivial, but which from their connection with + the Sunnat are deemed by learned Muslims of great importance.</p> + + <p>(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the + following circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a + distance of one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use + of water might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without + incurring danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the + occasion of the Namáz of a Feast day or the Namáz at a funeral, the + worshipper is late and has no time to perform the wazú. On ordinary days + this substitution of tayammum for wazú is not allowable.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192"></a>[192]</span></p> + + <p>The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make + tayammum to put away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed + Satan. I commence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose + praises are in the religion of Islám." He then strikes the sand with open + hands, rubs his mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair + must be left untouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts + are to make the intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. + "If ye are sick, or on a journey, or if one of you come from the place of + retirement, or if ye have touched women, and ye find no water, then take + clean sand and rub your faces and your hands with it." (Súra v. 9.)</p> + + <p>Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be + used for purification. The following kinds of water are + lawful:—rain, sea, river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice + is not lawful. The first kind is authorized by the Qurán. "He sent you + down water from heaven that He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the + pollution of Satan to pass from you." (Súra viii. 11.) The use of the + others is sanctioned by the Traditions. I give one illustration. A man + one day <span class="correction" title="'come' in original">came</span> + to the Prophet and said: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a + small supply of fresh water; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none + wherewith to quench my thirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: + "The water of the sea is pure." Tirmízí states that this is a + Hadís-i-Sahíh. Great difference of opinion exists with regard to what + constitutes impurity in water, and so renders it unfit for ablutions. It + would be wearisome to the reader to enter into all details, but I may + briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, it is generally held that if a + dead body or any unclean thing falls into flowing water, or into a + reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used, provided always that + the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for this reason that + the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits square. If of <!-- + Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page193"></a>[193]</span>that + size, it is called a <i>dah dar dah</i>, (literally 10 x 10). It may be, + and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one foot deep.</p> + + <p>The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence + the Namáz.</p> + + <p>(4). Salát or Namáz. The Namáz can be said either in private or in + public. All that is required is that the clothes and person of the + worshipper should be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that + the face be turned towards Mecca. Whether the Namáz is said in public or + in private, it must be preceded by wazú, except when tayammum is allowed. + If the Namáz<a name="NtA_188" href="#Nt_188"><sup>[188]</sup></a> is said + in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious than repeating it + in private, it must be preceded by the Azán, or call to prayers, and the + Iqámat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in which the + Musallí, one who says the Salát, must stand and the words he is to say + are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea of a + Namáz, or Service.<a name="NtA_189" + href="#Nt_189"><sup>[189]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Mu,azzin<a name="NtA_190" href="#Nt_190"><sup>[190]</sup></a> + calls out loudly in Arabic:—</p> + + <p>"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar<a + name="NtA_191" href="#Nt_191"><sup>[191]</sup></a>!"</p> + + <p>All who hear it respond:—</p> + + <p>"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar!"</p> + + <p>The Mu,azzin says:—</p> + + <p>"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but + God."</p> + + <p>Each of his auditors replies:—</p> + + <p>"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but + God."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page194"></a>[194]</span></p> + + <p>Mu,azzin:—"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."</p> + + <p>Auditor:—"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."</p> + + <p>Mu,azzin:—"Come to prayer."</p> + + <p>Auditor:—"I have no power or strength but from God most High and + Great."</p> + + <p>Mu,azzin:—"Come to do good."</p> + + <p>Auditor:—"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not + be."</p> + + <p>If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: + "Prayer is better than sleep," to which the response is given: "Thou hast + spoken well." "Alláhu Akbar," and "There is no God but God" are then + repeated twice and so the Azán ends.</p> + + <p>The Iqámat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the + Azán, but after the words, "come to do good," the statement "prayer has + commenced" is made.</p> + + <p>These preliminaries being now over, the Namáz can commence. It is as + follows:</p> + + <p>The Musallí, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side + and says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):—</p> + + <p>"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this + morning (or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the + case may be) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may + be)."</p> + + <p>Then follows the Takbír-i-Tahrímah, said with the thumbs touching the + lobes of the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. + The fingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the + Musallí says:—"Alláhu Akbar!"</p> + + <p>The Qíám, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being + placed on the back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former + seize the wrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the + navel,<a name="NtA_192" href="#Nt_192"><sup>[192]</sup></a> the eyes are + <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page195"></a>[195]</span>directed towards the spot where the head + of the worshipper will touch the ground in prostration, and the Saná is + said. It is:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee!</p> + <p>Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness!</p> + <p>There is no God but Thee!"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The Ta'awwuz is then said:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Then follows the Tasmíyah:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Then follows the Fátiha,<a name="NtA_193" + href="#Nt_193"><sup>[193]</sup></a> or first chapter of the + Qurán:—</p> + + <p>"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the + Merciful! King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to + Thee do we cry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of + those to whom Thou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and + who go not astray."</p> + + <p>After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Qurán as + he likes.<a name="NtA_194" href="#Nt_194"><sup>[194]</sup></a> Some + verses he must repeat.</p> + + <p>The Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (Súra 112) is generally said:—</p> + + <p>"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not + begotten; and there is none like unto Him."</p> + + <p>The Takbír-i-rukú'—Alláhu Akbar!—is said whilst the + Musallí makes an inclination of the head and body, and separating the + fingers a little, places his hands upon his knees.</p> + + <p>The Tasbíh-i-rukú' is said in the same position. It is:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!</p> + <p>I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!</p> + <p>I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The Tasmía' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands + placed on either side. Thus:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page196"></a>[196]</span></p> + + <p>"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised<a + name="NtA_195" href="#Nt_195"><sup>[195]</sup></a>."</p> + + <p>The Takbír-i-Sijdar—Alláhu Akbar!—is said as the + worshipper drops on his knees.</p> + + <p>The Musallí then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers + close to each other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on + the side of the feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow + must not touch the side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the + calf of the leg. The eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches + the ground first with his nose, and then with his forehead, taking care + that the thumbs just touch the lobe of the ears.<a name="NtA_196" + href="#Nt_196"><sup>[196]</sup></a> All this being carefully attended to, + the Musallí can say the Tasbíh-i-Sijda thus:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!</p> + <p>I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!</p> + <p>I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, + places his hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the + Takbír-i-Jalsa<a name="NtA_197" + href="#Nt_197"><sup>[197]</sup></a>—"Alláhu Akbar!"</p> + + <p>After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the + Takbír-i-Sijda and the Tasbíh-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when + in the act of rising up the Musallí says the Takbír-i-Qíám—"Alláhu + Akbar!"</p> + + <p>This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fátiha, + so that after saying the Takbír-i-Qíám a Musallí would have to begin + again at that place (p. <a href="#page195">195</a>) and repeat all that + he had just finished; the only change being that after the Fátiha, he + recites different verses of the Qurán to those he said in the first + rak'at. After two rak'ats have been said, and after the last, though it + be an odd number, the <!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page197"></a>[197]</span>Musallí, unless he is a Shía'h, places his + left foot under him and sits upon it. He then places his hands above his + knees, as for the Takbír-i-Jalsa, and with his eyes directed towards his + lap says the Attahíyát:—</p> + + <p>"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of + the body, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of + God and His blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous + servants!"</p> + + <p>Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the + Tashahhud<a name="NtA_198" + href="#Nt_198"><sup>[198]</sup></a>:—</p> + + <p>"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad + is the servant of God and the messenger of God."</p> + + <p>Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musallí, whilst in the same + posture, says the Darúd:—</p> + + <p>"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants<a name="NtA_199" + href="#Nt_199"><sup>[199]</sup></a>; as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham + and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art great. O God! + bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless Abraham and his + descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great."</p> + + <p>Then comes the Du'á, which may be in the worshipper's own words though + he usually says<a name="NtA_200" + href="#Nt_200"><sup>[200]</sup></a>:—</p> + + <p>"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the + blessings of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell."</p> + + <p>Then turning the head to the right the Musallí repeats the + Salám:—</p> + + <p>"The peace and mercy of God be with you."</p> + + <p>Then turning the head to the left he says:—</p> + + <p>"The peace and mercy of God be with you."</p> + + <p>At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises <!-- Page + 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198"></a>[198]</span>his hands + as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his + own face, and offers up a Munáját, or supplication, either in Arabic or + in the vernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to + convey the blessing received from above to every part of the body.</p> + + <p>The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which + the following text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening + (masá), and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the + heavens and in the earth,—and at twilight ('ashí) and when ye rest + at noon (zuhr)." (Súra xxx. 17). The Commentators say that masá includes + both sunset and the period after sunset; that is both the + Salát-ul-Maghrib and the Salát-ul-'Ishá. There is also a reference to a + stated period of prayer in the following verse: "Observe prayer at early + morning, at the close of the day, and at the approach of night." (Súra + xi. 116).</p> + + <p>These daily Namáz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are + those distinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of + prayer.</p> + + <p>Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is + said the Prophet repeated them.</p> + + <p>Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be + said after the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually + they are added to the Salát-ul-'Ishá. Imám Abu Hanífa says they are + wájib, that is ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the + Qurán, but by Traditions each of which is generally received as a + Hadís-i-Sahíh, and so witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine + authority. Imám Sháfa'í, however, considers them to be sunnat only, a + term already explained.</p> + + <p>The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namáz one Namáz + more: know that it is witr, say it between the Salát-ul-'Ishá and dawn." + On the authority of Buzár, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the + Prophet <!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page199"></a>[199]</span>said: "Witr is wájib upon Muslims," and in + order to enforce the practice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not + observe it is not my follower." The Prophet, the Companions, the Tába'ín + and the Taba-i-Tába'ín all observed it. The word witr literally means + "odd number." A Tradition says: "God is odd, He loves the odd." (Alláhu + witrun yuhibbu'l-witra). Musalmáns pay the greatest respect to an odd + number. It is considered unlucky to begin any work, or to commence a + journey on a day, the date of which is an even number. The number of + lines in a page of a book is nearly always an odd number.</p> + + <p>Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered + mustahab, or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must + be understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They + simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have + already given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five + daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I + have described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he + observes the three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five + more rak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual + to omit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of + repetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very + mechanical.</p> + + <p>A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namáz might be recited in + Hindustani was publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras + on Friday, February 13th, 1880.<a name="NtA_201" + href="#Nt_201"><sup>[201]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The table on the next page will make the matter clear.<a + name="NtA_202" href="#Nt_202"><sup>[202]</sup></a> The optional Sunnat + rak'ats are called <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page200"></a>[200]</span>'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat + rak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said.</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Prayer times." title="Prayer times."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2"> + <p>No.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2"> + <p>Time.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><span class="sc">The names of the time of prayer.</span></p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p><span class="sc">The number of rak'ats said.</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Arabic.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Persian.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Urdu.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(a)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(b)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(c)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(d)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(e)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(f)</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:right" colspan="11"> + <p>(a) Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'. (b) Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'. (c) Farz. + (d) Sunnat after Farz. (e) Nafl. (f) Witr.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="11"> + <p>The five periods of prayer.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>From dawn to sunrise.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ul-Fajr.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Subh.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Fajr Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>When the sun has begun to decline.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-uz-Zuhr.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Peshín.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Zuhr Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Midway between No. 2 and 4.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ul-'Asr.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Dígar.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>'Asr Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>A few minutes after sunset.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ul-Maghrib.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Shám.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Maghrib Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>When the night has closed in.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ul-'Ishá.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Khuftan.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>'Ishá Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>7<a name="NtA_203" href="#Nt_203"><sup>[203]</sup></a></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="11"> + <p>Three periods which are voluntary.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>When the sun has well risen.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ul-Ishráq.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namúz-i-Ishráq.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ishráq Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>About 11 o'clock <span class="scac">A.M.</span></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-uz-Zuhá.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Chast.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Zuhá Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>After mid-night.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Salát-ut-Tahajjud.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Namáz-i-Tahajjud.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Tahajjud Kí Namáz.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>In addition to these there are several kinds of Namáz which have to be + said at different times, or under special circumstances.</p> + + <p>(i). Salát-ul-Juma'—The Friday Namáz. This is a farz duty. It + has the threefold authority of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. + Thus: "O ye who believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the <i>day of + the assembly</i> (Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit + your traffic." (Súra lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz," + and, "God will make a mark on the heart of him who misses the + Salát-ul-Juma'<a name="NtA_204" href="#Nt_204"><sup>[204]</sup></a>." + There are, however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, + <i>viz</i>: a traveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, + a mad <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page201"></a>[201]</span>person, a blind or a lame person. The + conditions which make this Namáz obligatory are:—</p> + + <p>(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qází + (judge) dwells.</p> + + <p>(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy.</p> + + <p>(3). It must take the place of the Salát-uz-Zuhr, with which it + agrees, except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The + nafl rak'ats are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the + two which follow the farz ones are said.</p> + + <p>(4). One, or according to the followers of Imám Sháfa'í two Khutbas, + or sermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imám after the four + sunnat rak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba + should consist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety.</p> + + <p>(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imám. + The Sháfa'ítes say there should be at least forty worshippers.</p> + + <p>(6). The Azán, or call to prayers, must be made to all without + distinction of rank.</p> + + <p>Any person who is qualified to act as Imám at the other prayers can + conduct this Namáz. The Imám and Khatíb (preacher) is usually, but not + necessarily, one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for + Muhammad said that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the + degeneracy of the latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imám sits + down to rest before the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then + offer up a Du'á, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice + is bid'at, (innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the + Traditionists, Bukhárí, Abu Dáúd and Tirmízí, it is a mustahab act to + wear clean clothes on Friday.</p> + + <p>The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, + with a large club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.<a + name="NtA_205" href="#Nt_205"><sup>[205]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page202"></a>[202]</span></p> + + <p>The following is a specimen of the Khutbas.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead">SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + + <p>Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has + opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the + best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without + partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from + darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His + Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, + his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I + advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! + that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, and + Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Míká,íl the Khatíb, Isráfíl + the Imám and 'Izrá,íl the Mukabbir<a name="NtA_206" + href="#Nt_206"><sup>[206]</sup></a> and all the angels join in the Namáz. + When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to me as Mu,azzin to + the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká,íl: "I give mine to the + Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá,íl: "I give mine to + the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the company of the + Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday last twenty-four + hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls from hell. Whosoever + makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for every hair on his body the + reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on a Friday meets with the + reward of a martyr."</p> + + <p>Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the + Word of God,—the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and + righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from + cursed Satan."</p> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + + <p>"When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to + the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, will + be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse yourselves + abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it may be well + with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of merchandize or + sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing alone. Say: 'God hath + in reserve what is better than sport or wares. God is the best + provider.'" (Súra lxii. 9-11.) God <!-- Page 203 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page203"></a>[203]</span>by means of the Holy + Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching will reward + us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, Holy, + Clement.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences + the second.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + + <p>Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of + light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. He + has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save you + from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out error + and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of God be on + our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his descendants; and on + his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of God! I advise you and + my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created life and death and who + scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased with Abu Bakr, the + righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár,<a name="NtA_207" + href="#Nt_207"><sup>[207]</sup></a> and with Omar Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the + chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor of two lights, who + was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon 'Alí Murtuzá, the + destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased with the great Imáms + Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the + chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the uncles of the Prophet. + Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions). O God! help those who + help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of their number. Make those + wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such. O believers! + truly God orders you to do justice and to show kindness to your kindred. + He orders you to abstain from infidelity and from the greater and the + lesser sins. God warns you. God is the Most High, the Most Glorious. God + is Great!"</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated + contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer, + the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. + The form in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are + practically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special + subject of the sermon. The second of the two <!-- Page 204 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page204"></a>[204]</span>sermons is always the + same; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. + Both are said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such + as an explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in + the Qurán, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be + done in an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moollá, or + any learned man who could collect an audience.</p> + + <p>(ii). Salát-ul-Musáfir.—Prayers said by a traveller. A person + who makes a journey which lasts three days or three nights is, for this + purpose, considered a traveller.<a name="NtA_208" + href="#Nt_208"><sup>[208]</sup></a> The length of a day's journey is + estimated at the distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a + traveller intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat + the usual Namáz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the + journey, he can shorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz + rak'ats. He may omit the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the + three witr rak'ats he must recite at the Salát-ul-'Ishá. If a traveller + passing through a place is, for the time being, the most suitable person + to act as Imám, he being a traveller will only recite two rak'ats. The + rest of the worshippers then complete the Namáz. In the case where a + permanent resident of the place is the Imám and the traveller only a + worshipper, the Imám is bound to recite the whole number of rak'ats and + the traveller must also repeat the whole after him. The principle on + which this is based is that the worshippers must not recite less than the + Imám.<a name="NtA_209" href="#Nt_209"><sup>[209]</sup></a></p> + + <p>(iii). Salát-ul-Khauf.—Prayers of fear. This is a Namáz said + during the time of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach + of an enemy the Imám should divide the army into two bodies; one of which + should be placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should + recite, if they are on the march, one rak'at; if stationary <!-- Page 205 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page205"></a>[205]</span>in a place, + two rak'ats. This division will then march towards the enemy and the + first division will recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete + the Namáz. The Salám (Ante. p. <a href="#page197">197</a>) will be + recited by the Imám alone. The first division of troops will not say the + qir,at, <i>i.e.</i> the Fátiha and the other verses of the Qurán recited + after it (Ante. p. <a href="#page195">195</a>); but the second division + will supply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare + not dismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, + and make the rukú' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards + the Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction + most convenient. During the recital of the Namáz he must not fight, or + allow his horse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When + ye go forth to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short + your prayers, if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the + infidels are your undoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be + among them, and shalt pray with them, then let a party of them rise up + with thee, but let them take their arms; and when they shall have made + their prostrations, let them retire to your rear: then let another party + that hath not prayed come forward, and let them pray with you." (Súra iv. + 102, 103).</p> + + <p>(iv). Salát-ut-Taráwíh.—This is a special set of twenty rak'ats + recited every night during the month of Ramazán. They must be said after + the farz and sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the + Salát-ul-'Ishá. The Salát-ut-Taráwíh is considered of sunnat obligation. + The practice dates from the time of the Khalíf Omar. Abd-ur-Rahmán, a + Traditionist, states that one night in Ramazán he went with Omar to the + Mosque. They saw some persons saying the Namáz alone and some reciting it + in groups. Omar said: "If I gather them all together, so that they may + recite it after one Imám it will be good." He did so, and the next night + the people of their own accord came in great numbers and united together. + Then said Omar: "this <!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page206"></a>[206]</span>bid'at is good." This is good authority + for the institution, for the Prophet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of + the Khulafá-i-Rashídín." There is also a Hadís-i-Sahíh to the effect that + "God has made the fast of Ramazán farz, and its qíám<a name="NtA_210" + href="#Nt_210"><sup>[210]</sup></a> sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum síámu + Ramazána wa sunna qíámuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tiráwíh + Namáz should become farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two + successive nights in Ramazán, he stayed away on the third, giving as his + reason for so doing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might + be considered a farz and not a sunnat duty.<a name="NtA_211" + href="#Nt_211"><sup>[211]</sup></a> The number of rak'ats is fixed at + twenty, as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalíf + Omar. The Shía'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on + such occasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on + the four Khalífs—the first three of whom they hate.</p> + + <p>(v). Salát-ul-Kusúf and Salát-ul-Khusúf—Prayer said when an + eclipse of the sun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the + Imám recites with the congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azán + and the Iqámat are both omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one + rukú' is read. The Sháfa'ítes read two. After the rak'ats are completed + those present remain in prayer (Du'á) until the eclipse is at an end. The + Namáz during an eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse + of the sun, with this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a + congregation. Each Muslim can say the Namáz privately in his own house. + The practice is founded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse + then remember God, pray (Du'á) and recite the Namáz until it becomes + light again."</p> + + <p>(vi). Salát-ul-Istisqá.—Prayer in time of drought. When <!-- + Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page207"></a>[207]</span>there + is a scarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer + up prayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be + taken that no Zimmí<a name="NtA_212" href="#Nt_212"><sup>[212]</sup></a> + is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer for a blessing; but + God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmí is present.</p> + + <p>These prayers are simple Du'á and not a Namáz. There is no + well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said + Namáz on such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made + Du'á. This is a very good example of the use of the term Salát as a + <i>Mushtarik</i> word, <i>i.e.</i> one which has several significations. + Its ordinary meaning is Namáz; here it means Du'á.</p> + + <p>(vii). Salát-ul-Janáza.—Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is + about to die, the attendants should place him on his right side with his + face Qibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the + "Kalima-i-Shahádat," the creed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, + without a partner; that truly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle." + After death has taken place, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, + and the shroud is perfumed an <i>odd</i> number of times. A tradition + states that an odd number is fixed upon, because the number one which + represents the unity of God is odd and not even. The lesser lustration + (wazú) is then made. The head and beard are washed with a decoction made + of some flowers, after which the greater lustration (ghusl) is made. The + members of the body used when making sijda (prostration) <i>i.e.</i>, + forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed with camphor.</p> + + <p>To recite the Salát-ul-Janáza is a duty called Farz-i-kifáya, that is, + if some few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if + no one repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namáz is + farz the following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that + thou mayest <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page208"></a>[208]</span>cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray + for them; for thy prayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, + knoweth." (Súra ix. 104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain + (<i>i.e.</i>, incumbent on all), but Farz-i-kifáya is drawn from an + account given in a Hadís, to the effect that the Prophet one day did not + recite the Namáz over one of his deceased followers. Now, if the Namáz + had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could not have omitted it. His + Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the farz command contained + in the verse of the Qurán just quoted.</p> + + <p>The Namáz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited + in the open space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: + never in the graveyard.</p> + + <p>When all are assembled the Imám or leader says: "Here begins the Namáz + for the dead."</p> + + <p>The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the + direction of Mecca. The Imám stands a little in front, near the head or + waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all + assume the Qíám, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as + follows:—</p> + + <p>"I recite Namáz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'á) for this + deceased person, and I follow the Imám (who is about to officiate.)"</p> + + <p>Then all at the first<a name="NtA_213" + href="#Nt_213"><sup>[213]</sup></a> Takbír put the hands to the lobe of + the ears and say: "God is Great!"</p> + + <p>Then they say the Saná (Ante, p. <a + href="#page195">195</a>.):—</p> + + <p>"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! + Great is Thy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but + Thee!"</p> + + <p>Then follows the second Takbír: "God is Great!"</p> + + <p>Then all say the Darud-i-Ibráhím:—</p> + + <p>"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst + bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness + upon <!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page209"></a>[209]</span>Abraham and upon his descendants." "Thou + art praised, and Thou art Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his + descendants as Thou didst bless, and didst have compassion and great + kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants."</p> + + <p>Then follows the third Takbír: "God is Great!"</p> + + <p>The Du'á is then repeated:—</p> + + <p>"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those o£ us who are + present, and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown + persons, our men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive + amongst us, keep alive in Islám, and those whom Thou causest to die, let + them die in the Faith."<a name="NtA_214" + href="#Nt_214"><sup>[214]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Then follows the fourth Takbír: "God is Great!"</p> + + <p>Then all say:—</p> + + <p>"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy + mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell."</p> + + <p>Then each one in a low voice says the Salám, as in an ordinary Namáz. + (Ante, p. <a href="#page197">197</a>.)<a name="NtA_215" + href="#Nt_215"><sup>[215]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Namáz is now over and the people make another Du'á + thus:—</p> + + <p>"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast + once guided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art + He who giveth.' (Súra iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his<a name="NtA_216" + href="#Nt_216"><sup>[216]</sup></a> Master, and Thou createdst him, and + Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islám, and Thou hast + taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life. Provide + intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the most + Merciful."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page210"></a>[210]</span></p> + + <p>Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:—</p> + + <p>"No doubt is there about this Book (Qurán.) It is a guidance to the + God-fearing, who believe in the unseen,<a name="NtA_217" + href="#Nt_217"><sup>[217]</sup></a> who observe prayer (salát), and out + of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe in + that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been + sent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: + these are guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well." (Súra + ii. 1-4).</p> + + <p>Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:—</p> + + <p>"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his + Lord, as do the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and + His Books and His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His + Apostles.<a name="NtA_218" href="#Nt_218"><sup>[218]</sup></a> And they + say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for unto + Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power. It + shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for + the acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we + forget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that + which Thou hast laid on those who have been before us<a name="NtA_219" + href="#Nt_219"><sup>[219]</sup></a>; O our Lord! and lay not on us that + for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and forgive us, and + have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory therefore over + the infidel nations." (Súra ii. 285, 286).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211"></a>[211]</span></p> + + <p>The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Ámm, that is, he + says:—</p> + + <p>"All have permission to depart."</p> + + <p>Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the + graveyard. When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the + grave, the people say:—</p> + + <p>"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the + Prophet."</p> + + <p>If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of + the grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when + Munkir and Nakír come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small + grave is excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then + placed in the lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must + be in such a position that it can have free movement. The body is placed + with the face towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been + loosened the people say:—</p> + + <p>"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us + not in trouble."</p> + + <p>Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says; + "Bismilláh" (in the name of God), and the Súrat-ul-Iklás (Súra cxii) and + then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos + or boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons + present with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. + The first time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second + time, "and into it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it + will We bring you a second time." (Súra xx. 57).</p> + + <p>Then they say this Du'á: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of + Muhammad not to trouble the deceased."</p> + + <p>When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:—</p> + + <p>"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments + of the grave."</p> + + <p>When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours <!-- Page 212 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page212"></a>[212]</span>water three, + or five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.<a + name="NtA_220" href="#Nt_220"><sup>[220]</sup></a></p> + + <p>One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and + recites the Talqín (instruction):—</p> + + <p>"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God.</p> + + <p>O son of (such an one),<a name="NtA_221" + href="#Nt_221"><sup>[221]</sup></a> remember the faith you professed on + earth to the very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but + God, and that certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and + Hell and the Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a + day of judgment, and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islám my + religion, Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, + the Qurán my guide, the K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my + brethren.' O God, keep him (the deceased) firm in this faith, and widen + his grave, and make his examination (by Munkir and Nakír) easy, and exalt + him and have mercy on him, O Thou most Merciful."</p> + + <p>The other persons present then offer a Fátiha.<a name="NtA_222" + href="#Nt_222"><sup>[222]</sup></a></p> + + <p>After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín + (xxxvi) and the Súrat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then + retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fátiha, for by + this time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night + is one of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given + liberally that night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as + possible, two nafl rak'ats of a Namáz should be said. After the Fátiha in + each rak'at the worshipper should repeat the Áyat-ul-Kursí <!-- Page 213 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page213"></a>[213]</span>(Throne-verse)<a name="NtA_223" + href="#Nt_223"><sup>[223]</sup></a> three times; then the + Súrat-ut-Takísur (102) eleven times; then the Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three + times.</p> + + <p>After the Salám and the Darúd the worshipper lifts up both hands, and + with great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded + may be bestowed on the deceased.</p> + + <p>(viii). Salát-ul-Istikhára.—This is a Namáz said before + undertaking any special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. + After each rak'at he says the following Du'á: "O God, make me know what + is best for me, and keep me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I + have no power to know what is best for me." He then goes to sleep, during + which period be expects to receive a special inspiration (Ilhám) which + will give him the needed directions and guide him aright as to the matter + in hand.</p> + + <p>(ix). Salát-ut-Taráwih.—This consists of twenty rak'ats recited + each evening during the month of Ramazán. An account of these will be + given in the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazán + fast are described.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">Roza, the thirty days' fast of + Ramazán.</span>—Fasting is defined to be abstinence from food, + drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There must also be in the + mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should say: "O Lord, I + intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and future sin." + When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sake and had + faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftár) the fast with + the food Thou givest. Accept this act."</p> + + <p>It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month + Ramazán. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is + prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the + month Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and + an explanation of that guidance, and of that <!-- Page 214 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page214"></a>[214]</span>illumination, as soon + as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra + ii. 179-181). The Ijmá' is also unanimous on this point. Young children + and idiots are excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast + to another time. "He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like + number of other days. God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your + discomfort, and that you fulfil the number of days." (Súra ii. 181). This + is called a qazá fast, that is, a fast kept at another time in lieu of + one which has been omitted.</p> + + <p>If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will + fast (roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin + committed (roza-i-kafára), in both cases it is a wájib duty to keep the + fast. Some hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion + on the verse: "Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, + and let them pay their vows." (Súra xxii. 30).</p> + + <p>All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. <a + href="#page199">199</a>). Such are the fasts kept on the 10th day of + Muharram, on the Aiyám-i-Bíz (bright days)—the 13th, 14th and 15th + day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'abán, that is, the day following the + night called Shab-Barát, and on the 30th of each month in which there are + thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the person who intended to keep + it receives an invitation to a feast. According to Bukhárí, a woman may + not make a nafl fast without the consent of her husband. The reverse is + not the case, for "Men are superior to women on account of the qualities + with which God hath gifted the one above the other, and on account of the + outlay they make from their substance for them." (Súra iv. 38). It is + said that one day a woman came to the Prophet and said that her husband + had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him for doing so improper + an act, but he was prevented by the descent from heaven of the verse just + quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of the inferiority of + women. The verse also contains the words "chide those <!-- Page 215 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page215"></a>[215]</span>(wives) for + whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them into beds apart, + and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the month Shawwál, + for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the fast of + Ramazán and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwál, it is as + if his whole life were a fast."</p> + + <p>If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not + visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person + who declares that Ramazán has commenced. Imám Sháfa'í requires two, but + the following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the + Prophet and said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost + thou believe that there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that + Muhammad is His Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling + Billál, the Mu,azzin, said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This + proves that the evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in + the matter.</p> + + <p>The fast is destroyed in the following cases:—if when cleansing + the teeth a little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten + under compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, + nose or a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition + that it was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in + the Ramazán fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the + night a portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the + teeth or in a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of + these cases a qazá fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken.</p> + + <p>In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must + atone for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that + cannot be done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be + done, he must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man + such meals daily for sixty days.</p> + + <p>The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by <!-- Page 216 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"></a>[216]</span>applying + antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by + kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things + during the day-time. The Imám As-Sháfa'í declared that it was very wrong + indeed to do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the + following Tradition handed down by Tabrání. "The Prophet said: 'when you + fast, cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of + him who fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the + day of judgment.'"</p> + + <p>If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the + fast, he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This + opinion is based on a sentence in the Qurán, which has caused a good deal + of dispute: "As for those who are able (<i>to keep it and yet break + it</i>), the expiation of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." + (Súra ii. 180). This seems to make fasting a matter of personal option, + and some Commentators admit that at first it was so, but they say that + the words have been abrogated<a name="NtA_224" + href="#Nt_224"><sup>[224]</sup></a> by the following sentence which + occurs in the next verse: "As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, + let him set about the fast." Others say that the negative particle "not" + must be understood before "able," in which case the words in italics must + be omitted. Others explain the expression "those who are able" as + equivalent to "those who have great difficulty therein," such as aged and + infirm persons. This seems to be the best interpretation and is the one + which practically is acted on.</p> + + <p>In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their + children, sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, + it is sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when + convenient make a qazá fast. <!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page217"></a>[217]</span>In these cases the sadqa or feeding of the + poor is not required. Thus Abu Dáúd says: "The Prophet said, 'God allows + travellers to shorten the Namáz and to postpone the fast. Women also are + allowed to fast another time.'" The Qurán is also clear on the point: "He + who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days." + (Súra ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful + to fast. These are, 'Íd-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'íd and the three following days, + <i>viz</i>: the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of + Ramazán, a person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, + each must keep the fast during the remaining days of the month.</p> + + <p>To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of + Ramazán, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhárí, Muslim and + Tirmízí, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a + blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of + the Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra."</p> + + <p>The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftár, or the + breaking of the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or + if that fruit is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an + olive is chosen as the fruit with which the fast should be broken.</p> + + <p>The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast + during the day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid + much of its rigour.</p> + + <p>They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must + be done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalmán world is + strongly against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast + of Ramazán. In this matter it may be said</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher,</p> + <p>Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the + fast very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they + must not swallow any liquid; yet as <!-- Page 218 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page218"></a>[218]</span>a rule the lower + classes observe it strictly.<a name="NtA_225" + href="#Nt_225"><sup>[225]</sup></a> In hot climates this is often + exceedingly distressing. In such circumstances the evening twilight is + anxiously looked for, as then the Iftár can be commenced. The month of + Ramazán brings with it other duties than that of fasting. These will be + described in the next chapter.</p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Zakát.</span>—There are two terms in use to + express almsgiving. The first is Zakát (literally, "purification") or the + legal alms due, with certain exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is + Sadqa, or offerings on the feast day known as 'Íd-ul-Fitr, or alms in + general.<a name="NtA_226" href="#Nt_226"><sup>[226]</sup></a> It is the + first of these that has now to be considered.</p> + + <p>On the authority of the Qurán and the Ijmá'-i-Ummat it is declared to + be a farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a + year, to give the Zakát on account of his property; provided that, he has + sufficient for his subsistence and is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb, or one who + possesses an income equivalent to about £5 per annum. The Qurán says: + "Observe prayer (Salát) and the legal impost (Zakát)." (Súra ii. 40). The + Khalíf 'Umr Ibn 'Abd-ul-'Azíz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to + God, fasting brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us + admission." The three conditions without which Zakát would not be + compulsory are Islám, <span class="correction" title="Húrriat in original, corrected by Errata" + >Hurriat</span> (freedom) and Nisáb (stock). The reason for this is, that + Zakát is said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibádat (worship), and that, as + the Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do + with Zakát. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no <!-- Page 219 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219"></a>[219]</span>property. + Nisáb is required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisáb is + required for daily use the zakát is not taken from it; such as a slave + retained for personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, + household furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one + Tradition records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst + another given on the authority of Bukhárí states that for slaves employed + in domestic service only the Sadqa-i-fitr<a name="NtA_227" + href="#Nt_227"><sup>[227]</sup></a> should be given. If a person owes a + debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his + property and the Zakát given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God, + such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the + neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the + property on which Zakát is due.</p> + + <p>The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisáb is 20 miskats, or of + silver 200 dirhems (=£5 4<i>s.</i>). Whether these metals are in coin or + not, one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments + are exempt, but Imám Sháfa'í does not admit this, and quotes from Abu + Dáúd the following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were + heavy golden bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakát had + been given for them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is + easy for God in the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' + The girl then took them off and said: 'These are for the service of God + and of His Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikáz, that is, buried + treasure found by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, + one-fifth of the value must be paid, whether the land be Khárijí, rented + at its proper market value; or 'Usharí possessed by the payment of a + tithe. If the rikáz is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim + Government, the whole belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or + if on unclaimed <!-- Page 220 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page220"></a>[220]</span>land he must pay the one-fifth. If the + coins found bear the mint stamp of a Musalmán Government, the finder + must, if he can, find the owner and return them to him; if they were + coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after having given one-fifth + as Zakát, he may retain four-fifths for himself.</p> + + <p>Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the + Prophet said: "There is no Zakát for stones."</p> + + <p>As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep + and goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must + give one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for + every hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for + sheep.</p> + + <p>For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep + or goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel + (bint-i-mukház); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel + (bint-i-labún); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah); + from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, + two bint-i-labún; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, + either a bint-i-labún for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses + follow this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given + instead. For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; + for 40, a two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for + every ten cows.</p> + + <p>Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come + down (from heaven) to me about them."</p> + + <p>If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisáb (£5 4<i>s.</i>), Zakát + must be given on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or + two-and-a-half per cent. The Hanífites do not count a fraction of the + forty. The Sháfa'ítes count such a fractional part as forty and require + the full Zakát to be paid on it.</p> + + <p>Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel <!-- Page + 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page221"></a>[221]</span>loads,<a + name="NtA_228" href="#Nt_228"><sup>[228]</sup></a> must according to Imám + Abu Hanífa pay one-tenth; but the Sáhibain and Imám Sháfa'í say that if + there is less than the five camel loads no Zakát is required. The Prophet + said: "If produced on land naturally watered one-tenth is due, if on land + artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he said nothing about the + quantity, the Hanífites adduce the fact of the omission as a proof on + their side.</p> + + <p>The Zakát should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the + following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to + those who collect them, <i>and to those whose hearts are won to + Islám</i>, and for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, + and for the wayfarer." (Súra ix. 60). The words italicised, according to + the Tafsír-i-Husainí, are now cancelled (mansúkh). The reference is to + the Arab Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein + (<span class="scac">A.H.</span> 8). This victory is referred to in the + 25th verse of this Súra. "God hath helped you in many battle fields, and + on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr abolished this giving of Zakát to + converts, and the Khalíf Omar said to these or similar persons: "This + Zakát was given to incline your hearts toward Islám. Now God has + prospered Islám. If you be converted it is well; if not, a sword is + between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and so the authority + for the cancelling of this clause is that of the Ijmá'-i-Ummat (unanimous + consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy motives should be + abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that a reason for + the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the ground of the + triumphant nature of Islám which now needs no such support. Contemptuous + indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the change.</p> + + <p>In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakát + may be given to assist a Mukátib, or slave <!-- Page 222 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page222"></a>[222]</span>who is working in order + to purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihád or to + make the Hajj must be assisted.</p> + + <p>The Zakát must not be given for building mosques,<a name="NtA_229" + href="#Nt_229"><sup>[229]</sup></a> for funeral expenses, liquidating the + debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a slave in order to set him + free. It is not lawful to give the Zakát to parents or grand-parents, + children or grandchildren; or for a husband to give it to his wife, or a + wife to her husband; or a master to his slave. The Sáhibain<a + name="NtA_230" href="#Nt_230"><sup>[230]</sup></a> maintain that a wife + can apply the Zakát to her husband's wants and quote this Tradition: "A + woman asked the Prophet if she could give the Zakát to her husband. He + answered 'give; such an act has two rewards, one for the giving of + charity and one for the fulfilment of the duties of relationship.'" It + should not be given to a rich man, nor to his son, nor to his slave. The + descendants of Hásham and the descendants of the Prophet should not be + the recipients of the Zakát. The Prophet said: "O Ahl-i-Beit (men of the + house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakát, for you get the + one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty." So some say that Syeds + are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now get a portion + of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakát must not be given to a Zimmí (a + non-muslim subject).</p> + + <p>In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect + the Zakát; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. + Whilst there is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be + given for the care which Musalmáns take of their poor.</p> + + <p>The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this + subject. A full account of it will be given in the section of the next + chapter which treats of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page223"></a>[223]</span></p> + + <p>5. <span class="sc">The Hajj.</span>—The Hajj, or pilgrimage to + Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who denies this fact is considered to be an + infidel. "The pilgrimage to the temple is a service due to God from those + who are able to journey thither: and as to him who believeth + not—verily God can afford to dispense with all creatures." (Súra + iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbás the following Tradition has + been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has made the Hajj farz.' Then + Aqra' bin Hábis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it to be made every + year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say—yes, it will be a wájib duty + to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj is + necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in addition + is nafl.'"</p> + + <p>The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and + of full age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly + providing for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, + or a child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the + latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose + residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca, + goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near + relative. Imám As Sháfa'í denies the necessity of such attendance, + stating that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His + objection is, however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came + to the Prophet and said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am + called to go on a warlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from + the war and accompany thy wife in the Hajj.'" Imám Abu Yúsuf considered + that a man who possessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if + he delayed more than a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imám + Muhammad, and most others think that a person may postpone the Hajj for + some years, but if death should overtake the man before he has made <!-- + Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224"></a>[224]</span>the + pilgrimage, he will be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that + delay is dangerous.</p> + + <p>Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and + five which are wájib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz + requisites are: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihrám,<a + name="NtA_231" href="#Nt_231"><sup>[231]</sup></a> two seamless wrappers, + one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the shoulder; + (2) to stand in 'Arfát; (3) to make the Tawáf, that is to go round the + K'aba seven times.</p> + + <p>The wájib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalífah; (2) to run between + Mount Safá and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Ramí-ul-Jamár, or the + casting of the pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must + make an extra Tawáf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is + over.</p> + + <p>The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage + (Hajj) be made in the months already known." (Súra ii. 193). These months + are Shawwál, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual + Hajj must be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the + niyyat, or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. + The 'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year + except on the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of + the various roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five + or six miles from the city stages called Míqát. The following are the + names. On the Madína road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on + the 'Iráq road, Zát-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, + Qarn; on the Yaman road, Yalamlam.<a name="NtA_232" + href="#Nt_232"><sup>[232]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225"></a>[225]</span></p> + + <p>The Hájís from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary + and worn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their + ordinary clothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namáz + of two nafl rak'ats they put on the Ihrám. The Hájí, having now really + entered upon the Hajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and + says: "O God, I purpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me + and accept it from me." He then says the Talbíyah<a name="NtA_233" + href="#Nt_233"><sup>[233]</sup></a>: "Here I am! O Alláh! Here I am! Here + I am! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom + are to Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!"</p> + + <p>The persons who reside permanently in any of these Míqát can assume + the pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city + itself; whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihrám in the + precincts of the temple.</p> + + <p>The Hájí having assumed the Ihrám must now abstain from worldly + affairs, and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not + allowed to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill + no game while ye are on pilgrimage." (Súra v. 96). The Prophet also said: + "He who shows the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as + the man who kills it." The Hájí must not scratch himself, lest vermin be + destroyed, or a hair be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must + rub himself with the open palm of his hand.<a name="NtA_234" + href="#Nt_234"><sup>[234]</sup></a> The face and head must be left + uncovered, the hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not + your heads until the <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page226"></a>[226]</span>offering reach the place of sacrifice." + (Súra ii, 192). On arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, + on meeting any one, on entering the city of Mecca or the + Musjid-ul-Harám<a name="NtA_235" href="#Nt_235"><sup>[235]</sup></a> the + Hájí should continually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik."</p> + + <p>As soon as he sees the K'aba<a name="NtA_236" + href="#Nt_236"><sup>[236]</sup></a> he must say the Takbír and the + Tahlíl. The Traditionist 'Atá says that at this stage the Prophet used to + lift up his hands and pray.</p> + + <p>On entering the enclosure, the Hájí says the Labbaik, Takbír and the + Tahlíl, then a Du'á. A Namáz of two rak'ats is then said at the station + of one of the four great Imáms. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black + stone) the Hájí again says the Takbír and the Tahlíl, after which he + kisses the stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough + to do this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that + with which he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O + Alláh, (I do this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in + pursuance of Thy Prophet's example—may Alláh bless and preserve + him. O accept Thou my supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my + humiliation and graciously grant me Thy pardon." Then he again repeats + the Takbír and the <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page227"></a>[227]</span>Tahlíl, the Darúd and the Tahríf (prayer + for, and praise of Muhammad). He then encompasses the K'aba seven times, + in accordance with the niyyat he had made, thus: "In the name of Alláh, + and Alláh is Omnipotent! I purpose to make the circuit seven times."<a + name="NtA_237" href="#Nt_237"><sup>[237]</sup></a> This is called the + Tawáf. The Hájí runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and + four times he proceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca + will not perform the Tawáf. The Hájí then presses his stomach, chest and + right cheek against the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, + and raising up his arms on high says: "O Alláh, Lord of the Ancient + House, free my neck from hell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; + make me contented with that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and + bless me in all Thou hast granted!" He then says the Istigfár—"I + beg pardon of Alláh, the Most High, the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I + repent."</p> + + <p>The Hájí next proceeds to the Maqám-i-Ibráhím<a name="NtA_238" + href="#Nt_238"><sup>[238]</sup></a> (place of Abraham) and then recites + two rak'ats<a name="NtA_239" href="#Nt_239"><sup>[239]</sup></a> called + Sunnat-ut-Tawáf. Some water from the sacred well Zemzem is then drunk, + after which the Hájí returns to the Hajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses + it.</p> + + <p>Hájí Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"We began the prayer 'O Alláh (I do this) in Thy belief and in + verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after + the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Alláh bless and preserve him!' + till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black + stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Alláh, Thou hast rights, + so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we repeated, 'O + Alláh, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary Thy sanctuary, + and the safeguard Thy <!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page228"></a>[228]</span>safeguard, and this is the place of Him + who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building called + Maqám-i-Ibráhím, we said: 'O Alláh, verily this is the place of Abraham, + who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny my flesh and + blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we paced slowly + round the north or Irák corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, 'O Alláh, + verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and disobedience, and + hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts concerning family, + and property and progeny.' When we passed from the Mízáb, or spout, we + repeated the words, 'O Alláh, verily I beg of Thee faith which shall not + decline, and a certainty which shall not perish, and the good aid of Thy + Prophet Muhammad—may Alláh bless and preserve him! O Alláh, shadow + me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no shadow by Thy shadow; and + cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet Muhammad—may Alláh + bless and preserve him—that pleasant draught, after which is no + thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.' Turning to the west + corner, or the Rukn el Shámí, we exclaimed: 'O Alláh, make it an + acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and a laudable + endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store which + perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was repeated + thrice, till we arrived at the Yemaní, or southern corner, where the + crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the right hand, + after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the finger-tips. Between the + south angle and that of the black stone, where our circuit would be + completed, we said: 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from + infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and from the tortures + of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death. And I fly to Thee + from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore Thy pardon for the + present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this life prosperity, and + in the next life prosperity, and save me from the punishment of + fire.'"</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safá and + Marwah. Starting from the former, the Hájí runs seven times between the + two summits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like + soldiers charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel + Meccans mocked the Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate + of Madína had made them weak. This bold way of running was adopted to + disprove the <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page229"></a>[229]</span>calumny and so has become a Sunnat + practice. The prayer to be said during the S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, + pardon and pity, and pass over that (sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou + knowest what is not known, and verily Thou art the most Glorious, the + most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in both worlds prosperity, and save + us from fire." The Hájí should also quote passages from the Qurán. This + S'ai must be done after an important Tawáf, either the first, or a later + one. On the seventh day the Imám must preach in Mecca, and instruct the + pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches again on the ninth and + eleventh days.</p> + + <p>On the eighth day, (Rúz-i-Tarwiáh), the Hájí goes to Miná, a place + three miles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hájís he says + the usual Namáz, and there spends the night.<a name="NtA_240" + href="#Nt_240"><sup>[240]</sup></a> This is a sunnat observance. On the + morning of the ninth day, starting after the Salát-ul-Fajr, the Hájí goes + to 'Arifát.<a name="NtA_241" href="#Nt_241"><sup>[241]</sup></a> On + arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I put my trust on Thee, I + desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy to me, supply my + need in 'Arifát, Thou art powerful over all." He then says Labbaik, the + Takbír and the Tahlíl.</p> + + <p>The noontide, and the afternoon Namáz are said together there: they + are thus shortened.<a name="NtA_242" href="#Nt_242"><sup>[242]</sup></a> + This done he should stand upon the mountain, if possible at or near the + place the Prophet <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page230"></a>[230]</span>is said to have occupied. This is called + the Wukúf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He must also + listen to the sermon delivered by the Imám, explaining what still remains + of the ritual of the Hajj, <i>i.e.</i>, how the Hájís are to stand in + Muzdalífah, to throw the stones in Miná, to make the sacrifice, + &c.</p> + + <p>All the time the Hájí should constantly shout out the Talbíyah, and + the Tahlíl, and weep bitterly.</p> + + <p>The Hájí then proceeds to Muzdalífah, a place situated about half-way + between Miná and 'Arifát, where he should pass a portion of the night. + After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Harám, he should collect seven + pebbles and proceed to Miná.</p> + + <p>When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Íd-ul-Azhá arrives, he again + goes to Miná, where there are three different pillars, called + respectively the Jamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the + Shaitan-ul-Kabír<a name="NtA_243" href="#Nt_243"><sup>[243]</sup></a> + (great devil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. + Holding the jamár, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the + right hand, the Hájí throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet + and says: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Almighty, (I do this) in + hatred of the Fiend and to his shame." The remaining six stones are + thrown in like manner. The object is to confound the devils who are + supposed to be there. The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be + hurt. Before each stone is thrown the Takbír must be said. This ceremony + is called Ramí-ul-Jamár, the throwing of stones. It is also known as + Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this ceremony has been performed since the + time of Abraham, and that the stones are miraculously removed. Ibn + 'Abbás, a Companion, says that if the pilgrimage of a Hájí is approved of + by God, the stones are secretly removed. Mujáhid, a well known + Traditionist, <!-- Page 231 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page231"></a>[231]</span>says that he put a mark on his stones and + afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then returns to + Miná, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Íd-ul-Azhá. An account + of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly speaking, + concludes the Hajj. The Hájí can now shave his head, pare his nails and + remove the Ihrám.</p> + + <p>The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are + called the Aiyám-ut-Tashríq "days of drying flesh" because now the + pilgrims prepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices + from the victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The + Hájí should spend this time at Miná, and each day throw seven pebbles at + each of the pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and + makes the Tawáf-ul-Widá' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some + water from the well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was + thirsty Gabriel stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is + now the far-famed well Zemzem. Finally, the Hájí kisses the threshold, + and then, with hands uplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, + and weeping bitterly, he prays most humbly, and expresses regret that he + will soon have to depart from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. + Retiring backwards, he makes his exit and the Hajj is complete.<a + name="NtA_244" href="#Nt_244"><sup>[244]</sup></a> The Umráh or little + pilgrimage can be made at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of + Zu'l-Hajja. It is usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its + ceremonies differ but slightly from the Hajj. The Ihrám must <!-- Page + 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page232"></a>[232]</span>be put on, + and the obligations of abstinence which it entails must be observed.</p> + + <p>The usual course is then to make the Ziárat, or visit to the tomb of + the Prophet at Madína. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title + of Hájí and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the + community in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, + though it is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends + a pilgrim who otherwise could not go.</p> + + <p>This account of the Irkán-i-dín, or five pillars of religion, must now + draw to a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of + Islám, whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and + practice, as an authority for many of the details, shows how largely + Islám is based on the Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion + which the great Imáms hold on some of the details, it is most difficult + to decide which side holds the correct view. Such opinions are always + based on some Tradition, the value of which it is impossible to + determine. The opponent says it is a weak (z'aif) Tradition—a + statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to disprove. It is + sometimes said in praise of Musalmáns that they are not priest-ridden; + but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one may use such + an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken there can be no + progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken Islám will cease + to be Islám, for this foundation of the Faith and the edifice erected on + it are so welded together that the undermining of the one will be the + fall of the other.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page233"></a>[233]</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<h3>NOTE TO CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque, +Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">QUESTION.</p> + + <p>"O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is + your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz + (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language has + printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text is not + given. In order to give the translation the same authority as the + original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic + editions; such as—toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, and <img + src="images/circledot.png" style="height:1.2ex; width:1.2ex;" alt="circle + with dot" title="circle with dot" />.<a name="NtA_245" + href="#Nt_245"><sup>[245]</sup></a> At the end of the juz he has added a + translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná, Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, + rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these must be read in Hindustani. + He further states that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of + the original, and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the Arabic. + He has also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the Namáz, and + has stated that to those who do not know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz + duty to recite the translation; otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz + is vain. As regards the past, he considers that the ignorant are + forgiven, but he maintains that the 'Ulamá of these days must answer for + the neglect they show in not telling the people to use translations of + the Qurán. Further, in support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, + according to which the Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read + a translation of the Qurán in the Namáz." He claims, as on his side, the + four great Imáms. He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in + Hindustani and influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, + but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India.</p> + + <p>Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, + and what is the decree in the case of those who follow <!-- Page 234 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page234"></a>[234]</span>him, or who + circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a guide, + or who consider the translation to which reference has been made to be + the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, state + the Law in this matter and merit a good reward."</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE ANSWER.</p> + + <p>"After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on + Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an + atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. + His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the four + Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám Málik, + and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán when + saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or not. + Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in any case + to use Persian<a name="NtA_246" href="#Nt_246"><sup>[246]</sup></a> in + the Namáz." Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of Málik says: "Persian is unlawful." + To these opinions Káfí, a disciple of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To + recite in the Namáz from a translation of the Qurán is unlawful." + Moreover from the Qurán itself, the recital of it in Arabic is proved to + be a divine command (farz). The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, + for God speaks of it as a revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much + of the Qurán as may be easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst + the words "an Arabic Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to + be used is an Arabic one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain + (Imám Muhammad and Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite + only a short verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a + translation. If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by + heart such a sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he + learns this he may use a translation.<a name="NtA_247" + href="#Nt_247"><sup>[247]</sup></a> In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is written: + "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart is + farz-i-'ain" (<i>i.e.</i>, incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is + written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic, he + is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by Imám Abu + Hanífa that a person might use for a <!-- Page 235 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page235"></a>[235]</span>time a translation, it + is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The statement + made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is not correct. + In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written that some + Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a Persian + translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request and they + used it in the Namáz, <i>until they could pronounce Arabic properly</i>. + The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. This account, + however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is true, all that it + proves is that, until some Arabic words can be remembered, a translation + may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to read a translation is farz + or wájib. So if the person referred to says that it is farz to read his + own translation, then it follows that to read the original Arabic will + not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now such an opinion is infidelity. The + person is a Káfir, for he tries to make out that the 'Ulamá of all + preceding ages who have instructed the people, from the days of the + Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the Namáz are sinners. Further, he + rejects the statement made by learned canonists and listens now to no + advice. He reads his translation in the Namáz and causes others to read + it. He boasts that his translation is equal in style to the original. He + has translated the Du'á-i-qunút, Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and + Sujúd, and has said that these translations should be used in the Namáz. + Thus, it is plain that he wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the + prayers. The result of such a course would be that soon a number of + different translations would be circulated, and the text like that of the + Taurait, and the Injíl would be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it + is written: "Whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful or <i>vice + versâ</i> is a Káfir." "If any one without apparent cause has enmity with + one of the 'Ulamá, his orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after + committing a fault declines to repent, though requested to do so, is an + infidel." In the Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate + the Qurán into Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the + Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the + Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqán it is written: + "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as having + rhymes."<a name="NtA_248" href="#Nt_248"><sup>[248]</sup></a> In the + Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To translate the Arabic into Persian + is an act of infidelity."</p> + + <p>Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to + this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmán <!-- Page 236 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page236"></a>[236]</span>cemetery. His + marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, according to the rule + laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of the infidelity of such a + person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs of the law here adduced, + the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be an infidel, it follows that + all those who assist him or who consider his claim just, or who circulate + his opinions, or who consider him to be a religious person and a fit + guide for men, are also infidels. To send children to be taught by him, + to purchase newspapers which advocate his views, and to continue to read + his translation is unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter + entitled Murtád it is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present + infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is an infidel." + God says in the Qurán: "Be helpful to one another according to goodness + and piety, but be not helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." + (Súra v. 3). In another place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to + God's order is an infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be + than this, that a person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán + in the Namáz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani + translation of it is incumbent (farz).</p> + + <p>"Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best + Knower."</p> + + <p>This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other + leading Moulvies of the city of Madras.</p> + + <p>This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very + considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is to + the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The law + enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for the + Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the + vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that + country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, + precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further + demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs of + the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the least, is + an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to the + statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the Fatvá is + based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which their authority + has been adduced, show how even to the present day they are regarded as + the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly orthodox, and + corroborates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on the + "Foundations of Islám."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page237"></a>[237]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<h3>THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM.</h3> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">Muharram.</span>—Muharram, the name of the + first month of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by which are + known the days of mourning spent by the Shía'hs in commemoration of the + martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sons Hasan and Husain. The historical + events thus referred to have been already described in the third chapter, + so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies + connected with the Muharram. They differ in different countries. The + following is a description of an Indian Muharram.</p> + + <p>Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-day + house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather + together in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some + sherbet or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: + "O God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and + sugar are then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, + or hole for the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the + festival these fires are kindled, and the people, both old and young, + fence across the fire with swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: + "'Alí! Noble Husain! Noble Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! + Friend! &c." These words they repeat hundreds of times.</p> + + <p>In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). + This is often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a + mausoleum for the founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána + only is known. This is generally a temporary structure, or <!-- Page 238 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"></a>[238]</span>some large + hall fitted up for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with + black cloth, bordered with texts of the Qurán written in a large and + elegant style. The place is brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands + the Tázíahs or Tábúts—structures made of bamboos covered with + tinsel and profusely ornamented. They are intended to represent the + mausoleum erected on the plains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. + Sometimes the Tázíah is constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at + Madína. Large sums of money are spent on these Tázíahs, which when + lighted up have a very elegant appearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are + laid the several articles similar to those supposed to have been used by + Husain at Karbalá,—a turban of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow + and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face + Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which are commonly made of copper and + brass, though occasionally of gold or of silver, are placed against the + walls. The usual standard is that of a hand placed on a pole. This is + emblematic of the five members who compose the family of the Prophet, and + is the special standard of the Shía'hs. These standards have many + different names, such as—the standard of the palm of 'Alí, the Lady + Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to represent the shoe + of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to mention. Mirrors, + chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene.</p> + + <p>Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. + In the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the + Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a + monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful + effect on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and + attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say + Husain! Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans + and tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is + reserved for a later ceremony.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page239"></a>[239]</span></p> + + <p>This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends the + Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He + proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories + gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of + glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the + audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that + of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The first + Wáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his + own tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent + old gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, + then rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in + and out amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The + effect was marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, + whilst from the adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the + women who, though not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. + After a while, the assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. + A boy then chanted a few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at + first, to sway their bodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! + Husain! Each one then began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement + at last became intense and the men in the rows looked like so many wild + creatures."</p> + + <p>In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe + is the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh + exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance + over again in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several + each evening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán.</p> + + <p>During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant + Marsiyas to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is + celebrated with great earnestness.</p> + + <p>For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the <!-- Page + 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page240"></a>[240]</span>seventh + day the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is to + represent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favourite + daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now + commemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It is + usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, + he reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: + Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, + the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the + standard which represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then + laid down, covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made + over it as for one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, + after which the standard is again set up in its own place.</p> + + <p>The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to + remembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carried + about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib + (literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is + meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are + frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I + through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in + your procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight + years old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after + the Na'l Sáhib.</p> + + <p>If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is + they are made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective + processions pass on their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of + the horse sent by Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven + (Ante. p. <a href="#page159">159</a>) is also taken out.</p> + + <p>On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim + mode of computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and + the 'Alams are taken out in <!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page241"></a>[241]</span>procession. It is a scene of great + confusion, for men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run + about. It is the carnival of the Musalmán year.</p> + + <p>On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the + Alláwas, and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and + the Tázías are taken away to a large open spot near water, which + represents the plain of Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments + and decorations are taken off the Tázías, the frameworks of which are + then cast into the water.<a name="NtA_249" + href="#Nt_249"><sup>[249]</sup></a> Sometimes they are reserved for use + the following year. The water reminds the people of the parching thirst + which Husain felt before his death. Only the 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor + the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The people then burn incense, recite the + Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the 'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On + the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night reading the Qurán, + reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On the 13th day, a + quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has been said over it, is + distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebrate the fortieth + day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according to some + accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is known as + the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).</p> + + <p>The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram + ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often + much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns + 'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, and + that no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and + the Shía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast + tends to keep alive the distinction.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page242"></a>[242]</span></p> + + <p>The tenth day—the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as + such, is observed by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent + day, for on it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, + heaven, hell, the seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, + life and death.</p> + + <p>The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare + sherbet and khichrí—a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed + with clarified butter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of + those who were martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as + usual in such cases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a + Du'á is added. On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place + flowers on, and say Fátiha over the graves of their friends.</p> + + <p>Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The + procession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is very + similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,<a + name="NtA_250" href="#Nt_250"><sup>[250]</sup></a> when on the tenth day + the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the Ganges. The + oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those offered by + the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.</p> + + <p>The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which + an allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to + the senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the + heart; consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a + variety of pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this + has done much to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it + has no doubt softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider + the Shía'h observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of + indifference. The fact that the British Government punishes all who break + <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page243"></a>[243]</span>the peace may have something to do with + this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in India live on much better terms, + and have more respect for each other than the Turk has for the Persian, + or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets, indeed, are both Sunnís + and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four + first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on 'Alí and his sons Hasan and + Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world."</p> + + <p>The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the + ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, + the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue, + the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a distinguished place + on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb<a name="NtA_251" + href="#Nt_251"><sup>[251]</sup></a> of the faith, he who sits upon the + throne of the palace of the law, the ship of the sea of religion, the sun + of the firmament of glory, the power of the arm of the Prophet, he who + has merited access to the tabernacle of the Divine Unity, the most + profound of all religious people, the resplendent brightness of the + marvels of God, the father of victory, the Imám of the gate of heaven, + the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of + Muhammad, he who is the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of + Believers, the Imám of the Faithful, 'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the + victorious lion of the Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this + holy Khalíf may favourably hear the vows which I offer to Him."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and + Husain:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I + make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the + martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the + blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the + twelve Imáms, and the fourteen<a name="NtA_252" + href="#Nt_252"><sup>[252]</sup></a> pure ones, and for the seventy-two + martyrs of the plain of Karbalá."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page244"></a>[244]</span></p> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">Akhir-i-Chár Shamba.</span>—This feast is + held on the last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in + commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet experienced + some mitigation of the disorder which in the next month terminated his + life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in the name of the Prophet + are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of + the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a piece of paper + is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writes seven short + sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wet is washed + off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. Peace + and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are: (1) + "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Súra xxxvi. + 58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3) + "Peace be on Abraham." (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and + Aaron." (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Súra xxxvii. 130). + (6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Súra + xxxix. 73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Súra xcvii. + 5). The Shía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Chár + Shamba-i-Súrí."—The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the + trumpet of the last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the + day, and esteem it an excellent and auspicious season.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">Bárá Wafát.</span>—This feast is held on the + twelfth day of the month Rabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, + twelve and wafát, death, because many suppose that on this day the + Prophet died. According to a well-known Muslim writer "the terrific + intelligence, circulating throughout the world, produced universal + consternation, and all hastened to offer to God their vows and prayers + for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, however, maintain that he + died on the second of the month and, as there is some doubt on the + subject, many persons make a Fátiha <!-- Page 245 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page245"></a>[245]</span>every day, from the + first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast as + Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, + and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The + Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This + is then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh,<a + name="NtA_253" href="#Nt_253"><sup>[253]</sup></a> or to the place where + Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to the people. It is a sort + of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a Saint's day, that on + the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be made in such and such + a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán is read in the Mosque, + or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihas are said.</p> + + <p>Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This + is a stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing + and on this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. + When a company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, + repeat the story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. + Portions of the Qurán are read and the Darúd is said.<a name="NtA_254" + href="#Nt_254"><sup>[254]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this + day, not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the + "'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical + duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf is + exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the + Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess <!-- Page 246 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246"></a>[246]</span>the miraculous + property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is + put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. + Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house + in which this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c., are repeated.</p> + + <p>The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but + mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a + person who does not believe in the miraculous growth of the + Ásár-i-Sharíf.</p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Shab Barát.</span>—This feast, the name of + which signifies the "night of the record," is held on the fourteenth day + of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, or vigil is kept on the preceding day.<a + name="NtA_255" href="#Nt_255"><sup>[255]</sup></a> It is commonly but + erroneously called Shab-i-Barát.</p> + + <p>The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this + night registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during + the ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and + a Fátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over + it. When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read + once, the Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and + then the Darúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to + transfer the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift + of food to the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of + this family. This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men + then go to the Mosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of + nafl rak'ats. This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must + be done with the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that + the worshipper may have a long life; the second time, that his means of + subsistence may be increased; the third time, that he may be protected + from evil. <!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page247"></a>[247]</span>The Súra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with + the same intentions. Any other portions may then be read. After this + those present rise, and go to the various cemeteries. On the way they + purchase flowers which are afterwards strewn on the graves. A Fátiha is + then said. If the worshipper has no relatives or friends buried there, + prayer is offered for the benefit of the Arwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of + those there buried. The very pious spend the whole night in going from + one cemetery to another.</p> + + <p>These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. + nafl), works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they + are esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent + innovation." The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no + religious signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes + night of Islám. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more + are let off on this feast than at any other.</p> + + <p>The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits + of the Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on + this holy night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which + we pray Thee to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto + the abode of eternal felicity."</p> + + <p>5. <span class="sc">Ramazán and 'Íd-ul-Fitr</span>—It is one of + the five pillars of the practical religious duties to fast during the + thirty days of the month Ramazán. The subject of fasting has been fully + treated of in the preceding chapter; and so it is only necessary now to + describe the other ceremonies connected with the religious observance of + this month.</p> + + <p>From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the + greatest esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used + to retire for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated + on a low hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of + the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of + Ramazán should be kept as a fast. "As to the month <!-- Page 248 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page248"></a>[248]</span>Ramazán, in which the + Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that + guidance, and of that illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth + the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 181).</p> + + <p>The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, + the tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish + fast on the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of + this seventh month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy + convocation unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." + (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, when Muhammad first went to Madína he had + great hopes of winning over the Jews to his side; but when he failed he + took every opportunity of making Islám differ as much as possible from + Judaism. This was the reason why the Qibla was changed (Ante. p. <a + href="#page60">60</a>), and that in the second year of his residence at + Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assigned by learned + Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán God gave to + the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, and + that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet in the + seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or + 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we + have caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall + teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a + thousand nights." (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this + month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, + and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." + "Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven + called Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past + venial sins."<a name="NtA_256" href="#Nt_256"><sup>[256]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, <!-- Page + 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249"></a>[249]</span>Muhammad + doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth + not your discomfort." (Súra ii. 181).</p> + + <p>The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh + Namáz and 'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described + already (p. <a href="#page205">205</a>). Each night in Ramazán + one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán is recited in the Mosque. The + duty of performing the 'Itikáf is a Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict + duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes 'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque + used for public services, and there meditate. Bukhárí says that the + Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days of each Ramazán, and that the + practice was continued by his wives after his death. Usually a man should + thus sit and meditate one of the days between the twentieth and the + thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegal + interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imám Muhammad + says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold that + 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community does it + the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes a + vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can be + performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then + it is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the + Sháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the + nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif + must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, + and for making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may + eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. + He may speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, + he may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, + but on no account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly + meritorious for him to read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act + he becomes <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page250"></a>[250]</span>a man of penetration, whose words are as + powerful as a sharp sword.<a name="NtA_257" + href="#Nt_257"><sup>[257]</sup></a></p> + + <p>When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is + called Iftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the + 'Íd-ul-Fitr—the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day + the Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The + Sadqa of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive + it. If any one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he + will not merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason + assigned for this is that, unless they are given early in the day, the + poor cannot refresh themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. + The Sadqa are given for the good of one's own soul, for that of young + children, slaves male and female—Muslim or Infidel; but not for the + spiritual benefit of one's wife or elder children.</p> + + <p>In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to + feed one person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque + saying, 'God is great! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, + except that only two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after + the Namáz is sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz + rak'ats, and is itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the + people disperse, visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.</p> + + <p>A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached + in Arabic is as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead">SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + + <p>"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and + in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. + God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is + great! and worthy of praise. It <!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page251"></a>[251]</span>is of His grace and favour that He rewards + those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will give in the future world + houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God + is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurán to our + Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and who sends angels to grant peace to + all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and + thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that + beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness + which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and + finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy + and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord + of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his + family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There + is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. + O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True + One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a + curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your + prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the + sadqa.<a name="NtA_258" href="#Nt_258"><sup>[258]</sup></a> O + congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib duty. Give to + the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in + Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make supplication to God, to + sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the Qurán. The religious duties of + the first ten days of Ramazán gain the mercy of God, those of the second + ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them + from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazán is a noble + month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a + thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from + heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent + interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most + Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down + in the month of Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher + between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey + the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers + substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and + say: "God is great!" and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. + O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. + Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the + Bestower, the <!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page252"></a>[252]</span>Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the + Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement."<a name="NtA_259" + href="#Nt_259"><sup>[259]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the + amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their + secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered + conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery + and splendid dress. The Zanána rings with festive songs and loud music, + the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to + dependents, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful + bustle and amusement, on this happy day of 'Íd, when the good lady of the + Mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant + proofs of her favour to others."<a name="NtA_260" + href="#Nt_260"><sup>[260]</sup></a></p> + + <p>6. The Baqr-'Íd.—This is the most important Feast in the whole + year. It is also known as the 'Íd-i-Qurbán, and as the 'Íd-ul-Azhá, + commonly called the Íd-uz-Zuhá, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in + Egypt it is called Bairám. Its origin was as follows: A few months after + the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madína, observed + that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast + of the Atonement. A Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why + they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of the + deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands of + Pharaoh. "We have a greater right in Moses than they," said Muhammad, so + he fasted with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast also. This + was at the period of his mission when Muhammad was friendly with the Jews + of Madína, who occasionally came to hear him preach. The Prophet also + occasionally attended the synagogue. Then came the change of the Qibla + from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change their + <!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page253"></a>[253]</span>creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In + the second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not + participate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast + of the Baqr-'Íd. The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an + annual pilgrimage to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of + animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that + pilgrimage. That portion—the sacrifice of animals—Muhammad + adopted in the feast which now, at Madína, he substituted for the Jewish + fast. This was well calculated to attract the attention of the Meccans + and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. Muhammad could not then make the + pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the + inhabitants of the two cities; but on the tenth day of the month + Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca were engaged in + sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at Madína, and + assembling his followers instituted the Íd-uz-Zuhá or Baqr-'Íd. Two young + kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "O Lord! I + sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to Thy + unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the family + of Muhammad."</p> + + <p>Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Áyesha relates + how the Prophet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Íd-ul-Azhá + more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal + sacrificed will come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and + hoofs, and will make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its + blood reached the acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, + therefore be joyful in it."</p> + + <p>Musalmáns say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice + Ishmael, and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat + of his son. Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and + compassion for me that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself + and then sacrifice me." Abraham acted upon this advice, <!-- Page 254 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254"></a>[254]</span>blindfolded + himself, drew his knife, repeated the Bismilláh, and, as he thought, cut + the throat of his son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had + substituted a sheep for the lad. This event is commemorated in this + feast.</p> + + <p>On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of + various kinds is prepared, over which a Fátiha is offered, first, in the + name of the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of + others for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is + expected. The food is then sent as a present to friends.</p> + + <p>On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the + 'Íd-gáh or, if there is no 'Íd-gáh, to the principal Mosque, repeating on + the way the Takbír "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the + one true God, God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making + wazú, the worshipper should say: "O God, make this (<i>i.e.</i> the + sacrifice I shall offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my + religion and take evil away from me."</p> + + <p>The Service at the 'Íd-gáh, or in the Mosque consists of two farz + rak'ats, as in the Salát-ul-Juma (p. <a href="#page201">201</a>), after + the Khutba is delivered. It will, however, be seen from the following + sermon that it is mustahab to say four more rak'ats.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead">SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UZ-ZUHÁ.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> + + <p>Alláhu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God + is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should + praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. + Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for + the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I + testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. This + testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious + feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. On + Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God + rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimín, may the <!-- + Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255"></a>[255]</span>mercy + of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to fear God + and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who fear Me and are + kind."</p> + + <p>Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign + and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in + Paradise (Dár-ul-Qarár), especially on the day of resurrection will they + obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is no time + for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to utter the + praises of God. (Tasbíh.) Read the Kalíma, the Takbír and the Tamhíd. + This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the + Takbír-ut-Tashríq. God is great! God is great! There is no God but God! + God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the morning of the + 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for a person to + repeat the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. The woman before whom is a man as Imám, and + the traveller whose Imám is a permanent resident (Muqím) should also + repeat this Takbír. It should be said at each Namáz until the + Salát-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that it should + be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the thirteenth day, as + these are the days of the Tashríq (p. <a href="#page231">231</a>).<a + name="NtA_261" href="#Nt_261"><sup>[261]</sup></a> If the Imám forgets to + recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O believers, that every free + man who is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb (<i>i.e.</i> worth Rs. 52) should offer + sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, + his clothes, his tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wájib + for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wájib order + that he should do it for his children.<a name="NtA_262" + href="#Nt_262"><sup>[262]</sup></a> A goat, a ram or a cow should be + offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not be + one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin.</p> + + <p>If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you + across the Sirát. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the + mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this + was the Sunnat of Ibráhím, on whom be peace."</p> + + <p>In the Kitáb-uz-zád-ut-Taqwá, it is said that on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr and + the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namáz + <!-- Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page256"></a>[256]</span>of the 'Íd. In the first rak'at after the + Súrat-ul-Fátiha recite the Súrat-ul-A'lá (Súra lxxvii); in the second, + the Súrat-ush-Shams (Súra xci); in the third, the Súrat-uz-Zuhá (Súra + xciii); in the fourth, the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (cxii).</p> + + <p>O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years + which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Súras are + equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent by + His prophets.</p> + + <p>May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act + according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To + all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in + the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the + Qurán. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever by + the grace of the Noble Qurán. May its verses be our guide, and may its + wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon all + believers, male and female, the Muslimín and the Muslimát. O believers, + also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the + Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O believers, the Khutba is + over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafá the mercy and peace of God + may rest.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the + sacrifice,<a name="NtA_263" href="#Nt_263"><sup>[263]</sup></a> for it is + a wájib order that every Muslim should keep this feast, and sacrifice an + animal for himself. He need not fear though he has to incur debt for the + purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will in some way help him + to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should be one not less than + five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at least be in its second + year, though the third year is better; if a goat it must not be less than + six months old. All of these animals must be without a blemish, or defect + of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the household should + himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he cannot do so, he + may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his hand upon that + of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the <!-- Page 257 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page257"></a>[257]</span>victim is a + camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front legs + being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand side + of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force that + the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. + Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the + victim the following verse of the Qurán should be repeated: "Say! my + prayers, and my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord + of the worlds. He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the + first of the Muslims." (Súra vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, + from Thee, and to Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" + Then having slain the victim he says: "O God accept this for me." The + first meal taken should be prepared from the flesh of the animal just + slaughtered, after which the members of the family, the neighbours, and + the poor should receive some portions.</p> + + <p>It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each + member of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could + bear, it is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In + extreme cases men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the + whole, but the number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. + Some authorities limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly + observed by all Muslims wherever they may be.</p> + + <p>The Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Ídain, the two great + Feasts of Islám. A country in which Musalmáns could not observe them both + would at once become Dár-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would + be the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jíhád, against the + Infidel rulers of the land.</p> + + <p>This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year.</p> + + <p>Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the + pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmáns to the <!-- Page 258 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page258"></a>[258]</span>shrines of Saints, the + ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their + honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnís have but two festivals—the + Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these + I have described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival + days which are peculiar to India. The title of Pír given to a Musalmán + devotee is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who + seeks to be a 'religious' takes a Pír as a spiritual guide. "Follow," + says the poet Walí, "the footsteps of thy Pír, like a shadow." After + death these Pírs are venerated as Walís or Saints. The Pírs when alive, + are frequently resorted to for a ta'wíz, or charm, and the aid of their + prayers is often invoked. The sepulchre of a Walí is called a Dargáh, + shrine; Mazár, place of pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional + reciter of the Qurán, and the Namáz at such places is called a Rauza + Khán. As a rule, processions are made to the shrines, and flowers, + sweetmeats and food over which a Fátiha has been said are offered. + Usually the Fátiha is <i>for</i> the Saint, not <i>to</i> the Saint. It + is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the erection of + such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these Saints is + given in the Bara Masa by Jawán and the Áráyish-i-Mahfil by Afsos. The + following selection will give an idea of the customs + prevalent:—</p> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">Festival of Madár.</span>—Sayyid Badr-ud-dín + Kutb-ul-Madár is said to have descended from the Imám Husain. He was born + at Aleppo about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1050, and received from + Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thus he was able + to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons, and to have + died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people explain the + number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. The length + of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make a certain + number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer he will + live. Jawán in his account of <!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page259"></a>[259]</span>the festival states: "The tomb of Madár is + at Makanpúr, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore." On the seventeenth + of the month Jamádí-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village which is + illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakírs dance, and + through which they leap calling out "Dam Madár, Dam Madár," (breath of + Madár.) An order of Fakírs, called Madária, look to this Saint as their + patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an Alam, + or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to such + days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c.</p> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">Festival of Mu'ín-ud-dín Chistí.</span><a + name="NtA_264" href="#Nt_264"><sup>[264]</sup></a>—The tomb of this + Saint is in Ajmír. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Alí, + and was born in Sajistán about the year 537 <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> His father died when he was about fifteen years + old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakír, Ibráhím Qandúzí, + through whose influence he began to seek the Taríqat, or mystical road to + the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received further + instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jílání. After the conquest of + Hindustan by Shaháb-ud-dín Ghorí, Mu'ín-ud-dín retired to Ajmír, where he + died in the odour of sanctity 636 <span class="scac">A.H.</span> + Pilgrimages to this tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and + people vied with each other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. + Even Akbar, sceptic though he was as regards orthodox Islám, made a + pilgrimage to this shrine, and offered vows that he might have a son who + would live to manhood. Hindus also visit this tomb and presents from rich + men of this class are not unusual.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">Festival of Sálár Mas'úd Ghází.</span>—There + is some doubt as to the nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a + Husainí Syed, others that he was a Pathán, and a martyr. His tomb is + situated in Oude. Afsos thus describes the <!-- Page 260 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page260"></a>[260]</span>pilgrimage. "Once a + year great crowds of people gather from all parts. They carry red lances, + and beat thousands of tambourines. The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday + of the month Jíth (May-June). The people believe that this was his + wedding day, because it is said that he had on wedding garments when he + was killed. This belief once led a certain oilman, a resident of Radúlí, + to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage presents to the shrine at + this time. The custom is still kept up by the descendants of the oilman. + The common people fasten ropes to the branches of the trees in the + neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by the heels, and + assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they desire." The + Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmáns look upon him as a + most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and so earned the + title of Ghází, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was only by the + power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess.</p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Festival of the Bíra or of Khája + Khizr.</span>—Of this Saint, M. Garcin de Tassy says: "Khája Khizr + is a personage respecting whom the opinions of orientals vary. Many + consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of Aaron; others that he + is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound him with St. George. + In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some allege that the + same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be the fact, + Khizr, according to the Musalmáns, discovered the source of the Water of + Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever in + divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held in + his honour." Jawán describes it thus: "In the month of Bhádún + (August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point + of duty to set afloat the boat (náú) in honour of Khája Khizr, and to + make according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the + holy personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in + the month <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page261"></a>[261]</span>in question, the devotees having prepared + the bíra carry it at night to the bank of the river, with many + ceremonies. There great and small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make + their respective oblations, whilst a number of swimmers together jointly + push the bíra into the middle of the river." Sometimes a number of small + bíras, made of clay, are also launched, and as each carries a lamp the + general effect is striking. It is said that the Musalmán natives of the + Maldive Islands annually launch a small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, + and odoriferous flowers, and leave it to the mercy of the winds and waves + as an offering to the god of the sea. There can be no doubt that this god + of the sea is Khizr, the patron of the waters.</p> + + <p>The following prayer is recited in the Fátiha of Khizr: "To obtain + purity of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of + mortals, and who alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the + merits of Khája Khizr, the great prophet Elias."</p> + + <p>5. <span class="sc">The Feast of Pír Dastgír Sáhib.</span>—This + is held on the eleventh day of the month of Rabí'-us-Sání. The Sunnis + hold this Saint in great reverence. He has no less than ninety-nine + names. His tomb is at Baghdád. On the tenth of the month the ceremony + called Sandal (p. <a href="#page245">245</a>) is performed, followed on + the next day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the + circumstances connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasá,id, or + elegiac poems are recited; the Darúd is repeated and Fátihas are said. + The Qurán is also read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint + and in time of any special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried + about in honour of this Pír by some of his devotees to whom presents of + food, &c, are offered. Fátiha is then said over them. He is said to + appear to his followers during their sleep and to give them directions. + Ja'far Sharíf, the compiler of the Qánún-i-Islám speaking, on this point + relates his own experience thus: "The author speaks from personal + experience, for at the time of need, when he <!-- Page 262 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page262"></a>[262]</span>was oppressed in mind + concerning things which he desired, he used to repeat constantly the + ninety-nine names of the Pír and vow before the Holy God, imploring His + assistance by the soul of Dastgír; and through the mercy of the Almighty, + his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgír) presented himself in his sleep, + and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his behests."</p> + + <p>Syed Ahmad Kabír Rafáí, the founder of the Rafái Darwíshes was a + nephew of this Saint.</p> + + <p>6. <span class="sc">Festival of Qádir Walí Sáhib.</span>—This is + the great saint of Southern India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth + day of Jamádí-us-Sání. The shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four + miles north of Negapatam. The sandal and other ceremonies are similar to + those described already. He is the patron saint of sailors, who in times + of difficulty vow that, if they reach the shore in safety, they will + offer a Fátiha in the name of Qádir Walí. The common people have a + profound faith in the power of the saint to work miracles. The story of + the following one is frequently related: "A vessel springing a leak was + about to founder, when the Captain made a vow that should Qádir Walí stop + the leak, he would offer in his name the value of the cargo. At that time + the saint was being shaved, but being miraculously acquainted with the + perilous position of the Captain he cast away the looking-glass which he + held in his hand. This glass attached itself to the hole in the bottom of + the ship which then came safely to land. The Captain, in due course, + presented his offering to the saint who requested him to return the glass + to the barber. The Captain was astonished at this request and enquired + what glass was meant. He was then directed to look at the bottom of his + ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had saved the ship."</p> + + <p>The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu + influences have acted on Islám, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim + Saints. Qádir Walí is said to <!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page263"></a>[263]</span>have been a Fakír who lived on the charity + of both Hindus and Musalmáns. Indeed both parties claim him as belonging + to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the fact + that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to both + classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on or + near his tomb. The fame of the Walí gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah + made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would + enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present + elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint + now become that the Musalmáns there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore." The + same reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years + ago, still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the + commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the + shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tábúts are + taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the + Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still + kept up with the festival of this Musalmán Saint.</p> + + <p>There are many other Walís and Pírs to whose tombs pilgrimages are + made, and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept + up; but all such pilgrimages to a Dargáh (shrine) are no necessary part + of Islám. In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who + have a local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less + observed. Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of + these. This brings me to the close of my subject.</p> + + <p>In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main + features of the Faith of Islám, and the religious duties it enjoins. I + might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the + elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the + borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was <!-- + Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page264"></a>[264]</span>corrupt in the Christianity with which it + came in contact. I might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects, + and the character it produces in the individual and the state. But these + subjects would lead me far beyond my present scope. I prefer to content + myself with giving a representation of the Faith of Islám from its own + authorities, and with leaving my readers to make comparisons and draw + inferences for themselves.</p> + +<h3>THE END.</h3> + +<p><!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page265"></a>[265]</span></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.</h3> + + <div class="contents"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">A.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Aiyám-i-Bíz, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + <p>Aiyám-ut-Tashríq, <a href="#page231">231</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Alam, <a href="#page238">238</a></p> + <p>Al-A'ráf, <a href="#page167">167</a></p> + <p>Al-Barzakh, <a href="#page168">168</a></p> + <p>Al-Mahdí, <a href="#page80">80</a></p> + <p>Akhir-Chár Shambah, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Amm, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Amr-i-Takwíti, <a href="#page176">176</a></p> + <p>Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, <a href="#page150">150</a></p> + <p>Ásár-i-Sharíf, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + <p>Asháb, <a href="#page7">7</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Áshúrá, <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Áshúr Khána, <a href="#page237">237</a></p> + <p>Asmá-i-Husná, <a href="#page133">133</a></p> + <p>Attahíyát, <a href="#page197">197</a></p> + <p>Auliya, <a href="#page152">152</a></p> + <p>Áyat, <a href="#page54">54</a></p> + <p>Áyat-ul-Kursí, <a href="#page212">212</a></p> + <p>Azád, <a href="#page95">95</a></p> + <p>Azán, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">B.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Bárá Wafát, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + <p>Baqáb-i-Qausain, <a href="#page158">158</a></p> + <p>Baqr-'íd, <a href="#page252">252</a></p> + <p>bid'at, <a href="#page14">14</a></p> + <p>Buráq, <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">D.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Dá,írí, <a href="#page81">81</a></p> + <p>Dalálat, <a href="#page53">53</a></p> + <p>Dalíl-i-qata'í, <a href="#page187">187</a></p> + <p>Dalíl-i-zani, <a href="#page187">187</a></p> + <p>Darwíshes, <a href="#page94">94</a></p> + <p>Dargáh, <a href="#page258">258</a></p> + <p>Du'á, <a href="#page197">197</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">F.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Faná, <a href="#page93">93</a></p> + <p>Farú', <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + <p>Farz, <a href="#page187">187</a></p> + <p>Farz-í-'ain, <a href="#page208">208</a></p> + <p>Farz-i-kifáya, <a href="#page207">207</a></p> + <p>Fatrah, <a href="#page3">3</a></p> + <p>Fitrat, <a href="#page187">187</a></p> + <p>Fuqihá, <a href="#page33">33</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">G.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ghair-i-Mahdí, <a href="#page81">81</a></p> + <p>Ghusl, <a href="#page190">190</a></p> + <p>Gunáh-i-kabíra, <a href="#page154">154</a></p> + <p>Gunáh-i-saghíra, <a href="#page154">154</a></p> +<!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page266"></a>[266]</span> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">H.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hadís-i-Ahád, <a href="#page70">70</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Hasan, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Mua'llaq, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Mursal, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Mutawátír, <a href="#page70">70</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Sahíh, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + <p>Hadís-i-Z'aíf, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + <p>Hadd, <a href="#page179">179</a></p> + <p>Háfiz, <a href="#page42">42</a></p> + <p>Haft Sifát, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>Hajj, <a href="#page223">223</a></p> + <p>Hajr-ul-Aswad, <a href="#page226">226</a></p> + <p>Hál, <a href="#page93">93</a></p> + <p>Haqíqat, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a></p> + <p>Harám, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Hárút, <a href="#page142">142</a></p> + <p>Hasal Khazaf, <a href="#page230">230</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">I.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ibádhiyah, <a href="#page76">76</a></p> + <p>Ibárat, <a href="#page53">53</a></p> + <p>Iblís, <a href="#page140">140</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Íd-gáh, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Íd-ul-Fitr, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + <p>Iftár, <a href="#page250">250</a></p> + <p>Ihlál, <a href="#page224">224</a></p> + <p>Ihrám, <a href="#page224">224</a></p> + <p>Ijmá', <a href="#page16">16</a></p> + <p>Ijmá'-i-Ummat, <a href="#page17">17</a></p> + <p>Ijtihád, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a></p> + <p>Ijtihád fi'l-Masá,íl, <a href="#page34">34</a></p> + <p>Ijtihád fi'l-Mazhab, <a href="#page34">34</a></p> + <p>Ijtihád fi'l-Sharí', <a href="#page34">34</a></p> + <p>Ilhám, <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + <p>Ilká, <a href="#page40">40</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Ilm-i-usúl, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + <p>Imám, <a href="#page75">75</a></p> + <p>Imám Abu Hanífa, <a href="#page19">19</a></p> + <p>Imám Ibn Málik, <a href="#page20">20</a></p> + <p>Imám As-Sháfa'í, <a href="#page21">21</a></p> + <p>Imám Ibn Hanbal, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + <p>Imámat, <a href="#page75">75</a></p> + <p>Imám Bára, <a href="#page237">237</a></p> + <p>Imán-i-mufassal, <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + <p>Imán-i-mujmal, <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + <p>Istidlál, <a href="#page53">53</a></p> + <p>Ishárat, <a href="#page53">53</a></p> + <p>Ishrák fi'l-'ibádat, <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + <p>Ishrák fi'l-adab, <a href="#page109">109</a></p> + <p>Isnád, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Itikáf, <a href="#page249">249</a></p> + <p>Iqámat, <a href="#page194">194</a></p> + <p>Iqtizá, <a href="#page54">54</a></p> + <p>I'tibár-ul-Amsál, <a href="#page27">27</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">J.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Jabríans, <a href="#page132">132</a></p> + <p>Jahannum, <a href="#page172">172</a></p> + <p>Jámí'-i-Tirmizí, <a href="#page86">86</a></p> + <p>Jamrat-ul-Akahah, <a href="#page230">230</a></p> + <p>Jannat, <a href="#page171">171</a></p> + <p>Jashn-i-milád-i-sharíf, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + <p>Jinn, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + <p>Juz, <a href="#page56">56</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">K.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>K'aba, <a href="#page227">227</a></p> + <p>Kalám, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> +<!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page267"></a>[267]</span> + <p>Kalima, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + <p>Karámians, <a href="#page163">163</a></p> + <p>Kasb, <a href="#page130">130</a></p> + <p>Kausar, <a href="#page171">171</a></p> + <p>Kináyah, <a href="#page52">52</a></p> + <p>Kirám-ul-Kátibín, <a href="#page141">141</a></p> + <p>Kitmán, <a href="#page91">91</a></p> + <p>Khafí, <a href="#page50">50</a></p> + <p>Khárigites, <a href="#page76">76</a></p> + <p>Kháss, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Kharq-i-'ádat, <a href="#page157">157</a></p> + <p>Khulafá-i-Ráshidín, <a href="#page66">66</a></p> + <p>Khutba, <a href="#page201">201</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">L.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Labbaik, <a href="#page225">225</a></p> + <p>Lahad, <a href="#page211">211</a></p> + <p>Lailat-ul-Qadr, <a href="#page2">2</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">M.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Mahmúdiah, <a href="#page83">83</a></p> + <p>Majáz, <a href="#page52">52</a></p> + <p>Majzúb, <a href="#page95">95</a></p> + <p>Maukadda', <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Makrúh, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Mansúkh, <a href="#page59">59</a></p> + <p>Maqám-i-Mahmúd, <a href="#page169">169</a></p> + <p>Marsiya, <a href="#page238">238</a></p> + <p>Márút, <a href="#page142">142</a></p> + <p>Mihráb, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + <p>Mimbar, <a href="#page239">239</a></p> + <p>Míqát, <a href="#page225">225</a></p> + <p>Mízán, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + <p>Mua'qqibát, <a href="#page141">141</a></p> + <p>Muawwal, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Mu,azzin, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + <p>Mubáh, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Mufassir, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page50">50</a></p> + <p>Mufsid, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Muhaddis, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + <p>Mujassimians, <a href="#page131">131</a></p> + <p>Mu'jizát, <a href="#page157">157</a></p> + <p>Mujmal, <a href="#page51">51</a></p> + <p>Mujtahid, <a href="#page17">17</a></p> + <p>Mukham, <a href="#page50">50</a></p> + <p>Munkir, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + <p>Murshid, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> + <p>Mutashábih, <a href="#page52">52</a></p> + <p>Musallí, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + <p>Mushábihites, <a href="#page131">131</a></p> + <p>Mus-haf, <a href="#page147">147</a></p> + <p>Muharram, <a href="#page237">237</a></p> + <p>Muskhil, <a href="#page51">51</a></p> + <p>Mustahab, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Mu'takif, <a href="#page249">249</a></p> + <p>Mustarik, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Muta'h, <a href="#page84">84</a></p> + <p>Mutazilites, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">N.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Nabí, <a href="#page153">153</a></p> + <p>Nafkhatain-i-Súr, <a href="#page161">161</a></p> + <p>Nafl, <a href="#page199">199</a></p> + <p>Nakír, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + <p>Namáz, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + <p>Nass, <a href="#page50">50</a></p> + <p>Násikh, <a href="#page59">59</a></p> + <p>Nisáb, <a href="#page218">218</a></p> + <p>Niyyat, <a href="#page194">194</a></p> + <p>Núr-i-Muhammadí, <a href="#page77">77</a></p> +<!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page268"></a>[268]</span> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">Q.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Qadam-i-Rasúl, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + <p>Qadríans, <a href="#page174">174</a></p> + <p>Qazá, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + <p>Qíám, <a href="#page194">194</a></p> + <p>Qíás, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p>Qirá,at, <a href="#page43">43</a></p> + <p>Qárí, <a href="#page43">43</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">R.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rak'at, <a href="#page195">195</a></p> + <p>Ramazán, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + <p>Ramí-ul-Jamár, <a href="#page230">230</a></p> + <p>Rasúl, <a href="#page153">153</a></p> + <p>Rauza Khán, <a href="#page258">258</a></p> + <p>Roza, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + <p>Roza-i-nazr, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + <p>Roza-i-kafára, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + <p>Rúh-ul-Ámín, <a href="#page4">4</a></p> + <p>Rukú', <a href="#page56">56</a></p> + <p>Rúz-i-Tarwiáh, <a href="#page229">229</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">S.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Sadqa, <a href="#page250">250</a></p> + <p>Sahá,íf-i-A'mál, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + <p>Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + <p>Sahíh-i-Muslim, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + <p>S'ai, <a href="#page229">229</a></p> + <p>Salát, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-'Asr, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Fajr, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-'Ishá, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Ishráq, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Istisqá, <a href="#page206">206</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Istikhára, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Janáza, <a href="#page207">207</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Juma', <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Khauf, <a href="#page204">204</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Khusúf, <a href="#page206">206</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Kusúf, <a href="#page205">205</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Maghrib, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Musáfir, <a href="#page204">204</a></p> + <p>Salát-ut-Taráwíh, <a href="#page206">206</a></p> + <p>Salát-ul-Tahajjud, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-uz-Zuhá, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Salát-uz-Zuhr, <a href="#page200">200</a></p> + <p>Sálik, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> + <p>Saríh, <a href="#page52">52</a></p> + <p>Shafá'at-i-ba-izn, <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + <p>Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, <a href="#page107">107</a></p> + <p>Shafá'at-i-wajahat, <a href="#page107">107</a></p> + <p>Shirk, <a href="#page105">105</a></p> + <p>Shirk-ul-'Ádat, <a href="#page109">109</a></p> + <p>Shirk-ul-ibádat, <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + <p>Shirk-ul-'ilm, <a href="#page107">107</a></p> + <p>Shirk-ut-tasarruf, <a href="#page107">107</a></p> + <p>Sifát-i-Salbiah, <a href="#page123">123</a></p> + <p>Sifát-i-Sabútiah, <a href="#page123">123</a></p> + <p>Sihah-Sittah, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + <p>Sípára, <a href="#page56">56</a></p> + <p>Sirát, <a href="#page166">166</a></p> + <p>Sufíism, <a href="#page87">87</a>-<a href="#page101">101</a></p> + <p>Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + <p>Sunan-i-Nasáí, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + <p>Sunan-i-Májah, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + <p>Sunnat, <a href="#page10">10</a></p> + <p>Súra, <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">T.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ta'awwuz, <a href="#page195">195</a></p> +<!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page269"></a>[269]</span> + <p>Taba-i-Tábi'ín, <a href="#page7">7</a></p> + <p>Tábi'ín, <a href="#page7">7</a></p> + <p>Tábút, <a href="#page238">238</a></p> + <p>Tahárat, <a href="#page189">189</a></p> + <p>Tahríf, <a href="#page149">149</a></p> + <p>Takbír, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + <p>Takía, <a href="#page84">84</a></p> + <p>Talbíyah, <a href="#page225">225</a></p> + <p>Talqín, <a href="#page212">212</a></p> + <p>Tasbíh, <a href="#page195">195</a></p> + <p>Tashahhud, <a href="#page188">188</a></p> + <p>Tasmía', <a href="#page195">195</a></p> + <p>Tasmíyah, <a href="#page195">195</a></p> + <p>Tatáír-i-Sahá,íf, <a href="#page163">163</a></p> + <p>Tauhíd, <a href="#page106">106</a></p> + <p>Tauqífi, <a href="#page132">132</a></p> + <p>Tawáf, <a href="#page227">227</a></p> + <p>Tawáf-ul-Widá', <a href="#page231">231</a></p> + <p>Tayammum, <a href="#page190">190</a></p> + <p>Tázíah, <a href="#page238">238</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">U.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Usúl, <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + <p class="hg1">'Umráh, <a href="#page231">231</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">W.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wahhábís, <a href="#page101">101</a></p> + <p>Wahí, <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + <p>Wajd, <a href="#page93">93</a></p> + <p>Wájib, <a href="#page187">187</a></p> + <p>Wájib-ul-Wajúd, <a href="#page132">132</a></p> + <p>Wáqi'a Khán, <a href="#page239">239</a></p> + <p>Wazú, <a href="#page189">189</a></p> + <p>Witr, <a href="#page198">198</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">Z.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Zakát, <a href="#page218">218</a>-<a href="#page222">222</a></p> + <p>Záhir, <a href="#page49">49</a></p> + <p>Ziárat, <a href="#page233">233</a></p> + </div> + </div> +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>NOTES</h3> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt_1" href="#NtA_1">[1]</a> There is an excellent one by Neil + B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's + <i>Our Indian Musalmáns</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_2" href="#NtA_2">[2]</a> "Let none touch it but the + purified." (Súra lvi. 78.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_3" href="#NtA_3">[3]</a> "It was certainly an admirable + and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole Korán at once to + the lowest heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet would + have done; for if the whole had been published at once, innumerable + objections might have been made, which it would have been very hard, if + not impossible for him to solve; but as he pretended to receive it by + parcels, as God saw proper that they should be published for the + conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all + emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty + which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section III.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_4" href="#NtA_4">[4]</a> Literary Remains of Emmanuel + Deutsch, p. 77.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_5" href="#NtA_5">[5]</a> Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. + i. p. 195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_6" href="#NtA_6">[6]</a> "The grandeur of the Qurán + consists, its contents apart, in its diction. We cannot explain the + peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous nature of Semitic sound and + parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of affixes and + prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consciously + bearing upon and influencing the central root—which they envelope + like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move around the + anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. + 122.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_7" href="#NtA_7">[7]</a> Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. + i. p. 194.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_8" href="#NtA_8">[8]</a> Those who were in constant + intercourse with the prophet are called Asháb (Companions); their + disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their disciples are known as + Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_9" href="#NtA_9">[9]</a> "Thus, after the usual + distribution of the spoils taken on the field of Cadesia (<span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 14) the residue was divided among those who knew + most of the Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_10" href="#NtA_10">[10]</a> Muavia.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_11" href="#NtA_11">[11]</a> The twelve Imáms.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_12" href="#NtA_12">[12]</a> Al-Mahdí is still supposed to + be alive.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_13" href="#NtA_13">[13]</a> These are called (1) + Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that + which he said should be practised. (3) Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was + done in his presence and which he did not forbid.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_14" href="#NtA_14">[14]</a> Risála-i-Berkeví.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_15" href="#NtA_15">[15]</a> The great Wahhábí preacher + Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will be given later on, says in + the Takwiat-ul-Imán:—"The best of all ways is to have for + principles the words (holy writings) of God and <i>of His Apostle</i>; to + hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own opinion to be + exercised."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_16" href="#NtA_16">[16]</a> Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun + vol. i. p. 195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_17" href="#NtA_17">[17]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_18" href="#NtA_18">[18]</a> Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. + 285.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_19" href="#NtA_19">[19]</a> "Les docteurs de la loi sont + unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de conformer ses actions à ce qui est + indiqué dans les traditions attribuées au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. + ii. p. 465.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_20" href="#NtA_20">[20]</a> In June 1827, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span>, Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting + against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs + of which are conducted upon the principles of <i>sacred legislation</i>, + and all the regulations of which are strictly connected with the + principles of religion." These principles still remain in force, for the + famous Fatvá given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent + Khair-ud-dín's proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of + the Sheri," or Law.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_21" href="#NtA_21">[21]</a> "The respect which modern + Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal + would not even eat water-melons because although he knew the Prophet ate + them, he could not learn whether he ate them with or without the rind, or + whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he forbade a woman, who questioned + him as to the propriety of the act, to spin by the light of torches + passing in the streets by night, because the Prophet had not mentioned + that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. + 354.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_22" href="#NtA_22">[22]</a> Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. + 1009.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_23" href="#NtA_23">[23]</a> Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, + vol. ii. p. 469.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_24" href="#NtA_24">[24]</a> Journal Asiatique 4me série, + tom. xii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_25" href="#NtA_25">[25]</a> Osborn's Islám under the + Khalífs, p. 29.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_26" href="#NtA_26">[26]</a> Ibn Khallikan's Biographical + Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_27" href="#NtA_27">[27]</a> Ibid., p. 546.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_28" href="#NtA_28">[28]</a> Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_29" href="#NtA_29">[29]</a> In South India, the Muhammadan + money-changer resorts to a curious piece of casuistry to reconcile the + practice of his profession with the faith he holds. It is wrong to gain + money by money as a direct agency. Suppose, then, for example, that the + charge for changing a shilling is one farthing. It is unlawful for the + money-changer to give four three-penny pieces for one shilling plus one + farthing, for then he will have sinned against the laws anent usury by + gaining money (one farthing) by money; but if he gives three three-penny + pieces plus two pence three farthings in copper the transaction will be + lawful, as his profit of one farthing is then gained by selling as + merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for one shilling, and not + by exactly changing the shilling.</p> + + <p>Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; + and so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims + doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the + 'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be + clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry + is very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law + is.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_30" href="#NtA_30">[30]</a> "Authority becomes sacred + because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, being the first form of + consolidated political authority, is thus rendered unchangeable and + identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme Government has four + stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is among them + concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and this we + call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, neither + do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four (Abu + Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as if + they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none of + these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a + knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment + enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the + Sunnat; (4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with + in a single person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this + we call the reign of the Sunnat-followers.—Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. + 374. 378.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_31" href="#NtA_31">[31]</a> Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír + 'Alí, p. 289.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_32" href="#NtA_32">[32]</a> The Muslim 'Ulamá are + certainly much fettered by their religion in the pursuit of some of the + paths of learning; and superstition sometimes decides a point which has + been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. + 269.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_33" href="#NtA_33">[33]</a> The Goth might ravage Italy, + but the Goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had + kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the Celtic heart + softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less churlish habits. + Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their ferocity in the + very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish. Even the + Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched and softened in + his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but the Turk—wherever + his scymitar reached—degraded, defiled, and defamed; blasting into + eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had + gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred years + into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, <span + class="scac">C.B.</span>, in <i>Good Words</i> for September 1880.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_34" href="#NtA_34">[34]</a> "The Muslim everywhere, after + a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems to stagnate and wither, because + there is nothing in his system or his belief which lifts him above the + level of a servant, and on that level man's life in the long run must not + only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the other hand, seems + everywhere in the last extremity to bid disorganization and decay + defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth which he touches, the + spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is that in his belief, + his traditions, and in the silent influences which pervade the very + atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in ways that he + knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power + which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The + submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; the + Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."—<i>British Quarterly, + No.</i> cxxx.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_35" href="#NtA_35">[35]</a> A Mukallif is one who is + subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one not so subject, such as a + minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus equivalent to a + consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his religious + duties.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_36" href="#NtA_36">[36]</a> Commentators on the Qurán.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_37" href="#NtA_37">[37]</a> The Traditionists.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_38" href="#NtA_38">[38]</a> Plural of Faqíh, a + theologian.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_39" href="#NtA_39">[39]</a> I have given the dates of + their death.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_40" href="#NtA_40">[40]</a> Osborn's Islám under the + Khalífs p. 72.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_41" href="#NtA_41">[41]</a> Dabistán, p. 214.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_42" href="#NtA_42">[42]</a> pp. 508-510.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_43" href="#NtA_43">[43]</a> "It (the Qurán) is simply an + instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. 104).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_44" href="#NtA_44">[44]</a> Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, + 111.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_45" href="#NtA_45">[45]</a> The opinion of Von Hammer, + quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to + be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to be as surely Muhammad's words as + the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of God."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_46" href="#NtA_46">[46]</a> Ibn Khallikan's Biographical + Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_47" href="#NtA_47">[47]</a> "Were we to examine the Qurán + by the rules of rhetoric and criticism as they are taught in Muslim + schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge that it is the perfection of + thought and expression; an inevitable result as the Muslims drew their + principles of rhetoric from that very book."—Baron M. de Slane, in + the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_48" href="#NtA_48">[48]</a> There are many Traditions + which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al Khattáb said; "I accorded with my + cherisher (<i>i.e.</i>, God) in three things. One is that I said, 'O + messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in Abraham's place it + would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the place of Abraham + for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O messenger of God! + good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see that it is + fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it will be + better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, that + his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking honey; + and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his Majesty's + wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better in + exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said."</p> + + <p>'Áyesha said:—"I was reflecting on those women who had given + themselves to the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself + away?' Then the revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the + present whom thou wilt of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom + thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have + before neglected: and this shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). + I said; 'I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please you: + whatsoever you wish He doeth.'"</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_49" href="#NtA_49">[49]</a> Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn + Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_50" href="#NtA_50">[50]</a> This includes even the + orthography, for:—"La génération suivante, je veux dire les Tábis + (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du Prophète et se fit un + mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par ceux qui, après + Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui avaient recu de + lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive voix." Ibn + Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_51" href="#NtA_51">[51]</a> This interpretation God made + known to the Prophet, who communicated it to the Companions, hence all + orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance with theirs. They were the + sole depositaries of the inspired commentary given by Muhammad. There is + now no room for, as there is no need of, any other.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_52" href="#NtA_52">[52]</a> Speaking on this very subject + Ibn Khaldoun says:—"Rien de tout cela n'a pu se connaître que par + des indications provenant des Compagnons et de leurs disciples." Vol. ii. + p. 460.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_53" href="#NtA_53">[53]</a> Ibn Khaldoun says that + Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for learning in the sixth + century <span class="scac">A.H.</span>), remarked on these letters as + follows:—They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to + such a degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; + for this book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of + letters. All men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in + order to express their ideas, they want to use these same letters + combined."</p> + + <p>On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not + very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the + sense of the passage as:—"God has placed these letters in several + Súras as a sort of defiance; as if He had said:—'Voilà les éléments + dont se compose le Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale + par le style.'" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_54" href="#NtA_54">[54]</a> The last verse revealed at + Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your religion for you, and have + filled up the measure of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that + Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful leanings to wrong shall + be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, + merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_55" href="#NtA_55">[55]</a> The arrangement made by + Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des Quráns" is considered by + Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's English version of the Qurán + is, with some exceptions, an example of this order.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_56" href="#NtA_56">[56]</a> On ordinary occasions any + verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the one generally repeated.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_57" href="#NtA_57">[57]</a> Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_58" href="#NtA_58">[58]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 131.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_59" href="#NtA_59">[59]</a> Commentary on the Holy Bible + by Syed Ahmad, <span class="scac">C.S.I.</span>, vol. i. p. 268. See note + on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_60" href="#NtA_60">[60]</a> Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar + 'Ali, p. 250.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_61" href="#NtA_61">[61]</a> Biographical Dictionary, vol. + ii, p. 679.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_62" href="#NtA_62">[62]</a> "He ranked as a high authority + in the Traditions and was well versed in all the sciences connected with + them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_63" href="#NtA_63">[63]</a> The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far + Muhammad, <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 329. The + Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí, <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 381. The Tahzíb and the Istibsár by Shaikh Abu + Ja'far Muhammad, <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 466. The + Nahaj-ul-Balághat by Sayyud Razí <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 406.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_64" href="#NtA_64">[64]</a> If the Isnád is good, internal + improbability carries with it little weight against the genuineness of a + Tradition. There is a saying current to this effect:—"A relation + made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by him on the authority of + Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is really the golden + chain."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_65" href="#NtA_65">[65]</a> Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_66" href="#NtA_66">[66]</a> A full account of these will + be found in the preface to the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of + the Sharh-i-Waqáyah.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_67" href="#NtA_67">[67]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 123.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_68" href="#NtA_68">[68]</a> Kisas-ul-Anbiya,—"Lives + of the Prophets."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_69" href="#NtA_69">[69]</a> Hyát-un-Nafís.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_70" href="#NtA_70">[70]</a> The Shía'hs in claiming + freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are more logical than the + Romanists, thus:—</p> + + <p>"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of + persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of + the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to + be needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation + of all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It + requires the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That + is to say, it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is + to be infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the + tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the + spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone's <i>Gleanings</i>, + vol. iii. p. 260.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_71" href="#NtA_71">[71]</a> It is a common Musalmán belief + that the body of a prophet casts no shadow. A similar idea regarding + necromancers was widely spread over Northern Europe. It is alluded to by + Scott in the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," where speaking of the father of + the Ladye, who in Padua, "had learned the art that none might name," he + says:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"His form no darkening shadow traced</p> + <p>Upon the sunny wall."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for + magical honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the + devil could only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly + captured, he became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to + explain a previous belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were + prevalent in the Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua + were the universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest + proficiency in magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some + connection with the Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of + prophets.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_72" href="#NtA_72">[72]</a> The Sunnís esteem and respect + the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit—men of the House, (of the Prophet); but do + not give them precedence over the duly appointed Khalífs.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_73" href="#NtA_73">[73]</a> The names are 'Alí, Hasan, + Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí + Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or + Imám Mahdí).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_74" href="#NtA_74">[74]</a> Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid + 'Izzat 'Alí.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_75" href="#NtA_75">[75]</a> For a good account of this + movement see, Osborn's Islám under the Arabs, pp. 168-184.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_76" href="#NtA_76">[76]</a> Islám under the Khalífs, p. + 139.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_77" href="#NtA_77">[77]</a> Miskát-ul-Musábih.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_78" href="#NtA_78">[78]</a> Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_79" href="#NtA_79">[79]</a> Nothing shows this more + plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the Council of the 'Ulamá in July + 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, which would have placed the + Sultán in the position of a constitutional sovereign. This was declared + to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:— "The law of the Sheri + does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a power superior to his + own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as master. The Vakils + (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond that of + representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would consequently + be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, which + should be the guide of <i>all</i> the actions of the Khalíf, to transfer + the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most + important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with + all that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as + possible that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any + attempt to set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no + hope of reform.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_80" href="#NtA_80">[80]</a> It is instructive to compare + the words of the Christian poet with the Súfí idea of absorption into the + Divine Being.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"That each who seems a separate whole</p> + <p>Should move his rounds, and fusing all</p> + <p>The skirts of self again, should fall</p> + <p>Remerging in the general soul,</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Is faith as vague as all unsweet:</p> + <p>Eternal form shall still divide</p> + <p>The eternal soul from all beside;</p> + <p>And I shall know him when we meet."</p> + <p class="i16">Tennyson's "In Memoriam."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><a name="Nt_81" href="#NtA_81">[81]</a> "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, + quoiqu'il soit le contraire du matérialisme, lui est en réalité + identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas plus raisonnable, elle est du + moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie Philosophique et religieuse + chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_82" href="#NtA_82">[82]</a> Kaf—a chain of mountains + supposed to encircle the earth.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_83" href="#NtA_83">[83]</a> 'Anka—the + Phœnix.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_84" href="#NtA_84">[84]</a> "Ils pensent que la Bible et + le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour l'homme qui se contente de + l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de l'extérieur, pour le <i>záhir + parast</i>, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le sofi qui sonde le fond + des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par + M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_85" href="#NtA_85">[85]</a> The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, + is of Persian origin. It is derived from 'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the + root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence the idea of hanging about + doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' and the word becomes + 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this idea of holy men + being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, and so they + propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, and + "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from + wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express + similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called + Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the + more probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both + derivations.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_86" href="#NtA_86">[86]</a> For a very interesting account + of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter + 51.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_87" href="#NtA_87">[87]</a> La Poésie Philosophique et + Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 7.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_88" href="#NtA_88">[88]</a> Súfí doctrines of the Moollá + Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique 6me Série, tom. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_89" href="#NtA_89">[89]</a> "That Omar in his impiety was + false to his better nature we may readily admit, while, at the same time, + we may find some excuse for his errors, if we remember the state of the + world at that time. His clear strong sense revolted from the prevailing + mysticism where all the earnest spirits of his age found their refuge, + and his honest independence was equally shocked by the hypocrites who + aped their fervour and enthusiasm; and at that dark hour of man's history + whither, out of Islám, was the thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No + missionary's step, bringing good tidings, had appeared on the mountains + of Persia; the few Christians who might cross his path in his native + land, would only seem to him idolaters." Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life + the reviewer says: "almost the only point of contact with Christendom is + his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The same isolation runs + through all the golden period of Persian Literature"—<i>Calcutta + Review</i>, No. lix.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_90" href="#NtA_90">[90]</a> The following are the names of + the Wahhábí chiefs:—Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, died <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; + Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; + Turki, assassinated 1830; Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. + Hughes Notes, p. 221.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_91" href="#NtA_91">[91]</a> Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. + 10.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_92" href="#NtA_92">[92]</a> According to the latest Census + Report there are 4,000 in the Madras Presidency, where the total Musalmán + population is about 2,000,000.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_93" href="#NtA_93">[93]</a> Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. + 149.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_94" href="#NtA_94">[94]</a> Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. + 369.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_95" href="#NtA_95">[95]</a> Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. + 372.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_96" href="#NtA_96">[96]</a> Ibid, p. 372.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_97" href="#NtA_97">[97]</a> Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his + great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with the prayer—"O Lord teach us + by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at and Sunnat, and the Law of + the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly submissive to the Sunnat." + This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís do not reject Tradition + as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror of innovation, and + reveals the little hope there is of any real progress through their + influence.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_98" href="#NtA_98">[98]</a> "Mr. Finlay, the clever but + partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," has declared in a sweeping way + 'that there is no greater delusion than to speak of the unity of the + Christian Church.' However this may be, I can affirm the perfect + applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In no part of the + world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief (taking + Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very lands + which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one + common creed of the Qurán and its author."—Palgrave's Arabia, vol. + i. p. 10.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_99" href="#NtA_99">[99]</a> Strictly speaking, this + chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of Islám,' as the subject of it is + technically called Imán, or faith. The Kalima, or creed is, in the strict + sense, the expression of belief in one God, and in Muhammad as His + apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual sense of a body of + dogmas.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_100" href="#NtA_100">[100]</a> Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa + tasdíqun bil janáni.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_101" href="#NtA_101">[101]</a> Amantu billáhi kama hua + bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a ahkámihi.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_102" href="#NtA_102">[102]</a> Amantu billáhi wa + maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi + wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_103" href="#NtA_103">[103]</a> He speaks of it thus: + "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane le plus estimé et le plus + répandu en Turquie," p. 154.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_104" href="#NtA_104">[104]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 27.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_105" href="#NtA_105">[105]</a> The above statements form + the substance of several pages in the "Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in + which also occurs the following: "Cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour + déprécier notre intelligence et nos facultés perceptives: l'intelligence + est une balance parfaitement juste: elle nous fournit des résultats + certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit pas employer cette balance + pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à l'unité de Dieu, à la vie + future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable caractère des attributs + divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. Vouloir le faire, ce + serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_106" href="#NtA_106">[106]</a> "Telle fut la règle suivie + par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des verses motachabeh; ils + l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre qui se présentent dans + la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même source que celles du + Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.</p> + + <p>This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and + origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_107" href="#NtA_107">[107]</a> Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. + 565.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_108" href="#NtA_108">[108]</a> "The Musulmán Authors + distinguish between the earlier and later Mutakallimán. The former (of + whom we here treat) were occupied with purely religious questions; the + latter, who arose after the introduction of the Greek philosophy amongst + Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though they tried to make + them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive + et Arabe, p. 320.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_109" href="#NtA_109">[109]</a> Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. + 250.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_110" href="#NtA_110">[110]</a> Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. + 250.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_111" href="#NtA_111">[111]</a> Dabistán, p. 218.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_112" href="#NtA_112">[112]</a> Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. + 343.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_113" href="#NtA_113">[113]</a> "C'etait l'époque de la + plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, + et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle et littáraire, atteignirent + leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me Série, Tome xii. p. 104.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_114" href="#NtA_114">[114]</a> To understand the bearing + of all the discussions that then took place, the reader should have some + acquaintance with the history of the Khalífs, and of the rise and + progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can be found in Osborn's + "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter will be found in a + note at the end of this chapter.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_115" href="#NtA_115">[115]</a> Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. + 669.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_116" href="#NtA_116">[116]</a> Ibid, p. 228.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_117" href="#NtA_117">[117]</a> Ibn Khaldoun says: + "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la raison) fut adopté par les + (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur traités, mais il ne fut + pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour arriver à la + découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la démonstration, la + connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les scolastiques + recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la + vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers Musalmans et de + repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs avaient émises." + Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_118" href="#NtA_118">[118]</a> Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 63</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_119" href="#NtA_119">[119]</a> "Most excellent titles has + God: by these call ye on Him and stand aloof from those who pervert His + titles." (Súra vii. 179.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_120" href="#NtA_120">[120]</a> "The Mujassimians, or + Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance between God and created + beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's Preliminary discourse, + Section viii. para. 3.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_121" href="#NtA_121">[121]</a> Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. + 394.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_122" href="#NtA_122">[122]</a> "The Freethinkers + (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except in the controversial + treatises which they had written. These were destroyed, and with their + destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between Free-thought and + the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's Khalífs of Baghdád, p. + 148.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_123" href="#NtA_123">[123]</a> Súra xxxix, 68, 69.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_124" href="#NtA_124">[124]</a> L'Islamisme d'après le + Coran, p. 135.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_125" href="#NtA_125">[125]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_126" href="#NtA_126">[126]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 187.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_127" href="#NtA_127">[127]</a> Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. + 58.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_128" href="#NtA_128">[128]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_129" href="#NtA_129">[129]</a> "From the beginning of + history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, + the boundary of geographical knowledge—indeed, the boundary of the + world itself."—Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_130" href="#NtA_130">[130]</a> See also Súra xxxviii. + 89.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_131" href="#NtA_131">[131]</a> Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 140.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_132" href="#NtA_132">[132]</a> Thus the famous Persian + poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih nákardah Qurán darust, kutub + khána-i-chand millat bashust."—"The Perfect one who, ere the whole + of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the library of all the + peoples' creeds."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_133" href="#NtA_133">[133]</a> Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. + Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan, <i>i.e.</i> abrogated both as + regards reading and writing—entirely abrogated. Also <span + class="correction" title="Tamíl in original, corrected by Errata" + >Takmíl</span>-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián + ast.—"His religion abrogates all religions."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_134" href="#NtA_134">[134]</a> Commentary on the Holy + Bible by Syed Ahmad, <span class="scac">C.S.I.</span>, vol. i. p. 268. + This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation + for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus + in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that + one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not + believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit + (Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New + Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. + We hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to + the contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and + articles of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a + liberal Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu + text which, literally translated, is as follows:—"Now it should be + considered that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims + that the Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming + of the Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogated + <i>on account of the idea that there is any defect in them</i> are + utterly mistaken, &c."</p> + + <p>The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English + text; but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his + co-religionists the Syed says in effect: "The books <i>are abrogated</i> + but not because they were imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe + that a divine book was defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact + of the abrogation of the previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is + orthodox. The leader of an apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns + is, in this instance, at least, as conservative as the most bigoted.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_135" href="#NtA_135">[135]</a> Syed Ahmad's Commentary on + the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_136" href="#NtA_136">[136]</a> Ibid, p. 31.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_137" href="#NtA_137">[137]</a> There are many other such + passages. They are given in detail, with the interpretation of approved + commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. publication—The Korán—by + Sir W. Muir.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_138" href="#NtA_138">[138]</a> Commentary on the Holy + Bible, by Syed Ahmad, <span class="scac">C.S.I.</span>, vol. i. pp. + 64-95.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_139" href="#NtA_139">[139]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_140" href="#NtA_140">[140]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_141" href="#NtA_141">[141]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_142" href="#NtA_142">[142]</a> Prolégomènes d'Ibn + Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_143" href="#NtA_143">[143]</a> "That the "Auliya" are + distinguished above ordinary mortals is maintained on the authority + of:—"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, those on whom no fear + shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x. 63.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_144" href="#NtA_144">[144]</a> Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 125.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_145" href="#NtA_145">[145]</a> Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_146" href="#NtA_146">[146]</a> This is an orthodox blow at + the Shía'h practices in the month of Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a + good act.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_147" href="#NtA_147">[147]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_148" href="#NtA_148">[148]</a> It is said Adam's sin was a + mere slip but it brought good to the world. Had he remained in Paradise + the world would not have been peopled; and the word of God "I have not + created men and jinns, except for worship," would not have been + fulfilled.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_149" href="#NtA_149">[149]</a> That is, according to the + commentator Beidawí,—"Thy remissness in propagating Islám."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_150" href="#NtA_150">[150]</a> Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. + 332.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_151" href="#NtA_151">[151]</a> On the contrary, he seems + to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish said: "By no means will we + believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the + earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes, and thou + cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; or thou make the + heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; or thou bring + God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than a man, + an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to say, + were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles were + confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was + for all ages. He needed no other sign than this.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_152" href="#NtA_152">[152]</a> "Have We not opened thine + heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition relates that when young, two + angels cut open his breast, and took out a black drop; many other marvels + are also connected with this event.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_153" href="#NtA_153">[153]</a> Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_154" href="#NtA_154">[154]</a> Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. + 362</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_155" href="#NtA_155">[155]</a> For a graphic account of + these events see "Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_156" href="#NtA_156">[156]</a> "All that Muhammadans must + believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the Prophet saw himself, in a + vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and that in such a vision he + really beheld some of the greatest signs of his Lord." Essays by Syed + Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is not, however, an + orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual bodily migration + from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies the statement + of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the ascension to + heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings preserved in + the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a Muslim.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_157" href="#NtA_157">[157]</a> Some commentators make no + distinction between the first and second blast, as only two are + distinctly mentioned in the Qurán.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_158" href="#NtA_158">[158]</a> Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. + 183.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_159" href="#NtA_159">[159]</a> According to Búkhárí and to + Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a distance of seventy yards from, + and reach up to the lobe of the ears of those who perspire.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_160" href="#NtA_160">[160]</a> "That is, they will know + the inhabitants of Paradise by their whiteness, and the people of Hell by + the blackness of their faces."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_161" href="#NtA_161">[161]</a> For some curious opinions + with regard to the state of the soul there see Sale's Preliminary + Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_162" href="#NtA_162">[162]</a> Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_163" href="#NtA_163">[163]</a> Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. + p. 397.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_164" href="#NtA_164">[164]</a> Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. + 25.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_165" href="#NtA_165">[165]</a> Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book + xxiii. ch. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_166" href="#NtA_166">[166]</a> "Although some Muhammadans, + whose understandings are too refined to admit such gross conceptions, + look on their Prophet's description as parabolical, and are willing to + receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation, yet the general + and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to be strictly believed in + the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, + Section iv. p. 73.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_167" href="#NtA_167">[167]</a> This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, + is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that on which the Qurán is written. + In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are said to be written in "the + clear book of our decrees." This is called the Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear + prototype.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_168" href="#NtA_168">[168]</a> "The Prophet of God said + that Adam and Moses (in the world of Spirits) maintained a debate before + God, and Adam got the better of Moses, who said, "Thou art that Adam, + whom God created and breathed into thee His own Spirit, and made the + angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in Paradise; after which, + thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault which thou didst + commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God selected for His + prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve tables, in which + are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant and the bearer + of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I was + created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in + the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a + matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating + me?'"</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_169" href="#NtA_169">[169]</a> Ibn Kah, commenting on the + verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of + the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, 'Am I not,' + said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), + goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets and saints into one class, + and the martyrs into another. The pious men, also, were separated into + one, and the wicked into another. One class was formed of the obedient + servants, while the unbelievers, <i>viz</i>., the Jews, the Christians, + the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into several + parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape in + which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This + passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the + Takwiyat-ul-Imán.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_170" href="#NtA_170">[170]</a> The orthodox Commentator + 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the decree, <i>e.g.</i> 'He whom God + wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom He wills to be an infidel + will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. + ii. page 9.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_171" href="#NtA_171">[171]</a> Mélanges de Philosophe + Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_172" href="#NtA_172">[172]</a> Thus the poet Faizí says: + "Before thou and I were thought of, our free will was taken from our + hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both worlds settled our affairs + long before we were made."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_173" href="#NtA_173">[173]</a> The punishment of death is + sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In the latter part of the year + 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, was condemned to death for + having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman residing in + Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and a + tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent representations of + the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but he was banished + to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his family whilst + he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the kind has been + done.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_174" href="#NtA_174">[174]</a> Journal Asiatique 4me + Série, tome 17, p. 582</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_175" href="#NtA_175">[175]</a> This is the Sháfa'íte form + which the Hanifites consider wrong.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_176" href="#NtA_176">[176]</a> Kingsley's Alexandria and + her Schools, p. 160.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_177" href="#NtA_177">[177]</a> Les Prairies D'or, tome + sixième, p. 368.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_178" href="#NtA_178">[178]</a> Mélanges de Philosophie + Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_179" href="#NtA_179">[179]</a> For a statement of the + Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_180" href="#NtA_180">[180]</a> Strictly speaking, one + should not speak of Arab but of Muslim philosophy, for curiously enough + only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was an Arab.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_181" href="#NtA_181">[181]</a> Mélanges de Philosophie + Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_182" href="#NtA_182">[182]</a> "Aprés lui, nous ne + trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe véritablement digne de ce + nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 458.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_183" href="#NtA_183">[183]</a> Muslim rule in Spain is + often referred to as an instance of the height of culture and the + liberality of sentiment which may exist in a Muhammadan state. I have + shown that the culture was not due to the teaching of the Arab Prophet + and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality it is well to + remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, though they + conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country in + subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and + customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_184" href="#NtA_184">[184]</a> "There never was any + Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first place, all the + Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, and + Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which arose + in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, and + Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, + this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not + Arabian; the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. + Lewes, vol. ii. p. 34.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_185" href="#NtA_185">[185]</a> The Persian term for this + is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India than Sulát. Both terms will + henceforth be employed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_186" href="#NtA_186">[186]</a> There is a Tradition to the + effect that "the whole body of him who says the name of God when making + wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it not, only the part washed will + be pure."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_187" href="#NtA_187">[187]</a> Before commencing the wazú, + say: "I am going to purify myself from all bodily uncleanness preparatory + to commencing prayer, that holy act of duty, which will draw my soul near + to the throne of the Most High. In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. + Praise be to God who has given us grace to be Muslims. Islám is a truth + and infidelity a falsehood."</p> + + <p>When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to + purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of + my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of + judgment."</p> + + <p>When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy + sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise."</p> + + <p>When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, + place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account + with favour."</p> + + <p>When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the + resurrection the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are + said at each act.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_188" href="#NtA_188">[188]</a> From the account which + follows it will be seen that the term Namáz expresses what we term a + 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary sense is 'Du'á.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_189" href="#NtA_189">[189]</a> It is taken from the + Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_190" href="#NtA_190">[190]</a> As the use of bells is + unlawful a man is employed to call the people to prayers.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_191" href="#NtA_191">[191]</a> "God is Great."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_192" href="#NtA_192">[192]</a> The followers of Imám + As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the hands upon the breast. + The feet should be about four inches apart; women stand with the feet + close together.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_193" href="#NtA_193">[193]</a> The second rak'at begins + here: all that precedes is only repeated at the first rak'at.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_194" href="#NtA_194">[194]</a> A fixed portion is said in + each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, which portion is then called a + rukú'. (Ante. p. <a href="#page57">57</a>.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_195" href="#NtA_195">[195]</a> In a mosque the Imám says + the first sentences alone; the people the second.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_196" href="#NtA_196">[196]</a> Women in the Sijda keep all + the limbs of the body close together, and put both feet at right angles + to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it is sufficient.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_197" href="#NtA_197">[197]</a> Here the Shía'hs + say:—"I rise and sit by the power of God."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_198" href="#NtA_198">[198]</a> This is said at the close + of every two rak'ats.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_199" href="#NtA_199">[199]</a> The Shía'hs stop here and + omit the rest.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_200" href="#NtA_200">[200]</a> The Shía'hs omit the Du'á + and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His + blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous servants."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_201" href="#NtA_201">[201]</a> The Fatvá, or decree, will + be found in a note at the end of this chapter.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_202" href="#NtA_202">[202]</a> I am indebted to Hughes' + Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent table.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_203" href="#NtA_203">[203]</a> The Musallí may say five or + three witr rak'ats instead of seven.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_204" href="#NtA_204">[204]</a> Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. + 155.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_205" href="#NtA_205">[205]</a> In countries under Muslim + rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_206" href="#NtA_206">[206]</a> One who says, "Alláhu + Akbar—God is Great."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_207" href="#NtA_207">[207]</a> A reference to his presence + with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when they fled from Mecca to Madína. See + Súra ix. 40.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_208" href="#NtA_208">[208]</a> Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_209" href="#NtA_209">[209]</a> Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_210" href="#NtA_210">[210]</a> Qíám is one of the + positions in a Namáz and is here used by synecdoche for it. In Mecca the + Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference to this Tradition the + Salát-ul-Qíámíah.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_211" href="#NtA_211">[211]</a> Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_212" href="#NtA_212">[212]</a> That is, a non-Muslim who + is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on payment of a special tax.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_213" href="#NtA_213">[213]</a> The Sháfa'ítes raise the + hands at the recital of each of the four Takbírs; the other sects do so + only at the first.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_214" href="#NtA_214">[214]</a> If the deceased was a child + or a mad person, they say:—</p> + + <p>"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make + him a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him + an intercessor for us."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_215" href="#NtA_215">[215]</a> The Imám makes the Niyyat + in his mind that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, and on the + worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper makes the Niyyat that the + Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his fellow worshippers and on the + Imám.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_216" href="#NtA_216">[216]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, the + deceased's.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_217" href="#NtA_217">[217]</a> Death, resurrection, + judgment; &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_218" href="#NtA_218">[218]</a> This contradicts verse 254 + of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We accept all prophets and as + regards <i>faith</i> in them make no difference, though as regards + <i>dignity</i> we recognize the distinction indicated in the 254th + verse.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_219" href="#NtA_219">[219]</a> That is, the Jews and + Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim Commentators, many strict + ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word often used to express the + idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial observance is taklilíf, + trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from these "loads," a fact + which finds expression in the word used for a pious man—a + mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing religious + duties.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_220" href="#NtA_220">[220]</a> In Madras, a branch of the + pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_221" href="#NtA_221">[221]</a> The name of the mother is + here inserted. The mother's name is chosen in preference to that of the + father, as there can be no doubt as to the maternity of the child. For + the same reason it is said that at the Last Day each man will be summoned + as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple fact reveals a sad + state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue of women.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_222" href="#NtA_222">[222]</a> The idea is that the reward + of this act is transferred to the person on whose behalf it is made.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_223" href="#NtA_223">[223]</a> Súra ii. 256.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_224" href="#NtA_224">[224]</a> There are others who + maintain that this is a <i>mukham</i> statement and cannot therefore be + abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the aged and to + persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. + Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_225" href="#NtA_225">[225]</a> Burton says that, when in + the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in Cairo making preparations for + the Hajj, he had but one patient who would break his fast to save his + life. All the others refused though death should be the consequence.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_226" href="#NtA_226">[226]</a> "The former are called + Zakát, either because they increase a man's store by drawing down a + blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality, or + because they purify the remaining part of one's substance from pollution + and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are called Sadqa + because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God." + Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_227" href="#NtA_227">[227]</a> That is food or money + sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_228" href="#NtA_228">[228]</a> The technical term is 5 + wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is equal to 8 ratal. A ratal + is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one camel, is about 480 lb.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_229" href="#NtA_229">[229]</a> Mosques are usually + endowed. The property thus set apart is called waqf. This supports the + various officials connected with a Mosque.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_230" href="#NtA_230">[230]</a> The two famous disciples of + Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_231" href="#NtA_231">[231]</a> This ceremony is called + Al-Ihrám (<i>i.e.</i>, making unlawful), because now various actions and + pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of doffing the pilgrim's + garb is called Al-Ihlál (<i>i.e.</i>, making lawful), for now the pilgrim + returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_232" href="#NtA_232">[232]</a> This statement of names is + taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and that of the distance from + Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al Zaribah, a place 47 miles + distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that he assumed the Ihrám. + The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not approach nearer to Mecca + without the Ihrám than the places named in the text. The farther from + Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one of the two months + preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_233" href="#NtA_233">[233]</a> Talbíyah means the + repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I am here." The Talbíyah + can be said in any language, though Arabic is preferred. It usually is as + follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik! + Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá Sharíka laka, + Labbaik!</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_234" href="#NtA_234">[234]</a> "The object of these minute + details is that the "Truce of God" may be kept." The five noxious + creatures, however, may be slain, <i>viz.</i>, a crow, a kite, a + scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_235" href="#NtA_235">[235]</a> The Musjid-ul-Harám is the + large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is a square stone building in the + centre. This is also called the Qibla. The Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black + stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_236" href="#NtA_236">[236]</a> It is said to have been + rebuilt ten times. A full description will be found in Burton's + Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is far too long to + quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is of some + interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred a + place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind + (to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)—Blessed and a salvation + to human beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of + Abraham, and he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' + is said to mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains + such marvels as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the + spiritual safeguard of all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are + the preservation of the black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the + House, the terrible death of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the + Flood the big fish did not eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids + recover their health by rubbing themselves against the Kiswat (the + covering of the K'aba), and the black stone. One hundred thousand mercies + descend on it every day, &c. Portions of the Kiswat are highly valued + as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made of it are supposed to render + the combatant invulnerable in battle.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_237" href="#NtA_237">[237]</a> The whole seven are one + Usbú'.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_238" href="#NtA_238">[238]</a> The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a + small building, supported, by six pillars about eight feet high, four of + which are surrounded from top to bottom by a fine iron railing, while the + space between the two hinder pillars is left open; within the railing is + a frame about five feet square, said to contain the sacred stone on which + Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_239" href="#NtA_239">[239]</a> In the first rak'at, the + chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the second, Súra cxii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_240" href="#NtA_240">[240]</a> "Many find this + inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the afternoon of the eighth + day" (Burton).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_241" href="#NtA_241">[241]</a> The following legend is + current about 'Arifát. "When our parents forfeited heaven by eating + wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were cast down + upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, the peacock at Cabul, Satan + at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at Ceylon. The latter determining + to seek his wife, began a journey, to which the earth owes its present + mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his foot—which was + large—a town arose; between the strides will always be country. + Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where our + common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their + recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till + death took place." (Burton).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_242" href="#NtA_242">[242]</a> The Sháfa'í rules allow a + traveller any time when on a journey of a night and day to reduce the + five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí code allows the shortened + form only on this day.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_243" href="#NtA_243">[243]</a> "The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a + dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight feet high, by two and a half + broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." (Burton).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_244" href="#NtA_244">[244]</a> Most of the ceremonies + connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the shaving of the head, the going to + Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the stones, the circuit of the K'aba, + the kissing of the black stone, and the sacrifice were all pagan + ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. Muhammad by his + time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his side, has + confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been + extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in superstitious + reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt about + retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the Prophet, + "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then maketh a + pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if he go + round about them both." (Súra ii. 153).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_245" href="#NtA_245">[245]</a> These are the letters + contained in words which direct the reader when to pause. Thus toí stands + for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for já,íz (freedom to pause, + or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for la'zim (necessary to + pause), <img src="images/circledot.png" style="height:1.2ex; + width:1.2ex;" alt="circle with dot" title="circle with dot" /> is a full + stop.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_246" href="#NtA_246">[246]</a> Persian was the foreign + language with which the early Muslims were brought most into contact; but + the objection applies equally to any other language.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_247" href="#NtA_247">[247]</a> A concession of no + practical value, as any one with the power of speech could learn these + words in a very short time.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_248" href="#NtA_248">[248]</a> This is because by so doing + it would seem to ascribe to it similarity to human compositions.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_249" href="#NtA_249">[249]</a> During the first ten days + they are supposed to contain the bodies of the martyrs, but now being + empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and can be destroyed, + Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_250" href="#NtA_250">[250]</a> This feast is known in + South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown into a tank.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_251" href="#NtA_251">[251]</a> The Mihráb is a niche in a + wall which indicates the position of Mecca. The face is always turned to + it when prayers are said; so that the expression in the prayer means that + 'Alí is to be the object toward which the faithful look.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_252" href="#NtA_252">[252]</a> The twelve Imáms, Muhammad + and Fátima.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_253" href="#NtA_253">[253]</a> The 'Íd-gáh is usually + built outside of the town, and consists of a long wall of masonry with + two minarets and a large raised open court. There is a Mihráb in the + wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps doing duty for + it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_254" href="#NtA_254">[254]</a> Tradition records that the + Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one day ascending a hill in a + rage. The heat of his passion was such that the mountain softened into + the consistence of wax and retained, some say eighteen; others, forty + impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel for his anger the + Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told him to look + around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the stones + was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_255" href="#NtA_255">[255]</a> The Baqr-'Íd is the only + other feast that has an 'Arfa.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_256" href="#NtA_256">[256]</a> Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book + vii. ch. 1.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_257" href="#NtA_257">[257]</a> That is, his blessing or + his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. 170.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_258" href="#NtA_258">[258]</a> This is a warning to those + who may have omitted this duty.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_259" href="#NtA_259">[259]</a> Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. + 104.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_260" href="#NtA_260">[260]</a> "Observations on the + Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. 192."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_261" href="#NtA_261">[261]</a> The opinion of the various + Traditionists on this point is given in the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. + 61.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_262" href="#NtA_262">[262]</a> Still it is mustahab, or a + meritorious act so to do. It is also said that, if a minor is possessed + of property, his father or his guardian may purchase at his expense an + animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat as much as it can. The + remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something which the child can + use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_263" href="#NtA_263">[263]</a> According to the Imáms + Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the sacrifice until the Imám who + has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain his victim. + Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_264" href="#NtA_264">[264]</a> Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. + 144.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faith of Islam, by Edward Sell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + +***** This file should be named 20660-h.htm or 20660-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/6/20660/ + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Faith of Islam + +Author: Edward Sell + +Release Date: February 24, 2007 [EBook #20660] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. Original page numbers are shown as {99}. + +THE + +FAITH OF ISLAM: + +BY + +THE REV. EDWARD SELL, +FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS. + + * * * * * + +TRUeBNER & CO., LONDON. ADDISON & CO., MADRAS. 1880. + +_All rights reserved._ + + * * * * * + + +MADRAS: +PRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO., MOUNT ROAD. + + * * * * * + + +PREFACE. + +The following pages embody a study of Islam during a residence of fifteen +years in India, the greater part of which time I have been in daily +intercourse with Musalmans. I have given in the footnotes the authorities +from which I quote. I was not able to procure in Madras a copy of the +Arabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but the French translation by +Baron M. de Slane, to which I so frequently refer, is thoroughly reliable. +The quotations from the Quran are made from Rodwell's translation. The +original has been consulted when necessary. + +A few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred, such +as Sulat for Salat, Munkar for Munkir, &c., but in no case is the meaning +affected. + +In some words, such as Khalif, Khalifate, and Omar, I have retained the +anglicised form instead of using the more correct terms, Khalifa, Khilafat, +'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish the Kaf-i-Karashat from the +Kaf-i-Tazi. + +E. S. + + MADRAS, + _December 1st, 1880._ + +{v} + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS. + +Introduction. ... PAGE ix + +CHAPTER I. + +THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM. + +The Quran--Its revelation--Miraculous nature--Arrangement of Quran--Osman's +recension. The Sunnat--The authority of Sunnat--Tradition--Bid'at or +innovation--Shia'h Traditions. Ijma'--Ijtihad--Four orthodox Imams, Hanifa, +Malik, Shafa'i and Hanbal. Qias--Established by the early +Mujtahidin--Sterility of Islam ... PAGE 1 + +Note to Chapter I. Ijtihad ... PAGE 32 + +CHAPTER II. + +EXEGESIS OF THE QURAN AND THE TRADITIONS. + +Inspiration--The seven readings--Work of a Commentator--Words and Sentences +of the Quran--Use of the words--Deductions of arguments from the +Quran--Divisions of the Quran--Abrogation--Creation of the Quran--Hadis or +Tradition--Collections of Traditions--Classification of Traditions ... PAGE +37 + +CHAPTER III. + +THE SECTS OF ISLAM. + +The Shia'hs--The Imamat--Kharigites--Nur-i-Muhammadi--Imam--Isma,ilians and +Imamites--Ghair-i-Mahdis--Da,iri--Mahmudiah--Khalifate--Sufiism--Persian +Poetry--Darwishes--Omar Khayyam--Wahhabis--their rise--spread in +India--doctrines and influence ... PAGE 73 + +Note to Chapter III. Wahhabiism ... PAGE 114 + +{vi} + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CREED OF ISLAM + +Iman--God--Attributes of God--Discussions on the nature of God--The rise of +the Mutazilites--The Sifatians--Mushabihites--Names of God--Creation of the +Quran. Angels--Recording Angels--Harut and Marut--Munkir and Nakir--Jinn. +The Books--Abrogation--Tahrif. The Prophets--Rank and inspiration of +prophets--Nabi and Rasul--Sinlessness of prophets--The +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm--Miracles of prophets--The Mi'raj. The Resurrection and +the last day--The Trumpets--Descent of the +books--Balances--Bridge--Al-A'raf--Al-Barzakh--Intercession of +Muhammad--Heaven--Hell. The Predestination of good and +evil--Jabrians--Qadrians--Ash'arians--Free-will--Apostacy ... PAGE 116 + +Note to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... PAGE 181 + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLAM. + +Farz, wajib, sunnat, mustahab and mubah actions--Haram or unlawful acts. +Tashahhud. Salat--Wazu--Ghusl--Tayammum--Namaz--Farz, sunnat, witr and nafl +rak'ats--Appointed hours of prayer--Friday Namaz and sermon--Namaz on a +journey and in time of war--Namaz in Ramazan, during an eclipse and in time +of drought--Funeral service--Its ritual and prayers. Fasting--Its time and +nature. Zakat--Nisab--Proportion of property to be given as +alms--Recipients of the Zakat. The Hajj--Farz, sunnat, wajib and mustahab +duties connected with the Hajj--Time for the Hajj--Arrival of the Haji at +Mecca--Tawaf--Ceremonies of the Hajj--Conclusion of the Hajj--Formal nature +of Islam ... PAGE 187 + +Note to Chapter V. Fatva on the Namaz ... PAGE 233 + +{vii} + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLAM. + +Muharram--'Ashur Khana--Marsiya--Waqi'a Khan--'Alams--Ceremonies of the +'Ashura--Fatihas for 'Ali, for Hasan and Husain--Akhir-i-char Shamba--Bara +Wafat--Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif--Asar-i-Sharif--Shab Barat--Ramazan and +'Id-ul-Fitr--'Itikaf--Sadqa--Sermon on the 'Id-ul-Fitr--Baqr-'Id or +'Id-uz-Zuha--Sermon on the 'Id-uz-Zuha--The Qurban or Sacrifice--Festival +of Madar--Festival of Salar Mas'ud Ghazi--Festival of Khaja Khizr--Feast of +Pir Dastgir Sahib--Festival of Qadir Wali Sahib ... PAGE 237 + +Index of Technical Terms ... PAGE 265 + +{ix} + + * * * * * + + +INTRODUCTION. + +It is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents of +this work. It does not fall in with its plan to enter into an account +either of the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of the +system founded by him. The first has been done by able writers in England, +France and Germany. I could add nothing new to this portion of the subject, +nor throw new light upon it. The political growth of Muslim nations has +also been set forth in various ways. + +It seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of the +religious system which has grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and of its +effect upon the individual and the community. What the Church in her +missionary enterprise has to deal with, what European Governments in the +political world have to do with is Islam as it is, and as it now influences +those who rule and those who are ruled under it. + +I have, therefore, tried to show from authentic sources, and from a +practical knowledge of it, what the Faith of Islam really is, and how it +influences men and nations in the present day. I think that recent Fatvas +delivered by the 'Ulama in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim State is +bound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the present practice of +orthodox Muslims all the world {x} over is a constant carrying out of the +precepts given in the Quran and the Sunnat, and an illustration of the +principles I have shown to belong to Islam. On this subject it is not too +much to say that there is, except amongst Oriental scholars, much +misconception. + +Again, much that is written on Islam is written either in ignorant +prejudice, or from an ideal standpoint. To understand it aright, one should +know its literature and live amongst its people. I have tried faithfully to +prove every statement I have made; and if, now and again, I have quoted +European authors, it is only by way of illustration. I rest my case +entirely upon Musalman authorities themselves. Still more, I have +ascertained from living witnesses that the principles I have tried to show +as existing in Islam, are really at work now and are as potent as at any +previous period. + +I have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and development of +the system, seeking wherever possible to link the past with the present. In +order not to interfere with this unity of plan, I have had to leave many +subjects untouched, such as those connected with the civil law, with +slavery, divorce, jihad or religious wars, &c. A good digest of Muhammadan +Law[1] will give all necessary information on these points. The basis of +the Law which determines these questions is what I have described in my +first chapter. Ijtihad, for example, rules quite as effectually in a +question of domestic {xi} economy or political jurisprudence as on points +of dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for me to go into details on +these points. + +When I have drawn any conclusion from data which Muhammadan literature, and +the present practice of Muslims have afforded me, I have striven to give +what seems to me a just and right one. Still, I gladly take this +opportunity of stating that I have found many Muslims better than their +creed, men with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom I respect for +many virtues and esteem as friends. I judge the system, not any individual +in it. + +In India, there are a number of enlightened Muhammadans, ornaments to +native society, useful servants of the State, men who show a laudable zeal +in all social reforms, so far as is consistent with a reputation for +orthodoxy. Their number is far too few, and they do not, in many cases, +represent orthodox Islam, nor do I believe their counterpart would be found +amongst the 'Ulama of a Muslim State. The fact is that the wave of +scepticism which has passed over Europe has not left the East untouched. +Hindu and Muslim alike have felt its influence, but to judge of either the +one system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men who +expound their views before English audiences is to yield oneself up to +delusion on the subject. + +Islam in India has also felt the influence of contact with other races and +creeds, though, theologically speaking, the Iman and the Din, the faith and +the practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have {xii} described them in +chapters four and five. If Islam in India has lost some of its original +fierceness, it has also adopted many superstitious practices, such as those +against which the Wahhabis protest. The great mass of the Musalman people +are quite as superstitious, if not more so, than their heathen neighbours. +Still the manliness, the suavity of manner, the deep learning, after an +oriental fashion, of many Indian Musalmans render them a very attractive +people. It is true there is a darker side--much bigotry, pride of race, +scorn of other creeds, and, speaking generally, a tendency to inertness. It +is thus that in Bengal, Madras and perhaps in other places, they have +fallen far behind the Hindus in educational status, and in the number of +appointments they hold in the Government service. Indeed, this subject is a +serious one and deserves the special attention of the Indian Government. In +Bengal the proportion of Musalmans to Hindus in the upper ranks of the +Uncovenanted Civil Service in 1871 was 77 to 341. In the year 1880 it had +declined to 53 to 451. The state of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yet +an intelligent Muslim, as a rule, makes a good official. + +Looking at the subject from a wider stand-point, I think the Church has +hardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of Islam is to her +onward march in the East. Surely special men with special training are +required for such an enterprise as that of encountering Islam in its own +strongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian {xiii} faith could be +found in the East than men won from the Crescent to the Cross. + +All who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help in +this volume, and I am not without hope that it may also throw some light on +the political questions of the day. + +{1} + + * * * * * + + +THE FAITH OF ISLAM. + +CHAPTER I. + +THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM. + +The creed of Islam, "La-ilaha-il-lal-lahu wa Muhammad-ur-Rasul-Ullah," +(There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God) is very +short, but the system itself is a very dogmatic one. Such statements as: +"The Quran is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating everything," +"The Quran contains the _entire_ code of Islam--that is, it is not a book +of religious precepts merely, but it governs all that a Muslim does," "The +Quran contains the whole religion of Muhammad," "The Quran which contains +the whole Gospel of Islam" are not simply misleading, they are erroneous. +So far from the Quran alone being the _sole_ rule of faith and practice to +Muslims, there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practice +is based on it alone. No one among them disputes its authority or casts any +doubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in all that it concerns, +but its exegesis, the whole system of legal jurisprudence and of +theological science, is largely founded on the Traditions. Amongst the +orthodox Musalmans, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, the +Quran, Sunnat, Ijma' and Qias. The fact that all the sects do not agree +with the orthodox--the Sunnis--in this matter illustrates another important +fact in Islam--the want of unity amongst its followers. {2} + +1. THE QURAN.--The question of the inspiration will be fully discussed, and +an account of the laws of the exegesis of the Quran will be given in the +next chapter. It is sufficient now to state that this book is held in the +highest veneration by Muslims of every sect. When being read it is kept on +a stand elevated above the floor, and no one must read or touch it without +first making a legal ablution.[2] It is not translated unless there is the +most urgent necessity, and even then the Arabic text is printed with the +translation. It is said that God chose the sacred month of Ramazan in which +to give all the revelations which in the form of books have been vouchsafed +to mankind. Thus on the first night of that month the books of Abraham came +down from heaven; on the sixth the books of Moses; on the thirteenth the +Injil, or Gospel, and on the twenty-seventh the Quran. On that night, the +Laylut-ul-Qadr, or "night of power," the whole Quran is said to have +descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, from whence it was brought +piecemeal to Muhammad as occasion required.[3] "Verily we have caused it +(the Quran) to descend on the night of power." (Sura xcvii. 1.) That night +is called the blessed night, the night better than a thousand months, the +night when angels came down by the permission of their Lord, the night +which bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn. Twice on that night +in the solitude of the cave of Hira the voice called, twice though pressed +sore "as if a fearful weight had been laid upon him," the prophet struggled +{3} against its influence. The third time he heard the words:-- + + "Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created-- + Created man from clots of blood." (Sura xcvi. 5.) + +"When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from minutest beginnings +man had been called into existence, and lifted up by understanding and +knowledge of the Lord, who is most beneficent, and who by the pen had +revealed that which man did not know, Muhammad woke up from his trance and +felt as if "a book had been written in his heart." He was much alarmed. +Tradition records that he went hastily to his wife and said--"O Khadija! +what has happened to me!" He lay down and she watched by him. When he +recovered from his paroxysm, he said "O Khadija! he of whom one would not +have believed (_i.e._, himself) has become either a soothsayer (kahin) or +mad." She replied, "God is my protection, O Ab-ul-kasim. He will surely not +let such a thing happen unto thee, for thou speakest the truth, dost not +return evil for evil, keepest faith, art of a good life and art kind to thy +relatives and friends, and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars. +What has befallen thee? Hast thou seen aught terrible?" Muhammad replied +"Yes." And he told her what he had seen. Whereupon she answered and +said:--"Rejoice, O dear husband and be of good cheer. He in whose hands +stands Khadija's life, is my witness that thou wilt be the Prophet of this +people."[4] The next Sura, the 74th, was revealed at Mecca, after which +there seems to have been an intermission, called the Fatrah. It was during +this time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the contents of the +Jewish and the Christian Scriptures. + +Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This fact, +however, is only once stated in the Quran:--"Say, whoso is the enemy of +Gabriel--For he it is {4} who by God's leave hath caused the Quran to +descend on thy heart" (Sura ii. 91.) This Sura was revealed some years +after the Prophet's flight to Madina. The other references to the +revelation of the Quran are:--"Verily from the Lord of the worlds hath this +book come down; the Faithful Spirit (Ruh-ul-Amin) hath come down with it" +(Sura xxvi. 192.) "The Quran is no other than a revelation revealed to him, +one terrible in power (Shadid-ul-Qua) taught it him." (Sura liii. 5.) These +latter passages do not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium of +communication, but the belief that he was is almost, if not entirely, +universal, and the Commentators say that the terms "Ruh-ul-Amin" and +"Shadid-ul-Qua" refer to no other angel or spirit. The use of the word +"taught" in the last Sura quoted, and the following expression in Sura +lxxv. 18. "When we have _recited it_, then follow thou the recital," show +that the Quran is entirely an objective revelation and that Muhammad was +only a passive medium of communication. The Muhammadan historian, Ibn +Khaldoun, says on this point:--"Of all the divine books the Quran is the +only one of which the text, words and phrases have been communicated to a +prophet by an audible voice. It is otherwise with the Pentateuch, the +Gospel and the other divine books: the prophets received them under the +form of ideas."[5] This expresses the universal belief on this point--a +belief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of Islam. + +The Quran thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle of +Islam. Other divine books, it is admitted, were revelations received under +the form of ideas, but the Quran is far superior to them all for the actual +text was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus we read in Sura lxxv. +16-19:-- + +{5} + + "Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation; + For we will see to the collecting and recital of it; + _But when we have recited it_, then follow thou the recital; + And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee." + +The Quran is, then, believed to be a miraculous revelation of divine +eloquence, as regards both _form_ and _substance_, arrangement of words, +and its revelation of sacred things. It is asserted that each +well-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department of +human skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the days of +Moses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the magicians of Pharaoh's +court had to submit to the superior skill of the Hebrew prophet. In the +days of Jesus the science of medicine flourished. Men possessed great skill +in the art of healing; but no physician could equal the skill of Jesus, who +not only healed the sick, but raised the dead. In the days of Muhammad the +special and most striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of the +Arabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri says:--"Wisdom hath alighted +on three things--the brain of the Franks, the hands of the Chinese and the +tongue of the Arabs." They were unrivalled for their eloquence, for the +skill with which they arranged their material and gave expression to their +thoughts. It is in this very particular that superior excellence is claimed +for the Quran.[6] It is to the Muhammadan mind a sure evidence of its +miraculous origin that it should excel in this respect. Muslims say that +miracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order to +confirm the divine message. In this case the Quran is both a revelation and +a miracle. {6} Muhammad himself said:--"Each prophet has received manifest +signs which carried conviction to men: but that which I have received is +the revelation. So I hope to have a larger following on the day of +resurrection than any other prophet has." Ibn Khaldoun says that "by this +the Prophet means that such a wonderful miracle as the Quran, which is also +a revelation, should carry conviction to a very large number."[7] To a +Muslim the fact is quite clear, and so to him the Quran is far superior to +all the preceding books. Muhammad is said to have convinced a rival, Lebid, +a poet-laureate, of the truth of his mission by reciting to him a portion +of the now second Sura. "Unquestionably it is one of the very grandest +specimens of Koranic or Arabic diction.... But even descriptions of this +kind, grand as they be, are not sufficient to kindle and preserve the +enthusiasm and the faith and the hope of a nation like the Arabs.... The +poets before him had sung of valour and generosity, of love and strife and +revenge ... of early graves, upon which weeps the morning cloud, and of the +fleeting nature of life which comes and goes as the waves of the desert +sands, as the tents of a caravan, as a flower that shoots up and dies away. +Or they shoot their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own +soul. Muhammad sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, not the joys +of the world, nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, nor human vengeance, not +the glories of tribe or ancestor. He preached Islam." The very fierceness +with which this is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficient +though he may have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic certainty +with which the Prophet proclaimed his message have tended, equally with the +passionate grandeur of his utterances, to hold the Muslim world spell-bound +to the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book. + +So sacred is the text supposed to be that only the {7} Companions[8] of the +Prophet are deemed worthy of being commentators on it. The work of learned +divines since then has been to learn the Quran by heart and to master the +traditions, with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon. The +revelation itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by the +ordinary rules of criticism. If only the Isnad, or chain of authorities for +any interpretation, is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted +as the correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no other +book in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought or +expression. It deals with positive precepts rather than with principles. +Its decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the very +letter on all men, at all times and under every circumstance of life. This +follows as a natural consequence from the belief in its eternal nature. + +The various portions recited by the Prophet during the twenty-three years +of his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of his +followers, or treasured up in their memories. As the recital of the Quran +formed a part of every act of public worship, and as such recital was an +act of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as much as he +could. He who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour, and was +often the recipient of a substantial reward.[9] The Arab love for poetry +facilitated the exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died the +revelation ceased. There was no distinct copy of the whole, nothing to show +what was of transitory importance, what of permanent value. There is +nothing which proves that the Prophet took any special care of any +portions. There seems to have been no definite order in which, when the +book was {8} compiled, the various Suras were arranged, for the Quran, as +it now exists, is utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence. For +a year after the Prophet's death nothing seems to have been done; but then +the battle of Yemana took place in which a very large number of the best +Quran reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and addressing the +Khalif Abu Bakr, said, "The slaughter may again wax hot amongst the +repeaters of the Quran in other fields of battle, and much may be lost +therefrom. Now, therefore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy +orders for the collection of the Quran." Abu Bakr agreed, and said to Zeid +who had been an amanuensis of the Prophet:--"Thou art a young man, and +wise, against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation; and thou wert +wont to write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the Lord, +wherefore now search out the Quran and bring it all together." Zeid being +at length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the Quran +together from "date leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the hearts +of men." In course of time it was all compiled in the order in which the +book is now arranged. This was the authorized text for some twenty-three +years after the death of Muhammad. Owing, however, either to different +modes of recitation, or to differences of expression in the sources from +which Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of different readings +crept into the copies in use. The Faithful became alarmed and the Khalif +Osman was persuaded to put a stop to such a danger. He appointed Zeid with +three of the leading men of the Quraish as assistants to go over the whole +work again. A careful recension was made of the whole book which was then +assimilated to the Meccan dialect, the purest in Arabia. After this all +other copies of the Quran were burnt by order of the Khalif, and new +transcripts were made of the revised edition which was now the only +authorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of Islam that the Quran is +incorruptible and absolutely free {9} from error, no little difficulty has +been felt in explaining the need of Osman's new and revised edition and of +the circumstances under which it took place; but as usual a Tradition has +been handed down which makes it lawful to read the Quran in seven dialects. +The book in its present form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction of +Abu Bakr's edition with authoritative corrections. We may rest assured that +we have in the Quran now in use the record of what Muhammad said. It thus +becomes a fundamental basis of Islam. It was a common practice of the early +Muslims when speaking of the Prophet to say:--"His character is the Quran." +When people curious to know details of the life of their beloved master +asked 'Ayesha, one of his widows, about him, she used to reply:--"Thou hast +the Quran, art thou not an Arab and readest the Arab tongue? Why dost thou +ask me, for the Prophet's disposition is no other than the Quran?" + +Whether Muhammad would have arranged the Quran as we now have it is a +subject on which it is impossible to form an opinion. There are Traditions +which seem to show that he had some doubts as to its completeness. I give +the following account on the authority of M. Caussin de Percival. When +Muhammad felt his end draw near he said:--"Bring ink and paper: I wish to +write to you a book to preserve you always from error." But it was too +late. He could not write or dictate and so he said:--"May the Quran always +be your guide. Perform what it commands you: avoid what it prohibits." The +genuineness of the first part of this Tradition is, I think, very doubtful, +the latter is quite in accordance with the Prophet's claim for his +teaching. The letter of the book became, as Muhammad intended it should +become, a despotic influence in the Muslim world, a barrier to freethinking +on the part of all the orthodox, an obstacle to innovation in all +spheres--political, social, intellectual and moral. There are many topics +connected with it which can be better explained in the next chapter. All +{10} that has now to be here stated is that the Quran is the first +foundation of Islam. It is an error to suppose it is the only one: an error +which more than anything else has led persons away from the only position +in which they could obtain a true idea of the great system of Islam. + +The Shia'hs maintain, without good reason, that the following verses +favourable to the claims of 'Ali and of the Shia'h faction were omitted in +Osman's recension. + + "O Believers! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'Ali). + + 'Ali is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in the + day of judgment; we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him. + We have honoured him above all this family. He and his family are very + patient. Their enemy[10] is the chief of sinners. + + We have announced to thee a race of just men, men[11] who will not + oppose our orders. My mercy and peace are on them living[12] or dead. + + As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them; they will + certainly gain the mansions of Paradise." + +2. THE SUNNAT.--The second foundation of Islam is based on the Hadis +(plural Ahadis) or Tradition. Commands from God given in the Quran are +called 'farz' and 'wajib.' A command given by the Prophet or an example set +by him is called 'sunnat,' a word meaning a rule. It is then technically +applied to the basis of religious faith and practice, which is founded on +traditional accounts of the sayings and acts of Muhammad.[13] It is the +belief common to all Musalmans, that the Prophet in all that he _did_, and +in all that he _said_, was supernaturally guided, and that his words and +acts are to all time and to all his followers a divine rule of faith and +practice. "We should know that God Almighty has given commands and +prohibitions to his {11} servants, either by means of the Quran, or by the +mouth of His Prophet."[14] Al-Ghazali, a most distinguished theologian, +writes:--"Neither is the faith according to His will, complete by the +testimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply saying, 'There is but one +God,' without the addition of the further testimony to the Apostle, that +is, the statement, 'Muhammad is the apostle of God.'" This belief in the +Prophet must extend to all that he has said concerning the present and the +future life, for, says the same author, "A man's faith is not accepted till +he is fully persuaded of those things which the Prophet hath affirmed shall +be after death." + +It is often said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. In the ordinary sense +of the word Tradition they may; but in Muslim Theology the term Hadis, +which we translate Tradition, has a special meaning. It is applied only to +the sayings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divine or +teacher. The Wahhabis reject the Traditions handed down by men who lived +after the time of the Companions, but the Hadis, embodying the sayings of +the Prophet, they, in common with _all_ Muslim sects, hold to be an +inspired revelation of God's will to men. It would be as reasonable to say +that Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that the Wahhabis reject +Tradition.[15] An orthodox Muslim places the Gospels in the same rank as +the Hadis, that is, he looks upon them as a record of what Jesus said and +did handed down to us by His Companions. "In the same way as other Prophets +received their books under the form of ideas, so our Prophet has in the +same way received a great number of communications which are found in the +collections of the {12} Traditions (Ahadis).[16] This shows that the Sunnat +must be placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures; whilst +the Quran is a revelation superior to them all. To no sect of Musalmans is +the Quran alone the rule of faith. The Shia'hs, it is true, reject the +Sunnat, but they have in their own collection of Traditions an exact +equivalent. + +The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authoritative value are +questions of the first importance, whether Islam is viewed from a +theological or a political stand-point. + +"Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, of whom only one would +be worthy of Paradise. The Companions inquired which sect would be so +highly favoured. The Prophet replied:--'The one which remains firm in my +way and in that of my friends.' It is certain that this must refer to the +Ahl-i-Sunnat wa Jama'at." (Sunnis.)[17] + +It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should be +rendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. Thus in the fourth Sura of the Quran +it is written: "O true believers! obey God and obey the apostle." "We have +not sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the permission of God." +From these and similar passages the following doctrine is deduced: "It is +plain that the Prophet (on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy and +peace of God!) is free from sin in what he ordered to be done, and in what +he prohibited, in all his words and acts; for were it otherwise how could +obedience rendered to him be accounted as obedience paid to God?"[18] +Believers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to His +divinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship; this is +a sign of love, and love is the cause of nearness to God. The Prophet +himself is reported to have {13} said, "Obey me that God may regard you as +friends." From this statement the conclusion is drawn that "the love of God +(to man) is conditional on obedience to the Prophet." Belief in and +obedience to the Prophet are essential elements of the true faith, and he +who possesses not both of these is in error.[19] + +In order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is said to have +appointed Muhammad as the Mediator between Himself and man. In a lower +sense, believers are to follow the "Sunnat" of the four Khalifs, Abu Bakr, +Omar, Osman, and 'Ali, who are true guides to men. + +To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly in accord with the +will of God. Moral laws have a different application when applied to him. +His jealousy, his cruelty to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence in +licentiousness, his bold assertion of equality with God as regards his +commands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to men as long +as the world shall last. It is easy for an apologist for Muhammad to say +that this is an accretion, something which engrafted itself on to a simpler +system. It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts of the +system. Let Muhammad be his own witness:--"He who loves not my Sunnat is +not my follower." "He who revives my Sunnat revives me, and will be with me +in Paradise." "He who in distress holds fast to the Sunnat will receive the +reward of a hundred martyrs." As might be expected, the setting up of his +own acts and words as an infallible and unvarying rule of faith accounts +more than anything else for the immobility of the Muhammadan world, for it +must be always remembered that in Islam Church and State are one. The Arab +proverb, "Al mulk wa din tawamini"--country and religion are twins--is the +popular form of expressing the unity of Church and State. {14} To the mind +of the Musalman the rule of the one is the rule of the other,--a truth +sometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform of +Turkey or the regeneration of the House of Osman. The Sunnat as much as the +Quran covers all law, whether political, social, moral, or religious. A +modern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with Islam says:--"If Islam +is to be a power for good in the future, it is imperatively necessary to +cut off the social system from the religion. The difficulty lies in the +close connection between the religious and social ordinances in the Kuran, +the two are so intermingled that it is hard to see how they can be +disentangled without destroying both." I believe this to be impossible, and +the case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that the same remark +would apply to the Sunnat. To forget this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoun +distinctly speaks of "the Law derived from the Quran and the Sunnat," of +the "maxims of Musalman Law based on the text of the Quran and the teaching +of the Traditions."[20] + +The Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The technical term for +anything new is "bida't," and of it, it is said: "Bida't is the changer of +Sunnat." In other words, if men seek after things new, if fresh forms of +thought arise, and the changing condition of society demands new modes of +expression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate the community, if in +internals or externals, any new thing (bida't) is introduced, it is to be +shunned. The law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnat is perfect. +Everything not in accordance with the precepts therein contained is +innovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some {15} "bida't" is +allowable, such as the teaching of etymology and syntax, the establishment +of schools, guest-houses, &c., which things did not exist in the time of +the Prophet; but it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance +with the least Sunnat (_i.e._ the obeying the least of the orders of the +Prophet, however trivial) is far better than doing some new thing, however +advantageous and desirable it may be. + +There are many stories which illustrate the importance the Companions of +the Prophet attached to Sunnat. "The Khalif Omar looked towards the black +stone at Mecca, and said, 'By God, I know that thou art only a stone, and +canst grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known that the +Prophet kissed thee, I would not have done so, but on account of that I do +it.'" Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was seen riding his camel round and round a certain +place. In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said: "I +know not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here." Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, one +of the four great Imams, and the founder of the Hanbali school of +interpretation, is said to have been appointed on account of the care with +which he observed the Sunnat. One day when sitting in an assembly he alone +of all present observed some formal custom authorised by the practice of +the Prophet. Gabriel at once appeared and informed him that now, and on +account of his act, he was appointed an Imam.[21] In short, it is +distinctly laid down that the best of all works is the following of the +practice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been stated by a learned +theologian to consist of three things: first, to follow the Prophet in +morals and in acts; secondly, to eat only lawful food; thirdly, to be +sincere in all actions. + +{16} + +The Sunnat is now known to Musalmans through the collections of Traditions +gathered together by the men whose names they now bear. The whole are +called Sihah-Sittah, or "six correct books." Not one of these collectors +flourished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as may be easily +supposed, their work has not passed unchallenged. There is by no means an +absolute consensus of opinion among the Sunnis as to the exact value of +each Tradition, yet all admit that a 'genuine Tradition' must be obeyed. +Whether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions is recorded as spoken by +him under the influence of the highest kind of inspiration is, as will be +shown in the next chapter, a disputed point; but it matters little. +Whatever may have been the degree, it was according to Muslim belief a real +inspiration, and thus his every act and word became a law as binding upon +his followers as the example of Christ is upon Christians. + +The Shia'hs do not acknowledge the Sihah-Sittah, the six correct books of +the Sunnis, but it by no means follows that they reject Tradition. They +have five books of Traditions, the earliest of which was compiled by Abu +Ja'far Muhammad A.H. 329, or a century later than the Sahih-i-Bukhari, the +most trustworthy of the Sunni set. Thus all Musalman sects accept the first +and second ground of the faith--the Quran and the Sunnat--as the inspired +will of God; the Shia'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions on +which the Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is important +to maintain is this, that the Quran alone is to no Musalman an +all-sufficient guide. + +3. IJMA'.--The third foundation of the Faith is called Ijma', a word +signifying to be collected or assembled. Technically it means the unanimous +consent of the leading theologians, or what in Christian theology would be +called the "unanimous consent of the Fathers." Practically it is a +collection of the opinions of the Companions, the Tabi'in and the +Taba-i-Tabi'in. "The Law," says Ibn Khaldoun {17} "is grounded on the +general accord of the Companions and their followers." The election of Abu +Bakr to the Khalifate is called Ijma'-i-Ummat, the unanimous consent of the +whole sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special knowledge of the +various circumstances under which special revelations had been made; they +alone knew which verses of the Quran abrogated others, and which verses +were thus abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other details +they handed on to their successors, the Tabi'in, who passed the information +on to their followers, the Taba-i-Tabi'in. Some Muslims, the Wahhabis for +example, accept only the Ijma' of the Companions; and by all sects that is +placed in the first rank as regards authority; others accept that of the +'Fugitives' who dwelt at Madina; and there are some amongst the orthodox +who allow, as a matter of theory, that Ijma' may be collected at any time, +but that practically it is not done because there are now no Mujtahidin. +The highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach was that of a Mujtahid, or +one who could make an Ijtihad, a word which, derived from the same root as +Jihad (a Crescentade), means in its technical sense a logical deduction. It +is defined as the "attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching +into the principles of jurisprudence." The origin of Ijtihad was as +follows:--Muhammad wished to send a man named Mu'az to Yaman to receive +some money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. +On appointing him he said: "O Mu'az, by what rule will you act?" He +replied, "by the Law of the Quran." "But if you find no direction therein?" +"Then I will act according to the Sunnat of the Prophet." "But what if that +fails?" "Then I will make an Ijtihad and act on that." The Prophet raised +his hands and said, "Praise be to God who guides the messenger of His +Prophet in what He pleases."[22] This is considered a proof of the +authority of Ijtihad for the Prophet clearly sanctioned it. + +{18} + +When the Prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and fears: +an infallible authority was always present ready to give an inspired +direction. The Khalifs who succeeded the Prophet had only to administer the +Law according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had held. They were +busily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest; they neither attempted +any new legislation, nor did they depart from the practice of him whom they +revered. "In the first days of Islam, the knowledge of the Law was purely +Traditional. In forming their judgments they had no recourse either to +speculation, to private opinion, or to arguments founded upon analogy."[23] +However, as the Empire grew, new conditions of life arose, giving rise to +questions, concerning which Muhammad had given no explicit direction. This +necessitated the use of Ijtihad. During the Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar, +Osman and 'Ali--the Khulafa-i-Rashidin, or the Khalifs who could guide men +in the right way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the +course of action to be pursued under some new development of circumstances; +for they knew as none other did the Prophet's sayings and deeds, they could +recall to their memories a saying or an act from which a decision could be +deduced. In this way all Muslims could feel that in following their +judgments and guidance they were walking in the right path. But after the +death of 'Ali, the fourth Khalif, civil war and hostile factions imperilled +the continuance of the Faith in its purity. At Madina, where Muhammad's +career as a recognised Prophet was best known, devout men commenced to +learn by heart the Quran, the Sunnat, and the analogical judgments +(Ijtihad) of the four Khalifs. These men were looked up to as authorities, +and their decisions were afterwards known as the 'Customs of Madina.' + +It is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to regulate all +departments of life, all developments of men's ideas and energies by the +Sunnat and analogical deductions {19} therefrom, was one which not only +gave every temptation a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition, +but one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use. +Hence, it was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent mass +of Tradition, of judgments given by Khalifs and Mujtahidin. This gave rise +to the systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox Imams, to one +or other of which all Muslims, except the Shia'hs, belong. These Imams, Abu +Hanifa, Ibn Malik, As-Shafi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all Mujtahidin of the +highest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that there has been no +Mujtahid. Thus in a standard theological book much used in India it is +written: "Ijma' is this, that it is not lawful to follow any other than the +four Imams." "In these days the Qazi must make no order, the Mufti give no +fatva (_i.e._ a legal decision), contrary to the opinion of the four +Imams." "To follow any other is not lawful." So far then as orthodoxy is +concerned, change and progress are impossible. + +Imam Abu Hanifa was born at Basra (A.H. 80), but he spent the greater part +of his life at Kufa. He was the founder and teacher of the body of legists +known as 'the jurists of Irak.' His system differs considerably from that +of the Imam Malik who, living at Madina, confined himself chiefly to +Tradition as the basis of his judgments. Madina was full of the memories of +the sayings and acts of the Prophet; Kufa, the home of Hanifa, on the +contrary, was not founded till after the Prophet's death and so possessed +none of his memories. Islam there came into contact with other races of +men, but from them it had nothing to learn. If these men became Muslims, +well and good: if not, the one law for them as for the Faithful was the +teaching of Muhammad. Various texts of the Quran are adduced to prove the +correctness of this position. "For to thee have we sent down the book which +cleareth up every thing." (Sura xvi. 91) "Nothing have we passed over in +the book." (Sura vi. {20} 38.) "Neither is there a grain in the darkness of +the earth nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct +writing." (Sura vi. 59). These texts were held to prove that all law was +provided for by anticipation in the Quran. If a verse could not be found +bearing on any given question, analogical deduction was resorted to. Thus: +"He it is who created _for you_ all that is on earth." (Sura ii. 27). +According to the Hanifite jurists, this is a deed of gift which annuls all +other rights of property. The 'you' refers to Muslims. The earth[24] may be +classified under three heads:--(1) land which never had an owner; (2) land +which had an owner and has been abandoned; (3) the person and property of +the Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulness +of slavery, piracy and constant war against the unbelievers. To return to +Abu Hanifa. He admitted very few Traditions as authoritative in his system, +which claims to be a logical development from the Quran. "The merit of +logical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and wishes of men, +the previous history of a country--all those considerations, in fact, which +are held in the West to be the governing principles of legislation, are set +aside by the legists of Irak as being of no account whatever. Legislation +is not a science inductive and experimental, but logical and +deductive."[25] + +Imam Ibn Malik was born at Madina (A.H. 93) and his system of jurisprudence +is founded, as might be expected from his connection with the sacred city, +on the "Customs of Madina." His business was to arrange and systematize the +Traditions current in Madina, and to form out of them and the "Customs" a +system of jurisprudence embracing the whole sphere of life. The treatise +composed by him was called the "Muwatta" or "The Beaten Path." The greater +part of its contents are legal maxims and opinions {21} delivered by the +Companions. His system of jurisprudence, therefore, has been described as +historical and traditional. In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'far +it is said: "His Traditions were of the greatest authority; his gravity was +impressive; and when he delivered them, all his auditors were plunged in +admiration."[26] The Traditions were his great delight. "I delight," said +he, "in testifying my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of +God, and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of perfect +purity,"[27] (_i.e._, after performing a legal ablution.) As death +approached, his one fear was lest he should have exercised his private +judgment in delivering any legal opinion. In his last illness a friend went +to visit him, and enquiring why he wept, received the following answer: +"Why should I not weep, and who has more right to weep than I? By Allah! I +wish I had been flogged and reflogged for every question of law on which I +pronounced an opinion founded on my own private judgment."[28] + +Imam As-Shafa'i, a member of the Quraish tribe, was born A.H. 150. He +passed his youth at Mecca but finally settled in Cairo where he died (A.H. +204). Ibn Khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge +of the Quran, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Companions. "Never," said +Imam Ibn Hanbal, "have I passed a night without praying for God's mercy and +blessing upon As-Shafi'i." "Whosoever pretends," said Abu Thaur, "that he +saw the like of As-Shafi'i for learning is a liar." Having carefully +studied the systems of the two preceding Imams he then proceeded on an +eclectic system to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of +Abu Hanifa. As-Shafi'i follows rather the traditional plan of Ibn Malik. +The Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the absence of a clear and a direct +statement, he finds one {22} passage in the Quran, or one Tradition from +which the required judgment may be deduced. The Shafi'ite in the same +circumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduction, will require a +considerable number of Traditions from which to make it. + +Imam Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox Imams. He was born at +Baghdad (A.H. 164). His system is a distinct return to Traditionalism. He +lived at Baghdad during the reign of the Khalif Mamun, when Orthodox Islam +seemed in danger of being lost amid the rationalistic speculations, (that +is, from an Orthodox Muslim stand-point), and licentious practices of the +Court. The jurists most in favour at Court were followers of Abu Hanifa. +They carried the principle of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths in +order to satisfy the latitudinarianism of the Khalif. Human speculation +seemed to be weakening all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal met the +difficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction. +At the same time he saw that the Maliki system, founded as it was on the +"Customs of Madina," was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and +growing Empire. It needed to be supplemented. What better, what surer +ground could he go upon than the Traditions. These at least were inspired, +and thus formed a safer foundation on which to build a system of +jurisprudence than the analogical deductions of Abu Hanifa did. The system +of Ibn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist. There is now no Mufti of this +sect at Mecca, though the other three are represented there. Still his +influence is felt to this day in the importance he attached to Tradition. + +The distinction between the four Imams has been put in this way. Abu Hanifa +exercised his own judgment. Malik and Hanbal preferred authority and +precedent. As-Shafi'i entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, as +regards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them an authentic +Tradition is an incontestable authority. Their {23} opinion on points of +doctrine and practice forms the third basis of the Faith. + +The Ijma' of the four Imams is a binding law upon all Sunnis. It might be +supposed that as the growing needs of the Empire led to the formation of +these schools of interpretation; so now the requirements of modern, social +and political life might be met by fresh Imams making new analogical +deductions. This is not the case. The orthodox belief is, that since the +time of the four Imams there has been no Mujtahid who could do as they did. +If circumstances should arise which absolutely require some decision to be +arrived at, it must be given in full accordance with the 'mazhab,' or +school of interpretation, to which the person framing the decision +belongs.[29] This effectually prevents all change, and by excluding +innovation, whether good or bad, keeps Islam stationary. Legislation is now +purely deductive. Nothing must be done contrary to the principles contained +in the jurisprudence of the four Imams. "Thus, in any Muhammadan State +legislative reforms are simply impossible. There exists no initiative. The +Sultan, or Khalif can claim the allegiance of his people only so long as he +remains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the Law." + +The question then as regards the politics of the "Eastern {24} Question" is +not whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived, an apostle or an +impostor; whether the Quran is on the whole good or bad; whether Arabia was +the better or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought; but what Islam as +a religious and political system has become and is, how it now works, what +Orthodox Muslims believe and how they act in that belief. The essence of +that belief is, that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalifs and Imams is +absolutely perfect.[30] Innovation is worse than a mistake. It is a crime, +a sin. This completeness, this finality of his system of religion and +polity, is the very pride and glory of a true Muslim. To look for an +increase of light in the knowledge of his relation to God and the unseen +world, in the laws which regulate Islam on earth is to admit that +Muhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission no Muslim will +make. + +It has been stated on high authority that all that is required for the +reform of Turkey is that the Qanuns or orders of the Sultan should take the +place of the Shari'at or law of Islam. Precisely so; if this could be done, +Turkey might be reformed; but Islam would cease to be the religion of the +State. That the law as formulated by the Imam Abu Hanifa ill suits the +conditions of modern life is more than probable; but it is the very +function of the Khalif of Islam, {25} which the Sultan claims to be, to +maintain it. He is no Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst the +Sunnis, to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of circumstances +some new law must be made, orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly in +accordance with the opinions of the Imams. The Shia'hs, in opposition to +the Sunnis, hold that there are still Mujtahidin, but this opinion arises +from their peculiar doctrine of the Imamat, a subject we shall discuss a +little later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can be +Mujtahidin who are now able to give authoritative opinions, there may be +some hope of enlightened progress amongst Shia'h people--the Persians for +example. There is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest, more +mysticism, more heresy, but they are no further on the road of progress +than their neighbours; and the apparent advantage of the presence of a +Mujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his decisions must be +strictly in accordance with the Quran and the Sunnat, or rather with what +to the Shia'h stands in the place of the Sunnat. The Shia'h, as well as the +Sunni, must base all legislation on the fossilized system of the past, not +on the living needs of the present. Precedent rules both with an iron sway. +The Wahhabis reject all Ijma' except that of the Companions, but that they +accept; so when they are called the Puritans of Islam, it must be +remembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the Quran, but the +Sunnat, and some Ijma'. + +In order to make Ijma' binding, it is necessary that the Mujtahidin should +have been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice. + +The whole subject of Ijtihad is one of the most important in connection +with the possibility of reforms in a Muslim state. A modern Muhammadan +writer[31] seeking to show that Islam does possess a capacity for progress +and that so far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adapt +itself to new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in {26} "an age of +active principles," uses the story I have already related when describing +the origin of Ijtihad (Ante. p. 17) to prove the accuracy of his statement. +He makes Mu'az to say:--"I will look first to the Quran, then to precedents +of the Prophet, and lastly rely upon my _own judgment_." It is true that +Ijtihad literally means 'great effort,' it is true that the Companions and +Mujtahidin of the first class had the power of exercising their judgment in +doubtful cases, and of deciding them according to their sense of the +fitness of things, provided always, that their decision contravened no law +of the Quran or the Sunnat; but this in no way proves that Islam has any +capacity for progress, or that "an age of active principles" was ushered in +by Muhammad, or that his "words breathe energy and force, and infuse new +life into the dormant heart of humanity." For, though the term Ijtihad +might, in reference to the men I have mentioned, be somewhat freely +translated as "one's own judgment," it can have no such meaning now. It is +a purely technical term, and its use and only use now is to express the +"referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the Quran and the +Sunnat." But even were the meaning not thus restricted, even though it +meant now as it sometimes meant at first, "one's own judgment;" still Syed +Amir 'Ali's position would remain to be proved for, since the days of the +four Imams, the orthodox believe that there has been no Mujtahid of the +first class, and to none but men of this rank has such power ever been +accorded. Thus granting, for the sake of argument merely, that the Syed's +translation is grammatically and technically correct, all that results from +it is that the "age of active principles" lasted only for two centuries. I +do not admit that there ever was such an age in Islam, and certainly +neither its theological development, nor its political growth negative the +opposite assertion, _viz._, that Muhammad gave precepts rather than +principles. The Turks are included in "the dormant heart of humanity," but +it is difficult to see what "energy and {27} force" is breathed, what "new +life is infused" into them by the "wonderful words" of the Prophet, or what +lasting good the "age of active principles" has produced. + +4. QIAS is the fourth foundation of Islam. The word literally means +reasoning, comparing. It is in common use in Hindustani and Persian in the +sense of guessing, considering, &c. Technically, it means the analogical +reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Quran, the +Sunnat and the Ijma'. For example, the Quran says:--"Honour thy father and +thy mother and be not a cause of displeasure to them." It is evident from +this that disobedience to parents is prohibited, and prohibition implies +punishment if the order is disobeyed. Again, if the Quran and the Sunnat +hold children responsible, according to their means, for the debts of their +father, does it not follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their +parents all those obligations which for some reason or other the parents +may not be able to perform, such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. A +Tradition said to come from the Companions runs thus:--"One day, a woman +came to the Prophet and said, 'my father died without making the +Pilgrimage.' The Prophet said, 'If thy father had left a debt what wouldest +thou do,' 'I would pay the debt.' 'Good, then pay this debt also.'" The +Quran forbids the use of Khamar, an intoxicating substance, and so it is +argued that wine and opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. The +Wahhabis would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco. + +From cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the Mujtahidin of +the earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which they +call Qias. It is also called I'tibar-ul-Amsal, or "imitation of an +example." The idea is taken from the verse: "Profit by this example, ye who +are men of insight" (Sura lix. 2). There are strict rules laid down which +regulate Qias, of which the most important is, that in all cases it must be +based on the Quran, the Sunnat, and the Ijma'. In fact, the fundamental +idea of Islam {28} is that a perfect law has been given, even unto details, +of social and political life. The teaching of Muhammad contains the +solution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law not provided by the +Prophet must be deduced analogically. This produces uniformity after a +fashion, but only because intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceases +and moral stagnation follows. Thus all who come within the range of this +system are bound down to political servitude. Whatever in feeling or +conviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn set of laws is swept away. +There is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all Musalman States, +which seems to point to a common cause. All first principles are contained +in the Quran and the Sunnat; all that does not coincide with them must be +wrong. They are above all criticism. + +Qias, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, removes no fetter of +the past, for in it there must be no divergence in principle from a +legislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in its +essence.[32] In the Nihayat-ul-Murad it is written:--"We are shut up to +following the four Imams." In the Tafsir-i-Ahmadi we read:--"To follow any +other than the four Imams is unlawful." An objector may say that such +respect is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors. To this +an answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqayah. The +writer there says that it is nothing of the kind. "The Mujtahidin are not +the source of the orders of the Law, but they are the medium by which we +obtain the Law. Thus Imam Abu Hanifa said: 'We select first from the Quran, +then from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the Companions; we act +on what the Companions agreed upon; where they doubt, we doubt.' The +Commentator Jelal-ud-din Mahli says, 'The common people and others who have +{29} not reached the rank of a Mujtahid, must follow one of the four +Imams.' Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he must not change. Again, it +may be objected that God gave no order about the appointment of four Imams. +Now, it is recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said, 'Follow the way +of the great company; whosoever departs from it will enter hell.' The +Followers of the Imams are a great company." It is moreover the unanimous +opinion, the "Ijma'-i-Ummat," that the Imams rightly occupy the position +accorded to them. It is a great blessing, as we read in the +Tafsir-i-Ahmadi: "It is of the grace of God, that we are shut up to these +four Imams. God approves of this, and into this matter proofs and +explanations do not enter." Should any one further object that, in the days +of the Prophet, there were no Mujtahidin, that each man acted on a "saying" +as he heard it, that he did not confine his belief or conduct to the +deductions made by some "appointed Companion," he may be answered +thus:--"For a long time after the death of the Prophet many Companions were +alive, and consequently the Traditions then current were trustworthy; but +now it is not so, hence the need for the Imams and their systems." + +These four foundations,--the QURAN, the SUNNAT, IJMA' and QIAS--form in +orthodox Muslim opinion and belief a perfect basis of a perfect religion +and polity. They secure the permanence of the system, but they repress an +intelligent growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is very +plain. Take again the case of Turkey. The constitution of the Government is +theocratic. The germs of freedom are wanting there as they have never been +wanting in any other country in Europe. The ruling power desires no change; +originality of thought, independence of judgment is repressed. Nothing good +has the Turk ever done for the world.[33] This rule has been one continued +display of brute {30} force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory which +shone for a while in Cordova and in Baghdad. No nation can possibly +progress, the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are what has +been described in this chapter. When brought into diplomatic and commercial +intercourse with States possessing the energy and vigour of a national life +and liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the long run, fail and +pass away. It has been well said that "Spain is the only instance of a +country once thoroughly infused with Roman civilisation which has been +actually severed from the empire; and even then the severance, though of +long duration, was but partial and temporary. After a struggle of nearly +eight centuries, the higher form of social organisation triumphed over the +lower and the usurping power of Islam was expelled." So it ought to be, and +so indeed it must ever be, for despotism must give way to freedom; the life +latent in the subject Christian communities must sooner or later cast off +the yoke of a barbarian rule, which even at its best is petrified and so is +incapable of progress. However low a Christian community may have fallen, +there is always the possibility of its rising again. A lofty ideal is +placed before it. All its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward. +In Islam there is no regenerative power. Its golden age was in the past. +When the work of conquest is done, when a Muhammadan nation has to live by +industry, intelligence and thrift, it always miserably fails. + +In this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have tried to prove from +authentic and authoritative sources that {31} the Quran alone is to no +Muslim the sole guide of life. The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten +alike around the individual and the community. Islam is sterile, it gives +no new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of new forms +of truth, and so it can give no real life, no lasting vitality to a +nation.[34] + +{32} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER I. + + IJTIHAD. + + Questions connected with Ijtihad are so important in Islam, that I + think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical + account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This + account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalman, and is, + therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an + article in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrieme Serie, tome, 15, on "Le + Marche et les Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes orthodoxes + Musalmanes" by Mirza Kazim Beg, Professor in the University of St. + Petersburg. It entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid + character of Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of systems founded + thereon. + + "Orthodox Musalmans admit the following propositions as axioms. + + 1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people + whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He + has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly in the eternal + Quran, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to + posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. That way is + called the "Shari'at." The rules thereof are called Ahkam. + + 2. The Quran and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are the + primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, + _viz._, Ilm-i-Tafsir, or the interpretation of the Quran and + Ilm-i-Hadis, or the study of Tradition. + + 3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Din), + or to the belief (Iman) of the Mukallifs.[35] + + 4. As the Quran and the Sunnat are the principal sources from whence + the precepts of the Shari'at have been drawn, so the rules recognized + as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of + Ilm-i-Fiqh, or the science of Law. + + Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus Muhammad + prayed for Ibn Mas'ud: "May God make him {33} comprehend (Faqqihahu), + and make him know the interpretation of the Quran." Muhammad in his + quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or + contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a + guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first + Khalifs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Quran + and the Sunnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation, + became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that + men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the + Quran and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate + science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the + early Musalmans did not possess books which would serve for such + teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the + great jurisconsult of Syria died (A.H. 80) N'iman bin Sabit, surnamed + Abu Hanifa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the + schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim + seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the + Mufassirs,[36] the Muhaddis,[37] and the Fuqiha,[38] had all their + knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly + esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Quran with the comments + made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the + Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands (Ahkam) which + proceed from the Quran, and the Sunnat. Such men enjoyed the right of + Mujtahidin. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. + It was not till towards the middle of the second century A.H. that + treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after + which six schools (Mazhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders, + all Imams of the first class, were Abu Hanifa, the Imam-i-A'zam or + great Imam (A.H. 150),[39] Safian As-Sauri (A.H. 161), Malik (A.H. + 179), As-Shafa'i (A.H. 204), Hanbal (A.H. 241) and Imam Daud Az-Zahari + (A.H. 270). The two sects founded by Sauri and Zahari became extinct in + the eighth century of the Hijra. The other four still remain. These men + venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the + elder. Thus Shafa'i said:--"No one in the world was so well versed in + jurisprudence as Abu Hanifa was, and he who has read neither his works, + nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence." Hanbal when + sick wore a shirt which had belonged to Shafa'i, in order that he might + be cured of his malady; but all this {34} did not prevent them starting + schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihad is granted to those who + are real Mujtahidin. There are three degrees of Ijtihad. + + 1. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation + + 2. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Mazhab: authority in the judicial systems founded by + the Mujtahidin of the first class. + + 3. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Masail: authority in cases which have not been + decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence. + + The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second + relative, the third special. + + THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHAD. + + Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it + is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not + bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This + gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some in the + second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely + connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their + posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidin + of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries. + Thus Abu Hanifa says:--"That which comes to us from the Companions is + on our head and eyes (_i.e._, to be received with respect): as to that + which comes from the Tabi'in, they are men and we are men." + + Since the time of the Tabi'in this degree of Ijtihad has only been + conferred on the six great Imams. Theoretically any Muslim can attain + to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that + the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so + no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:-- + + 1. The knowledge of the Quran and all that is related to it; that is to + say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance + with the orders of the Quran and all their sub-divisions, their + relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the + Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each verse of the Quran + was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal + meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the + abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the + meaning of the 'obscure' passages (Mutashabih), to discriminate between + the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular. + + 2. He must know the Quran by heart with all the Traditions and + explanations. {35} + + 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of + three thousand of them. + + He must know their source, history, object and their connection with + the laws of the Quran. He should know by heart the most important + Traditions. + + 4. A pious and austere life. + + 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law. + + Should any one _now_ aspire to such a degree another condition would be + added, _viz_:-- + + 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence. + + The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there + is the severity of the 'Ulama, which requires from the candidate things + almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the 'Ulama + to their own Imams, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to + listen to him. Imam Hanbal said:--"Draw your knowledge from whence the + Imams drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others + for that is certainly blindness of sight". Thus the schools of the four + Imams remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the + 'Ulama recognise since the time of these Imams no Mujtahid of the first + degree. Ibn Hanbal was the last. + + The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. + He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between + the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of + legislation, without any one having the right to make any objection. He + had the right to explain the Quran, the Sunnat and the Ijma' according + as he understood them. He used the Prophet's words, whilst his + disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy + between a decision of his own Imam and the Quran or Traditions, he must + abide by the decision of the Imam. The Law does not permit him to + interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the + sect of one Imam he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the + right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first class can + dispute the decision of one of the Imams. Theoretically such Mujtahidin + may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do + not. + + THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHAD. + + This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great + Imams who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed + the special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulama, and of their + respective Imams who in some cases have allowed them {36} to retain + their own opinion.' The most famous of these men are the two disciples + of Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad bin al Hasan. In a secondary + matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule + that a Mufti may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it + goes against that of Abu Hanifa. + + THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHAD. + + This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it + should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence + according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. + They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their + judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous + Mujtahidin; but in either case their decisions must always be in + absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidin of the first + and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of + these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most + of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since Imam + Qazi Khan died (A.H. 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnis as + a Mujtahid even of the third class. + + There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidin, + or followers of the Mujtahidin; but all that the highest in rank + amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of + the older jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulama they are considered to + be equal to the Mujtahidin of the third class. If there are several + conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on + which to base their decision. This a mere Qazi cannot do. In such a + case he would have to refer to those men, or to their writings for + guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems + without originating anything new. The author of the Hidayah, who lived + at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. + + Such is Mirza Kazim Beg's account. The whole article, of which I have + only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. It shows + how "the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a guide to deeper + insight or wider knowledge; tramples upon the teaching of the past; + pays no heed to differences of climate, character, or history; but + regards itself as a body of absolute truth, one jot or tittle of which + cannot be rejected without incurring the everlasting wrath of God."[40] + +{37} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER II. + +EXEGESIS OF THE QURAN AND THE TRADITIONS. + +The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically called +'Ilm-i-Usul, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of +inspiration according to Islam, though that is not strictly speaking a +portion of this study. + +There are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, Wahi +and Ilham. Wahi is the term applied to the inspiration of the Quran, and +implies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into Wahi +Zahir (external inspiration), and Wahi Batin (internal inspiration). The +whole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, is +simply the medium through which the revelation of Wahi Zahir reaches man. +The Wahi Quran, _i.e._, the highest form of inspiration, always came to the +ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In Muhammadan +theology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it is +related that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noah +fifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to Jesus ten times, to +Muhammad twenty-four thousand times. + +Ilham means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he, +though rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, and +is not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is a +lower form of Wahi Zahir, which is called Isharat-ul-Malak (literally, +"sign of the Angel.") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: "The +Holy Ghost has entered into my heart." In other words, he received the +inspiration through {38} Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form of +inspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually applied +to the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who say that +except when delivering the Quran Muhammad spoke by Ilham and not by Wahi. +The practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahi +inspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Quran. +Sharastani speaks of "the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have the +marks of Wahi."[41] This opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to be +supported by the first verse of the fifty-third Sura, entitled the Star. +"By the Star when it setteth; your companion Muhammad _erreth not_, nor is +he _led astray_, neither doth he _speak of his own will_. It is none other +than a revelation which hath been revealed to him." In any case the +inspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christian +idea of inspiration, which is to Musalmans a very imperfect mode of +transmitting a revelation of God's will. + +That there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is an +idea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The Quran +is not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Quran +describes the revelation given to Moses thus:--"We wrote for him upon the +tables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive them thyself +with steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them for the +observance of its most goodly precepts.'" (Sura vii. 142). It is such an +inspiration as this the Quran claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was that +it should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter for +all mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by God. It +proceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes, or +is understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the highest +form of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as {39} divine. It is +acknowledged that the Injil--the Gospel--was given by Jesus; but as that, +too, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from heaven by the angel +Gabriel during the month of Ramazan, it is now asserted that it has been +lost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament are simply Traditions +collected by the writers whose names they bear. Their value is, therefore, +that of the second foundation of the Islamic system. + +The question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made known +his message to Muhammad. The Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theological +work, gives some details on this point.[42] Though the Quran is all of God, +both as to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet in +one and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:-- + +1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Ayesha, one of Muhammad's wives, +that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the Prophet. +According to some commentators this brightness remained six months. In some +mysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or vision, made known the +will of God. + +2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of the +Prophet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute has +arisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the +bodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel overcame +Muhammad, who was then translated to the world of angels. This always +happened when the revelation was one of bad news, such as denunciations or +predictions of woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel was +one of consolation and comfort, the human nature of the Prophet overcame +the angelic nature of the angel, who, in such case, having assumed a human +form, proceeded to deliver the message. {40} + +3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To him +alone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish in, +and through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The +effect of this mode of Wahi was more marvellous than that of any of the +other ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated. +On the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll down +his face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a +ghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed the +intensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If riding, the camel +on which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, when +reclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known sound: +Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so heavy became +the head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he could +support the weight. + +4. At the time of the Mi'raj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke to the +Prophet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed point +whether the face of the Lord was veiled or not. + +5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on the +Prophet's shoulders made known his will. + +6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought the +message from God. + +7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart of +the Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words of +God. This is technically called Ilka, and is by some supposed to be the +degree of inspiration to which the Traditions belong. + +Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by any +chance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, another +was always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of +abrogation, according to which some verses of the Quran abrogate others. +Muhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once, +and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation. + +Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At first +there seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest +after all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in +himself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness in +his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God and man; but more +often the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--"He roared like +a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some +strange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or +more the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to +the Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,[43] to the Warrior-Chief, as +the founder of political unity among the Arab tribes. + +A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction in +grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage +when he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usul," or the +exegesis of the Quran, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done, +he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the +Fathers of Islam have to say. This science in one way fits him to be a +commentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things +"new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the things +old. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islam which can reveal +to the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to +deeper and more profound knowledge. + +The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Quran by +heart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators +have said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the +{42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by the +Companions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can point +out a flaw in the Isnad (_i.e._ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted +by an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, the +authority of the Isnad of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory, +not critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The +chief qualification of a Hafiz, a man who can repeat the whole Quran by +heart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be +able to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth, +this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. The +Sunnis say that no Shia'h can ever become a Hafiz, from which fact they +draw the conclusion that the Shia'hs are heretics. In the early days of +Islam, the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation +of the Quran were the Khalifs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, and 'Ali, and ten of +the Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which +Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islam. The +effort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Quran +failed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca, +and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became +current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu Ibn +Kab, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that the +Prophet himself said: "read the Quran under Abu Ibn Kab." These men +remembered that Abu Ibn Kab had stated, that one day when scandalized at +man after man who entered the mosque repeating the Quran in different ways, +he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O Abu Ibn Kab! +intelligence was sent to me to read the Quran in one dialect, and I was +attentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy the reading of the +Quran to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me a second time +saying: 'read the {43} Quran in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the +Court of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Quran to my sects.' Then +a voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Quran in seven +dialects.'" + +This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet in +thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked +upon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the "haft qira,at," or seven +readings of the Quran, now recognised. + +In the Quran compiled by the order of the Khalif Osman there were no +vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islam they found +great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, +then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven +famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes of +reading, are Imam Nafi of Madina, Imam Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imam Abu 'Umr +of Basra, Imam Hamza of Kufa, Imam Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imam 'Asim of Kufa, +Imam Kisae of Kufa.[44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points in +many places in the Quran, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In +India the "qira,at--reading,--of Imam 'Asim is followed by both Sunnis and +Shia'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the +Quran privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service. +During the month of Ramazan the Quran is repeated every night in the +mosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each +night. The Imam of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qari) who commences +according to one of the seven recognised readings (qira,at), must keep to +the same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a +great exercise of the memory. A good Hafiz will know the whole seven +varieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant in +their nature,[45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following are +a few illustrations. In the second Sura Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye be +questioned concerning that which _they_ have done;" but 'Asim reads: "That +which _ye_ have done." This is caused by putting two dots above the line +instead of below it. Again 'Asim reads: "_Enter ye_ the gates of hell" +(Sura xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: "_Ye will be made to enter_ hell,"--that +is, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice. +These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is +touched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation +of the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islam. At times, too, +fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous +Readers whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud, +a resident of Baghdad, ventured to introduce some different readings in his +recital of the Quran. The people of Baghdad, not knowing these, were +furious, and the Khalif was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A +Council of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn +Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his +"readings," but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce my +manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the +manuscript drawn up by the Khalif Osman, and that which is generally +received."[46] + +Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the +science of grammar. As Islam spread, it became necessary to expound the +Quran to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then +became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a +necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to the +lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was +no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any +directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that is, +neither a command based on the Quran nor one based on any saying or act of +the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty. + +Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalif of Baghdad, was a +patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his, +Abu'l 'Abbas Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that +the Quranists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly +reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in +connection with the Quran, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to +whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is +recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw +the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbas +Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" The Prophet +had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islam. +Muslims now quote the Quran as a perfect model of style; it may be well to +remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is +but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of +Arabic grammar.[47] + +The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very +important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usul." It is said that the Quran was +brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The +Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46} +answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The +infidels say, 'unless the Quran be sent down to him all at once'--but in +this way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it out +to thee_" (Sura xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective; +it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet it +is a glorious Quran, _written on the preserved Table_." (Sura lxxxv. 22). +Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have _recited_ it then follow +thou the _recital_." (Sura lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is +referred to in the verse: "We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Quran." +(Sura xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Quran was given[48] was +not without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some were +difficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The +knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as +they are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions, +that _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them." +(Sura xvi. 46). + +Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between +abrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge to +his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the +verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being +made."[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with +the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to +their followers, the Taba'in, who in their turn passed it on to their +followers the Taba-i-Taba'in. The art of writing then became common, and +the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the +sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the +Quran was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion +was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second +must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were +perfect. Thus early in the history of Islam were the principles of exegesis +fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class. +The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,[50] +though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition +hitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It +will thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, +with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islam. The +perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature-- + + "While as the world rolls on from age to age, + And realms of thought expand, + The letter stands without expanse or range, + Stiff as a dead man's hand." + +The technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitions +of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the +words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Quran, and the deduction +of arguments from passages in the book. + +I. The words of the Quran are divided into four classes. + +1. _Khass_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes. +First, words which relate to genus, _e.g._ mankind. Secondly, words which +relate to species, _e.g._ a man, which refers to men as distinguished from +women. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e.g._ Zeid, +which is the name of a special individual. + +2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as "people." + +3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic +word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word +"Sulat," if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulat Ullah," the mercy +of God; if with man, it may mean either "namaz," a stated liturgical +service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, _e.g._ Sulat-ul-Istisqa +(prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namaz. + +4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which are +possible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Sura +cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lord +and _slay_ (the victims)." The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr," +which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanifa +render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the "victims"). The followers of +Ibn Shafa'i say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer." + +This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the +former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context +settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right. + +These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of +defining any word in the Quran gained, the {49} student passes on to +consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great +classes,--the "Obvious," and the "Hidden." + +This division is referred to in the following passage of the Quran. "He it +is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves +_perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, and +others are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its +figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its +interpretation, but God.[51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe +in it, it is all from God.'" (Sura iii. 3). + +This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and +allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator +must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the +particular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it +abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or +not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which +the context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon +it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines +the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the +Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply +reproduce their opinions.[52] But to return from this digression. Sentences +are Zahir--"Obvious," or Khafi--"Hidden." Obvious sentences are divided +into four classes. + +I. (1). _Zahir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who +hears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for any +explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, +action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of +God. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one +religious act for another, _e.g._ almsgiving instead of fasting, must be +based on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences. + +(2). _Nass_, a word commonly used for a text of the Quran, but in its +technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning +of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following +sentence illustrates both Zahir and Nass: "Take in marriage of such other +women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is Zahir, because +marriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words "one, two, +three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having +more than four wives. + +(3). _Mufassir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in +it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostrated +themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the +words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of +sentence may be abrogated. + +(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of +which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "God +knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on +such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest +degree of obedience to God's command. + +The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or +apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must +give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or +changed by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c. + +The other great division of sentences is that of + +II. (1). _Khafi_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which other +persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or +expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female, +cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Sura v. 42). The +word for thief is "Sariq," and in this passage it is understood to include +highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are +Khafi or hidden under it. + +(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration: +"And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver +and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here +is that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say, +however, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilst +silver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that the +bottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and +like silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to +ascertain the meaning. + +(3.) _Mujmal._ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of +interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several +meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the +Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the +sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be +doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Sura lxx. 19.) In this +verse the word "halu'"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it +not been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full of +complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly," its meaning +would not have been at all easy to understand. + +The following is an illustration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences: +"Stand for prayer (salat) and give alms," (zakat.) Both salat and zakat are +'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so +they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that +"salat" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say the +words "God is great," or standing to repeat a few verses of the Quran; or +it might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakat" is growing. +The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and +said, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part." + +(4.) _Mutashabih._ These are sentences so difficult that men cannot +understand them, a fact referred to in Sura iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will +they do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their +meaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the +commencement of some of the Suras.[53] Such expressions also as "God's +hand," "The face of God," "God sitteth," &c., come under this category. + +The next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Quran, and +here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found, +_viz_:-- + +(1.) _Haqiqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as +"ruku'," a prostration, and "salat" in the sense of prayer. + +(2.) _Majaz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salat" in +the sense of "namaz" a liturgical service. + +(3.) _Sarih_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art +_divorced_," "Thou art _free_." + +(4.) _Kinayah_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require +the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou art +separated," which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced." +This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be +known from the context, _e.g._ one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked +at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I." Muhammad +answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou +art." The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayah.' + +The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlal," or +the science of deducing arguments from the Quran. This too is divided into +four sections, as follows:-- + +(1.) _Ibarat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced, +shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be +obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is +reasonable." (Sura ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made. +First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it +must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of +supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the +relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother. +Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind. + +(2.) _Isharat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order +in which the words are placed. + +(3.) _Dalalat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some +special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic +"uff") (Sura xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that +children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on +"dalalat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God +loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Sura v. 69.) The word translated +"aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'una, "they run." From this the argument +is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those +whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be +given to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of +"dalalat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal +laws. + +(4.) _Iqtiza._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions: +"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a +believer from slavery." (Sura iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free +his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, +is that the slave should be his own property. + +The Quran is divided into:-- + +(1). _Harf_ (plural _Huruf_), letters. The numbers given by different +authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606 +letters. + +(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimat_), words, stated by some to amount to +79,087; by others to 77,934. + +(3). _Ayat_ (plural _Ayat_), verses. Ayat really means a sign, and was the +name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Quran. The end of +a verse is determined by the position of a small circle (.). The early +Quran Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so +five different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a +variation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:-- + +(1). _Kufa_ verses. The Readers in the city of Kufa say that they followed +the custom of 'Ali. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India. +They reckon 6,239 verses. + +(2). _Basra_ verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjaj, a +Companion. They reckon 6,204. + +(3). _Shami_ verses. The Readers in Syria (Sham) followed Abd-ullah bin +'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses. + +(4). _Mecca_ verses. According to this arrangement there are 6,219 verses. + +(5). _Madina_ verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 verses. + +{55} + +In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismillah" (in the name of God) +is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Quran. + +This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any +important passage. The third verse of the third Sura is an important +exception. The position of the circle (.), the symbol denoting a full stop, +in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of +scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalam) in Islam. + +Most of the cases, however, are like the following:-- + +In Sura xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a +letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings, +when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most +powerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." Many +Readers put the full stop after the word "hereof," and say that God is the +speaker of the words "and so will they do." + +(4). _Sura_, or chapter. The word Sura means a row or series, such as a +line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used for +chapters in the Quran. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. The +Suras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some +approximate name, (as Baqr--the cow, Nisa--women, &c.,) generally taken +from some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged in +chronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, the +shorter Suras which contain the theology of Islam, belong to the Meccan +period of the Prophet's career,[54] and the longer ones relating chiefly to +social duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islam as a civil +polity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madina. The best +way, therefore, to {56} read the Quran, is to begin at the end. The attempt +to arrange the Suras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all, +can only be approximately correct.[55] Carlyle referring to the confused +mass of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude, +incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European +through the Quran." When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible. +The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. There +is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier +and later Suras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue. +Individual Suras are often very composite in their character, but, such as +they are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in +the reign of the Khalif Osman, has been handed down unaltered in its form. +The only variations (qira'at) now to be found in the text have been already +noticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Suras. + +5. _Sipara_ a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from _si_, +thirty, and _para_, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a +_Juz_. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Quran in a +month, taking one Sipara each day. Musalmans never quote the Quran as we do +by Sura and Ayat, but by the Sipara and Ruku', a term I now proceed to +explain. + +6. _Ruku'_ (plural _Rukuat_). This word literally means a prostration made +by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of verses +recited from the Quran, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various +ritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a +"rak'at." After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshipper +makes a _Ruku'_, or prostration, the {57} portion then recited takes the +name of _Ruku'_. Tradition states that the Khalif Osman, when reciting the +Quran during the month of Ramazan, used to make twenty rak'ats each +evening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Quran, +beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he +recited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses in +each rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Quran in this +way in Ramazan, and also to quote it by the ruku', _e.g._, "such a passage +is in such a Sipara and in such a ruku'." + +The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the +Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imam, or leader, being in front +facing the Qibla, the service commences thus:--Each worshipper stands and +says the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words declaring his +intention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great." After this, +looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be to +Thee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but +Thee." Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan." Then the +Tasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful." +Then follows the Fatiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement of +the Quran. After this has been recited, the Imam proceeds, on the first +night of the month Ramazan, with the first verse of the second chapter.[56] +After saying a few verses, he makes a ruku'; that is, he bends his head and +body down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says: +"God is great." Then he repeats three times the words: "I extol the +holiness of my Lord, the Great." He then stands up and says: "God hears him +who praises Him." To this the people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised." +Again, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: "God is great." Then he +puts first his nose, and then his forehead on the {58} ground and says +three times: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High." Then sitting +on his heels, he says: "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "I +extol, etc." He then rises and says: "God is great." This is one rak'at. On +each night in the month of Ramazan this is gone through twenty times, the +only variation being that after the Fatiha and before the first +prostration, fresh verses of the Quran are introduced. The whole is, of +course, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The +name of the prostration (ruku') has been transferred to the portion of the +Quran recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukuat. + +(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a _Sumn_, _Ruba'_, +_Nisf_, _Suls_, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of a +Sipara respectively. + +In reciting the Quran the worshipper must be careful to say the "Takbir," +_i.e._ "God is great," after the several appointed places. Such a place is +after the recital of the 93rd Sura. The custom arose in this way. The +hypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the +"Seven Sleepers." He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but he forgot to +add the words "if God will." By way of warning, God allowed no inspiration +to descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh and +say: "God has left him." As it was not God's purpose to put his messenger +to ridicule, the Sura entitled "The brightness" (xciii) was immediately +brought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By the brightness of the +morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, _thy Lord hath not forsaken +thee_, neither doth He hate thee." In remembrance of this signal +interposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the +recital of this Sura with the words: "God is great." The practice thus +became a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it should be done because the +Prophet did it. + +The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in {59} connection with +the study of the Quran. It is referred to in the verses: "Whatever verses +we cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or +the like thereof." (Sura ii. 100). This is a Madina Sura. "What He pleaseth +will God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of revelation." +(Sura xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the Prophet's +life-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masud states that the Prophet +one day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The next morning +he found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written. +Astonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informed +that the verse in question had been revoked. There are, however, many +verses still in the Quran, which have been abrogated. It was an exceedingly +convenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the change of front which +Muhammad made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have been +laid down to regulate the practice. The verse which abrogates is called +_Nusikh_, and the abrogated verse _Mansukh_. _Mansukh_ verses are of three +kinds:--first, where the words and the sense have both been abrogated; +secondly, where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains; +thirdly, where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imam Malik +gives as an instance of the first kind the verse: "If a son of Adam had two +rivers of gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he would +covet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but +with dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent." The Imam states that +originally this verse was in the Sura (ix.) called Repentance. The verse, +called the "verse of stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. It +reads: "Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If a +man and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it +is a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise." The Khalif +Omar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it {60} is +now lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into +'Ilm-i-usul. Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Sale +states that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. The +principal ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon. +I give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occur +chiefly, if not almost entirely, in Suras delivered at Madina. There, where +Muhammad had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in +his aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found them +obstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seen +plainly in the following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not +stand facing any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the +following passage refers:--"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore, +whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God." (Sura +ii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madina, he entered into friendship with +the Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) towards +which the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was Jerusalem. This +went on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophet +for the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the Prophets, when he +asserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that his revelations were +the same as those contained in their own Scriptures, they utterly refused +allegiance to him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra the +breach between them was complete. It was now time to reconcile the leaders +of the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse quoted above was abrogated by: +"We have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have thee +turn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then thy face toward the +Holy Temple (of Mecca), and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward that +part." (Sura ii. 139.) The Faithful were consoled by the assurance that +though they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their {61} +faith be fruitless, "for unto man is God merciful, gracious." (v. 138.) The +doctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in the +following case: "It is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter, +nor to change thy present wives for other women, though their beauty charm +thee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall possess." (Sura xxxiii. 52.) +This is said by Beidawi, and other eminent Muslim divines, to have been +abrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of +verses, was really delivered after it. The verse is: "O Prophet, we allow +thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right hand +possesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughters +of thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side, +and on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madina), and any +other believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if the +Prophet desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the +rest of the Faithful." (Sura xxxiii. 49.) + +The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulama, in one of the +meetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign, +propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry. +The lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. "Of +other women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three and +three, and four and four." (Sura iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not +restricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had told +him that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question, +Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned men +counted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting to +decide the point. + +Again, the second verse of Sura lxxiii reads: "Stand up all night, except a +small portion of it, for prayer." According to a Tradition handed down by +'Ayesha the last verse {62} of this Sura was revealed a year later. It +makes the matter much easier. "God measureth the night and the day; he +knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and therefore turneth to you +mercifully. Recite _then so much of the Quran as may be easy to you_." (v. +20.) + +The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is no +verse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijma' it has been +abrogated. "But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to +those who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to Islam." (Sura +ix. 60.) The clause--"to those whose hearts are won to Islam"--is now +cancelled.[57] Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, who lately enemies, +had now become friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them large +presents from the spoils he took in war; but when Islam spread and became +strong, the 'Ulama agreed that such a procedure was not required and said +that the order was "mansukh." + +The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazan fast, to Jihad, the law of +retaliation, and other matters of social interest. + +The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by Musalman +controversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say are +abrogated by the Quran. "His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of every +other law."[58] This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine. +According to the best and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refers +entirely to the Quran and the Traditions, and even then is confined to +commands and prohibitions. "Those who imagine it to be part of the +Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another, are utterly +mistaken--we hold no such doctrine."[59] In the Tafsir-i-Itifaq it is +written: "Abrogation affects those {63} matters which God has confined to +the followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief advantages of it is that +the way is made easy." In the Tafsir-i-Mazhiri we find: "Abrogation refers +only to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or historical +statements."[60] Again, no verse of the Quran, or a Tradition can be +abrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it in +meaning. If it is a verse of the Quran, we must have the authority of +Muhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of a Companion. +Thus "the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not sufficient unless +there is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadis-i-Sahih), to show the matter clearly. +The question of the abrogation of any previous command depends on +historical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion of +a commentator." It cannot be shown that either Muhammad or a Companion ever +said that the Bible was abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that the +assertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation, +also illustrates another point to which I have often called attention, +_viz._; that in Islam all interpretation must be regulated by +traditionalism. + +Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those who +stay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdullah and +Ibn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind.' The Prophet asked for +the shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He then had a spasmodic +convulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the words, "free from +trouble." So now the whole verse reads thus: "Those believers who sit at +home _free from trouble_ (_i.e._, bodily infirmity), and those who do +valiantly in the cause of God, with their substance and their persons, +shall not be treated alike." (Sura iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: "I +fancy I see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack." + +{64} + +The question of the eternal nature of the Quran does not properly come +under the head of 'Ilm-i-usul, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many +Muslims. In the days of the Khalif Al-Mamun this question was fiercely +debated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad, +asserted that the Quran was created, by which statement they meant that the +revelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language was his +own. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In the year +212, A.H. the Khalif issued a decree to the effect that all who held the +Quran to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalif +himself was a notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they +remained quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodox +side are, that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal, that the +attempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the Divine +Mind and as it appears in the Quran is highly dangerous. In vain do their +opponents argue that, if the Quran is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in +existence. To this it is answered: "This is the honourable Quran, written +in the preserved Tablet." (Sura lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced which +states: "God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His own hand +He created Adam; and also in the Quran it is written, 'and We wrote for him +upon the tables a monition concerning every matter,' in reference to the +tables of the Law given to Moses." If God did this for former prophets and +their works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have done it for +the last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble Quran? It is not easy +to get a correct definition of the term "the uncreated Quran," but it has +been put thus: "The Word as it exists in the mind of God is 'Kalam-i-Nafsi' +(spiritual word), something unwritten and eternal. It is acknowledged by +the Ijma'-i-Ummat (consent of the Faithful), the Traditions, and by other +prophets that God {65} speaks. The Kalam-i-Nafsi then is eternal, but the +actual words, style, and eloquence are created by God; so also is the +arrangement and the miraculous nature of the book." This seems to be a +reasonable account of the doctrine, though there are theologians who hold +that the very words are eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes with +this idea, but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute +predestination. This accounts for the circumstances which necessitated the +abrogation, for the circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, were +determined on from all eternity. + +This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Quran, a book +difficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which has +engaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of the +human race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological schools +of Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding through this +very subject of which I have here been treating; soon will they go forth as +teachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that training +is to make them wise men in any true sense of the word, how calculated to +render them proud, conceited, and scornful of other creeds, its rigid and +exclusive character shows. Still, it is a marvellous book; for twelve +hundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate the +courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether dwellers in the wild +uplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on the shores of the +Mediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alike +learn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, and +pray in its words as their fathers prayed before them. + +Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Quran is the great +bond of Islam. No matter from what race the convert may have come, no +matter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat by +rote portions of the Quran in every act of public worship. + +The next subject for consideration is that of the {66} Traditions, or the +second branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usul. The Traditions contain the +record of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim, +to whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also acted +under a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is different from +that of the Quran. There the revelation was objective. In the Prophet's +sayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is subjective, but still +a true inspiration. This belief places the Traditions in a place second +only to the Quran; it makes them a true supplement to that book, and thus +they not only throw light on its meaning, but themselves form the basis on +which doctrines may be established. Without going so far as to say that +every Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islam, it +may be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed of +that system if the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. So +important a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of the +Traditions is included in the 'Ilm-i-usul, or science of exegesis. Some +account of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter. + +The first four Khalifs were called the Khulafa-i-Rashidin that is, those +who could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions of the +Prophet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt. +The Prophet had declared that Islam must be written in the hearts of men. +There was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing. They +were handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so effectual in a +dispute as "a saying" of the Prophet, the door was opened by which spurious +Traditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a number +of strict rules were framed, at the head of which stands the Prophet's +saying, itself a Tradition: "Convey to other persons none of my words +except those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely represents +my {67} words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire." +To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the relator of a Tradition must +also repeat its "Isnad," or chain of authorities, as: "I heard from such an +one, who heard from such an one," and so on, until the chain reaches the +Prophet himself. Each person, too, in this "Isnad," must have been well +known for his good character and retentive memory. This failed, however, to +prevent a vast number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current; so +men set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of +Tradition that in the second century of Islam had begun to work untold +evil. These men are called "Muhadisin," or "collectors of Tradition." The +Sunnis and the Wahhabis recognise six such men, and their collections are +known as the "Sihah-Sittah," or six correct books. They are the +following:-- + +(1). The _Sahih-i-Bukhari_, called after Abu Abdullah Muhammad +Ibn-i-Isma'il, a native of Bukhara. He was born A.H. 194. He was a man of +middle height, spare in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his +father was on this account intense; but one day in a dream he saw the +Patriarch Abraham, who said to him: "God on account of thy grief and sorrow +has granted sight to thy son." The sight being thus restored, at the age of +ten he went to school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. After +his education was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dakhli came to Bukhara. +One day the youthful Bukhari ventured to correct the famous man. It was an +astounding piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right. +This set him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At the +early age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course of +time he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result of his examination and +selection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and +seventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, the +Sahih-i-Bukhari. It {68} is said that he never sat down to examine a +Tradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two +rak'at prayers. He then said: "O Lord, let me not make a mistake." For +sixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of +sixty-four. + +(2). _Sahih-i-Muslim._ Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjaj was born at Nishapur, a city of +Khorasan. He collected about 300,000 Traditions, from which he made his +collection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing to oblige +all who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige was the +indirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in the mosque +when some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he could not +discover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house to search +there. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating and +searching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died. (A.H. 261.) + +(3). _Sunan-i-Abu Daud._ Abu Daud Sajistani, a native of Seistan, was born +A.H. 202. He was a great traveller, and went to all the chief places of +Musalman learning. In knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety, +he was unrivalled. He collected about 500,000 Traditions, of which he +selected four thousand eight hundred for his book. + +(4). _Jami'-i-Tirmizi._ Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizi was born at Tirmiz in the +year A.H. 209. He was a disciple of Bukhari. Ibn Khallikan says this work +is "the production of a well-informed man: its exactness is +proverbial."[61] + +(5). _Sunan-i-Nasai._ Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasai was born at Nasa, in +Khorasan, in the year A.H. 214, and died A.H. 303. It is recorded of him, +with great approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wives +and many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with his +death in rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Ali, +and as the people of {69} Damascus were at that time inclined to the heresy +of the Kharigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place. +After he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him whether he knew +aught of the praises of Muavia, 'Ali's deadly enemy. He replied that he did +not. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that he died +soon after. + +(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Majah._ Ibn Majah[62] was born at 'Irak A.H. 209. This +work contains 4,000 Traditions. + +The Shia'hs reject these books and substitute five books[63] of their own +instead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been +compiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra. + +The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditions +is that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved Table,' on which +all that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind +of man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium of Gabriel, the +Prophet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophet +are the words of God. + +Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islam, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was the +greatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no less +than one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system +of jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanifa, who is +said to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded a +system which is to this day the most powerful in Islam. The Hanifites, +however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collections +of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} God. They range +over a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Quran. The +Prophet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, +his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of +religious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them +we must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islam. It is very +difficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse +with Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their +thought and actions, are based on the Traditions. + +Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to enter +a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them. +The classification adopted by different authors may vary in some +subordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard +Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadis-i-Quali, that is, an account of +something the Prophet said; or Hadis-i-Fa'li, a record of something which +he did; or Hadis-i-Taqriri, a statement of some act performed by other +persons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid. + +The Traditions may be classed under two general heads:-- + +First.--_Hadis-i-Mutawatir_, that is, "an undoubted Tradition," the Isnad, +or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narrator +possessed all the necessary qualifications for his office.[64] Some +authorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most +allow that the following is one: "There are no good works except with +intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention +of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing. + +Second.--_Hadis-i-Ahad._ The authority of this class is {71} theoretically +somewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same. + +This class is again sub-divided into two:-- + +(1). _Hadis-i-Sahih_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to go +into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahih if the +narrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowed +with a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace with +their neighbours. The following also are Sahih, though their importance as +authorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. Sahih +Traditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhari and +Muslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both; +or, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has been +retained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of +Traditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any +other approved collector. For each of these classes there is a distinct +name. + +(2). _Hadis-i-Hasan._ The narrators of this class are not of such good +authority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; but +these Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any +practical use.[65] It is merely as a matter of classification that they +rank second. + +In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical terms +which have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnad, +and other points. A few may be mentioned. + +(1). _Hadis-i-Z'aif_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have been +persons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad, +or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at," innovation, a habit now, as +then, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} "weak +Tradition" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to which +are, and which are not, "weak Traditions." + +(2). _Hadis-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnad of which there is some +break. If it begins with a Tabi' (one in the generation after that of the +Companions), it is called "_Mursal_" the one link in the chain, the +Companion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators +begins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on. + +(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator +concealed the name of his Imam, or where different narrators disagree, or +where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or +has been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an +account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this +class would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base +any important doctrine.[66] + +It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can be +contrary to the Quran. The importance attached to Tradition has been shown +in the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation of +an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and the +Sunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of the Prophet, +are the foundation and sum of Islam, a fact not always taken into account +by modern panegyrists of the system. + +{73} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE SECTS OF ISLAM. + +It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that the +Muhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and the +unanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how the +great sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, and +their consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is common +ground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter on +the "Foundations of Islam." + +It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the essential +foundations of the Faith. The Sunnis recognise four foundations, the +Wahhabis two; whilst the Shia'hs reject altogether the Traditions held +sacred by both Sunni and Wahhabi. The next chapter will contain a full +account of the doctrines held by the Sunnis, and so no account of this, the +orthodox sect, is given in this chapter. + +The first breach in Islam arose out of a civil war. The story has been so +often told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Ali, the +son-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalif of Islam. He is described as +"the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmans who imbibed his +religious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet himself, and who +followed to the last the simplicity of his character." He was a man +calculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his own natural +graces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. A +strong opposition, however, arose, and 'Ali was assassinated in a mosque at +Kufa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting statements of historians of the +rival sects, to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events which +happened then; {74} but the generally received opinion is, that after the +assassination of 'Ali, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the Khalifate +in favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned by +his wife, who, it is said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, in +order to leave the coast clear for his son Yezid. The most tragic event has +yet to come. Yezid, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious and +irreligious man. The people of Kufa, being disgusted at his conduct, sent +messengers to Husain, the remaining son of 'Ali, with the request that he +would assume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuade +him to let the people of Kufa first revolt, and thus show the reality of +their wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a small +band of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of +Karbala he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. "We are +few in number," said Husain, "and the enemy is in force. I am resolved to +die. But you--I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all those who +wish to do so leave me." "O Son of the Apostle of God!" was the reply, +"what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrection +did we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?" One by one these brave +men fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his infant son +alone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon the ground. The enemy +drew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrow +pierced the ear of the little boy and he died. "We came from God, and we +return to him," were the pathetic words of Husain, as with a sorrowful +heart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. He then stooped down to +drink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus stooping, the +enemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which wounded him in the mouth. +He fought bravely for a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds. +The schism between the Sunni and the Shia'h was now complete. {75} + +The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to these +historical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to suppose that +the only difference between the Shia'h and the Sunni is a mere dispute as +to the proper order of the early Khalifs would be a mistake. Starting off +with a political quarrel, the Shia'hs have travelled into a very distinct +religious position of their own. The fundamental tenet of the Shia'h sect +is the "divine right" of 'Ali the Chosen and his descendants. From this it +follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the Imam +(or Pontiff); from which position some curious dogmas issue. The whole +question of the Imamat is a very important one. The word Imam comes from an +Arabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term Imam then becomes +equal to the word leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense to +Muhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions, and to the +Khalifs, his successors. It is also, in its religious import only, applied +to the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a +restricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. It +is with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so used +in the Quran--"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he +fulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imam to mankind;' he +said: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant,' said God, 'embraceth not the +evil-doers.'" (Sura ii. 118.) From this verse two doctrines are deduced. +First, that the Imam must be appointed by God, for if this is not the case, +why did Abraham say "of my offspring also?" Secondly, the Imam is free from +sin, for God said: "My covenant embraceth not the evil-doer." + +The first dispute about the Imamat originated with the twelve thousand who +revolted from 'Ali after the battle of Siffin (657 A.D.), because he +consented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and Muavia. +Some years after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Ali. A few {76} +survivors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled in Oman, and +there preached their distinctive doctrines. In course of time the people of +Oman adopted the doctrine that the Imamat was not hereditary but elective, +and that in the event of misconduct the Imam might be deposed. +'Abdullah-ibn-Ibadh (744 A.D.) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine, +and from him the sect known as the 'Ibadhiyah takes its rise. The result of +this teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the +Imam of Oman. The 'Ibadhiyah seem to have always kept themselves +independent of the Sunni Khalifs of Baghdad, and, therefore, would consider +themselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultan of Turkey. From the +ordinary Shia'hs they differ as regards the "divine right" of 'Ali and his +children. The curious in such matters will find the whole subject well +treated in Dr. Badger's "Seyyids of Oman." + +The term Kharigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for a +group of sects which agree as to the need of an Imam, though they differ as +to the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Kharigite +stands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shia'h. The Shia'hs +hold that the Imamat must continue in the family of 'Ali, and that religion +consists mainly in devotion to the Imam. The tragic end of 'Ali and his +sons invested them with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of +their leaders, the Shi'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soon +found development, _viz._, that it was God's will that the Imamat should +continue in the family of 'Ali. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet +said: "He of whom I am master has 'Ali also for a master." "The best judge +among you is 'Ali." Ibn Abbas, a Companion says: "I heard the Prophet say: +'He who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of God; he who blasphemes +the name of 'Ali blasphemes my name.'" A popular Persian hymn shows to what +an extent this feeling deepened. {77} + + "Mysterious being! none can tell + The attributes in thee that dwell; + None can thine essence comprehend; + To thee should every mortal bend-- + For 'tis by thee that man is given + To know the high behests of heaven." + +The general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, God took a +ray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to the body +of Muhammad, to which He said: "Thou art the elect, the chosen, I will make +the members of thy family the guides to salvation." Muhammad said: "The +first thing which God created was my light, and my spirit."[67] The body of +the Prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world +was created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of glory +appear. It is well known to all Musalmans as the "Nur-i-Muhammadi"--light +of Muhammad. + +This "Nur" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind God created His +Throne, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third Paradise, and from +the fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all created beings. According +to a statement made by 'Ali, Muhammad said that he was created from the +light of God, whilst all other created beings were formed from the "light +of Muhammad."[68] + +This "light" descended to 'Ali, and from him passed on to the true Imams, +who alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion against them +is sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion. + +The doctrine of the Imamat has given rise to endless discussion and +dissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shia'h sect will show. +They are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shia'h proper is the largest +and most influential of them. The following are the Shi'ah tenets regarding +the Imam, based on one of their standard books of {78} divinity.[69] The +Imam is the successor of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities which +he possessed. He is wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier than +the most pious. He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all +sin original or actual: hence the Imam is called ma'sum (innocent.)[70] God +rules the world by wisdom, hence the sending forth of prophets was a +necessity; but it was equally necessary to establish the Imamat. Thus the +Imam is equal to a prophet. 'Ali said: "In me is the glory of every prophet +that has ever been." The authority of the Imam is the authority of God, for +(I quote the Hyat-un-Nafis) "his word is the word of God and of the +Prophet, and obedience to his order is incumbent." The nature of the Imam +is identical with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Ali say: "I am +Muhammad, and Muhammad is me." This probably refers to the possession by +the Imam of the "light of Muhammad." The bodies of the Imams are so pure +and delicate that they cast no shadow.[71] They {79} are the beginning and +the end of all things. To know the Imams is the very essence of the +knowledge which men can gain of God. "The Holy God calls the Imams His +word, His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions, +their actions too, He recognises as His own." As mediums between God and +man they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for "the grace of +God, without their intervention, reaches to no created being." These +extravagant claims for the Imams culminate in the assertion that "for them +a pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by which the +actions of the Faithful are made known to them." The Imam is the supreme +Pontiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an infallible book is +not sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such wisdom and discernment +as such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants of +the Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some cases, +almost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'Ali and his +descendants.[72] + +The Usul, or fundamental tenets of the Shia'h sect are five in number. (1) +To believe in the unity of God, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) To +believe in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is the +chief of all, (4) To consider 'Ali the Khalif next in order after Muhammad, +(5) To believe 'Ali's descendants from Hasan to Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, to +be his true successors, and to consider all of them in character, position +and dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine of +the Imamat. + +{80} + +The first principal divisions of the Shia'h sect are the Isma'ilians and +the Imamites. The latter believe in twelve Imams, reckoning 'Ali as the +first.[73] The last of the twelve Abu'l-Qasim, is supposed to be alive +still, though hidden in some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdi, +"the guided." It is expected that he will reappear at the second advent of +Christ. They say that he was born near Baghdad in the year 258 A.H. He +afterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he was born the words, "Say: +'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: Verily falsehood is a thing that +vanisheth,'" (Sura xvii. 83) were found written on his right arm. When he +came into the world, he pointed with his fingers to heaven, sneezed, and +said: 'Praise be to God, the Lord of the world.' A person one day visited +Imam Hasan 'Askari (the eleventh Imam) and said: 'O son of the Prophet who +will be Khalif and Imam after thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'if +thou hadst not found favour in the eyes of God, He would not have shown +thee this child; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is his +patronymic,' (Abu 'l-Qasim). The sect who believe Mahdi to be alive at +present, say that he rules over cities in the far west, and he is even said +to have children. God alone knows the truth.[74] + +The other large division, the Isma'ilians, agree with the Imamites in all +particulars save one. They hold that after Sadiq, the sixth Imam, commenced +what is called the succession of the "concealed Imams." They believe that +there never can be a time when there shall be no Imam, but that he is now +in seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies, +and has paved the way for a mystical religion, which often lands its +votaries in atheism.[75] {81} + +The Ghair-i-Mahdi (literally "without Mahdi") are a small sect who believe +that Al-Mahdi will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad of Jeypore +was the real Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, and that he has now gone never more +to return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, and consider +all other Musalmans to be unbelievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr, +in the month of Ramazan, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. After +that act of devotion is over, they say: "God is Almighty, Muhammad is our +Prophet, the Quran and Mahdi are just and true. Imam Mahdi is come and +gone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel." They are a very fanatical +sect. + +There is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdis called the Da,iri, +settled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point. +About four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some +followers in the dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He called himself the +Imam Mahdi, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and his +disciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmans, fled to a +village in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants, +fifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do not +intermarry with other Musalmans. The usual Friday service in the mosque is +ended by the leader saying: "Imam Mahdi came and went away," to which the +people respond: "He who does not believe this is a Kafir" (infidel). + +There are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. "When of time +one day shall be left, God shall raise up a man from among my descendants, +who shall fill the world with justice, just as before him the world was +full of oppression." And again: "The world shall not come to an end till +the king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my family, and whose +name is the same as mine." When Islam entered upon the tenth century of its +existence, there was throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement. +Men {82} declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons arose +who claimed to be Al-Mahdi. I have already mentioned two. Amongst others +was Shaikh 'Alai of Agra. (956 A.H.) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of +Abu'l-Fazl--the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh +'Alai and from him imbibed Mahdavi ideas. This brought upon him the wrath +of the 'Ulama who, however, were finally overcome by the free-thinking and +heretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a better ruler in India +than Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox Islam is +concerned. The Emperor delighted in the controversies of the age. The Sufis +and Mahdavis were in favour at Court. The orthodox 'Ulama were treated with +contempt. Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He started a +new era, and a new religion called the 'Divine Faith.' There was toleration +for all except the bigoted orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others like +him, who professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all +religions contained truth. Thus:-- + + "O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language + I hear spoken, people praise Thee! + Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee, + Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal.' + If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a + Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee, + Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the + mosque, + But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple." + +In this reign one Mir Sharif was promoted to the rank of a Commander of a +thousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyes +was that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the +close advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmud of Busakhwan, +the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another offshoot of the +Shia'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmud lived in the reign of +Timur and {83} professed to be Al-Mahdi. He also called himself the +Shakhs-i-Wahid--the Individual one. He used to quote the verse, "It may be +that thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmud) station." (Sura +xvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in +purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree, +one Mahmud (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation of +Muhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmud. He also taught +the doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything was +the Nuqtah-i-khak--earth atom. It is on this account that they are called +the Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmudiah and +Wahidiah. Shah 'Abbas king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, but +Akbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to high +offices of State. + +This Mahdavi movement, arising as it did out of the Shia'h doctrine of the +Imamat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and claim the +name and office of Al-Mahdi is not to be wondered at, but that large bodies +of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts, and +how they longed for a personal leader and guide. + +The whole of the Shia'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there is +in the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator--some Word of the +Father, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight it would seem, +as if the doctrine of the Imamat might to some extent reconcile the +thoughtful Shia'h to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and +Mediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect revealer of God's +will; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. The mystic lore +connected with Shia'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and +vigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental part of +the system in its mystical developments, whilst all Shia'hs may lawfully +practise "takia," or religious {84} compromise in their daily lives. It +thus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shia'h may profess, +as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes a +mystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictions +imposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a sin almost, if +not quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of Mahdi is the +good time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the utmost +freedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, becomes +deadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with these +people can hardly credit. The practice of "takia," religious compromise, +and the legality of "muta'h" or temporary marriages, have done much to +demoralise the Shia'h community. The following words of a recent author +descriptive of the Shia'h system are in the main true, though they do not +apply to each individual in that system:-- + + "There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the + hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should + escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme + law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine + as the goal of human existence."[76] + +The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do not +exist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the next +chapter. + +In the doctrine of the Imamat, common to all the offshoots of the Shia'h +sect, is to be found the chief point of difference between the Sunni and +the Shia'h, a difference so great that there is no danger of even a +political union between these two great branches of Islam. I have already +described, too, how the Shia'hs reject the Sunnat, though they do not +reject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by the +recollection--a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of the +Muharram fast--of the sad {85} fate of 'Ali and his sons. The Sunnis are +blamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith, whilst the Khalifs Abu +Bakr, Omar, and Osman are looked upon as usurpers. Not to them was +committed the wonderful ray of light. In the possession of that alone can +any one make good a claim to be the Imam, the Guide of the Believers. The +terrible disorders of the early days of Islam can only be understood when +we realise to some extent the passionate longing which men felt for a +spiritual head--an Imam. It was thought to be impossible that Muhammad, the +last--the seal--of the prophets should leave the Faithful without a guide, +who would be the interpreter of the will of Allah. + +We here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends beyond +the Shia'h sect, and is of some importance in its bearing upon the Eastern +Question. Apart from the superhuman claims for the Imam, what he is as a +ruler to the Shia'h, the Khalif is to the Sunni--the supreme head in Church +and State, the successor of the Prophet, the Conservator of Islam as made +known in the Quran, the Sunnat and the Ijma' of the early Mujtahidin. To +administer the laws, the administrator must have a divine sanction. Thus +when the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered Egypt, (A.D. 1516) he +sought and obtained, from an old descendant of the Baghdad Khalifs, the +transfer of the title to himself, and in this way the Sultans of Turkey +became the Khalifs of Islam. Whether Mutawakal Billal, the last titular +Khalif of the house of 'Abbas, was right or wrong in thus transferring the +title is not my purpose now to discuss. I only adduce the fact to show how +it illustrates the feeling of the need of a Pontiff--a divinely appointed +Ruler. Strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultans are not +Khalifs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that the Khalif (or +the Imam) must be of the tribe of the Quraish, to which the Prophet himself +belonged. + +Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said:--"The Khalifs shall be in the +Quraish tribe as long as there are two {86} persons in it, one to rule and +another to serve."[77] "It is a necessary condition that the Khalif should +be of the Quraish tribe."[78] Such quotations might be multiplied, and they +tend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox Sunnis, other than +the Turks, to rush to the rescue of the Sultan, whilst to the Shia'hs he is +little better than a heretic. Certainly they would never look upon him as +an Imam, which personage is to them in the place of a Khalif. In countries +not under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer for the ruler, said on +Fridays in the mosques, is said for the "ruler of the age," or for the +Amir, or whatever happens to be the title of the head of the State. Of late +years it has become more common in India to say it for the Sultan. This is +not, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, which declares that +the Khutbah can only be said with the permission of the ruler, and as in +India that ruler is the British Government, the prayers should be said for +the Queen. Evidently the law never contemplated large bodies of Musalmans +residing anywhere but where the influence of the Khalif extended. + +In thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by Turkish Sultans +to the Khalifate of Islam, I do not deny that the Law of Islam requires +that there should be a Khalif. Unfortunately for Islam, there is nothing in +its history parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of Church and +State. "The action and re-action of these powerful and partially +independent forces, their resistance to each other, and their ministry to +each other, have been of incalculable value to the higher activity and life +of Christendom." In Islam the Khalif is both Pope and Emperor. Ibn Khaldoun +states that the difference between the Khalif and any other ruler is that +the former rules according to divine, the latter according to human law. +The Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the Khalifs, his +successors, conveyed to {87} them absolute powers. Khalifs can be +assassinated, murdered, banished, but so long as they reign anything like +constitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal mistake in European +politics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultan as the Khalif of +Islam, for, if he be such, Turkey can never take any step forward to +newness of political life.[79] + +This, however, is a digression from the subject of this chapter. + +There has been from the earliest ages of Islam a movement which exists to +this day. It is a kind of mysticism, known as Sufiism. It has been +especially prevalent among the Persians. It is a re-action from the burden +of a rigid law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a thousand +years, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it is the salt of +Islam some fruit should now be seen. But what is Sufiism? The term Sufi is +most probably derived from the Arabic word Suf, "wool," of which material +the garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally made. Some +persons, however, derive it from the Persian, Suf, "pure," or the Greek +[Greek: sophia], "wisdom." Tasawwuf, or Sufiism, is the abstract form of +the word, and is, according to Sir W. Jones, and other learned +orientalists, a figurative mode, borrowed mainly from the Indian +philosophers of the Vedanta school, of expressing the fervour of devotion. +The chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree, but not {88} in +kind, from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, and to which +they will ultimately return. The Spirit of God is in all He has made, and +it in Him. He alone is perfect love, beauty, etc.--hence love to him is the +only _real_ thing; all else is illusion. Sa'di says: "I swear by the truth +of God, that when He showed me His glory all else was illusion." This +present life is one of separation from the beloved. The beauties of nature, +music, and art revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affections +from wandering from Him to other objects. These sublime affections men must +cherish, and by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on God, and so +approximate to His essence, and finally reach the highest stage of +bliss--absorption into the Eternal. The true end and object of human life +is to lose all consciousness of individual existence--to sink "in the ocean +of Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged into the stream on the +surface of which it has for a moment risen."[80] + +Sufis, who all accept Islam as a divinely established religion, suppose +that long before the creation of the world a contract was made by the +Supreme Soul with the assembled world of spirits, who are parts of it. Each +spirit was addressed separately, thus: "Art thou not with thy Lord?" that +is, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they all answered with one +voice, "Yes." + +Another account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) was placed in +the ground in the time of Adam; that the plant {89} came forth in the days +of Noah, was in flower when Abraham was alive and produced fruit before +Moses passed away. The grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time of +Jesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure wine was made from +them. Then those intoxicated with it, having attained to the highest degree +of the knowledge of God, could forget their own personality and +say:--"Praise to me, is there any greater than myself? I am the Truth." + +The following verse of the Quran is quoted by Sufis in support of their +favourite dogma--the attaining to the knowledge of God: "When God said to +the angels, 'I am about to place a viceregent on the earth,' they said: +'Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and shed blood? +Nay; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness.' God answered them, 'Verily I +know that ye wot not of.'" (Sura ii. 28.) It is said that this verse proves +that, though the great mass of mankind would commit abomination, some would +receive the divine light and attain to a knowledge of God. A Tradition +states that David said: "'Oh Lord! why hast Thou created mankind?' God +replied, 'I am a hidden treasure, and I would fain become known.'" The +business of the mystic is to find this treasure, to attain to the Divine +light and the true knowledge of God. + +The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and formal +ritual, and though the seeds of Pantheism were planted in their system from +the first, they maintained that they were orthodox. "Our system of +doctrine," says Al-Junaid, "is firmly bound up with the dogmas of the +faith, the Quran and the Traditions." There was a moral earnestness about +many of these men which frequently restrained the arm of unrighteous power, +and their sayings, often full of beauty, show that they had the power of +appreciating the spiritual side of life. Some of these sentences are worthy +of any age. "As neither meat nor drink," says one, "profit the diseased +body, so no warning avails {90} to touch the heart full of the love of this +world." "The work of a holy man doth not consist in this, that he eats +grain, and clothes himself in wool, but in the knowledge of God and +submission to His will." "Thou deservest not the name of a learned man till +thy heart is emptied of the love of this world." "Hide thy good deeds as +closely as thou wouldst hide thy sins." A famous mystic was brought into +the presence of the Khalif Harun-ur-Rashid who said to him: "How great is +thy abnegation?" He replied, "Thine is greater." "How so?" said the Khalif. +"Because I make abnegation of this world, and thou makest abnegation of the +next." The same man also said: "The display of devotional works to please +men is hypocrisy, and acts of devotion done to please men are acts of +polytheism." + +But towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, this earlier +mysticism developed into Sufiism. Then Al-Hallaj taught in Baghdad thus: "I +am the Truth. There is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, and +He whom I love is I; we are two souls dwelling in one body. When thou seest +me, thou seest Him; and when thou seest Him thou seest me." This roused the +opposition of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Hallaj was condemned to be +worthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalif flogged, tortured and +finally beheaded. Thus died one of the early martyrs of Sufiism, but it +grew in spite of bitter persecution. + +In order to understand the esoteric teaching of Sufiistic poetry, it is +necessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller, the +knowledge of God the goal, the doctrines of this ascent, or upward progress +is the Tarikat, or the road. The extinction of self is necessary before any +progress can be made on that road. A Sufi poet writes:-- + + "Plant one foot upon the neck of self, + The other in thy Friend's domain; + In everything His presence see, + For other vision is in vain." + +{91} + +Sa'di in the Bustan says: "Art thou a friend of God? Speak not of self, for +to speak of God and of self is infidelity." Shaikh Abu'l-Faiz, a great poet +and a friend of the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honourable +title of Malik-ush-Shu'ara--Master of the Poets, says: "Those who have not +closed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage from the +calm of this world and of the world to come." Khusrau, another well-known +poet says:-- + + "I have become Thou: Thou art become I, + I am the body, Thou the soul; + Let no one henceforth say + That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me." + +The fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Sufiistic. It is +difficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of these +writings. Kitman, or the art of hiding from the profane religious beliefs, +often contrary to the revealed law, has always been a special quality of +the East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated.[81] Thus:-- + + "I was, ere a name had been named upon earth; + Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth; + When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign, + And Being was none, save the Presence Divine! + Named and name were alike emanations from Me, + Ere aught that was 'I' existed, or 'We.'" + +The poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace in +Christianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the Parsee. Even Islam gave him +no satisfaction, for-- + + "Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view, + I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone, + Of the globe-girding Kaf[82]:--but the 'Anka[83] had flown! + {92} + The sev'nth heaven I traversed--the sev'nth heaven explored, + But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord! + I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate, + But they whisper'd not where He pavilions His state; + My vision I strain'd; but my God-scanning eye + No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry. + My glance I bent inward; within my own breast, + Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd! + In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd, + _Till each atom of separate being I lost_." + +These are the words of the greatest authority among the Sufis, the famous +Maulana Jelal-ud-din Rumi, founder of the order of the Maulavi Darwishes. +He also relates the following story: "One knocked at the door of the +beloved, and a voice from within said: 'Who is there?' Then he answered, +'_It is I._' The voice replied, 'This house will not hold _me_ and _thee_!' +So the door remained shut. The lover retired to a wilderness, and spent +some time in solitude, fasting, and prayer. One year elapsed, when he again +returned, and knocked at the door. 'Who is there?' said the voice. The +lover answered, '_It is thou._' Then the door was opened." + +The great object of life, then, being to escape from the hindrances to pure +love and to a return to the divine essence, the Talib, or seeker, attaches +himself to a Murshid, or teacher. If he prosecutes his studies according to +Sufiistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders of Darwishes. +After due preparation under his Murshid, he is allowed to enter on the +road. He then becomes a Salik, or traveller, whose business henceforth is +suluk that is, devotion to one idea--the knowledge of God. In this road +there are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve God and obey the +Law for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It is supposed that now the +Divine influence has so attracted his soul that he really loves God. (3) +Seclusion. Love having expelled all worldly desires, he arrives at this +stage, and passes his time in meditation on the deeper doctrines {93} of +Sufiism regarding the Divine nature. (4) Knowledge. The meditation in the +preceding stage, and the investigation of the metaphysical theories +concerning God, His nature, His attributes and the like make him an +'Arif--one who knows. (5) Ecstasy. The mental excitement caused by such +continued meditation on abstruse subjects produces a kind of frenzy, which +is looked upon as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from God. It +is known as Hal--the state; or Wajd--ecstasy. Arrival at this stage is +highly valued, for it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat--the +Truth. Now to the traveller is revealed the true nature of God, now he +learns the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking. This +admits him to the highest stage in his journey, as far as this life is +concerned. (7) That stage is Wasl--union with God. + + "There was a door to which I found no key; + There was a veil past which I could not see: + Some little talk of Me and Thee + There seemed--and then no more of Thee and Me." + +He cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few reach that exalted +stage. Thus arose a "system of Pantheism, which represents joy and sorrow, +good and evil, pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changeless +essence." Religion, as made known by an outward revelation, is, to the few +who reach this stage, a thing of the past. Even its restraints are not +needed. The soul that is united to God can do no evil. The poet Khusrau +says: "Love is the object of my worship, what need have I of Islam?" + +Death ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) It is +Fana--extinction. The seeker after all his search, the traveller after all +his wearisome journey passes behind the veil and finds--nothing! As the +traveller proceeds from stage to stage, the restraints of an objective +revelation and of an outward system are less and less heeded. "The {94} +religion of the mystic consists in his immediate communication with God, +and when once this has been established, the value of ecclesiastical forms, +and of the historical part of religion, becomes doubtful." What law can +bind the soul in union with God, what outward system impose any trammels on +one who, in the "Ecstasy," has received from Him, who is the Truth, the +direct revelation of His own glorious nature? Moral laws and ceremonial +observances have only an allegorical signification. Creeds are but fetters +cunningly devised to limit the flight of the soul; all that is objective in +religion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated.[84] + +Pantheistic in creed, and too often Antinomian in practice, Sufiism +possesses no regenerative power in Islam. "It is not a substantive religion +such as shapes the life of races or of nations, it is a state of opinion." +No Muslim State makes a national profession of Sufiism. + +In spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much that is sublime +in its idea of the search after light and truth, Sufiism ends in utter +negation of all separate existence. The pantheism of the Sufis, this +esoteric doctrine of Islam, as a moral doctrine leads to the same +conclusions as materialism, "the negation of human liberty, the +indifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments." + +The result of Sufiism has been the establishment of a large number of +religious orders known as Darwishes.[85] These men are looked upon with +disfavour by the {95} orthodox; but they flourish nevertheless, and in +Turkey at the present day have great influence. There are in Constantinople +two hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Darwishes are not organized with +such regularity, nor subject to discipline so severe as that of the +Christian Monastic orders; but they surpass them in number. Each order has +its own special mysteries and practices by which its members think they can +obtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible world. They are also +called Faqirs--poor men, not, however, always in the sense of being in +temporal want, but as being poor in the sight of God. As a matter of fact +the Darwishes of many of the orders do not beg, and many of the Takiahs are +richly endowed. They are divided into two great classes, the Ba Shara' +(with the Law) Darwishes; and the Be Shara' (without the Law). The former +prefer to rule their conduct according to the law of Islam and are called +the Salik--travellers on the path (tariqat) to heaven; the latter though +they call themselves Muslims do not conform to the law, and are called Azad +(free), or Majzub (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciation +of all worldly cares and pursuits. + +The Salik Darwishes are those who perform the Zikrs.[86] What little hope +there is of these professedly religious men working any reform in Islam +will be seen from the following account of their doctrines.[87] + +1. God only exists,--He is in all things, and all things are in Him. +"Verily we are _from_ God, and _to_ Him shall we return." (Sura ii. 151.) + +{96} + +2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are not +really distinct from Him. Creation is only a pastime with God. + +3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive religions, are only so +many allegories, the spirit of which is only known to the Sufi. + +4. Religions are matters of indifference; they, however, serve as a means +of reaching to realities. Some, for this purpose, are more advantageous +than others. Among which is the Musalman religion, of which the doctrine of +the Sufis is the philosophy. + +5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, for all is +reduced to unity, and God is the real author of the acts of mankind. + +6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, is not free in his +actions. + +7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined within it as in a +cage. At death the soul returns to the Divinity from which it emanated. + +8. The principal occupation of the Sufi is to meditate on the unity, and so +to attain to spiritual perfection--unification with God. + +9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this unity; but God does +not refuse His aid to those who are in the right path. + +The power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. The following +account of the admission of a Novice, called Tawakkul Beg, into an Order, +and of the severe tests applied, will be of some interest.[88] Tawakkul Beg +says:--"Having been introduced by Akhund Moolla Muhammad to Sheikh Moolla +Shah, my heart, through frequent intercourse with him, was filled with such +a burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical science that +I found no sleep by night, nor rest by day. When the initiation commenced, +{97} I passed the whole night without sleep, and repeated innumerable times +the Surat-ul-Ikhlas:-- + + "Say: He is God alone: + God the eternal: + He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; + And there is none like unto Him." (Sura cxii.) + +Whosoever repeats this Sura one hundred times can accomplish all his vows. +I desired that the Sheikh should bestow on me his love. No sooner had I +finished my task than the heart of the Sheikh became full of sympathy for +me. On the following night I was conducted to his presence. During the +whole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me, whilst I gave +myself up to inward meditation. Three nights passed in this way. On the +fourth night the Sheikh said:--'Let Moolla Senghim and Salih Beg, who are +very susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual energies to +Tawakkul Beg.' + +They did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my face +turned toward Mecca. As the morning drew near, a little light came into my +mind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the morning +prayers, I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of my mental +state. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On hearing +this, the Sheikh became animated and said: 'Thy heart is dark, but the time +is come when I will show myself clearly to thee.' He then ordered me to sit +down in front of him, and to impress his features on my mind. Then having +blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him. I +did so, and in an instant by the spiritual help of the Sheikh my heart +opened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and +another Moolla Shah. The bandage was then removed, and I saw the Sheikh in +front of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him with my inward +eye. Astonished, I cried; 'O master! whether I look with my bodily eye, or +with my spiritual {98} sight, it is always you I see.' I then saw a +dazzling figure approach me. The Sheikh told me to say to the apparition, +'What is your name?' In my spirit I put the question, and the figure +answered to my heart: 'I am 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani, I have already aided +thee, thy heart is opened.' Much affected, I vowed that in honour of the +saint, I would repeat the whole Quran every Friday night. + +Moolla Shah then said: 'The spiritual world has been shown to thee in all +its beauty.' I then rendered perfect obedience to the Sheikh. The following +day I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints and +angels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region in which the +figures appeared no more. During the whole of this time, the Sheikh +continued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and of +the knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality. +It was not until a year had passed that I arrived at the true conception of +unity. Then in words such as these I told the Sheikh of my inspiration. 'I +look upon the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my heart nor my +soul, alas! that in separation from Thee (God) so much of my life has +passed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.' The Sheikh was delighted, and said +that the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed to me. Then +addressing those who were present, he said: 'Tawakkul Beg learnt from me +the doctrine of the Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres of +colours and of images have been shown to him. At length, he entered the +colourless region. He has now attained to the Unity, doubt and scepticism +henceforth have no power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outward +eye, till the inward eye gains strength and power.'" + +I cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few remarks +on Omar Khayyam, the great Astronomer-Poet of Persia. He is sometimes +confounded with the Sufis, for there is much in his poetry which is similar +{99} in tone to that of the Sufi writers. But his true position was that of +a sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has written will live. As an +astronomer he was a man of note. He died in the year 517 A.H. There are two +things which may have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligence +the hard and fast system of Islam was an intolerable burden. Then, his +scientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, the earnest +enthusiasts of which were too often followed by hollow impostors. It is +true, that there was much in the spirit of some of the better Sufis that +seemed to show a yearning for something higher than mere earthly good; +above all, there was the recognition of a Higher Power. But with all this +came spiritual pride, the world and its duties became a thing of evil, and +the religious and the secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin of +both. The Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man's +will to act, for his conscience to guide. So the moral law become a dead +letter. Irreligious men, to free themselves from the bondage and restraints +of law, assumed the religious life. "Thus a movement, animated at first by +a high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill. +The stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has become +a vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged with disease and death." + +Omar Khayyam saw through the unreality of all this. In vain does he try, by +an assumed air of gaiety, to hide from others the sadness which fills his +heart, as all that is bright is seen passing away into oblivion. + + One moment in annihilation's waste, + One moment, of the well of life to taste-- + The stars are setting and the Caravan + Starts for the dawn of nothing--oh, make haste! + + Ah, fill the cup:--what boots it to repeat + How Time is slipping underneath our feet: + Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday, + Why fret about them if To-day be sweet. + +{100} + +Omar held to the earthly and the material. For him there was no spiritual +world. Chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men. A pitiless destiny +shaped out the course of each human being. + + "'Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days + Where destiny with men for pieces plays: + Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, + And one by one back in the closet lays. + + The moving finger writes; and, having writ, + Moves on: nor all thy piety nor wit + Shall lure it back to cancel half a line, + Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it." + +Neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry. With +sages and saints he discussed, and heard, "great argument, but evermore +came out by the same door as in he went." He left the wise to talk, for one +thing alone was certain, and all else was lies,--"the flower that once has +blown for ever dies." Leaving men he turned to nature, but it was all the +same. + + "Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate + I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate, + And many knots unravell'd by the road; + But not the knot of human death and fate. + + And that inverted bowl we call the sky, + Where under crawling coop'd we live and die, + Lift not thy hands to it for help--for it + Rolls impotently on as thou or I." + +Omar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. Both were materialists, +both believed not in a future life. "Lucretius built a system for himself +in his poem ... it has a professed practical aim--to explain the world's +self-acting machine to the polytheist, and to disabuse him of all spiritual +ideas." Omar builds up no system, he only shows forth his own doubts and +difficulties, "he loves to balance antitheses of belief, and settle himself +in the equipoise of the sceptic." {101} + +The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no pain, but Omar who, +if only his reason could let him, would believe, records his utter despair +in words of passionate bitterness. He is not glad that there is no help +anywhere.[89] And though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to the +voice within the tavern cry, + + "Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup + Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry," + +yet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted with those who +professed to know, and could say: + + "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow, + And with my own hand laboured it to grow." + +The founder of the Wahhabi sect was Muhammad-ibn-Abd-ul-Wahhab, who was +born at a village in Nejd in the year 1691 A.D. The Wahhabis speak of +themselves as Muwahhid--Unitarians; but their opponents have given to them +the name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them Wahhabis. +Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, of a strong constitution and +generous spirit. After going through a course of Arabic literature he +studied jurisprudence under a teacher of the Hanifi school. He then set out +in company with his father to perform the Hajj. At Madina he received +further instruction in the Law. He spent sometime at Ispahan in the society +of learned men. Full of {102} knowledge, he returned to his native village +of Ayina where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He was +shocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what seemed to him the +strict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. Luxury in the form of rich +dresses and silken garments, superstition in the use of omens, auguries, +and the like, in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be altering +the character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. He saw, or +thought he saw, that in the veneration paid to saints and holy men, the +great doctrine of the "Unity" was being obscured. The reason was very +plain. The Quran and the Traditions of the Companions had been neglected, +whilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the jurisprudence of the four +great Imams had been too readily followed. Here was work to do. He would +reform the Church of Islam, and restore men to their allegiance to the Book +and the Sunnat, as recorded by the Companions. It is true, that the Sunnis +would rise up in opposition, for thus the authority of the four Imams, the +"Canonical Legists" of the orthodox sect, would be set aside; but what of +that? Had he not been a follower of Abu Hanifa? Now he was prepared to let +Aba Hanifa go, for none but a Companion of the Prophet could give an +authoritative statement with regard to the Sunnat--the Prophet's words and +acts. He must break a lance with the glorious Imam, and start a school of +his own. + +He said: "The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the Prophet, and the +sepulchre of 'Ali, and of other saints who have died in the odour of +sanctity. They run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers. By +this means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporal +needs, From what do they seek this benefit? From walls made of mud and +stones, from corpses deposited in tombs. If you speak to them they will +reply, 'We do not call these monuments God; we turn to them in prayer, and +we pray the saints to intercede for us on high.' Now, the true {103} way of +salvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is ever present, and to +venerate Him--the one without associate or equal." Such outspoken language +raised up opposition, and he had to seek the protection of +Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now vigorously supported +the Wahhabi movement. He was a stern and uncompromising man. "As soon as +you seize a place," he said to his soldiers, "put the males to the sword. +Plunder and pillage at your pleasure, but spare the women and do not strike +a blow at their modesty." On the day of battle he used to give each soldier +a paper, a safe conduct to the other world. This letter was addressed to +the Treasurer of Paradise. It was enclosed in a bag which the warrior +suspended to his neck. The soldiers were persuaded that the souls of those +who died in battle would go straight to heaven, without being examined by +the angels Munkar and Nakir in the grave. The widows and orphans of all who +fell were supported by the survivors. Nothing could resist men who, fired +with a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth, received a share of the +booty, if conquerors; who went direct to Paradise if they were slain. In +course of time, Muhammad-Ibn-Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahhab +and founded the Wahhabi dynasty which to this day rules at Ryadh.[90] + +Such was the origin of this great movement, which spread, in course of +time, over Central and Eastern Arabia, and in the beginning of this century +found acceptance in India. In the year 1803 A.D. both Mecca and Madina fell +into the hands of the Wahhabis. A clean sweep was made of all things, the +use of which was opposed to Wahhabi principles. Not only rosaries and +charms, but silk robes and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smoking +is a {104} deadly sin. On this point there is a good story told by +Palgrave--"'Abd-ul-Karim said: 'The first of the great sins is the giving +divine honours to a creature.' Of course I replied, 'The enormity of such a +sin is beyond all doubt. But if this be the first, there must be a second; +what is it?' 'Drinking the shameful!' (in English idiom, 'smoking tobacco') +was the unhesitating answer. 'And murder, and adultery, and false witness?' +I suggested. 'God is merciful and forgiving,' rejoined my friend; that is, +these are merely little sins."[91] + +After holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were driven +out by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, the fourth Wahhabi ruler, was +captured by Ibrahim Pasha, and afterwards executed in the square of St. +Sophia (1818 A.D.) The political power of the Wahhabis has since been +confined to parts of Arabia; but their religious opinions have widely +spread. + +The leader of the Wahhabi movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, a reformed +freebooter. He was now born at Rai Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 A.D. When about +thirty years of age he gave up his wild way of living and settled down in +Delhi as a student of the Law of Islam. After a while, he went on +pilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, so similar to those of the noted +Wahhabi, attracted the attention of the orthodox theologians, through whose +influence he was expelled from the sacred city. Persecution deepened his +religious convictions, and he returned to India a pronounced Wahhabi. He +soon gained a large number of disciples, and in 1826 A.D. he preached a +Jihad against the Sikhs. This war was not a success. In the year 1831 the +Wahhabis were suddenly attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and Sayyid +Ahmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the spread of Wahhabi +principles, for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an enthusiastic +disciple. This man, {105} Muhammad Isma'il, was born near Delhi in the year +1781 A.D. He was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjects +which form the curriculum of a liberal education amongst Musalmans. His +first preaching was in a Mosque at Delhi on Tauhid (Unity), and against +Shirk (Polytheism). He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired great +influence over his new disciple. Isma'il told him one evening that he could +not offer up his prayers with Huzur-i-Kalb, presence of heart. The Sayyid +took him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first of the +prayers after him, and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and was able +to so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he remained engaged +in prayer till the morning. Henceforward he was a devoted adherent of his +spiritual teacher. In the public discussions, which now often took place, +none were a match for Isma'il. This fervent preacher of Wahhabiism is now +chiefly remembered by his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Iman, the book from +which the account of Wahhabi doctrine given in this chapter is taken. If I +make no special reference to the quotations given, it will be known that my +authority for the statements thus made is Muhammad Isma'il, the most famous +of all Sayyid Ahmad's disciples. This book was followed by the +Sirat-ul-Mustaqim, said to have been written by one of Isma'il's followers. +Wahhabi doctrines are now spread throughout India. In the South there is +not much religious excitement or inquiry, yet Wahhabis are to be found +there.[92] It was and is a remarkable movement. In one sense it is a +struggle against the traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense can it +be said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. They acknowledge as the +foundation of the faith--first, the Quran; secondly, the Traditions which +are recorded on the authority of the Companions, and also the Ijma' of the +Companions, that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion +{106} or in practice. Thus to the Wahhabi as to the Sunni, Muhammad is in +all his _acts_ and _words_ a perfect guide. + +So far from Wahhabiism being a move onward because it is a return to first +principles, it rather binds the fetters of Islam more tightly. It does not +originate anything new, it offers no relaxation from a system which looks +upon the Quran and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law, social and +political, moral and religious. + +The Wahhabi places the doctrine of the "Tauhid," or Unity, in a very +prominent position. It is true that all Musalman sects put this dogma in +the first rank, but Wahhabis set their faces against practices common to +the other sects, because they consider that they obscure this fundamental +doctrine. It is this which brings them into collision with other Musalmans. +The greatest of all sins is Shirk (_i.e._ the ascribing of plurality to the +Deity). A Mushrik (Polytheist) is one who so offends. All Musalmans +consider Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhabis consider all other +Musalmans also to be Polytheists, because they look to the Prophet for +intercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, and do other unlawful acts. + +The Takwiat-ul-Iman says that "two things are necessary in religion--to +know God as God, and the Prophet as the Prophet." The two fundamental bases +of the faith are the "Doctrine of the Tauhid (Unity) and obedience to the +Sunnat." The two great errors to be avoided are Shirk (Polytheism) and +Bida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked upon as evil, it is somewhat +difficult to see what hope of progress can be placed upon this latest phase +of Muhammadan revival. + +Shirk is defined to be of four kinds: Shirk-ul-'Ilm, ascribing knowledge to +others than God; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, ascribing power to others than God; +Shirk-ul-'Ibadat, offering worship to created things; Shirk-ul-'adat, the +performance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others than God. {107} + +The first, Shirk-ul-'Ilm, is illustrated by the statement that prophets and +holy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as revealed to them by +God. Thus some wicked persons made a charge against 'Ayesha. The Prophet +was troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of the matter till God made it +known to him. To ascribe, then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, and +saints is Polytheism. "All who pretend to have a knowledge of hidden +things, such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers and interpreters of dreams, as +well as those who profess to be inspired are all liars." Again, "should any +one take the name of any saint, or invoke his aid in the time of need, +instead of calling on God, or use his name in attacking an enemy, or read +passages to propitiate him, or make him the object of contemplation--it is +Shirk-ul-'Ilm." + +The second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that any one has power +with God. He who looks up to any one as an intercessor with God commits +Shirk. Thus: "But they who take others beside Him as lords, saying, 'We +only serve them that they may bring us near God,'--God will judge between +them (and the Faithful) concerning that wherein they are at variance." +(Sura xxxix. 4.) Intercession may be of three kinds. For example, a +criminal is placed before the King. The Vizier intercedes. The King, having +regard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. This is called +Shafa'at-i-Wajahat, or 'intercession from regard.' But to suppose that God +so esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of +it is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes intercede for the criminal. +The King, from love to them, pardons him. This is called +Shafa'at-i-muhabbat, or 'intercession from affection.' But to consider that +God so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his account is to give that +loved one power, and this is Shirk, for such power is not possible in the +Court of God. "God may out of His bounty confer on His favourite servants +the epithets of Habib--favourite, or Khalil--friend, {108} &c.; but a +servant is but a servant, no one can put his foot outside the limits of +servitude, or rise beyond the rank of a servant." Again, the King may +himself wish to pardon the offender, but he fears lest the majesty of the +law should be lowered. The Vizier perceives the King's wish, and +intercedes. This intercession is lawful. It is called +Shafa'at-i-ba-izn--intercession by permission, and such power Muhammad will +have at the day of Judgment. Wahhabis hold that he has not that power now, +though all other Musalmans consider that he has, and in consequence (in +Wahhabi opinion) commit the sin of Shirk-ut-tasarruf. The Wahhabis quote +the following passages in support of their view. "Who is he that can +intercede with Him but by _His own permission_." (Sura ii. 256) "Say: +Intercession is wholly with God! His the kingdoms of the heavens and of the +earth." (Sura xxxix. 46). They also say: "whenever an allusion is made in +the Quran, or the Traditions to the intercession of certain prophets or +apostles, it is this kind of intercession and no other that is meant." + +The third Shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea of +worshipping it. It also includes perambulating the shrines of departed +saints. Thus: "Prostration, bowing down, standing with folded arms, +spending money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect to his +memory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling out +the name of the saint whilst so going is Shirk-ul-'Ibadat." It is wrong "to +cover the grave with a sheet (ghilaf), to say prayers at the shrine, to +kiss any particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast against the walls of +the shrine, &c." This is a stern condemnation of the very common practice +of visiting the tombs of saints and of some of the special practices of the +pilgrimage to Mecca. All such practices as are here condemned are called +Ishrak fi'l 'Ibadat--'association in worship.' + +The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs, such as the +Istikhara--seeking guidance from beads {109} &c., trusting to omens, good +or bad, believing in lucky and unlucky days, adopting such names as +'Abd-un-Nabi (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the denouncing of +such practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhabiism into daily contact +with the other sects, for scarcely any people in the world are such +profound believers in the virtue of charms and the power of astrologers as +Musalmans. The difference between the first and fourth Shirk, the +Shirk-ul-'Ilm and the Shirk-ul-'adat, seems to be that the first is the +_belief_, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the second the _habit_ +of consulting him. + +To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'Ali, of the Imams, or of Pirs +(Leaders) is to give them the honour due to God alone. It is Ishrak fi'l +adab--'Shirk in association.' + +Another common belief which Wahhabis oppose is that Musalmans can perform +the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), say prayers, read the Quran, abide in +meditation, give alms, and do other good works, the reward of which shall +be credited to a person already dead.[93] Amongst other Musalmans it is a +common practice to read the Quran in the belief that, if done with such an +intention, the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire. +Wahabis entirely object to this. + +The above technical exposition of Wahhabi tenets shows how much stress they +lay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the "Unity." "La-il-laha, +Il-lal-la-hu" (there is no God but God) is an eternal truth. Yet to the +Musalman God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood of God he has +accepted as the object of his worship, hardly of his affections, a Being +despotic in all He does, arbitrary in all His ways. He has accepted the +position of a slave instead of that of a son. Wahhabiism emphasizes the +ideas which flow from the first article of the Muslim creed. But {110} on +this subject we prefer to let Palgrave speak. He of all men knew the +Wahhabi best, and he, at least, can be accused of no sectarian bias. The +extract is rather long, but will repay perusal; indeed, the whole passage +from which this extract is taken should be read. + + "'There is no God but God,' are words simply tantamount in English to + the negation of any deity save one alone; and thus much they certainly + mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. Their full sense is, not + only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of + nature or of person in the Supreme Being, not only to establish the + unity of the Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in all its simple and + incommunicable oneness, but besides this, the words, in Arabic and + among Arabs, imply that this one Supreme Being is the only Agent, the + only Force, the only Act existing throughout the universe, and leave to + all beings else, matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical + or moral, nothing but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement + or in quiescence, in action or in capacity. Hence in this one sentence + is summed up a system which, for want of a better name, I may be + permitted to call the 'Pantheism of Force.' 'God is One in the totality + of omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, + standard, or limit, save one sole and absolute will. He communicates + nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain + His alone, and in return He receives nothing from them.' 'It is His + singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they + are nothing else than His slaves, that they may the better acknowledge + His superiority.' 'He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, + neither loving nor enjoying aught save His own and self-measured + decree, without son, companion, or councillor, is no less barren for + Himself than for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone egoism + in Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregarding + despotism around.'[94] + +Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous, but maintains +that it is the "truest mirror of the mind and scope of the writer of the +Book" (Quran), and that, as such, it is confirmed by authentic Tradition +and learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave possessed {111} the two +essential qualifications for a critic of Islam--a knowledge of the +literature, and intercourse with the people. So far as my experience goes I +have never seen any reason to differ from Palgrave's statement. Men are +often better than their creeds. Even the Prophet was not always consistent. +There are some redeeming points in Islam. But the root idea of the whole is +as described above, and from it no system can be deduced which will grow in +grace and beauty as age after age rolls by. + +The Arab proverb states that "The worshipper models himself on what he +worships."[95] Thus a return to "first principles," sometimes proclaimed as +the hope of Turkey, is but the "putting back the hour-hand of Islam" to the +place where indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for + + "Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. + Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme + Original in all that constitutes true life--for life is love, + participation, and progress, and of these the Quranic Deity has + none--it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all + development."[96] + +Muhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahhab was a man of great intellectual power and +vigour. He could pierce through the mists of a thousand years, and see with +an eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith. He +had the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change (Bida't) and +progress were alien to the truth. This recognition of his ability is due to +him; but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest, by +the worship of the letter, all hope of progress, and to make "the +starting-point of Islam its goal." That he was a good Musalman in so doing +no one can doubt, but that his work gives any hope of the rise of an +enlightened form of Islam no one who really has studied Islam can believe. + +Wahhabiism simply amounts to this, that while it denounces all other +Musalmans as polytheists, it enforces the {112} Sunnat of the Prophet with +all its energy.[97] It breaks down shrines, but insists on the necessity of +a pilgrimage to a black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, but +attaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of God on the +fingers. It would make life unsocial. The study of the Fine Arts with the +exception of Architecture can find no place in it. Isma'il quotes with +approval the following Tradition. "'Ayesha said: 'I purchased a carpet on +which were some figures. The Prophet stood in the doorway and looked +displeased.' I said: 'O messenger of God, I repent to God and His +Messenger; what fault have I committed that you do not enter?' His Highness +then said: 'What is this carpet?' I replied; 'I have bought it for you to +sit and rest upon.' Then the messenger of God replied: 'Verily, the maker +of pictures will be punished on the day of resurrection, when God will +desire them to bring them to life. A house which contains pictures is not +visited by the angels.'" In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbas, the Prophet +classes artists with murderers and parricides. Wahhabiism approves of all +this, and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society "an +organised hypocrisy." It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for all +mankind except its own followers, and, where it had the power, it would +force its convictions on others at the point of the sword. + +Wahhabiism was reform after a fashion, in one direction; in the history of +Islam there have been attempts at reform in other directions; there will +yet be such attempts, but so long as the Quran and the Sunnat (or, in the +case of the Shia'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have hitherto +{113} done for every sect, the sole law to regulate all conditions and +states of life, enlightened and continued progress is impossible. The +deadening influence of Islam is the greatest obstacle the Church of God has +to overcome in her onward march; its immobility is the bane of many lands; +connection with it is the association of the living with the dead; to speak +of it, as some do, as if it were a sort of sister religion to Christianity, +is but to show deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus it +is plain that Musalmans are not all of one heart and soul.[98] In the next +chapter I hope to show that Islam is a very dogmatic and complex system in +spite of the simple form of its creed. + +{114} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER III. + + WAHHABIISM. + + In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Serie, tome 11, a curious account is + given of the voyage of Mirza Muhammad 'Ali Khan, some time Persian + Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one of his voyages + from Persia to India he met with a Wahhabi, who had in his possession a + tract written by the founder of the sect. This small pamphlet he + allowed Mirza Muhammad to copy. I give the substance of the pamphlet in + this note. The original Arabic will be found in the Journal Asiatique. + It is of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as + follows:--I know that God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanifa is + orthodox and identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast + known that God has created His servants for the purpose of being served + by them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, One + and alone; just as prayer (Salat) is not prayer (Salat), unless it is + accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said: "It is + not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against + themselves of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These! vain + their works: and in the fire shall they abide for ever!" (Sura ix. 17.) + + Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the hope of + obtaining by them that which God alone can give--those bring unto their + prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect, "and who + erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth upon that which shall not + answer him until the day of resurrection." (Sura xlvi. 4) On the + contrary, when the day of resurrection comes, they will become their + enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than God. + "But the gods whom ye call on beside Him have no power over the husk of + a date-stone! If ye cry to them they will not hear your cry; and if + they heard they would not answer you, and in the day of resurrection + they will disown your joining them with God." (Sura xxxv. 14,15.) + + He who says: "O thou Prophet of God! O 'Ibn 'Abbas! O 'Abd-ul-Qadir!" + &c. with the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can obtain + from God that of which the suppliant has need, or that they can protect + him, is an infidel whose blood any one may shed, and whose goods any + one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent. There are four + different classes of idolaters. + + {115} + + First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These + acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports all + living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. "Say: who supplieth + you from the heavens and the earth? who hath power over hearing and + sight? and who bringeth forth the living from the dead, and bringeth + forth the dead from the living? who ruleth all things? they will surely + say: 'God,' then say: 'What! will ye not therefore fear Him.'" (Sura x. + 32.) It is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an + outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray; for they have recourse to + divinities of their own choosing and pray to them. + + Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these + intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, and that + what they desire they seek from God. The Quran furnishes a proof + against them. "They worship beside God what cannot hurt or help them, + and say, these are our advocates with God! say: will ye inform God of + aught in the heavens and in the earth which He knoweth not?" (Sura x. + 19.) + + Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, or + rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become attached to + one saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves under the + protection of Guardian Angels. Against them we cite the verse: "Those + whom ye call on, themselves desire union with their Lord, striving + which of them shall be nearest to Him; they also hope for His mercy, + and fear His chastisement." (Sura xvii. 59.) We see here that the + Prophet drew no distinction between the worship of an idol and the + worship of such and such a saint; on the contrary, he treated them all + as infidels, and made war upon them in order to consolidate the + religion of God upon a firm basis. + + Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, but + at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus: "Lo! when they + embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him sincere worship, + but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold they join partners with + Him." (Sura xxix. 65.) + + In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The + idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divinities + when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time were + less culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, had + recourse to God in time of great evil; these in good and evil states, + seek the aid of their patrons, other than God, and pray to them. + +{116} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CREED OF ISLAM.[99] + +Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as: "Confession with the tongue and +belief with the heart."[100] It is said to "stand midway between hope and +fear." It is sub-divided into Iman-i-mujmal and Iman-i-mufassal. The former +is an expression of the following faith: "I believe in God, His names and +attributes, and accept all His commands."[101] The latter is the acceptance +of the following dogmas: "I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the +Last Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and the +Resurrection after death."[102] These form the articles of faith which +every Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it perfect, +he must add the performance of the "acts of practice," _viz._: (1) "The +recital of the Kalima or creed:--'There is no deity but God, and Muhammad +is the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulat. The five daily prayers. (3) Roza. The +thirty days fast of Ramazan. (4) Zakat. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the +pilgrimage to Mecca." This chapter will contain an account of the Iman--the +dogmas of Islam. An account of the Din--the practical duties, will be given +in the next chapter. {117} + +1. GOD.--This article of the faith includes a belief in the existence of +God, His unity and attributes, and has given rise to a large number of +sects. Some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thus +arisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of Islam. I commence the +consideration of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunni, or +orthodox treatise known as the Risala-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M. +Garcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such authority that in his +"L'Islamisme d'apres le Coran" he has inserted a translation of the +Risala.[103] Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes, +says:-- + + (1). Life. (Hyat). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither + associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He + is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without + figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor + end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a + moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant. + Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or + that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from + whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the + irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if + all Believers became Infidels, He would suffer no loss. + + (2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or + manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the + leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past + and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man + and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He + has revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from + forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is + not posterior to His essence. + + (3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the + dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the + earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those + destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to + the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His + power is eternal a priori and a posteriori. It is not posterior to His + essence. + + {118} + + (4). Will (Iradah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills + comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in + this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and + the piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would + be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the + unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and, + without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All + we do we do by His will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If + one should ask why God does not will that all men should believe we + answer: "We have no right to enquire about what God wills and does. He + is perfectly free to will and to do what He pleases." In creating + unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in + making serpents, scorpions and pigs: in willing, in short, all that is + evil God has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should + know. We must acknowledge that the will of God is eternal and that it + is not posterior to His essence. + + (5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He + hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men. + + (6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant + on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have. + + (7). Speech. (Kalam). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He + speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another, + even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the + ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of + Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates His will to + the prophets. It follows from this that the Quran is the word of God, + and is eternal and uncreated. + +These are the "haft sifat," or seven attributes of God. There is unanimity +of opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards their nature +and the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain. +Thus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to acquire; but +Imam Shafa'i and the Mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the +_idea_ of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the expression "Knowledge of +God" is the ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positive +and privative attributes, as far as the human understanding can enter into +these matters. The unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute, for +the number one is the first of a series and implies a second, but God has +not a {119} second. He is "singular without anything like Him, separate +having no equal;" for, "had there been either in heaven or earth gods +beside God, both surely had gone to ruin." (Sura xxi. 22). God is not a +substance, for substance has accidents, but God has none: otherwise His +nature would be that of "dependent existence." God is without parts, for +otherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed, and His +existence would depend on the parts, that is, on something beside Himself. + +The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, for +say they, "just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds +darkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding finds +itself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God." The +Prophet said: "We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;" and +to his followers he gave this advice: "Think of God's gifts, not of His +nature: certainly you have no power for that." The Khalif Akbar is reported +to have said: "to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge and +to enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity)."[104] A moderate +acquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of the +Prophet nor the warning of the Khalif has been heeded. + +According to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers, +enquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. The +Prophet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of +salvation and had taught them:-- + + "Say: He is God alone: + God the eternal! + He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; + And there is none like unto Him." (Sura cxii) + +This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. God is +far beyond the reach of the human {120} understanding. He alone embraces +all in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their own +perceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator +Muhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, and knowing +better than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both what they ought +to believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men must exercise +their reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divine +attributes.[105] + +Dogma is divided into two portions, usul and faru'--(_i.e._, roots and +branches.) The former include the doctrine about God; the latter, as the +name implies, consist of truths which result from the acceptance of the +former. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the "faru'," +for the usul being founded on the Quran and Sunnat have an objective basis. + +Differences of opinion about various branches of the "faru'," led to +discussions which did not stop there but went on to the "usul," and so +paved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalam.) I have +already in the chapter on the exegesis of the Quran explained the +difference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashabih +(intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of the +present subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into detail. + +The question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of the +3rd Sura: "He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book.' Some of its +signs are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of the +{121} Book--and others are figurative (mutashabih.) But they whose hearts +are given to err, follow its figures, craving discord, craving an +interpretation; yet none knoweth its interpretation but God. And the stable +in knowledge say, 'We believe in it: it is all from our Lord.' But none +will bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding." Here it is +clearly stated (1) that no one except God can know the interpretation of +mutashabih verses, and (2) that wise men though they know not their +interpretation, yet believe them all. Many learned men, however, say that +the full stop should not be placed after the word "God" but after +"knowledge," and so this portion of the verse would read thus: "None +knoweth its interpretation but God and the stable in knowledge. They say: +'we believe, &c.'" On this slight change in punctuation, which shows that +the 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashabih verses, opposite +schools of theology have arisen in Islam. + +The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects +which all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In the early +days of Islam it was held that all parts of the Quran, except the muhkam +verses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashabih; that is, all +verses which related to the attributes of God, to the existence of angels +and genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the period and signs of the day +of judgment, and generally all matters which are beyond the daily +experience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there be no +discussion on them,[106] but no attempt should be made to understand or act +on them. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, says: "One must believe the mutashabih +verses, but not take them for a rule of conduct." Ibn Jubair was once {122} +asked to put the meaning of the Quran into writing. He became angry and +said: "I should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so."[107] +'Ayesha said: "Avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of the +Quran, for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 'whose +hearts are given to err.'" + +The first reading is the one adopted by the Ashab, the Tabi'in and the +Taba-i-Tabi'in and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnis +generally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-din Razi (A.H. +544-606), the Shafa'i sect are of the same opinion. + +Those who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujahid (died A.H. +101), Rabi' bin Ans and others. The scholastic theologians[108] +(Mutakalliman) generally adopt the latter reading.[109] They argued thus: +how could men believe what they did not know; to which their opponents +answered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing here +praised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the Quran was sent +to be a guide and direction to men, were not all its verses muhkam? The +answer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One kind +was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that the +meaning might be at once apparent, the other was to speak in figurative +language. Now, if the Quran had not contained both these styles of +composition, it could not have claimed the position it does as a book +absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.[110] + +Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now pass on +to the consideration of the attributes. + +{123} The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, for +without these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing, +Seeing, Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the +"Sifat-i-Sabutiah," or affirmative attributes, the privation of which would +imply loss; there are also Sifat-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, such +as--God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, &c. The acts of +sitting, rising, descending, the possession of face, hands, eyes, &c., +being connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfection +and apparently contradict the doctrine of "exemption" (tenzih) according to +which God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the creatures He has +made. This was a difficulty, but the four great Imams all taught that it +was impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions were +mutashabih. "The Imam Hanbal and other early divines followed in the path +of the early Muslims and said: 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, and +do not desire explanations. We know that the High God is not to be compared +to any created object: nor any creature with Him.'"[111] Imam As-Shafa'i +said that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake, +and carried about, and that the following proclamation should be made +before him: "This is the reward of him who left the Quran and the +Traditions for the study of scholastic theology." Imam Hanbal says: +"Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Quran the words, 'I have +created with my hand,' ought to have his hand cut off; and whoever +stretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heart +of the believer is between two fingers of the Merciful,' deserves to have +his finger cut off." At-Tirmizi when consulted about the statement of the +Prophet that God had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said: +"The descent is intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein +{124} is obligatory; and the asking about it is a blameable innovation." +But all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed. + +The two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether the +attributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of His +essence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not. + +The two leading Sects were the Sifatians (or Attributists) and the +Mutazilites. The Sifatians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taught +that the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence without +separation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life with +knowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashabih +verses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show a +resemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not attempt +to give the meaning of the terms, "hands, eyes, face, &c.," when applied to +God. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course of time, as will be +seen, differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions of +this sect. + +The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifatians. They rejected +the idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the formal +attribute of the essence of God. "If," said they, "we admit the eternal +existence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of +eternal existences." They also rejected the attributes of hearing, seeing +and speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences. They +looked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions, and not as having +a real existence in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphatically +the Free thinkers of Islam. The origin of the sect was as follows: Al +Hasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in the Mosque at Basra when a +discussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortal +sin became thereby an unbeliever. The Kharigites (Ante p. 76) {125} +affirmed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, though +guilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.[112] +One of the scholars Wasil Ibn Ata, (who was born at Madina A.H. 80), then +rose up and said: "I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin +should be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as +occupying a middle station between the two." He then retired to another +part of the Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and +others. They resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katada, entering +the Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party in +which Al Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila).' Al Hasan +soon expelled them from his school. Wasil then founded a school of his own +of which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head. + +Wasil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same degree of +punishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question of +_degrees_ of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of man's +responsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him into +conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that again +to the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the eternity of +the Quran, and of the divine attributes. His followers rejected the +doctrine of the "divine right" of the Imam, and held that the entire body +of the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, who need +not necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill that office. The +principles of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear on +the precepts of religion. According to Shahrastani the Mutazilites hold:-- + + "That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of His + essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as + distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to {126} + His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not + through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal + attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence, + otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the + Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities." + + "They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the province + of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld with + the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything else + is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that + Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according + to them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the + ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates." + + "Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human + actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men + are the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and + forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At + the same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and + he who works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all + knowledge is attained through reason, and must necessarily be so + obtained. They hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within + the province of reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong + until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction; and that + thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by + reason, even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject. They + also maintain that man has perfect freedom; is the author of his + actions both good and evil, and deserves reward or punishment hereafter + accordingly." + +During the reigns of the 'Abbasside Khalifs Mamun, Mutasim and Wathik +(198-232 A.H.) at Baghdad, the Mutazilites were in high favour at Court, +Under the 'Abbasside dynasty[113] the ancient Arab Society was +revolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State; +Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered bitter +persecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. The +Khalif Wathik at length relented. {127} An old man, heavily chained, was +one day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained permission to put +a few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud, a Mutazilite and the President of +the Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue took place. "Ahmad," said +the prisoner, "what is the dogma which you desire to have established." +"That the Quran is created," replied Ahmad. "This dogma, then, is without +doubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that the latter cannot +without it be said to be complete?" "Certainly." "Has the Apostle of God +taught this to men or has he left them free?" "He has left them free." "Was +the Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not?" "He was acquainted +with it." "Wherefore, then, do you desire to impose a belief regarding +which the Apostle of God has left men free to think as they please?" Ahmad +remaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, "O Prince of +Believers, here is my first position made good." Then turning to Ahmad, he +said, "God has said, 'This day have I perfected religion for you, and have +filled up the measures of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that +Islam be your religion.' (Sura v. 5). But according to you Islam is not +perfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Quran is created. Which +now is most worthy of credence--God, when He declares Islam to be complete +and perfect, or you when you announce the contrary?" Ahmad was still +silent. "Prince of Believers," said the old man, "there is my second point +made good." He continued, "Ahmad, how do you explain the following words of +God in His Holy Book?--'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down to +thee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed His +message at all.' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the +Faithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?" +Ahmad remained silent. The old man resumed, "Prince of Believers, such is +my third argument." Then turning to Ahmad he said: "If the Prophet was +acquainted with the doctrine {128} which you desire to impose upon us, had +he the right to pass by it in silence?" "He had the right." "And did the +same right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'Ali?" "It did," "Prince +of Believers," said the prisoner, "God will, in truth, be severe on us, if +He deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet and his +Companions." The Khalif assented, and at once restored the old man to +liberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever +had to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriers +of traditionalism.[114] The next Khalif, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious and +cruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued a +fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Quran was created was an +utter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against Christians, Jews, +Shia'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud was one of the first to be +disgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished. + +The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalif but a +little later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'ari (270-340 A.H.) + +The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdad, still flourished at Basra +where one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Ali Al-Jubbai, a +Mutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'ari propounded +the following case to his master: "There were three brothers, one of whom +was a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an infidel, a debauchee +and a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all died. What became of +them?" Al-Jubbai answered: "The virtuous brother holds a high station in +Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is among +those who have obtained salvation." {129} "Suppose now," said Al-Ash'ari, +"that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuous +brother, would he be allowed to do so?" "No," replied Al-Jubbai, "it would +be said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this place through His numerous +works of obedience to God, and thou hast no such works to set forward.'" +"Suppose then," said Al-Ash'ari, "that the child should say: 'this is not +my fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither did you give me the +means of proving my obedience.'" "In that case," said Al-Jubbai, "the +Almighty would say: 'I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldest +have been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell: I acted, +therefore, for thy advantage.'" "Well," said Al-Ash'ari, "and suppose the +infidel brother were here to say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thou +knowest what awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me; why then +didst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine?'"[115] Al-Jubbai was +silent, though very angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that the +Mutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false, and that God elects some for +mercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing with +his teacher on this point, he soon began to find other points of +difference, and soon announced his belief that the Quran was not created. +This occurred on a Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair +he cried out in a loud voice: "They who know me know who I am; as for those +who do not know me I shall tell them; I am 'Ali Ibn Isma'il Al-Ash'ari, and +I used to hold that the Quran was created, that the eyes (of men) shall not +see God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, I +have returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take the +engagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy and +turpitude."[116] + +He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of {130} thought of +his own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'arian +doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifatians of which sect +Al-Ash'ari's disciples form a branch. The Ash'arians hold-- + +(i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such +a way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures. +They say they are not "_'ain_ nor _ghair_:" not of His essence, nor +distinct from it: _i.e.,_ they cannot be compared with any other things. + +(ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the good +and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on +the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the +Sifatians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they +say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot +create anything new for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they +say that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a man +desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the +desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to +the desire." Thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of the +man, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) because +it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to +the obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: the term is, therefore, +inapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillani, a disciple of Al-Ash'ari, +says: "The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of +God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of +disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which +proceed from the power of man." The Imam Al-Haramain (419-478 A.H.) held +"that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created +in man." Abu Ishaq al Isfarayain says: "That which maketh impression, or +hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power +of man." {131} + +(iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge +that the vocal sounds used in the Quran, which is the manifestation of that +word, are created. They say, in short, that the Quran contains (1) the +eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2) +the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. This last +they call the created word. + +Thus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying +that man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of good +and evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed. He +has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of +God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will be +rewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach +God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the +actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not +cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law.[117] + +The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifatians need not +be entered into at any length. + +The Mushabihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the mutashabih +verses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God and His +creatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of ascending, +descending, &c. These they called "declarative attributes." The +Mujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be corporeal, by which some +of them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the Deity to +be finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics. + +{132} + +The Jabrians gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man, and +thus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadrians, that is, +they deny "Al-Kadr," God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free will in +man. + +These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. The +Sunnis follow the teaching of Al-Ash'ari, whilst the Shi'ahs incline to +that of the Mutazilites. + +Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the names to +be used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the names "The +Living, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker," &c., +are to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is that all such names +must be "tauqifi," that is dependent on some revelation. Thus it is not +lawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of His attributes, unless +there is some statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize it. +God is rightly called Shafi (Healer), but He cannot be called Tabib which +means much the same thing, for the simple reason that the word Tabib is +never applied in the Quran or the Traditions to God. In like manner the +term 'Alim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Aqil (Wise). The +Mutazilites say that if, in the Quran or Traditions, there is any praise of +an attribute, then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute can +be applied to God even though the actual word does not occur in any +revelation. Al-Ghazzali (A.H. 450-505), who gave in the East the death-blow +to the Muslim philosophers, says: "The names of God not given in the Law, +if expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as expressive of +His attributes, not of His nature." On the ground that it does not occur in +the Law, the Persian word "Khuda" has been objected to, an objection which +also holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott, +&c. To this it is answered, that as "Khuda" means "one who comes by +himself" it is equivalent to the term Wajib-ul-Wajud, {133} "one who has +necessary existence," and therefore so long as it is not considered as the +"Ism-i-Zat (name of His nature) it may with propriety be used."[118] + +The current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the term +Allah, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such a name +is not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, &c, still +remain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Quran and Traditions +are, exclusive of the term Allah, ninety-nine in number. They are called +the Asma-i-Husna[119] (noble names); but in addition to these there are +many synonyms used on the authority of Ijma'. Such are Hanan, equal to +Rahim (Merciful) and Manan, "one who puts another under an obligation." In +the Tafsir-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of God; +one thousand of which are known to angels; one thousand to prophets; whilst +one thousand are thus distributed, _viz._, in the Pentateuch there are +three hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred, +in the Quran ninety-nine, and one still hidden. + +The following texts of the Quran are adduced to prove the nature of the +divine attributes:-- + +(1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal." (Sura ii. +256). "Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not." (Sura xxv. 60). + +(2). Knowledge. "Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the +heavens, and all that is in the earth." (Sura lviii. 8). "With Him are the +keys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth whatever is +on the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neither +is there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a thing green or sere, +but it is noted in a distinct writing." (Sura vi. 59). + +{134} + +(3). Power. "If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would He +surely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty." (Sura ii. 19). "Is He not +powerful enough to quicken the dead." (Sura lxxv. 40). "God hath power over +all things." (Sura iii. 159.) + +(4). Will. "God is worker of that He willeth." (Sura lxxxv. 16). "But if +God pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance." +(Sura vi. 35). "God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will He +guideth--God doeth His pleasure." (Sura xiv. 4, 32). + +As this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed which +refers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will be +stated under that head. + +There has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of these +four attributes so clearly described in the Quran: the difference is with +regard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There is, first, +the ancient Sifatian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the +essence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are not eternal; +and, thirdly, the Ash'arian dogma that they are eternal, but distinct from +His essence. + +There is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next three +attributes--hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the two first of +these the following verses are quoted, "He truly heareth and knoweth all +things." (Sura xliv. 5). "No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in all +vision." (Sura vi. 103). + +The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c., hands, face, eyes, and so on, +gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the Sifatians. +Al-Ghazzali says: "He sits upon His throne after that manner which He has +Himself described and in that sense which He Himself means, which is a +sitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or local +situation." This is the Ash'arian idea, but between the Ash'arians and +those who fell into the error of the {135} Mujassimians,[120] there was +another school. The followers of Imam Ibn Hanbal say that such words +represent the attributes existing in God. The words "God sits on His +throne" mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, "We keep the +literal meaning of the words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To do +so is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation, for the +negation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken the +authority of revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain the +act, for it is written: 'There is none like unto Him.' (Sura cxii.) 'Nought +is there like Him.' (Sura xlii. 9.) 'Unworthy the estimate they form of +God.'" (Sura xxii. 73.) To prove that God occupies a place they produce the +following Tradition: "Ibn-al-Hakim wished to give liberty to a female slave +Saouda and consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where is +God?' 'In heaven,' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a true +believer.'" Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that God +occupied a place but because she took the words in their literal +signification. The Shi'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to God movement, +quiescence, &c, for these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too, +in opposition to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that which +is seen is limited by space. + +The seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long and +important controversy connected with the nature of the Quran, for the word +"Kalam" means not mere speech, but revelation and every other mode of +communicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzali says:-- + + "He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal + ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word + of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the + commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters {136} + which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion + of the tongue. The Quran, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books + sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Quran, indeed, is read with + tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in + the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and + division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus + Moses also heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the + saints behold the essence of God without substance or accident." + +The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites deny +this, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the originator +of words and sounds. + +They also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine of +the eternity of the Quran. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, is +read, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It is +divided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events are +described in the past tense, but if the Quran had been eternal the future +tense would have been used. (3) The Quran contains commands and +prohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished? +(4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so even +in the last day, and in the next world, men will be under the obligation of +performing the same religious duties as they do now, and of keeping all the +outward precepts of the law. (5) If the Quran is eternal, then there are +two eternals. + +The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of Islam. +It was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the opposition of +the Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become +not only stout assertors of the eternity of the Quran, but to give up their +lives in defence of what they believed to be true. The Mutazilites by +asserting the subjective nature of the Quranic inspiration brought the book +itself within the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox Islam +to bear even though the Khalif Mamun in the {137} year 212 A.H. issued a +fatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Quran were guilty +of heresy. Some six years after this, the Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was +severely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to the +truth of the decree issued by the Khalif. Al Buwaiti, a famous disciple of +As-Shafa'i, used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when being +punished by the order of the Khalif. He was taken all the way from Cairo to +Baghdad and told to confess that the Quran was created. On his refusal, he +was imprisoned at Baghdad and there remained in chains till the day of his +death. As Ar-Rabi Ibn Sulaiman says: "I saw Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule: +round his neck was a wooden collar, on his legs were fetters, from these to +the collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing +fifty pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words, +'Almighty God created the world by means of the word _Be!_ Now, if that +word was created, one created thing would have created another.'"[121] Al +Buwaiti here refers to the verse, "Verily our speech unto a thing when we +will the same, is that we only say to it, 'Be,' and it is,--Kun fayakuna." +(Sura xxxvi. 82). This, in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standing +argument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the Quran. + +When times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion. +The Imam As-Shafa'i held a public disputation in Baghdad with Hafs, a +Mutazilite preacher, on this very point. Shafa'i quoted the verse, "God +said _be, and it was_," and asked, "Did not God create all things by the +word _be?_" Hafs assented. "If then the Quran was created, must not the +word _be_ have been created with it?" Hafs could not deny so plain a +proposition. "Then," said Shafa'i, "All things, according to you, were +created by a created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest +{138} impiety." Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect had +Shafa'i's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to death as a pestilent +heretic. Thus did the Ash'arian opinions on the subject of the Divine +attributes again gain the mastery.[122] + +The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a rule, +influenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere quibblers. +They sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction by the +rigid system they combated, they would have made reason alone their chief +guide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faith +they professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, and at one +time, it threatened to change the whole nature of Islam. This period of +Muslim history, famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off the +fetters of the rigid system which Islam was gradually tightening by the +increased authority given to traditionalism, and to the refinements of the +four Imams, was undoubtedly a period of, comparatively speaking, high +civilization. Baghdad, the capital of the Khalifate, was a busy, populous, +well-governed city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian +family of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the Khalif +Harun-ur-Rashid. Harun's fame as a good man is quite undeserved. It is true +that he was a patron of learning, that his Empire was extensive, that he +gained many victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arab +grandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel man, thoroughly +given up to pleasures of a very questionable nature. Drunkenness and +debauchery were common at court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work. +Such was the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods +{139} of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable for the +development of any good which Islam might have possessed. It should be +remembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period is +connected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy +was weak in Baghdad. The culture of the time was in spite of, not on +account of, the influence of orthodox Islam. + +2. ANGELS.--Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:-- + + "We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order and + who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is there + amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of God; + those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are on + earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate + themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and + record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are + possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibra,il) who in the + space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one + wing can lift up a mountain. + + We must believe in 'Izra,il who receives the souls of men when they + die, and in Israfil into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This + trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to + blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow + such a terrible blast that all living things will die.[123] This is the + commencement of the last day. The world will remain in this state of + death forty years. Then God Most High will revive Israfil who will blow + a second blast, at the sound of which all the dead will rise to + life."[124] + +This confession of faith makes no mention of Mika,il (Michael), the fourth +of the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created beings have +what is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain and +all that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c. +Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to prophets. +The words "one terrible in power" (Sura liii. 5) {140} are generally +applied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness to God. +Tradition says that on the night of the Mi'raj, the Prophet saw that +Gabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that from one +shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying bird +would require five hundred years to pass over it. + +Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed of +light. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position he +occupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he commands +they do. "All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and they who +are in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they wearied: they +praise Him day and night." (Sura xxi. 19, 20.) They are free from all +sin.[125] It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, and +this may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, that +their object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of the +doubts they had in the matter. Thus "when the Lord said to the angels, +'Verily, I am about to place one in my stead on earth,' they said: 'Wilt +Thou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when we +celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness.' God said: 'Verily I know what +ye know not.'" It is true that Iblis was disobedient, but then he belonged +not to the angelic order but to that of the jinn. "When we said to the +angels, 'prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated themselves +save Iblis, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest." +(Sura xviii. 48.) (See also Sura ii. 33.) + +Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they are +invisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils. +This accounts for the saying, "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for +it has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with God, +for it has seen a devil." + +{141} + +The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of their +Lord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Sura xlii. 3.) They +also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before him +and behind him who watch over him by God's behest." (Sura xiii. 12.) "Is it +not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels +sent down from on high?" (Sura iii. 120.) "Supreme over His servants He +sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when death overtaketh any +one of you our messengers take his soul and fail not." (Sura vi. 61.) + +In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man two +angels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on the +right hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say that +they reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen and the +saliva of the mouth the ink.[126] They protect the actions of men and +record them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibat, +_i.e._, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name of +Kiram-ul-Katibin, "the exalted writers." They are referred to in the Quran. +"Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? Yes, and +our angels who are at their sides write them down." (Sura xliii. 80). + +There are eight angels who support the throne of God. "And the angels shall +be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne +of thy Lord." (Sura lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it are +nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire." (Sura lxxiv. +30). + +There is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the evils of +Satanic interference. "Iblis," says Jabir Maghrabi, "though able to assume +all other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity, +or {142} any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be much +danger to human salvation, as he might, under the appearance of one of the +prophets, or of some superior being, make use of this power to seduce men +to sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, fire +comes down from heaven and repulses him." + +The story of Harut and Marut is of some interest from its connection with +the question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those who +reject God's Apostle the Quran says: "And they followed what the Satans +read in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, but the +Satans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had been +revealed to the two angels Harut and Marut at Babel. Yet no man did these +two teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be not thou an +unbeliever.'" (Sura ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two angels teach +sorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some explanation has to +be given. Commentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The story +goes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the angels saw the bad +actions of men they said: "O Lord! Adam and his descendants whom Thou has +appointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently." To which the +Lord replied: "If I were to send you on earth, and to give you lustful and +angry dispositions, you too would sin." The angels thought otherwise; so +God told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal. +They selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted in +them the passions of lust and anger said: "All day go to and fro on the +earth, put an end to the quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not +commit adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam, +the exalted name (of God) and return to heaven." This they did for some +time, but at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray. +One day she brought them a cup of wine. One said: {143} "God has forbidden +it;" the other, "God is merciful and forgiving." So they drank the wine, +killed the husband of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the "exalted name," and +fell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that the "name" had +gone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual. +They were very much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for +them. The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels were +allowed to choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected to +be punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their heads +downwards in a well at Babel. Some say that angels came and whipped them +with rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the +reach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assert +that it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Others +say that she is the star Venus. + +It is only right to state that the Qazi 'Ayaz, Imam Fakhr-ud-din Razi +(544-606 A.H.), Qazi Nasir-ud-din Baidavi (620-691 A.H.) and most +scholastic divines deny the truth of this story. They say that angels are +immaculate, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty which +the Quran itself raises in connection with Harut and Marut. They want to +know how beings in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely that +men would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the +woman, they think the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venus +was created before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivable +that one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for +ever. A solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic is +a great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the order +of prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly +hurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguish +between the miracles of prophets, the signs of {144} saints, the wonders of +magicians and others. Then Harut and Marut always discouraged men from +learning magic. They said to those who came to them: "We are only a +temptation. Be not thou an unbeliever." Others assert that it is a Jewish +allegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, the +woman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents death. + +To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of the +Traditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a Hadis-i-Sahih, +and that the Isnad is sound and good. I name only a few of the great +divines who hold this view. They are Imam Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'sud, Ibn 'Umr, +Ibn 'Abbas, Hafiz 'Asqallani[127] and others. Jelal-ud-din Syuti in his +commentary the Durr-i-Mashur, has given all the Traditions in order and, +though there is some variety in the details, the general purport accords +with the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer the +objections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculate +only so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined, +Harut and Marut can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient for +that purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is quite +conceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality of +devils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they grant that to be +changed into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; but they say the +desire to learn the "exalted name" was so meritorious an act that the good +she desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to the date of the +creation of the star Venus, it is said that all our astronomical knowledge +is based on observations made since the Flood, whereas this story relates +to the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. So the dispute +goes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in the +story. + +{145} + +Munkir and Nakir are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes who +visit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his faith in +God and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Alam-i-barzakh, a +state of existence intervening between the present life and the life of +mankind after the resurrection.[128] This is the meaning of the word +"grave" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffer +trouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer to the +angels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for this +purpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that of +Nakir and that, just as each man has two recording angels during his +lifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after death. +There is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The general +belief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but that the +angels will teach them to say: "Allah is my Lord, Islam my religion, and +Muhammad my Prophet." With regard to the children of unbelievers being +questioned, Imam Abu Hanifa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubted +about their punishment. Some think they will be in A'raf, a place between +heaven and hell; others suppose that they will be servants to the true +believers in Paradise. + +Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire +called jinn (genii.) It is said that they were created thousands of years +before Adam came into existence. "We created man of dried clay, of dark +loam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire." (Sura +xv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject to +death, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in the +Koh-i-Kaf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:[129] {146} +some are believers in Islam; some are infidels, and will be punished. "I +will wholly fill hell with jinn and men." (Sura xi. 120.) The Sura called +Surat-ul-Jinn (lxxii.) refers to their belief in Islam. The passage is too +long to quote. They try to hear[130] what is going on in heaven. "We guard +them (_i.e._, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a hearing." +(Sura xv. 18.) They were under the power of Solomon and served him. (Sura +xxxviii. 36.) An 'Ifrit of the jinn said, "I will bring it thee (Solomon) +ere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and am trusty." (Sura +xxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also will be questioned. Imam Hanifa +doubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelieving +jinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the following +order: (1) Jann, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitan, (4) 'Ifrit, (5) Marid. Many fables +have been invented concerning these beings, and though intelligent Muslims +may doubt these wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is +imperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Quran. Those who +wish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on +it in Lane's Modern Egyptians. + +3. THE BOOKS.--Al Berkevi says:-- + + "It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent + through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The + books are never sent except to prophets. The Quran was sent to Muhammad + portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to + Moses, the Injil to Jesus, the Zabur to David, and the other books to + other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Quran, + the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can + neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have + been abrogated by the Quran and ought not to be followed." + +The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following +order:--To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to Abraham, +ten; to Moses, the {147} Taurat (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabur (Psalms); +to Jesus, the Injil; to Muhammad, the Quran. The one hundred to which no +distinctive name is given are known as the "Suhuf-ul-Anbiya,"--Books of the +Prophets. The Quran is also known as the Furqan, the distinguisher; the +Quran-i-Sharif, noble Quran; the Quran-i-Majid, glorious Quran; the Mushaf, +the Book. It is said to be the compendium of the Taurat, Zabur and +Injil[131]; so Muslims do not require to study these books.[132] The +orthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Quran,[133] +though Syed Ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmans who say +so.[134] Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered to be of a +lower order than that of the Quran. A large {148} portion of the Injil is +considered to be mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are looked +upon as the revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case of +the Old Testament Prophets. "However, it was the rule to call a book by the +name of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or +whether it was mixed up with narrative also." "It is to be observed that, +in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intended +to impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down, +literally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated without +any narrative being inserted in them."[135] The writings of the Apostles +are not considered to be inspired books. "We do not consider that the Acts +of the Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very good +books, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself; +nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light as +we do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to say, as +entitled to veneration and respect."[136] There are many verses in the +Quran which speak of previous revelations, thus: "We also caused Jesus, the +son of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law +(Taurat) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injil with its +guidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and a +warning to those that fear God." (Sura v. 50). "We believe in God, and that +which hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down to +Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been given +to Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets from their +Lord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God are we +resigned." (Sura ii. 130). "In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book, +which confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the {149} Law +and the Injil aforetime, as man's guidance; and now hath He sent down the +Furqan." (Sura iii. 2).[137] + +Practically, Musalmans reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so is +manifestly against the letter of the Quran, and, as some reason for this +neglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the +Jewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technical +expression is "tahrif," a word signifying, to change, to turn aside +anything from the truth. Then tahrif may be of two kinds, tahrif-i-m'anavi, +a change in the meaning of words; tahrif-i-lafzi, an actual change of the +written words. Most Musalmans maintain that the latter kind of corruption +has taken place, and so they do not feel bound to read or study the +previous revelations so frequently referred to in the Quran. The charge +brought against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on the +following verse of the Quran: "Some truly are there among you who torture +the Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to be +from the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say: 'this +is from God,' yet it is not from God; and they utter a lie against God, and +they know they do so." (Sura iii. 72.) All the ancient commentators assert +that this only proved tahrif-i-m'anavi; that is, that the Jews referred to +either misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read from +the Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean that +they altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuse +Musalmans for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodox +divines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--the +tahrif-i-lafzi, has taken place. The question is fully discussed, and the +opinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by Syed Ahmad in his +Commentary on the Bible.[138] + +{150} + +4. PROPHETS.--Muhammad Al Berkevi says:-- + + "It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is + the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is + the last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a + great number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all + and that his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the + preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some + without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii; + that his law will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles + are many in number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow, + that he divided the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and + stones said to him: 'Thou art a true prophet.' + + We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to + Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and + hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before + morning. After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of + the prophets." + +The number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies according +to the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand is the usual +number stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Quran, of whom six +are distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ullah, the chosen of God; +Noah, Nabi Ullah, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalil Ullah, the friend of +God; Moses, Kalim Ullah, the speaker with God; Jesus, Ruh Ullah, the spirit +of God; Muhammad, Rasul Ullah, the messenger of God. These are called the +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) because they were the heads of +their respective dispensations, and because they will be permitted by God +to intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They are the +greatest and most exalted of the prophets.[139] + +There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for "Some of the Apostles +have We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath spoken, He +hath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave +{151} manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy Spirit." (Sura +ii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in the following order: Noah, +Jesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it is +said: "He is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets." (Sura +xxxiii. 40). + +A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. "I am the chief of the sons +of men." "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the +judgment day."[140] It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and +severe; that by Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given by +Muhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and +that of graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and by +laughing kill."[141] Each prophet is said to have been sent to his own +tribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced to support +this statement: "I was raised up for all men whether white or black, other +prophets were not except for their own tribe." The Quran also states: "We +have sent thee (Muhammad) for all men." + +There is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are superior +to the angels. The Hanifites hold that the prophets amongst men are +superior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are superior to +the ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than prophets, are +inferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets. +The Shia'hs assert that the twelve Imams are superior to prophets. + +The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previous +chapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of prophetic +inspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He speaks +somewhat as follows.[142] If we contemplate the world and the creatures it +contains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular {152} system, a +sequence of cause and effect, a connexion between different categories of +existence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to +another. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the +existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, who +is in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must on +the one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and, on the +other, with the existences in the next category of superiority, and one +whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such +are the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency +towards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea +that, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the +universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account +of their nature. + +The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soul +is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it has +to content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thus +it can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in +its own category but cannot pass its limit. + +The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a +natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into a +state of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of +the Saints (Auliya)[143] to whom God has given this divine knowledge. + +The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging +themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise +to the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of time +such {153} a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the sphere +which contains them. It, there and then, hears the speech of the soul and +the divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given to +these souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate from +it God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God with +such a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that they +are naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by an +ardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelic +state they deliver to men the revelations they have received. Sometimes the +revelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse. He +grasps the ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends the +message; sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation, and +what he says the prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return from +the angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there +occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of +prophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's +revelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahi, a word which, +according to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste. + +The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it is +only a Nabi (prophet), and not a Rasul (apostle or messenger.) The second +mode is employed towards a Rasul who, on the principle that the greater +contains the less, is also a Nabi. A Hadis records that Muhammad said: +"Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatigued +me much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to +me. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst he was +speaking, I learnt what was said." That a prophet should feel oppressed on +such occasions is hinted at in "With measured tone intone the Quran, for we +shall devolve on thee mighty words." (Sura lxxiii. 5.) + +{154} + +A Nabi, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slave +of another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or +mind), receives Wahi but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders +of God. A Rasul who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabi, is one +who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does not +necessarily abrogate what preceding Rasuls have delivered. Neither is it +necessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasuls do so, +but the distinguishing mark of the Rasul is that he delivers to men +commands direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thus +every Rasul is a Nabi, whilst every Nabi is not a Rasul. + +The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which +considerable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodox +belief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom from +sin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulness +they are kept in the right path. The Ash'arians believe that the power of +sinning is not created in them.[144] The Mutazilites deny this, but admit +the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories do +not agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, but +here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunah-i-kabira "great +sins," and gunah-i-saghira "little sins." The gunah-i-kabira are, murder, +adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuse +of adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to give or to +take usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazan fast, tyranny, +backbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Quran after reading it, to +avoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without sufficient +reason,[145] to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery +of tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, {155} magic, +gambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety, +calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such +times,[146] dancing, music, neglect when opportunity offers of warning +other persons with regard to the "commands and prohibitions" of God, +disrespect to a Hafiz, to shave the beard, to omit saying the "darud" +(_i.e._ on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever +the name of Muhammad is mentioned.[147] These are all "great sins" and can +only be forgiven after due repentance: the "little sins" are forgiven if +some good actions are done. "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close +of day, and at the approach of night; for the _good deeds drive away the +evil deeds_." (Sura xi. 116). + +Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal belief +that a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but there is a +difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that they +can do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing connected +with their office. Others again limit even this frailty to the period +before "wahi" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general opinion, however, +is that they are free from all sin, whether great or small. The frailties +which they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not +amounting to sin. + +This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Quran itself +raises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the +Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox +Muslim would call sin. Adam's transgression[148] is referred to in Sura ii. +29-37 and {156} in Sura vii. 10-24. I quote only one verse: "They said, 'O +our Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not and +have not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish.'" The sin of +Noah is not specified in the Quran, yet it is plainly hinted at. "To Thee +verily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I have no +knowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me I shall be one of +the lost." (Sura xi. 49). There is also a similar request in Sura lxxi. 29. +Abraham is represented as saying to his people: "They whom ye worship, ye +and your fathers of early days, are my foes; but not so the Lord of the +worlds, who hath created me, and guideth me, who giveth me food and drink; +and when I am sick, he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again +quicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day of +reckoning." (Sura xxvi. 75-82). Moses is described as having done "a work +of Satan" in killing a man, and as saying: "'O my Lord, I have sinned to my +own hurt; forgive me.' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the +merciful. He said: 'Lord, because thou hast showed me this grace, I will +never again be the helper of the wicked.'" (Sura xxviii. 15, 16). + +The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and patient; +for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy fault."[149] (Sura +xl. 57). "Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women." +(Sura xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wife +of Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretended +revelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances +will be found fully detailed in Sura xxxiii. 36-38 and in Sura lxvi. 1-5. + +One of the most important verses is: "Verily, we have won for thee an +undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later +fault." (Sura xlviii. 1-2). {157} It is not quite clear what victory is +here referred to. According to the Tafsir-i-Husaini, some commentators say +that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used for +the future. The following explanations are given of the expression "earlier +and later fault." (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after +the descent of wahi, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3) +before the descent of this Sura. (4) The commentator Salmi says: "The +earlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the +loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sin +refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected with +him, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of their +sin." (5) Imam Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to +those of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad, +because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by the +intercession of Muhammad."[150] + +From these extracts from the Quran it appears that sin is imputed to +prophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have already +referred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinless +member of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islam, is none +other than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Quran which hints at +sin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to other +prophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His seeking +for pardon. + +It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizat). A +miracle is defined to be "Kharq-i-'adat," that is, something contrary to +the usual course of nature. + +The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and +chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. Although +Muhammad makes, in the {158} Quran, no distinct claim to the power of +working miracles,[151] his followers maintain that in this, as in all other +respects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce +various passages of the Quran in support of their view. Thus, according to +Shaikh Jelal-ud-din Syuti, if to Adam was given the power of naming every +thing, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, +but Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqab-i-qausain,' the 'two bows' length,' +where Gabriel, "one mighty in power," appeared to him. (Sura liii. 5-9). +Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of +his chest;[152] Joseph was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the +very perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad +produced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshua +and so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, +for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given +to John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and +understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus +could raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the +special miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, the +Mi'raj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderful +miracle of the Quran.[153] + +The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, {159} "The hour of +judgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder." (Sura liv. +1). Imam Zahid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and +demanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with his +little finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of which +remained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew +believed in Islam forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but on +making enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this very +night, distinctly saw the moon in two parts.[154] Some, however, refer the +passage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one +of the signs of the last day. + +The Mi'raj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, "Glory be to Him who carried +His servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple that +is more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of +our signs." (Sura xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous, +narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on this +eventful night;[155] but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote +the words: "We ordained the vision which we showed thee," in proof of this +assertion.[156] Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain the +superiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, over all other prophets. + +5. THE RESURRECTION AND THE LAST DAY.--These two articles of the faith may +be considered together. The {160} following is a summary of the remarks of +Muhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge:-- + + 1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir + and Nakir (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead person + concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The faithful + will reply: "our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our religion, + Islam; our Qibla, the Ki-'adataba. + + 2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will + come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjal, or Antichrist; the + descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imam Mahdi and of Gog + and Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c. + + 3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the + air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time + has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the + dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will + find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on + the robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of + God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The + Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to the left. + + 4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of + men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to + Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless + God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them. + If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for + them, nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the + fire will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise. + + 5. That the bridge Sirat, which is sharper than a sword, is raised + above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over + with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their + backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall + and certainly enter into the fire. + + 6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench + their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the + largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the + other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk. + + 7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for + ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no + kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted {161} from the + infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect + will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking + upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the + bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver. + + The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented + by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as + mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they + become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may + endure fresh torments. This will last for ever." + +The following additional remarks are based on the Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami. +They fall under four heads. + +(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Sur). This will not take +place until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: "The +resurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among my +followers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God) +and till others commence to worship monuments." Again, "The last hour will +not be till no one is found who calls on God." Then "There shall be a blast +on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth +shall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. There shall be +another blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze around them." (Sura +xxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking of +the trumpet stated as follows: "After the creation of the heavens and the +earth God created the trumpet and gave it to Israfil who, with his mouth +placed to it, is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. He +will blow three times.[157] The first time, the blast of consternation, to +terrify; the second, the blast of examination, to slay; the third, the +blast of resurrection, to quicken the dead." Most persons believe that +everything, save God and His attributes, will perish. The Karamians and +some other sects deny this. + +{162} + +The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Quran. Thus, "They +say, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first.'" (Sura +xvii. 53). "'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' Say: 'He +shall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all creation +is He skilled.'" (Sura xxxvi. 79). "Man saith: 'What! after I am dead, +shall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in mind that +we made him at first, when he was nought?" (Sura xix. 68). "The infidels +will say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When we have +become rotten bones?' 'This then,' say they, 'will be a return to loss.' +Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the surface of +the earth." (Sura lxxix. 10-14). "Is He not powerful enough to quicken the +dead?" (Sura lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to judgment. "'Never,' +say the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us.' Say: 'Yea, by my Lord +who knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon you, ... to the intent +that God may reward those who have believed, ... but as for those who aim +to invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them.'" +(Sura xxxiv. 3, 4). "A terrible chastisement doth await them _on the Day_ +when faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after your +belief have ye become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that ye +have been unbelievers.' And as to those whose faces shall have become +white, they shall be within the mercy of God." (Sura iii, 102). The Prophet +knew not the time when all this would take place. "They will ask thee of +the 'Hour,' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou of +it? Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with the +warning of those who fear it." (Sura lxxix. 41-45.) These and similar texts +show the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijma' of the +Faithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel. +The {163} Mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is +necessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed. The +orthodox agree with the conclusion, but hesitate to base it on reason.[158] + +The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease to +be, but that at the last God will gather them together. "Thinketh man that +we shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are able +evenly to replace." (Sura lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, hold that +this verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a belief +supported by the Prophet's saying, "All the sons of men will be +annihilated." It will be a re-creation though the body will return to its +former state. + +The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this period +of the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to its +revival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of the +soul, for it exists in the body as "fire in coal," hence its revival is +included in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it is a +distinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The scholastics +favour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same in both cases. +The resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts, +insects and birds--all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come first +in order and be the first to enter Paradise. + +(2). The descent of the Books (Tatair-i-saha,if). After the resurrection, +men will wander about for forty years, during which time the "Books of +Actions" will be given to them. These books contain the record kept by the +Kiram-ul-Katibin, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state: +"Men will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand for +forty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens (_i.e._ +expecting the books.) They will perspire profusely through {164} excess of +sorrow.[159] Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on clothes.' He will put on +a robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountain +will flow forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no more." +The Prophet said: "I will also put on a dress and will stand near the +throne, where no one else will be allowed to stand and God will say: 'Ask +and it shall be granted to thee; intercede, thy intercession shall be +accepted.'" Each book flies from the treasury under the Throne of God and +is given to its proper owner. "Every man's fate have We fastened about his +neck; and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man) +a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, there +needeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day.'" +(Sura xvii. 15). "He into whose _right_ hand his book shall be given, shall +be reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his +kindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (_i.e._ into his +_left_ hand) shall invoke destruction." (Sura lxxxiv. 8-11.) "He, who shall +have his book given into his _left_ hand will say: 'O that my book had +never been given me! and that I had not known my reckoning.'" (Sura lxix. +25). It is always said that wicked Musalmans will be seized by the _right_ +hand before they are cast into the fire, which is a proof that they are not +always to remain there. Some hold that the expression "Read thy book" +implies a literal reading; others that it is a metaphorical expression +which simply means that all the past actions will be known. Those who +believe in a literal reading say that each believer will read the account +of his faults only, and that other persons will read that of his good +deeds. The face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, but +black will be the face of the infidel. + +{165} + +(3). The Balances (Mizan). This belief is based on the authority of the +Quran, Sunnat and the Ijma'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt about +it. Thus: "They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; but they +whose balances shall be light,--these are they who shall lose their souls, +abiding in hell for ever." (Sura xxiii. 104). "As to him whose balances are +heavy, his shall be a life that shall please him well: and as to him whose +balances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the pit. And who shall +teach thee what the pit (Al-Hawia) is? A raging fire!" (Sura ci. 5-8). The +Traditions on this point are very numerous. The Ijma' is also strong on the +reality, the objective existence, of a balance with scales, &c., complete. +They also state that the "Books of Actions" (Saha,if-i-A'mal) will be +weighed. In the Sahih-i-Bukhari it is said that the Believers will not be +weighed in the balances, for "God will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thy +people, from whom no account is taken, enter into Paradise.'" Prophets and +angels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not required for the +unbelievers, for their state is very evident; "By their tokens shall the +sinners be known, and they shall be seized by their forelocks and their +feet." (Sura lv. 41). Thus it is evident that, with regard to true +believers and unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose need be +weighed. Some, however, maintain that no unbeliever will have this test +applied to his case and quote: "Vain therefore, are their works; and no +weight will we allow them on the day of resurrection." (Sura xviii. 105). +To this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the fact of "a +weighing in _their favour_." The place where the weighing will take place +is situated midway between heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the +movement of the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are not +agreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe of +men, and also for each of the 'good works' {166} of the believers. Those +who hold that there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting and +so on, adduce the use of the plural form, balances (muwazin) in proof of +their statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the +"works" themselves, or the books (saha,if) will be weighed. The latter +opinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmizi. "The Prophet said: +'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend as +far as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny this, or have +the recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: 'No! O Lord.' +'Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord.' Then God will display a cloth on +which the Kalima is written. This will be put into one scale, and God will +say: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale, and +this cloth in the other, for the first scale will be light.'" This is +considered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Saha,if. +The Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for said they: +"actions are accidents, and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannot +be attributed to accidents." They explained the verses of the Quran and the +statements of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way of +saying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of Judgment. + +(4). The Bridge (Sirat). The meaning of the word Sirat is a road, a way. It +is so used in the Quran. In connection with the Day of Judgment it is said: +"If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even then would they +speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirat)." (Sura xxxvi. 66). "Gather +together those who have acted unjustly, and their consorts (demons), and +the gods whom they have adored beside God; and guide them to the road +(Sirat) for hell." (Sura xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the Quran called a +bridge, but Tradition is very clear on this point. The Prophet said: "There +will be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair, +suspended over {167} hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom God +wills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like a flash +of lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. The angels will call +out, 'O Lord! save and protect.' Some Muslims will be saved, some will fall +headlong into hell." Bukhari relates a similar Tradition. The infidels will +all fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims will be released +after a while. + +The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. "If we admit it," say +they, "it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not for +them in the Day of Judgment." To this the orthodox reply that the believers +pass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that thus they may +be delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may feel chagrin at +those who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever. + +Al A'raf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: "On +(the wall) Al A'raf shall be men who know all, by their tokens,[160] and +they shall cry to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but they +shall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyes +are turned towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord! +place us not with offending people &c.'" (Sura vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary +of the opinions regarding Al A'raf in his Preliminary Discourse is +exceedingly good. It is as follows:-- + + "They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Araf, a + word derived from the verb _Arafa_, which signifies to distinguish + between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another + reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who + stand on this partition will _know_ and _distinguish_ the blessed from + the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: and others + way the word properly intends anything that is _high raised_ or + _elevated_, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to {168} be. + Some imagine it to be a sort of _limbo_ for the patriarchs and + prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for + sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal + that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve + neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last + day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act + of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make + the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others suppose this + intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war, + without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being + excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell + because they are martyrs." + +There is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world and +the Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. "Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh), +until the day when they shall be raised again." (Sura xxiii. 102). When +death takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the Angel of +death; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked with +violence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh.[161] + +It is a doctrine founded on Ijma', that God will not pardon Shirk, that is, +the ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one who does so, +will remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime, +its punishment must also be eternal. "The unbelievers among the people of +the Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the fire of Gehenna to +abide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the worst?" (Sura xcviii. +5). "Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer of the +good, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other Gods with God. Cast ye +him into the fierce torment." (Sura 1. 23-25.) + +Muslims who commit great (Kabira) sins, though they die unrepentant, will +not remain in hell for ever, for, "whosoever shall have wrought an atom's +weight of good shall {169} behold it." (Sura xcix. 7). It is asserted that +the fact of believing in Islam is a good work and merits a reward: this +cannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins, and +therefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. "Perfect +faith (Iman-i-Kamil) consists in believing with sincerity of heart and +acting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith itself. +Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from having "perfect faith," but do +not destroy faith (Iman), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only a +sinner."[162] The Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will +remain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, having committed +great sins, dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be a +believer and hence suffers as the infidels do. + +The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be so +at the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is the +'great intercession' to which the words, "it may be that thy Lord will +raise thee to a _glorious station_," (Sura xvii. 81) are supposed to refer. +The Maqam-i-mahmud, (glorious station), is said to be the place of +intercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet.[163] In the +Zad-ul-Masir it is said that the Maqam-i-mahmud refers to the fact that God +will place the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place in +which a standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the other +prophets will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is, +however, the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will +say: "O my people! I am appointed for intercession." Their fear will then +pass away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter into +Paradise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regard +to this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who {170} +ought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one but +the Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an +increase of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained +that there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, and +adduced in favour of their opinion the verse: "Fear ye the day when soul +shall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be accepted +from them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped." +(Sura ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadis-i-Sahih: "The Prophet +said: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committed +great sins.'" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that the verse +in the Quran just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to the +Infidels.[164] + +According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: "In the day of +resurrection Musalmans will not be able to move, and they will be greatly +distressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create some one +to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and be +delivered from tribulation and sorrow.'" The Tradition goes on to state how +they sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old dispensation, who, +one and all, excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. At +length Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of +God and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: "Go to Muhammad who is +a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last." The Prophet +continued, according to the Tradition, "then the Musalmans will come to me, +and I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede for +them."[165] + +The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. "Jesus is no more +than a servant whom We favoured ... {171} and he shall be a sign of the +last hour." (Sura xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Quran, come as +a judge, but like other prophets to be judged. "We formed with them (_i.e._ +prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the men of truth as to +their truth, (_i.e._ how they have discharged their prophetic functions)." +(Sura xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear witness against the Jews who +reject him: "In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness against +them." (Sura iv. 158). + +It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. This +faith is founded on the verse "Truly we have given thee an _abundance_." +(Sura cviii. 1). Bukhari says: "The meaning of Kausar is the 'abundance of +good' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Bash said to one Sa'id, 'the +people think that Kausar is a river of Paradise.' Sa'id replied, 'Kausar is +a river in which there is abundance of good.'" According to the same +authority Muhammad said: "My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk, +its perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks thereof will thirst +no more." + +There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers are +admitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmizi, said there were one hundred. +Some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give to +Paradise. (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the _Garden of Eternity_ +which was promised to the God-fearing, best?" (Sura xxv. 16.) (2.) +Jannat-us-Salam. "For them is a _Dwelling of Peace_ with their Lord." (Sura +vi. 127.) (3.) Dar-ul-Qarar. "The life to come is the _Mansion which +abideth_." (Sura xl. 42.) (4.) Jannat-ul-'Adan. "To the Faithful, both men +and women, God promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the _Garden of +Eden_." (Sura ix. 73.) (5.) Jannat-ul-Mawa. "Near which is the _Garden of +Repose_." (Sura liii. 15.) (6) Jannat-un-Na'im. "Amid _delights_ shall the +righteous dwell." (Sura lxxxii. 13.) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyun. "The register +of the righteous is {172} in _Illiyun_." (Sura lxxxiii. 18,) (8.) +Jannat-ul-Firdaus. "Those who believe and do the things that are right, +they shall have the _Gardens of Paradise_ for their abode." (Sura xviii. +107.) + +Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Quran, though it mentions the +names of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will be +sent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed information. +They classify them thus:--(1.) Jahannam, for sinners who die without +repentance. (2.) Lazwa, for the infidels (_i.e._, Christians.) (3.) Hutama, +a fire for Jews, and according to some for Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for +devils, the descendants of Iblis. (5.) Saqar, for the magians: also for +those who neglect prayer. (6.) Jahim, a boiling caldron for idolaters: also +for Gog and Magog. (7.) Hawia, a bottomless pit for hypocrites. It is said +that heaven has one division more than hell to show that God's mercy +exceeds His justice. + +The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the events +connected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of those who are +lost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent summary of +these opinions, that it is not necessary to enter into details here. The +orthodox belief is that the statements in the Quran and the Traditions +regarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally.[166] + +6. THE PREDESTINATION OF GOOD AND EVIL.--I have already in the section in +which the attribute "will" is described (p. 118) given some account of the +dogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as it +always forms a distinct chapter in Musalman books, I treat it separately +here. Having, however, in the passage referred {173} to, given Al Berkevi's +words on the attribute "will," it is only necessary to make a short extract +from his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He says:-- + + "It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the + predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and + all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the _preserved + table_;[167] that the faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and + good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the + writing on the _preserved table_, produced and approved by God; that + the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad + actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and + decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any + ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may + have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend." + +Another confession of faith has:-- + + "Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith, + and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good + and evil with equal complacency is an infidel." + +There are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject:-- + +First.--The Jabrians, so called from the word "_jabr_" compulsion, deny all +free agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the force +of God's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does.[168] They hold +that as {174} God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit all +men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of the branches +of the Ash'arians with whom on most points they agree. + +Secondly.--The Qadrians, who deny _Al-Qadr_, or God's absolute decree, say +that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to God but to man, who +is altogether a free agent. God has given him the power to do or not to do +an act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the Mutazilite +body, though in reality it existed before Wasil quitted the school of his +master Hasan (Ante. p. 125). As Wasil, however, followed the opinions of +Mabad-al-Johni, the leading Kadrian divine, the Mutazilites and Qadrians +are practically one and the same. + +Thirdly.--The Ash'arians, of whom I have already given some account, +maintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever He +willeth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He willeth that +which He knoweth and what is written on the _preserved table_; that He +willeth both good and evil. So far they agree with the Jabrians; but then +they seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have already explained when +describing their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. p. 130). The orthodox, or Sunni +belief is theoretically Ash'arian, but practically the Sunnis are confirmed +Jabrians. The Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical. + +No subject has been more warmly discussed in Islam than that of +predestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions will +present the points of difference. + +The Ash'arians, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views, +formulate their objections to the Mutazilite system thus:-- + +(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, then +he should also have the power of controlling the result of that action. + +(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to _originate_ {175} an act +it is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator should be +independent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by knowledge. +To this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of a +road before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks. + +(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time wills +it to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be a +collection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if the +exaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference. + +(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than some +of the works of God, _e.g._ a man determines to have faith: now faith is a +better thing than reptiles, which are created by God. + +(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; why +does he need to thank God for grace and faith? + +(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimony +of the Book. "All things have we created under a fixed decree." (Sura liv. +49). "When God created you and _that ye make_." (Sura xxxvii. 94). "Some of +them there were whom God guided and there were others decreed to err." +(Sura xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedience He must be the causer of +it, for "on the hearts of these hath God graven the Faith." (Sura lviii. +22). "It is he who causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive." +(Sura liii. 44). "If God pleased He would surely bring them, one and all, +to the guidance." (Sura vi. 36). "Had God pleased, He had guided you all +aright." (Sura vi. 150). "Had the Lord pleased, He would have made mankind +of one religion." (Sura xi. 120). "God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and +whom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path." (Sura vi. 39.) +Tradition records that the Prophet said: "God is the maker of all makers +and of their actions."[169] + +{176} + +The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and +said:-- + +(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the difference +between praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and infidelity; +good and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards and +punishments; promises and threats; what is the use of prophets, books, &c. + +(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If these +are created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe plurality +to the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'arians reply that +orders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they call +"Amr-i-takwiti," is the order, "Be and it was." This comprehends all +existences, and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass. The +latter they call "Amr-i-tashri'i," an order given in the Law. This comes to +men through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience is to act +according to that which is revealed, not according to the secret intentions +of God, for that we know not. + +(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of that +which he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny a +tyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy. + +(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophet +desires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the orthodox +reply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an +infidel. {177} If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation to +such an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, he would be doing +wrong; but as he does not know the secret decrees of God, his duty is to +deliver his message according to the Hadis: "A prophet has only to deliver +the clear message." + +(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Quran, in +which the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c., are applied +to men. Such are the verses: "Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth +is God's that He may reward those who _do_ evil according to their deeds: +and those who _do_ good will He reward with good things." (Sura liii. 32). +"Whoso shall have _wrought_ evil shall not be recompensed but with its +like: but whoso shall have _done_ the things that are right, whether male +or female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise." (Sura xl. 43). +Say: "the truth is from the Lord; let him then who will believe; and let +him who will, be an infidel." (Sura xviii. 28).[170] "Those who add Gods to +God will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given Him +companions.' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye utter lies.'" (Sura +vi. 149). The Hadis is also very plain. "All good is in Thy hands and evil +is not to Thee." (Al-khair kuluhu fi yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.) + +The Ash'arians have one famous text which they bring to bear against all +this reasoning and evidence. It is: "This truly is a warning; and whoso +willeth, taketh the way of his Lord; but _will it ye shall not_, unless God +will it, for God is knowing, wise." (Sura lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadis they +reply (1) that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil and +decreeing it. Thus the expression "God willeth not tyranny for His +servants," does not mean {178} that God hath not decreed it, but that +tyranny is not one of His attributes: so "evil is not to Thee" means it is +not an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadis must be explained in accordance +with the teaching of the Quran. + +The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. Averhoes +says: "We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is always +determined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something which +pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is thus +bound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain order +of things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone knows +before hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. The +connection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of +nature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees and +predestination.'"[171] + +I have already shown how, as Islam grew into a system, the Muslims fell +into a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters and +words of the Quran. With this declension came a still more distorted view +of the character of God. The quotations made from the Quran in the last few +pages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedom +to man and speak of his consequent responsibility, others teach a clear and +distinct fatalism. The great strength of Islam lay in the energy with which +Muhammad preached the doctrine that God was a divine Ruler, one who would +deal righteous judgment, who "taught man that which he knew not." As the +system became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of its +first principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became an +unapproachable being. A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of the +Omnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalism which, whatever the Quran may +teach on the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim {179} +communities. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations decay. Careless +of self-improvement,[172] heedless of the need of progress, the Muslim +nations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher aspects +of intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west. + +The subject of _'Ilm-i-Aqaid_, or the science of dogma properly ends here, +but most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a few +practical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. The believer who +commits murder, fornication, &c., does not cease to be a Muslim provided +that he does not say that these are allowed: should he die unrepentant, God +can punish him for a while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. The +Hadd, a punishment based on a Zahir, or obvious sentence of the Quran +requires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death.[173] In the +case of an apostate woman, Imam Abu Hanifa ruled that she should be +imprisoned and beaten every day. The other three Imams, Malik, Shafa'i and +Hanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with the +Tradition which says: "He who changes his religion, kill." The Arabic word +"man," usually translated "He who" is of common gender, and so these Imams +include women in the list of those who, after apostasy, are to be +killed.[174] God does not pardon polytheism and infidelity; but He can, if +He willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any one is asked, "dost thou +believe?" he should reply, "I am truly a believer," and not say: "If God +{180} willeth."[175] If any one says to him: "Wilt thou die in the faith?" +he should reply: "I do not know, God knows." Except when speaking of +prophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr, +Omar, Osman and 'Ali, it must not be said of any one, "he is gone to +Paradise," for God only knows his state. Prayer should be made for a +deceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give alms, to read the +Quran, to perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus gained to +the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act. + +{181} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER IV. + + MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY. + + I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or + the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the + orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the + subject of this note. The Khalif Mamun (813-833 A.D.), a notorious + free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic + researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated + into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly, + because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of + the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly, + because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the + daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite + natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. "The Musalman mind was + trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed + dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to + cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle + systematist like Aristotle was the very man they required."[176] Some + idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an + account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of a meeting held under + the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous Barmecide family.[177] + Yahya thus addressed the meeting: "You have discussed at length the + theory of concealment (Al-Kumun) and manifestation (Al-Zahur), of + pre-existence and creation, of duration and stability, of movement and + quiescence, of the union and separation (of the Divine substance), of + existence and non-existence, of bodies and accidents, of the approval + and the refutation (of the Isnads of the Traditions), of the absence or + the existence of attributes in God, of potential and active force, of + substance, quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation. + You have examined the question as to whether the Imam rules by divine + right, or by popular election; you have had an exhaustive discussion on + metaphysical subjects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy + yourselves to-day with the subject of love," &c. + + The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek + authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and {182} + especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour + with the liberal Khalifs of the 'Abbasside dynasty. In some cases the + translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time + of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the + latter language. The most celebrated translator was the historian + physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 A.D.), a man profoundly acquainted + with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was at the head of a + school of interpreters in Baghdad, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein + and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century + (A.D.) Yahya-ben-Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and + corrected earlier translations of others. It is to these men that the + Arabs owe their chief acquaintance with Plato. + + The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people, + especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave + suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse. + The historian Makrizi says: "The doctrine of the Philosophers has + worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment + the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety."[178] It came + into contact with Muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the + world, the special providence of God and the nature of the divine + attributes. To a certain extent the Mutazilites were supported by the + philosophical theories they embraced, but this did not diminish the + disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy. + Still it grew, and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic + methods. Thus arose a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system + was confined mainly to matters of religion; the later school occupied + itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went + farther and farther away from orthodox Islam. + + The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier + period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but orthodoxy + finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the form + known as that of the Ash'arian School became again supreme.[179] The + great intellectual movement of the Philosophers proper, the later + scholastics (Mutakalliman), lasted longer, but by the end of the + twelfth century (A.D.) the whole Muhammadan world had again become + orthodox. Salah-ud-din (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were + strong supporters of the Ash'arians. + + {183} + + The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar, + rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of + philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers + were then, and are now, considered heretics.[180] + + Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870 + A.D. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in + theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In his + great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from Muslim + dogmas. + + Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbassides, seems to + have denied not only the rigid and formal Islamic view of inspiration, + but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true + inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were + real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his + philosophical training at Baghdad, where for a while he taught; but + finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 A.D. + + Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a + Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the + concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not + find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of + Islam. He was born near Bukhara, in the year 980 A.D. For a while he + taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahan. + + Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim + Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the + eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical + tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzali, and for maintaining that + speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true + conception of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the + orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was "a + calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good + way." + + Al-Ghazzali was born A.D. 1059 in Khorasan. He was a famous Muslim + divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was President of + the Nizamiah College at Baghdad. He travelled much, and wrote many + books to prove the superiority of Islam over all other religions and + over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive study of + the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that he fell + into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy. From + this he emerged into Sufiism, in {184} which his restless spirit found + satisfaction. On Sufiism, however, he exercised no very notable + influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards + philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were + trying to bring Islam into accord with philosophic theories. His works, + "Tendency of Philosophers," and "Destruction of the Philosophers" had + an immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of + "those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in + their pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the + authority of certain great men, instead of revealed religion." It is, + however, and with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzali did not + really object to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox + he wrote what he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzali + later on in life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select + friends, in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in + the "Destruction of Philosophers." Be that as it may, it is + acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East + it has never recovered; that is, as far as the Muslim world is + concerned. His course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious + principle of Islam against philosophical speculation, which in spite of + all accommodation never made itself orthodox. + + In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashid, + better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in + the year 1126 A.D., or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He came of a + noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever occupy a + distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. "Without dispute + he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one of the + profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences then + accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer."[181] One of + his most famous works was the "Refutation of the destruction of + Philosophers." Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes + claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths + are the highest object of research; but that only a few men could by + speculation arrive at them, and that, therefore, a divine revelation + through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men + the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and + religion. He held, it is true, that the orthodox had paid too much + attention to the letter, and too little to the spirit, and that false + interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in + religion. This {185} profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms + of worship, however, did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of + preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of + religion. He was deprived of his honours and banished by the Khalif + Al-Mansur to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer + many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with his + son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco in 1198 + A.D. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers + worthy of the name.[182] In Spain a strict prohibition was issued + against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable works were + committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the Moors in Spain + began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, and liberal + culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of + Islam. In Spain,[183] as in Baghdad, orthodoxy gained the day. There + was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim + Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their + efforts to rationalize Islam, they also tried to cast off what to them + seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical + Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no + gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could + enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject. + Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove + was a logical development of the foundations of Islam, and these + foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual + one to uproot. They were men of good position in life, voluminous + writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and "more or less devoted to + science, especially to medicine." Yet they did not advance philosophy, + and science they left much as they found it. They preserved something + of what Grecian thought had achieved, and so far their labour is not + lost. + + Thus Islam has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory which + Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. {186} The + founders of Islam, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of + note.[184] The first impetus to the study was given by heretical + Khalifs employing Christians at Baghdad to translate Greek books; + whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was due largely + to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews. Even there, + the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects of bitter persecution. + Now and again, a liberal minded Khalif arose, but a system such as + Islam survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. From the close + of the twelfth century (A.D.) downwards it would be difficult to point + to any Muslim Philosopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of + any real value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest + raged, a contest such as Islam has never since seen. This great effort + to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to + introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson + is plain. Any project of reform in Islam which admits in any degree its + fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the only + hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when it enters + into the circle of civilized nations. + +{187} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLAM. + +The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected with +Iman (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Din (practical +religion). The five principal acts are called Irkan-i-Din, pillars of +religion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession of +faith; (2) Sulat, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirty +days' fast of Ramazan; (4) Zakat, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to +Mecca. These are all _farz_ duties, being based on a Nass-i-Zahir, or +"obvious," sentence of the Quran, a proof derived from which is called +dalil-i-qata'i. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs. + +The authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good Muslims +should perform. Such are the seven duties which are _wajib_, or duties +based on the more obscure texts of the Quran, called Khafi, or "hidden" +sentences, a proof derived from which is called dalil-i-zani. These duties +are: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in addition to the Hajj; +(2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a wife to her husband; (4) +the giving of alms after a fast; (5) the offering of sacrifice; (6) the +saying of Namaz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) the +support of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and (5) are _wajib_ orders +to the rich; but only _mustahab_ to the poor: that is, it is meritorious if +they perform them, but not sinful if they leave them undone. + +The duties next in order as regards authority are the _sunnat_ ones. They +are three in number and are based either on the practice of the Prophet, or +are _fitrat_, that is practices of previous prophets, the continuance of +which {188} Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shaving +off the hair from the head and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. In +addition to these there are actions which are _mustahab_. They are those +which Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lower +class of action which are _mubah_. These are works of supererogation. If +omitted there is no fear of punishment. + +It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are (1) +_Haram_, actions and food forbidden either in the Quran or the Traditions; +(2) _Mahruh_, actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain, +but which are generally considered wrong; (3) _Mufsid_, actions corrupting +or pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will now +frequently occur. + +1. TASHAHHUD.--This is the recital of a confession of faith. There are +several forms of this. A common one is: "I testify that there is no deity +but God, I testify to His unity and that He has no partner; I testify that +Muhammad is His servant and His messenger." The shorter form is: "There is +no deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle of God." The power contained +in this latter confession is extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of +Islam. "It has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for +twelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it has been passed +from lip to lip, as no other word has ever been passed, by thousands of +millions of the human race." The power of Islam, its proclamation of the +Unity, is here seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslim +theologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of Muhammad, a +dogma which retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, and +causes the prostration of Islam, as the world around grows luminant with +the light of science and truth, of faith and reason. + +2. SULAT.[185]--All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of {189} these +Irkan-i-din, give in connection with Sulat the rules regarding the +necessary purifications. It will be convenient to follow the same order. + +Taharat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazu, the lesser +lustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, or +purification by sand. + +(1). Wazu is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Those +which are 'farz' are four in number, viz:--to wash (1) the face from the +top of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the hands +and arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet hand a fourth +part of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The authority for these +actions is the text: "O Believers! when ye address yourselves to prayer, +wash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the +ankles" (Sura v. 8). The Sunnis wash the feet: the Shia'hs are apparently +more correct, for they only wipe, or rather rub, (masah) them. In these +ablutions, if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched, +the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain. + +The act of making wazu, however, has not been allowed to remain in this +simple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number. +They are, (1) to make the intention of wazu, thus: I make this wazu for the +purpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to the wrist, but +care must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until each +has been rubbed three times with water poured on it; (3) to say one of the +names of God at the commencement of the wazu[186] thus: "In the name of the +Great God," or "Thanks be to God for the religion of Islam;" (4) to clean +the teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water into the +{190} nostrils three times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) to +do all without any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to be +purified three times; (10) the space between the fingers of one hand must +be rubbed with the wet fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be combed +with the fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the ears +must be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last +operation; (14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of +the left hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between +each toe in succession. Imam Shafa'i holds that (1) and (7) are farz duties +and that (12) should be done three times. Imam Malik considers (8) to be +farz. + +The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a +recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A +specimen of these prayers is given in a note.[187] + +(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal +defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean +clothes and perform the wazu, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put away +impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the following order. +He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left +three times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times. +The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water +be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair +even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other +particulars are sunnat or mustahab. + +There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a +purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given +here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the +subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islam how much +the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have +raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest +importance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islam is not to be +denied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer +depends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless +unless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men +formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making +wazu washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth, +he cannot lawfully say the daily Namaz enjoined on all Muslims. None but +those who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the +puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial, +but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned +Muslims of great importance. + +(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following +circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of +one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water +might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring +danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of +the Namaz of a Feast day or the Namaz at a funeral, the worshipper is late +and has no time to perform the wazu. On ordinary days this substitution of +tayammum for wazu is not allowable. + +{192} + +The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make tayammum to +put away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. I +commence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises are +in the religion of Islam." He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubs +his mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be left +untouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make the +intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. "If ye are sick, or +on a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if ye +have touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your +faces and your hands with it." (Sura v. 9.) + +Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used +for purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:--rain, sea, +river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first +kind is authorized by the Quran. "He sent you down water from heaven that +He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from +you." (Sura viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned by the +Traditions. I give one illustration. A man one day came to the Prophet and +said: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh +water; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench my +thirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: "The water of the sea is +pure." Tirmizi states that this is a Hadis-i-Sahih. Great difference of +opinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and so +renders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader to +enter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, +it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into +flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used, +provided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for +this reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits +square. If of {193} that size, it is called a _dah dar dah_, (literally 10 +x 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one +foot deep. + +The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence the +Namaz. + +(4). Salat or Namaz. The Namaz can be said either in private or in public. +All that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper +should be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face be +turned towards Mecca. Whether the Namaz is said in public or in private, it +must be preceded by wazu, except when tayammum is allowed. If the +Namaz[188] is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious +than repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azan, or call to +prayers, and the Iqamat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in +which the Musalli, one who says the Salat, must stand and the words he is +to say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea +of a Namaz, or Service.[189] + +The Mu,azzin[190] calls out loudly in Arabic:-- + +"Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar[191]!" + +All who hear it respond:-- + +"Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar!" + +The Mu,azzin says:-- + +"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God." + +Each of his auditors replies:-- + +"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God." + +{194} + +Mu,azzin:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." + +Auditor:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." + +Mu,azzin:--"Come to prayer." + +Auditor:--"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great." + +Mu,azzin:--"Come to do good." + +Auditor:--"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be." + +If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: "Prayer +is better than sleep," to which the response is given: "Thou hast spoken +well." "Allahu Akbar," and "There is no God but God" are then repeated +twice and so the Azan ends. + +The Iqamat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the Azan, but +after the words, "come to do good," the statement "prayer has commenced" is +made. + +These preliminaries being now over, the Namaz can commence. It is as +follows: + +The Musalli, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side and +says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):-- + +"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning +(or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may +be) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be)." + +Then follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the thumbs touching the lobes +of the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The +fingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the +Musalli says:--"Allahu Akbar!" + +The Qiam, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed on +the back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize the +wrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel,[192] the +eyes are {195} directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper +will touch the ground in prostration, and the Sana is said. It is:-- + + "Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee! + Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness! + There is no God but Thee!" + +The Ta'awwuz is then said:-- + + "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan." + +Then follows the Tasmiyah:-- + + "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." + +Then follows the Fatiha,[193] or first chapter of the Quran:-- + +"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful! +King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do we +cry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whom +Thou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go not +astray." + +After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Quran as he +likes.[194] Some verses he must repeat. + +The Surat-ul-Ikhlas (Sura 112) is generally said:-- + +"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not +begotten; and there is none like unto Him." + +The Takbir-i-ruku'--Allahu Akbar!--is said whilst the Musalli makes an +inclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little, +places his hands upon his knees. + +The Tasbih-i-ruku' is said in the same position. It is:-- + + "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!" + +The Tasmia' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed on +either side. Thus:-- + +{196} + +"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195]." + +The Takbir-i-Sijdar--Allahu Akbar!--is said as the worshipper drops on his +knees. + +The Musalli then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close to +each other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side of +the feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch +the side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. The +eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with his +nose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch +the lobe of the ears.[196] All this being carefully attended to, the +Musalli can say the Tasbih-i-Sijda thus:-- + + "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! + I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!" + +He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, places +his hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the +Takbir-i-Jalsa[197]--"Allahu Akbar!" + +After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the +Takbir-i-Sijda and the Tasbih-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when in +the act of rising up the Musalli says the Takbir-i-Qiam--"Allahu Akbar!" + +This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fatiha, so +that after saying the Takbir-i-Qiam a Musalli would have to begin again at +that place (p. 195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the only +change being that after the Fatiha, he recites different verses of the +Quran to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been +said, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the {197} Musalli, +unless he is a Shia'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. He +then places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbir-i-Jalsa, and with +his eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahiyat:-- + +"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of the +body, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God and +His blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!" + +Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the +Tashahhud[198]:-- + +"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad is +the servant of God and the messenger of God." + +Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musalli, whilst in the same posture, +says the Darud:-- + +"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst have +mercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art +great. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless +Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great." + +Then comes the Du'a, which may be in the worshipper's own words though he +usually says[200]:-- + +"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings +of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell." + +Then turning the head to the right the Musalli repeats the Salam:-- + +"The peace and mercy of God be with you." + +Then turning the head to the left he says:-- + +"The peace and mercy of God be with you." + +At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises {198} his hands +as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his own +face, and offers up a Munajat, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the +vernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey the +blessing received from above to every part of the body. + +The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which the +following text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masa), +and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and in +the earth,--and at twilight ('ashi) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr)." (Sura +xxx. 17). The Commentators say that masa includes both sunset and the +period after sunset; that is both the Salat-ul-Maghrib and the +Salat-ul-'Isha. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in +the following verse: "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of the +day, and at the approach of night." (Sura xi. 116). + +These daily Namaz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are those +distinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer. + +Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said the +Prophet repeated them. + +Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be said +after the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually they +are added to the Salat-ul-'Isha. Imam Abu Hanifa says they are wajib, that +is ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Quran, but by +Traditions each of which is generally received as a Hadis-i-Sahih, and so +witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imam Shafa'i, +however, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained. + +The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namaz one Namaz +more: know that it is witr, say it between the Salat-ul-'Isha and dawn." On +the authority of Buzar, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet +{199} said: "Witr is wajib upon Muslims," and in order to enforce the +practice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not my +follower." The Prophet, the Companions, the Taba'in and the Taba-i-Taba'in +all observed it. The word witr literally means "odd number." A Tradition +says: "God is odd, He loves the odd." (Allahu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra). +Musalmans pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is considered +unlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date of +which is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearly +always an odd number. + +Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab, +or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must be +understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They +simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have +already given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five +daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I +have described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observes +the three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five more +rak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to +omit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of +repetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very +mechanical. + +A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namaz might be recited in Hindustani +was publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday, +February 13th, 1880.[201] + +The table on the next page will make the matter clear.[202] The optional +Sunnat rak'ats are called {200} 'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat +rak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said. + +---+------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------- +No.| Time. | THE NAMES OF THE TIME OF PRAYER. | THE NUMBER OF + | | | RAK'ATS SAID. + | +-----------+-----------------------+---------------- + | | | Witr + | | |--------------------------------------+ + | | | Nafl| + | | |-----------------------------------+ | + | | | Sunnat after Farz| | + | | |--------------------------------+ | | + | | | Farz| | | + | | |-----------------------------+ | | | + | | | Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'| | | | + | | |--------------------------+ | | | | + | | | Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'| | | | | + | | |-----------+-----------+ | | | | | + | | Arabic | Persian | Urdu | | | | | | +---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+- + 1 | From dawn to | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i- | Fajr Ki | | 2| | | | + | sunrise. | Fajr. | Subh. | Namaz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 2 | When the sun | Salat-uz- | Namaz-i- | Zuhr Ki | | 4| 4| 2| 2| + | has begun to | Zuhr. | Peshin. | Namaz. | | | | | | + | decline. | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 3 | Midway between | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i- | 'Asr Ki | 4| | 4| | | + | No. 2 and 4. | 'Asr. | Digar. | Namaz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 4 | A few minutes | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i- | Maghrib | | | 3| 2| 2| + | after sunset. | Maghrib. | Sham. | Ki Namaz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 5 | When the night | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i- | 'Isha Ki | 4| | 4| 2| 2|7 + | has closed in. | 'Isha. | Khuftan. | Namaz. | | | | [203] + | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 1 | When the sun | Salat-ul- | Namuz-i- | Ishraq Ki | | | | | 8| + | has well risen. | Ishraq. | Ishraq. | Namaz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 2 | About 11 o'clock | Salat-uz- | Namaz-i- | Zuha Ki | | | | | 8| + | A.M. | Zuha. | Chast. | Namaz. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | + 3 | After mid-night. | Salat-ut- | Namaz-i- | Tahajjud | | | | | 9| + | | Tahajjud.| Tahajjud.| Ki Namaz. | | | | | | +---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+- + +In addition to these there are several kinds of Namaz which have to be said +at different times, or under special circumstances. + +(i). Salat-ul-Juma'--The Friday Namaz. This is a farz duty. It has the +threefold authority of the Quran, the Sunnat, and the Ijma'. Thus: "O ye +who believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the _day of the assembly_ +(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic." +(Sura lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz," and, "God will make +a mark on the heart of him who misses the Salat-ul-Juma'[204]." There are, +however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, _viz_: a +traveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad {201} +person, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namaz +obligatory are:-- + +(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qazi (judge) +dwells. + +(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy. + +(3). It must take the place of the Salat-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees, +except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'ats +are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two which +follow the farz ones are said. + +(4). One, or according to the followers of Imam Shafa'i two Khutbas, or +sermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imam after the four sunnat +rak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba should +consist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety. + +(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imam. The +Shafa'ites say there should be at least forty worshippers. + +(6). The Azan, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinction +of rank. + +Any person who is qualified to act as Imam at the other prayers can conduct +this Namaz. The Imam and Khatib (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily, +one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad said +that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of +the latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imam sits down to rest +before the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up a +Du'a, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at, +(innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the +Traditionists, Bukhari, Abu Daud and Tirmizi, it is a mustahab act to wear +clean clothes on Friday. + +The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with a +large club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.[205] + +{202} + +The following is a specimen of the Khutbas. + + SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has + opened our hearts through the blessing of Islam. He has made Friday the + best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without + partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from + darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His + Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, + his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I + advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! + that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, + and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Mika,il the Khatib, + Israfil the Imam and 'Izra,il the Mukabbir[206] and all the angels join + in the Namaz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to + me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islam;" Mika,il: "I give + mine to the Khatibs;" Israfil: "I give mine to the Imams;" 'Izra,il: "I + give mine to the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the + company of the Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday + last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls + from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for + every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on + a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr." + + Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Quran, the Word + of God,--the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and + righteous. When thou readest the Quran say: "O God! protect me from + cursed Satan." + + In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + "When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to + the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, + will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse + yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it + may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of + merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing + alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares. + God is the best provider.'" (Sura lxii. 9-11.) God {203} by means of + the Holy Quran will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching + will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, + Holy, Clement. + +Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences the +second. + + In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of + light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. + He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save + you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out + error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of + God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his + descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of + God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created + life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased + with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sahib-ul-Ghar,[207] and with Omar + Ibn-ul-Khattab, the chief of the holy men; and with Osman the possessor + of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Quran, and upon + 'Ali Murtuza, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased + with the great Imams Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother + Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbas, the + uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Ashab (Companions). + O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of + their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof + from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to + show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity + and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the + Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!" + +The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated +contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer, +the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. The +form in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are +practically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special +subject of the sermon. The second of the two {204} sermons is always the +same; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Both +are said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an +explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in the +Quran, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be done +in an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moolla, or any +learned man who could collect an audience. + +(ii). Salat-ul-Musafir.--Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes a +journey which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose, +considered a traveller.[208] The length of a day's journey is estimated at +the distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller +intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usual +Namaz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he can +shorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit +the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats he +must recite at the Salat-ul-'Isha. If a traveller passing through a place +is, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imam, he being a +traveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers then +complete the Namaz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place is +the Imam and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imam is bound to recite +the whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole +after him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippers +must not recite less than the Imam.[209] + +(iii). Salat-ul-Khauf.--Prayers of fear. This is a Namaz said during the +time of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy +the Imam should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should be +placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if they +are on the march, one rak'at; if stationary {205} in a place, two rak'ats. +This division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will +recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namaz. The Salam +(Ante. p. 197) will be recited by the Imam alone. The first division of +troops will not say the qir,at, _i.e._ the Fatiha and the other verses of +the Quran recited after it (Ante. p. 195); but the second division will +supply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not +dismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and +make the ruku' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards the +Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction most +convenient. During the recital of the Namaz he must not fight, or allow his +horse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When ye go forth +to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers, +if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are your +undoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shalt +pray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let them +take their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let them +retire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed come +forward, and let them pray with you." (Sura iv. 102, 103). + +(iv). Salat-ut-Tarawih.--This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited +every night during the month of Ramazan. They must be said after the farz +and sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salat-ul-'Isha. +The Salat-ut-Tarawih is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice dates +from the time of the Khalif Omar. Abd-ur-Rahman, a Traditionist, states +that one night in Ramazan he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some +persons saying the Namaz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said: +"If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imam +it will be good." He did so, and the next night the people of their own +accord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: "this +{206} bid'at is good." This is good authority for the institution, for the +Prophet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafa-i-Rashidin." There +is also a Hadis-i-Sahih to the effect that "God has made the fast of +Ramazan farz, and its qiam[210] sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum siamu Ramazana wa +sunna qiamuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tirawih Namaz should +become farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successive +nights in Ramazan, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for so +doing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a +farz and not a sunnat duty.[211] The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty, +as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalif Omar. The +Shia'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such +occasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four +Khalifs--the first three of whom they hate. + +(v). Salat-ul-Kusuf and Salat-ul-Khusuf--Prayer said when an eclipse of the +sun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imam recites with +the congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azan and the Iqamat are +both omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one ruku' is read. The +Shafa'ites read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remain +in prayer (Du'a) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namaz during an +eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with +this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. Each +Muslim can say the Namaz privately in his own house. The practice is +founded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse then remember +God, pray (Du'a) and recite the Namaz until it becomes light again." + +(vi). Salat-ul-Istisqa.--Prayer in time of drought. When {207} there is a +scarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer up +prayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be taken +that no Zimmi[212] is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer +for a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmi is +present. + +These prayers are simple Du'a and not a Namaz. There is no +well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namaz +on such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'a. +This is a very good example of the use of the term Salat as a _Mushtarik_ +word, _i.e._ one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning is +Namaz; here it means Du'a. + +(vii). Salat-ul-Janaza.--Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about to +die, the attendants should place him on his right side with his face +Qibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the "Kalima-i-Shahadat," the +creed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, without a partner; that +truly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle." After death has taken +place, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed +an _odd_ number of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixed +upon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd and +not even. The lesser lustration (wazu) is then made. The head and beard are +washed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater +lustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda +(prostration) _i.e._, forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed +with camphor. + +To recite the Salat-ul-Janaza is a duty called Farz-i-kifaya, that is, if +some few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if no +one repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namaz is farz +the following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that thou +mayest {208} cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thy +prayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth." (Sura ix. +104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (_i.e._, incumbent on all), but +Farz-i-kifaya is drawn from an account given in a Hadis, to the effect that +the Prophet one day did not recite the Namaz over one of his deceased +followers. Now, if the Namaz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could +not have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the +farz command contained in the verse of the Quran just quoted. + +The Namaz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in the +open space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never in +the graveyard. + +When all are assembled the Imam or leader says: "Here begins the Namaz for +the dead." + +The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the +direction of Mecca. The Imam stands a little in front, near the head or +waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all +assume the Qiam, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:-- + +"I recite Namaz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'a) for this +deceased person, and I follow the Imam (who is about to officiate.)" + +Then all at the first[213] Takbir put the hands to the lobe of the ears and +say: "God is Great!" + +Then they say the Sana (Ante, p. 195.):-- + +"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great is +Thy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!" + +Then follows the second Takbir: "God is Great!" + +Then all say the Darud-i-Ibrahim:-- + +"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst +bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness +upon {209} Abraham and upon his descendants." "Thou art praised, and Thou +art Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless, +and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his +descendants." + +Then follows the third Takbir: "God is Great!" + +The Du'a is then repeated:-- + +"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those oL us who are present, +and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, our +men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep +alive in Islam, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the +Faith."[214] + +Then follows the fourth Takbir: "God is Great!" + +Then all say:-- + +"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy +mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell." + +Then each one in a low voice says the Salam, as in an ordinary Namaz. +(Ante, p. 197.)[215] + +The Namaz is now over and the people make another Du'a thus:-- + +"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast once +guided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He who +giveth.' (Sura iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his[216] Master, and Thou createdst +him, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islam, and Thou +hast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life. +Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the +most Merciful." + +{210} + +Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:-- + +"No doubt is there about this Book (Quran.) It is a guidance to the +God-fearing, who believe in the unseen,[217] who observe prayer (salat), +and out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe +in that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been +sent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: these +are guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well." (Sura ii. 1-4). + +Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:-- + +"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, as +do the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Books +and His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles.[218] +And they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for +unto Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power. +It shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for +the acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we +forget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that +which Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! and +lay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and +forgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory +therefore over the infidel nations." (Sura ii. 285, 286). + +{211} + +The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Amm, that is, he says:-- + +"All have permission to depart." + +Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard. +When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the +people say:-- + +"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the +Prophet." + +If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the +grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir +and Nakir come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is +excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the +lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a +position that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face +towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people +say:-- + +"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not +in trouble." + +Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says; +"Bismillah" (in the name of God), and the Surat-ul-Iklas (Sura cxii) and +then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or +boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present +with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first +time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and into +it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you a +second time." (Sura xx. 57). + +Then they say this Du'a: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not +to trouble the deceased." + +When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:-- + +"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of +the grave." + +When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, or +five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220] + +One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the +Talqin (instruction):-- + +"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God. + +O son of (such an one),[221] remember the faith you professed on earth to +the very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and that +certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the +Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment, +and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islam my religion, Muhammad (on +whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Quran my guide, the +K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the +deceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination +(by Munkir and Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou +most Merciful." + +The other persons present then offer a Fatiha.[222] + +After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Surat-ul-Ya Sin +(xxxvi) and the Surat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then +retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fatiha, for by this +time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one +of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that +night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl +rak'ats of a Namaz should be said. After the Fatiha in each rak'at the +worshipper should repeat the Ayat-ul-Kursi {213} (Throne-verse)[223] three +times; then the Surat-ut-Takisur (102) eleven times; then the +Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times. + +After the Salam and the Darud the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with +great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be +bestowed on the deceased. + +(viii). Salat-ul-Istikhara.--This is a Namaz said before undertaking any +special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he +says the following Du'a: "O God, make me know what is best for me, and keep +me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is +best for me." He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to +receive a special inspiration (Ilham) which will give him the needed +directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand. + +(ix). Salat-ut-Tarawih.--This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each +evening during the month of Ramazan. An account of these will be given in +the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazan fast are +described. + +3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZAN.--Fasting is defined to be +abstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There +must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should +say: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and +future sin." When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sake +and had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftar) the +fast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act." + +It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month +Ramazan. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribed +to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the month Ramazan, +in which the Quran was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation +of that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of you +observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Sura ii. 179-181). The +Ijma' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are +excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time. +"He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. +God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil +the number of days." (Sura ii. 181). This is called a qaza fast, that is, a +fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted. + +If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast +(roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed +(roza-i-kafara), in both cases it is a wajib duty to keep the fast. Some +hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse: +"Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay +their vows." (Sura xxii. 30). + +All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Such +are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyam-i-Biz (bright +days)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'aban, +that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barat, and on the 30th of +each month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the +person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According +to Bukhari, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her +husband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women on +account of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above the +other, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for +them." (Sura iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet +and said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him +for doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from +heaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of +the inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those +{215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them +into beds apart, and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the +month Shawwal, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the +fast of Ramazan and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwal, it +is as if his whole life were a fast." + +If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not +visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person +who declares that Ramazan has commenced. Imam Shafa'i requires two, but the +following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet and +said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe +that there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His +Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billal, the Mu,azzin, +said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This proves that the +evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter. + +The fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teeth +a little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten under +compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or +a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it +was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazan +fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a +portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in +a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a +qaza fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken. + +In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone +for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be +done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he +must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals +daily for sixty days. + +The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applying +antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by +kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during +the day-time. The Imam As-Shafa'i declared that it was very wrong indeed to +do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following +Tradition handed down by Tabrani. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast, +cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who +fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of +judgment.'" + +If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast, +he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is +based on a sentence in the Quran, which has caused a good deal of dispute: +"As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiation +of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Sura ii. 180). This seems +to make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit +that at first it was so, but they say that the words have been +abrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse: +"As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." +Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before +"able," in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain +the expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have great +difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the +best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on. + +In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children, +sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is +sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when +convenient make a qaza fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding of +the poor is not required. Thus Abu Daud says: "The Prophet said, 'God +allows travellers to shorten the Namaz and to postpone the fast. Women also +are allowed to fast another time.'" The Quran is also clear on the point: +"He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days." +(Sura ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to +fast. These are, 'Id-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'id and the three following days, _viz_: +the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazan, a +person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep +the fast during the remaining days of the month. + +To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of +Ramazan, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhari, Muslim and +Tirmizi, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a +blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the +Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra." + +The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftar, or the breaking of +the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit +is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as +the fruit with which the fast should be broken. + +The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during +the day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its +rigour. + +They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be +done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalman world is strongly +against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of +Ramazan. In this matter it may be said + + "Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher, + Ce n'est que l'eclat qui fait le crime." + +Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast +very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not +swallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower classes observe it +strictly.[225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In +such circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then +the Iftar can be commenced. The month of Ramazan brings with it other +duties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter. + +4. ZAKAT.--There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is +Zakat (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certain +exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the +feast day known as 'Id-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226] It is the first of +these that has now to be considered. + +On the authority of the Quran and the Ijma'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a +farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to +give the Zakat on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient +for his subsistence and is a Sahib-i-Nisab, or one who possesses an income +equivalent to about L5 per annum. The Quran says: "Observe prayer (Salat) +and the legal impost (Zakat)." (Sura ii. 40). The Khalif 'Umr Ibn +'Abd-ul-'Aziz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting +brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." The +three conditions without which Zakat would not be compulsory are Islam, +Hurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakat is +said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibadat (worship), and that, as the +Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with +Zakat. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisab is +required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisab is required for +daily use the zakat is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for +personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household +furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition +records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given +on the authority of Bukhari states that for slaves employed in domestic +service only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes a +debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his +property and the Zakat given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God, +such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the +neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the +property on which Zakat is due. + +The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisab is 20 miskats, or of silver +200 dirhems (=L5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not, +one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are +exempt, but Imam Shafa'i does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Daud the +following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden +bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakat had been given for +them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God in +the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then +took them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of His +Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikaz, that is, buried treasure found +by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the +value must be paid, whether the land be Khariji, rented at its proper +market value; or 'Ushari possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikaz +is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole +belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220} +land he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a +Musalman Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return +them to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after +having given one-fifth as Zakat, he may retain four-fifths for himself. + +Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the +Prophet said: "There is no Zakat for stones." + +As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and +goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give +one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every +hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep. + +For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or +goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel +(bint-i-mukhaz); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel +(bint-i-labun); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah); +from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two +bint-i-labun; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a +bint-i-labun for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow +this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead. +For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a +two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten +cows. + +Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down +(from heaven) to me about them." + +If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisab (L5 4s.), Zakat must be given +on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per +cent. The Hanifites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Shafa'ites +count such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakat to be paid +on it. + +Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel {221} loads,[228] +must according to Imam Abu Hanifa pay one-tenth; but the Sahibain and Imam +Shafa'i say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakat is +required. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally watered +one-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he +said nothing about the quantity, the Hanifites adduce the fact of the +omission as a proof on their side. + +The Zakat should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the +following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to +those who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islam_, and +for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the +wayfarer." (Sura ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the +Tafsir-i-Husaini, are now cancelled (mansukh). The reference is to the Arab +Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H. 8). +This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Sura. "God hath +helped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr +abolished this giving of Zakat to converts, and the Khalif Omar said to +these or similar persons: "This Zakat was given to incline your hearts +toward Islam. Now God has prospered Islam. If you be converted it is well; +if not, a sword is between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and +so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the +Ijma'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy +motives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that +a reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the +ground of the triumphant nature of Islam which now needs no such support. +Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the +change. + +In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakat may be +given to assist a Mukatib, or slave {222} who is working in order to +purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihad or to make +the Hajj must be assisted. + +The Zakat must not be given for building mosques,[229] for funeral +expenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a +slave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakat to +parents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband to +give it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave. +The Sahibain[230] maintain that a wife can apply the Zakat to her husband's +wants and quote this Tradition: "A woman asked the Prophet if she could +give the Zakat to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has two +rewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the +duties of relationship.'" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to his +son, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hasham and the descendants of the +Prophet should not be the recipients of the Zakat. The Prophet said: "O +Ahl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakat, +for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty." So some +say that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now +get a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakat must not be given to a +Zimmi (a non-muslim subject). + +In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the +Zakat; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilst +there is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given for +the care which Musalmans take of their poor. + +The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. A +full account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which +treats of the 'Id-ul-Fitr. + +{223} + +5. THE HAJJ.--The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who +denies this fact is considered to be an infidel. "The pilgrimage to the +temple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither: +and as to him who believeth not--verily God can afford to dispense with all +creatures." (Sura iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbas the +following Tradition has been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has made +the Hajj farz.' Then Aqra' bin Habis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it +to be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say--yes, it will be a +wajib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj +is necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in +addition is nafl.'" + +The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and of +full age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly +providing for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, or +a child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the +latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose +residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca, +goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near +relative. Imam As Shafa'i denies the necessity of such attendance, stating +that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is, +however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came to the Prophet +and said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on a +warlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war and +accompany thy wife in the Hajj.'" Imam Abu Yusuf considered that a man who +possessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed more +than a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imam Muhammad, and most +others think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but if +death should overtake the man before he has made {224} the pilgrimage, he +will be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay is +dangerous. + +Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five +which are wajib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisites +are: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihram,[231] two seamless +wrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the +shoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfat; (3) to make the Tawaf, that is to go +round the K'aba seven times. + +The wajib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalifah; (2) to run between Mount +Safa and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Rami-ul-Jamar, or the casting of +the pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extra +Tawaf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over. + +The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage (Hajj) +be made in the months already known." (Sura ii. 193). These months are +Shawwal, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajj +must be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat, +or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The +'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year except +on the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of the +various roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or +six miles from the city stages called Miqat. The following are the names. +On the Madina road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iraq +road, Zat-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; on +the Yaman road, Yalamlam.[232] + +{225} + +The Hajis from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary and +worn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinary +clothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namaz of two nafl +rak'ats they put on the Ihram. The Haji, having now really entered upon the +Hajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: "O God, I +purpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it from +me." He then says the Talbiyah[233]: "Here I am! O Allah! Here I am! Here I +am! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom are +to Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!" + +The persons who reside permanently in any of these Miqat can assume the +pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself; +whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihram in the precincts of +the temple. + +The Haji having assumed the Ihram must now abstain from worldly affairs, +and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed to +hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill no game while +ye are on pilgrimage." (Sura v. 96). The Prophet also said: "He who shows +the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills +it." The Haji must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair +be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with the +open palm of his hand.[234] The face and head must be left uncovered, the +hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not your heads until +the {226} offering reach the place of sacrifice." (Sura ii, 192). On +arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one, +on entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Haram[235] the Haji should +continually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik." + +As soon as he sees the K'aba[236] he must say the Takbir and the Tahlil. +The Traditionist 'Ata says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up +his hands and pray. + +On entering the enclosure, the Haji says the Labbaik, Takbir and the +Tahlil, then a Du'a. A Namaz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of +one of the four great Imams. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black +stone) the Haji again says the Takbir and the Tahlil, after which he kisses +the stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to do +this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that with +which he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O Allah, (I +do this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuance +of Thy Prophet's example--may Allah bless and preserve him. O accept Thou +my supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously +grant me Thy pardon." Then he again repeats the Takbir and the {227} +Tahlil, the Darud and the Tahrif (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). He +then encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat he +had made, thus: "In the name of Allah, and Allah is Omnipotent! I purpose +to make the circuit seven times."[237] This is called the Tawaf. The Haji +runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times he +proceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not perform +the Tawaf. The Haji then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek against +the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his arms +on high says: "O Allah, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck from +hell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented with +that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hast +granted!" He then says the Istigfar--"I beg pardon of Allah, the Most High, +the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent." + +The Haji next proceeds to the Maqam-i-Ibrahim[238] (place of Abraham) and +then recites two rak'ats[239] called Sunnat-ut-Tawaf. Some water from the +sacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Haji returns to the +Hajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it. + +Haji Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:-- + + "We began the prayer 'O Allah (I do this) in Thy belief and in + verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after + the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Allah bless and preserve him!' + till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black + stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Allah, Thou hast + rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we + repeated, 'O Allah, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary + Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy {228} safeguard, and this is the + place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building + called Maqam-i-Ibrahim, we said: 'O Allah, verily this is the place of + Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny + my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we + paced slowly round the north or Irak corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, + 'O Allah, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and + disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts + concerning family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the + Mizab, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Allah, verily I beg of Thee + faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish, + and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Allah bless and preserve + him! O Allah, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no + shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet + Muhammad--may Allah bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught, + after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.' + Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shami, we exclaimed: 'O + Allah, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and + a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store + which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was + repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemani, or southern corner, + where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the + right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the + finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where + our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Allah, verily I take refuge + with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and + from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death. + And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore + Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this + life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the + punishment of fire.'" + +The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safa and Marwah. +Starting from the former, the Haji runs seven times between the two +summits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers +charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mocked +the Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madina had made +them weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the {229} +calumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said during +the S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that +(sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verily +Thou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in +both worlds prosperity, and save us from fire." The Haji should also quote +passages from the Quran. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawaf, +either the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imam must preach +in Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches +again on the ninth and eleventh days. + +On the eighth day, (Ruz-i-Tarwiah), the Haji goes to Mina, a place three +miles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hajis he says the usual +Namaz, and there spends the night.[240] This is a sunnat observance. On the +morning of the ninth day, starting after the Salat-ul-Fajr, the Haji goes +to 'Arifat.[241] On arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I put +my trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy +to me, supply my need in 'Arifat, Thou art powerful over all." He then says +Labbaik, the Takbir and the Tahlil. + +The noontide, and the afternoon Namaz are said together there: they are +thus shortened.[242] This done he should stand upon the mountain, if +possible at or near the place the Prophet {230} is said to have occupied. +This is called the Wukuf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He +must also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imam, explaining what still +remains of the ritual of the Hajj, _i.e._, how the Hajis are to stand in +Muzdalifah, to throw the stones in Mina, to make the sacrifice, &c. + +All the time the Haji should constantly shout out the Talbiyah, and the +Tahlil, and weep bitterly. + +The Haji then proceeds to Muzdalifah, a place situated about half-way +between Mina and 'Arifat, where he should pass a portion of the night. +After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Haram, he should collect seven +pebbles and proceed to Mina. + +When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Id-ul-Azha arrives, he again goes +to Mina, where there are three different pillars, called respectively the +Jamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabir[243] (great +devil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holding +the jamar, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, +the Haji throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: "In +the name of Allah, and Allah is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the +Fiend and to his shame." The remaining six stones are thrown in like +manner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there. +The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone is +thrown the Takbir must be said. This ceremony is called Rami-ul-Jamar, the +throwing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this +ceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stones +are miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, says that if the +pilgrimage of a Haji is approved of by God, the stones are secretly +removed. Mujahid, a well known Traditionist, {231} says that he put a mark +on his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then +returns to Mina, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Id-ul-Azha. +An account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly +speaking, concludes the Hajj. The Haji can now shave his head, pare his +nails and remove the Ihram. + +The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are called +the Aiyam-ut-Tashriq "days of drying flesh" because now the pilgrims +prepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from the +victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Haji should +spend this time at Mina, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the +pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes the +Tawaf-ul-Wida' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water from +the well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel +stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famed +well Zemzem. Finally, the Haji kisses the threshold, and then, with hands +uplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he +prays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart +from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes his +exit and the Hajj is complete.[244] The Umrah or little pilgrimage can be +made at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It is +usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ but +slightly from the Hajj. The Ihram must {232} be put on, and the obligations +of abstinence which it entails must be observed. + +The usual course is then to make the Ziarat, or visit to the tomb of the +Prophet at Madina. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of +Haji and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the +community in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though +it is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrim +who otherwise could not go. + +This account of the Irkan-i-din, or five pillars of religion, must now draw +to a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islam, +whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an +authority for many of the details, shows how largely Islam is based on the +Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imams +hold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which side +holds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition, +the value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is a +weak (z'aif) Tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to +disprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmans that they are not +priest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one +may use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken +there can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken +Islam will cease to be Islam, for this foundation of the Faith and the +edifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the +one will be the fall of the other. + +{233} + + NOTE TO CHAPTER V. + + _The following Fatva was publicly given in the Great Mosque, + Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880._ + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + QUESTION. + + "O 'Ulama of the religion, and Muftis of the enlightened Law, what is + your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz + (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Quran into the Hindustani language + has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text + is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as + the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic + editions; such as--toi, qif, jim, la, mim, and (.).[245] At the end of + the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanud, Sana, + Ta'awwuz, Tasmi, Tashibat, ruku' and Sujud, and has said that all these + must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation + he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and + style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions + as to the ritual of the Namaz, and has stated that to those who do not + know Arabic, it is a wajib and a farz duty to recite the translation; + otherwise they commit sin and the Namaz is vain. As regards the past, + he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the + 'Ulama of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not + telling the people to use translations of the Quran. Further, in + support of his views he adduces a Hadis-i-Sahih, according to which the + Prophet said to a Companion, Salman-i-Farsi: "Read a translation of the + Quran in the Namaz." He claims, as on his side, the four great Imams. + He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namaz in Hindustani and + influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes + no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India. + + Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, + and what is the decree in the case of those who follow {234} him, or + who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a + guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made + to be the Holy Quran, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, + state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward." + + THE ANSWER. + + "After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on + Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an + atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. + His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the + four Imams is utterly false, because according to Imam Shafa'i, Imam + Malik, and Imam Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Quran + when saying the Namaz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or + not. Thus Imam Navari, a disciple of Shafa'i says: "It is unlawful in + any case to use Persian[246] in the Namaz." Faqi 'Ali, a disciple of + Malik says: "Persian is unlawful." To these opinions Kafi, a disciple + of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namaz from a + translation of the Quran is unlawful." Moreover from the Quran itself, + the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). + The term Quran, too, means an Arabic Quran, for God speaks of it as a + revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Quran as may be + easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic + Quran have we sent it down" show that the Quran to be used is an Arabic + one. Imam Abu Hanifa and his disciples, the Sahibain (Imam Muhammad and + Imam Abu Yusuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short + verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation. + If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a + sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he learns + this he may use a translation.[247] In the Tanwir-ul-Absar it is + written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart + is farz-i-'ain" (_i.e._, incumbent on all). In the Masih-ul-Azhar it is + written: "If a person says the Namaz in a language other than Arabic, + he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by + Imam Abu Hanifa that a person might use for a {235} time a translation, + it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The + statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulman-i-Farsi is + not correct. In the Nihayah (commentary on the Hidayah) it is written + that some Persians wrote to Sulman, and requested him to send them a + Persian translation of Surat-ul-Fatiha. He complied with their request + and they used it in the Namaz, _until they could pronounce Arabic + properly_. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. + This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is + true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be + remembered, a translation may be used. No Imam has ever allowed that to + read a translation is farz or wajib. So if the person referred to says + that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to + read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now + such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Kafir, for he tries to + make out that the 'Ulama of all preceding ages who have instructed the + people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the + Namaz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned + canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the + Namaz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is + equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'a-i-qunut, + Sana, and the Tasbihat of the ruku' and Sujud, and has said that these + translations should be used in the Namaz. Thus, it is plain that he + wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a + course would be that soon a number of different translations would be + circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injil would + be corrupted. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri it is written: "Whosoever + considers that the unlawful is lawful or _vice versa_ is a Kafir." "If + any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulama, his + orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after committing a fault declines to + repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel." In the + Tahqiq-i-Sharh-i-Husaini it is written; "To translate the Quran into + Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the + Fatawa-i-Matlub-ul-Muminin it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the + Quran in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqan it is + written: "According to Ijma', it is wrong to speak of the Quran as + having rhymes."[248] In the Fatawa-i-Tatar Khania it is said: "To + translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity." + + Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to + this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalman {236} + cemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, + according to the rule laid down in the Miftah-us-S'adat. To doubt of + the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs + of the law here adduced, the 'Ulama have declared such a person to be + an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider + his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to + be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To + send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which + advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is + unlawful. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri in the chapter entitled Murtad it + is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the + future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the Quran: + "Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not + helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." (Sura v. 3). In another + place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an + infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a + person should say that the recital of the Arabic Quran in the Namaz is + not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of + it is incumbent (farz). + + "Our duty is to give information to Musalmans, and God is the best + Knower." + + This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other + leading Moulvies of the city of Madras. + + This Fatva, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very + considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islam is + to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The + law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for + the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the + vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that + country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, + precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islam. It further + demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs + of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the + least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to + the statements made by the four chief Imams, and the fact that the + Fatva is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvas in which + their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they + are regarded as the Mujtahidin of Islam. The Fatva is thus manifestly + orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first + chapter on the "Foundations of Islam." + +{237} + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLAM. + +1. MUHARRAM.--Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, +has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by +the Shia'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Ali and of his two sons +Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already +described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an +account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in +different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram. + +Some days previous to the feast, the 'Ashur Khana (literally, ten-day +house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather +together in the various 'Ashur Khanas, and offer a Fatiha over some sherbet +or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fatiha concludes thus: "O God, +grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and sugar are +then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Allawa, or hole for +the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires +are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with +swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Ali! Noble Husain! Noble +Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c." These words they +repeat hundreds of times. + +In some parts of the country they erect an Imam Bara (Imam-house). This is +often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for +the founder and his family. In South India the 'Ashur Khana only is known. +This is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted up +for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered +with texts of the Quran written in a large and elegant style. The place is +brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Taziahs or +Tabuts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely +ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the +plains of Karbala over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Taziah is +constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madina. Large sums of money +are spent on these Taziahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant +appearance. At the back of the Taziahs are laid the several articles +similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbala,--a turban +of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is +so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which +are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of +silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand +placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the +family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shia'hs. These +standards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of +'Ali, the Lady Fatima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to +represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to +mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the +scene. + +Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Ashur Khanas. In +the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the +Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a +monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect +on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and +attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain! +Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and +tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved +for a later ceremony. + +{239} + +This over, the Waqi'a Khan (literally, narrator of events) ascends the +Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He +proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories +gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of +glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the +audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that +of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Ashur Khana. "The first +Waqi'a Khan was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own +tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old +gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then +rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out +amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was +marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from +the adjoining Zanana was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though +not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the +assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a +few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their +bodies to and fro, calling out 'Ali! 'Ali! Husain! Husain! Each one then +began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense +and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures." + +In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is +the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh +exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over +again in some other 'Ashur Khana. A devout person will visit several each +evening. During the day some pious Shia'hs recite the Quran. + +During this season women who can read, visit the Zananas and chant Marsiyas +to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated +with great earnestness. + +For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventh +day the 'Alam-i-Qasim is taken out in public procession. This is to +represent the marriage of Qasim, the son of Hasan, to the favourite +daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now +commemorated by the bearing of Qasim's standard in procession. It is +usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he +reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: +Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, +the people bring the standard back to its own 'Ashur Khana. As the standard +which represents Qasim is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, +covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for +one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fatiha is said, after which the +standard is again set up in its own place. + +The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to +remembrance the fact that Yezid caused Husain's head to be thus carried +about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sahib +(literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is +meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are +frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I +through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your +procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years +old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the +Na'l Sahib. + +If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they +are made to touch. Fatiha is then said and the respective processions pass +on their way. The Buraq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by +Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p. 159) is +also taken out. + +On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of +computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tazias and the 'Alams +are taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for +men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the +carnival of the Musalman year. + +On the following day, the 'Ashura, they kindle the fires in the Allawas, +and say a Fatiha in each 'Ashur Khana. After this the 'Alams and the Tazias +are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain +of Karbala. Another Fatiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken +off the Tazias, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249] +Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds +the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only +the 'Alams, not the Buraqs nor the Na'l Sahibs, are immersed. The people +then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fatiha over the +'Alams, Buraqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night +reading the Quran, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On +the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fatiha has been +said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shia'hs celebrate +the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according +to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is +known as the 'Id-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast). + +The Sunnis do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram +ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often +much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns +'Ali and his family. The three first Khalifs are often well abused, and +that no Sunni can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunni and the +Shia'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends +to keep alive the distinction. + +{242} + +The tenth day--the 'Ashura is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is +observed by all Sunnis. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on +it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the +seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death. + +The Sunnis about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet +and khichri--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified +butter and spices. A Fatiha in the name of Husain and of those who were +martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such +cases. A Namaz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'a is added. +On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and +say Fatiha over the graves of their friends. + +Indian Musalmans have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The +procession of the Tazias, and the casting of them into the water is very +similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250] when +on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the +Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those +offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers. + +The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an +allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the +senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart; +consequently the Musalman festivals have borrowed from it a variety of +pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done +much to add to the superstition of the Musalmans in India, it has no doubt +softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnis consider the Shia'h +observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The +fact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace may +have something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shia'h in India +live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the +Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalman poets, +indeed, are both Sunnis and Shia'hs. Thus Wali, begins his poem with a +brief encomium on the four first Khalifs, and then bestows an eulogy on +'Ali and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imams of the world." + +The following is a prayer used in a Fatiha for 'Ali:-- + + I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the + ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, + the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of + virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a + distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihrab[251] of the + faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship + of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of + the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of + the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the + resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, + the Imam of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, + he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, + the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imam of the Faithful, + 'Ali, son of Abu Talib, 'Ali the victorious lion of the Most High. I + pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalif may favourably hear the + vows which I offer to Him." + +The following prayer occurs in a Fatiha said for Hasan and Husain:-- + + I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make + for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imams, the + martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the + blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Allah Al-Husain, and for the + twelve Imams, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two + martyrs of the plain of Karbala." + +{244} + +2. AKHIR-I-CHAR SHAMBA.--This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the +month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, +the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next +month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fatihas in the +name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom +is the drinking of the seven Salams. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a +piece of paper is taken to a Mulla, or a religious teacher, who writes +seven short sentences from the Quran upon it. The writing whilst still wet +is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. +Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Salams are: +(1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Sura xxxvi. +58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Sura xxxvii. 77). (3) +"Peace be on Abraham." (Sura xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and +Aaron." (Sura xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Sura xxxvii. 130). +(6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Sura xxxix. +73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Sura xcvii. 5). The +Shia'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Char +Shamba-i-Suri."--The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet of +the last day. The Sunnis, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem +it an excellent and auspicious season. + +3. BARA WAFAT.--This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month +Rabi'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bara, twelve and wafat, death, +because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a +well-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout +the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to +God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, +however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is +some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fatiha {245} every day, from +the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast +as Bara Wafat observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, +and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The +Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is +then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Id-gah,[253] or +to the place where Fatiha will be said. It is then distributed to the +people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a +Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be +made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Quran is +read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fatihas +are said. + +Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasul, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a +stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on +this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a +company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the +story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the +Quran are read and the Darud is said.[254] + +In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, +not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the +"'Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical +duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasul, the Asar-i-Sharif is +exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the +Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculous +property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is +put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. +Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Asar Khana, or house in +which this hair is kept Fatihas, Daruds, &c., are repeated. + +The observance of this festival is neither wajib nor sunnat, but mustahab. +It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does +not believe in the miraculous growth of the Asar-i-Sharif. + +4. SHAB BARAT.--This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of the +record," is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'aban. The 'Arfa, or +vigil is kept on the preceding day.[255] It is commonly but erroneously +called Shab-i-Barat. + +The word Barat signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this +night registers in the Barat all the actions men are to perform during the +ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a +Fatiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. +When all in the house are assembled, the Surat-ul-Fatiha is read once, the +Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times, the Ayat-ul-Kursi once, and then the +Darud. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer +the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to +the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. +This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the +Mosque and after the Namaz-i-'Isha they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. +This over, the Surat-ul-Ya Sin is read three times. It must be done with +the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper +may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be +increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} The +Sura-i-Dukhan (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other +portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the +various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards +strewn on the graves. A Fatiha is then said. If the worshipper has no +relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the +Arwah-i-Qubur, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the +whole night in going from one cemetery to another. + +These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawafil, (sing. nafl), +works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are +esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation." +The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious +signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islam. +Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on +this feast than at any other. + +The following prayer occurs in the Fatiha: "O our God, by the merits of the +Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy +night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee +to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of +eternal felicity." + +5. RAMAZAN AND 'ID-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practical +religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazan. The +subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and +so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with +the religious observance of this month. + +From the earliest days of Islam this month has been held in the greatest +esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire +for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low +hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or +flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazan should be kept +as a fast. "As to the month {248} Ramazan, in which the Quran was sent down +to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that +illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set +about the fast." (Sura ii. 181). + +The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashura, the +tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on +the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventh +month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation +unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, +when Muhammad first went to Madina he had great hopes of winning over the +Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making +Islam differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the +Qibla was changed (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his +residence at Madina the fast of Ramazan was appointed. The reasons assigned +by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazan God +gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, +and that in this month the Quran was sent down from the Secret Tablet in +the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, +or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we +have caused it (Quran) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall +teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a +thousand nights." (Sura xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this +month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, +and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." +"Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven +called Rayyan." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past +venial sins."[256] + +In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammad +doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth +not your discomfort." (Sura ii. 181). + +The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazan are the Tarawih Namaz and +'Itikaf (retirement). The Tarawih prayers have been described already (p. +205). Each night in Ramazan one-thirtieth part (sipara) of the Quran is +recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikaf is a +Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes +'Itikaf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there +meditate. Bukhari says that the Prophet made 'Itikaf the last ten days of +each Ramazan, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his +death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between +the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazan. If his meditation is disturbed +by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imam +Muhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold +that 'Itikaf is farz-i-kifaya, that is, if one person of a community does +it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes +a vow in Ramazan, then 'Itikaf is considered wajib. 'Itikaf can be +performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazan, but then it +is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the +Shafa'ites hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the +nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif +must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and +for making the legal wazu and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, +drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may +speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may +give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no +account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him +to read the Quran in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} a +man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257] + +When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called +Iftar, and the first day on which food is taken is called the +'Id-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the +Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namaz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa +of the 'Id-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If +any one neglects to give these alms before the Namaz is said, he will not +merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this +is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh +themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namaz. The Sadqa are given +for the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and +female--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife +or elder children. + +In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one +person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is +great! God is great!' The Namaz is like that of a Friday, except that only +two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namaz is +sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is +itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, +visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves. + +A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Id-ul-Fitr which is preached in +Arabic is as follows:-- + + SERMON ON THE 'ID-UL-FITR. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + "Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and + in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into + heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is + great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and + favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will + give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent + blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who + certainly sent the Quran to our Prophet in the month of Ramazan, and + who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! + and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Id-ul-Fitr, + that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He + is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity + will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to + Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all + famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. + From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as + the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside + Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of + Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on + you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to + the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers + will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the + sadqa.[258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wajib + duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. + Your duty in Ramazan was to say the Tarawih prayers, to make + supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikaf) and to read the + Quran. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazan gain the + mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of + the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God + has declared that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one of its + nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that + night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning + breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its + clearest proof is the Quran, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is + God who says in the Quran: "This word of God comes down in the month of + Ramazan." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and + wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your + God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other + days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" + and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God + will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Quran. Every verse of it + is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the + {252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, + the Clement."[259] + +"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Id are marked by all the amusements +and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. +Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing +honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The +Zanana rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of +friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to +the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy +day of 'Id, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive +presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."[260] + +6. The Baqr-'Id.--This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is +also known as the 'Id-i-Qurban, and as the 'Id-ul-Azha, commonly called the +Id-uz-Zuha, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called +Bairam. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight +from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madina, observed that the Jews kept, on +the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A +Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He +was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the +children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. "We have a greater right in +Moses than they," said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded +his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when +Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madina, who occasionally came to +hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then +came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not +so ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the +second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in +the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Id. +The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage +to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice +formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That +portion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now, +at Madina, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to +attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. +Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was +a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the +tenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca +were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at +Madina, and assembling his followers instituted the Id-uz-Zuha or Baqr-'Id. +Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "O +Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to +Thy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the +family of Muhammad." + +Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Ayesha relates how the +Prophet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-ul-Azha more +pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will +come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will +make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the +acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in +it." + +Musalmans say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael, +and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son. +Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and compassion for me +that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice +me." Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew his +knife, repeated the Bismillah, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his +son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the +lad. This event is commemorated in this feast. + +On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various +kinds is prepared, over which a Fatiha is offered, first, in the name of +the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others +for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The +food is then sent as a present to friends. + +On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Id-gah +or, if there is no 'Id-gah, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way +the Takbir "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the one true +God, God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making wazu, the +worshipper should say: "O God, make this (_i.e._ the sacrifice I shall +offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil +away from me." + +The Service at the 'Id-gah, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats, +as in the Salat-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will, +however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four +more rak'ats. + + SERMON ON THE 'ID-UZ-ZUHA. + + In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. + + Allahu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God + is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should + praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. + Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for + the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! + I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. + This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the + glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. + On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of + God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimin, may the + {255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is + to fear God and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who + fear Me and are kind." + + Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign + and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in + Paradise (Dar-ul-Qarar), especially on the day of resurrection will + they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is + no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to + utter the praises of God. (Tasbih.) Read the Kalima, the Takbir and the + Tamhid. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read + now the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. God is great! God is great! There is no God + but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the + morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for + a person to repeat the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. The woman before whom is a + man as Imam, and the traveller whose Imam is a permanent resident + (Muqim) should also repeat this Takbir. It should be said at each Namaz + until the Salat-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say + that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the + thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashriq (p. 231).[261] If + the Imam forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O + believers, that every free man who is a Sahib-i-Nisab (_i.e._ worth Rs. + 52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is + exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods + and slaves. It is wajib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, + but it is not a wajib order that he should do it for his children.[262] + A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven + persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin. + + If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you + across the Sirat. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the + mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this + was the Sunnat of Ibrahim, on whom be peace." + + In the Kitab-uz-zad-ut-Taqwa, it is said that on the 'Id-ul-Fitr and + the 'Id-uz-Zuha, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namaz + {256} of the 'Id. In the first rak'at after the Surat-ul-Fatiha recite + the Surat-ul-A'la (Sura lxxvii); in the second, the Surat-ush-Shams + (Sura xci); in the third, the Surat-uz-Zuha (Sura xciii); in the + fourth, the Surat-ul-Ikhlas (cxii). + + O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which + are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Suras are + equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent + by His prophets. + + May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act + according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To + all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in + the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the + Quran. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever + by the grace of the Noble Quran. May its verses be our guide, and may + its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon + all believers, male and female, the Muslimin and the Muslimat. O + believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the + Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O + believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafa + the mercy and peace of God may rest. + +The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the +sacrifice,[263] for it is a wajib order that every Muslim should keep this +feast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has +to incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will +in some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should +be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at +least be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it +must not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without +a blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the +household should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he +cannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his +hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257} +victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front +legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand +side of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force +that the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. +Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim +the following verse of the Quran should be repeated: "Say! my prayers, and +my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds. +He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the +Muslims." (Sura vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, from Thee, and to +Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" Then having slain the +victim he says: "O God accept this for me." The first meal taken should be +prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the +members of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some +portions. + +It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member +of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it +is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases +men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the +number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities +limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims +wherever they may be. + +The Baqr-'Id and the 'Id-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Idain, the two great +Feasts of Islam. A country in which Musalmans could not observe them both +would at once become Dar-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be +the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jihad, against the Infidel +rulers of the land. + +This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year. + +Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the +pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmans to the {258} shrines of Saints, the +ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their +honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnis have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Id +and the 'Id-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have +described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days +which are peculiar to India. The title of Pir given to a Musalman devotee +is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a +'religious' takes a Pir as a spiritual guide. "Follow," says the poet Wali, +"the footsteps of thy Pir, like a shadow." After death these Pirs are +venerated as Walis or Saints. The Pirs when alive, are frequently resorted +to for a ta'wiz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked. +The sepulchre of a Wali is called a Dargah, shrine; Mazar, place of +pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Quran, and the +Namaz at such places is called a Rauza Khan. As a rule, processions are +made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fatiha +has been said are offered. Usually the Fatiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_ +the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the +erection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these +Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawan and the Arayish-i-Mahfil by +Afsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs +prevalent:-- + +1. FESTIVAL OF MADAR.--Sayyid Badr-ud-din Kutb-ul-Madar is said to have +descended from the Imam Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and +received from Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thus +he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons, +and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people +explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. +The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make +a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer +he will live. Jawan in his account of {259} the festival states: "The tomb +of Madar is at Makanpur, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore." On the +seventeenth of the month Jamadi-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village +which is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakirs +dance, and through which they leap calling out "Dam Madar, Dam Madar," +(breath of Madar.) An order of Fakirs, called Madaria, look to this Saint +as their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an +Alam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to +such days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c. + +2. FESTIVAL OF MU'IN-UD-DIN CHISTI.[264]--The tomb of this Saint is in +Ajmir. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Ali, and was born +in Sajistan about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about +fifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakir, Ibrahim +Qanduzi, through whose influence he began to seek the Tariqat, or mystical +road to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received +further instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani. After the +conquest of Hindustan by Shahab-ud-din Ghori, Mu'in-ud-din retired to +Ajmir, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this +tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each +other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic +though he was as regards orthodox Islam, made a pilgrimage to this shrine, +and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus +also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not +unusual. + +3. FESTIVAL OF SALAR MAS'UD GHAZI.--There is some doubt as to the +nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husaini Syed, others that he +was a Pathan, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus +describes the {260} pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gather +from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines. +The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jith (May-June). The +people believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he +had on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain +oilman, a resident of Raduli, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage +presents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the +descendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches +of the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by +the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they +desire." The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmans look +upon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and +so earned the title of Ghazi, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was +only by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess. + +4. FESTIVAL OF THE BIRA OR OF KHAJA KHIZR.--Of this Saint, M. Garcin de +Tassy says: "Khaja Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of +orientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of +Aaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound +him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some +allege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be +the fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmans, discovered the source of the +Water of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever +in divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held +in his honour." Jawan describes it thus: "In the month of Bhadun +(August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of +duty to set afloat the boat (nau) in honour of Khaja Khizr, and to make +according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy +personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the +month {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bira carry it at +night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and +small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations, +whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bira into the middle +of the river." Sometimes a number of small biras, made of clay, are also +launched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is +said that the Musalman natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a +small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave +it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the +sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of +the waters. + +The following prayer is recited in the Fatiha of Khizr: "To obtain purity +of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who +alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khaja Khizr, +the great prophet Elias." + +5. THE FEAST OF PIR DASTGIR SAHIB.--This is held on the eleventh day of the +month of Rabi'-us-Sani. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He +has no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdad. On the tenth of +the month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on the +next day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances +connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasa,id, or elegiac poems +are recited; the Darud is repeated and Fatihas are said. The Quran is also +read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any +special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of +this Pir by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. +Fatiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during +their sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharif, the compiler of the +Qanun-i-Islam speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: "The +author speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he +{262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to +repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pir and vow before the Holy +God, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgir; and through the mercy +of the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgir) presented himself +in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his +behests." + +Syed Ahmad Kabir Rafai, the founder of the Rafai Darwishes was a nephew of +this Saint. + +6. FESTIVAL OF QADIR WALI SAHIB.--This is the great saint of Southern +India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamadi-us-Sani. The +shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The +sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is +the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they +reach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fatiha in the name of Qadir +Wali. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to +work miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: "A +vessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow +that should Qadir Wali stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value +of the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being +miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast +away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached +itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to +land. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who +requested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished +at this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to +look at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had +saved the ship." + +The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu +influences have acted on Islam, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim +Saints. Qadir Wali is said to {263} have been a Fakir who lived on the +charity of both Hindus and Musalmans. Indeed both parties claim him as +belonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the +fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to +both classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on +or near his tomb. The fame of the Wali gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah +made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would +enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present +elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now +become that the Musalmans there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore." The same +reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago, +still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the +commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the +shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tabuts are +taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the +Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still +kept up with the festival of this Musalman Saint. + +There are many other Walis and Pirs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made, +and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but +all such pilgrimages to a Dargah (shrine) are no necessary part of Islam. +In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a +local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed. +Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This +brings me to the close of my subject. + +In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main +features of the Faith of Islam, and the religious duties it enjoins. I +might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the +elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the +borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264} +corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also +enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in +the individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond +my present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation +of the Faith of Islam from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers +to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves. + +THE END. + +{265} + + * * * * * + + +INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS. + + A. + + Aiyam-i-Biz, 214 + Aiyam-ut-Tashriq, 231 + 'Alam, 238 + Al-A'raf, 167 + Al-Barzakh, 168 + Al-Mahdi, 80 + Akhir-Char Shambah, 244 + 'Amm, 48 + Amr-i-Takwiti, 176 + Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150 + Asar-i-Sharif, 245 + Ashab, 7 + 'Ashura, 241 + 'Ashur Khana, 237 + Asma-i-Husna, 133 + Attahiyat, 197 + Auliya, 152 + Ayat, 54 + Ayat-ul-Kursi, 212 + Azad, 95 + Azan, 193 + + B. + + Bara Wafat, 244 + Baqab-i-Qausain, 158 + Baqr-'id, 252 + bid'at, 14 + Buraq, 241 + + D. + + Da,iri, 81 + Dalalat, 53 + Dalil-i-qata'i, 187 + Dalil-i-zani, 187 + Darwishes, 94 + Dargah, 258 + Du'a, 197 + + F. + + Fana, 93 + Faru', 120 + Farz, 187 + Farz-i-'ain, 208 + Farz-i-kifaya, 207 + Fatrah, 3 + Fitrat, 187 + Fuqiha, 33 + + G. + + Ghair-i-Mahdi, 81 + Ghusl, 190 + Gunah-i-kabira, 154 + Gunah-i-saghira, 154 + {266} + + H. + + Hadis-i-Ahad, 70 + Hadis-i-Hasan, 71 + Hadis-i-Mua'llaq, 72 + Hadis-i-Mursal, 72 + Hadis-i-Mutawatir, 70 + Hadis-i-Sahih, 71 + Hadis-i-Z'aif, 71 + Hadd, 179 + Hafiz, 42 + Haft Sifat, 118 + Hajj, 223 + Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226 + Hal, 93 + Haqiqat, 52, 93 + Haram, 188 + Harut, 142 + Hasal Khazaf, 230 + + I. + + Ibadhiyah, 76 + Ibarat, 53 + Iblis, 140 + 'Id-gah, 245 + 'Id-ul-Fitr, 247 + Iftar, 250 + Ihlal, 224 + Ihram, 224 + Ijma', 16 + Ijma'-i-Ummat, 17 + Ijtihad, 17, 26, 32 + Ijtihad fi'l-Masa,il, 34 + Ijtihad fi'l-Mazhab, 34 + Ijtihad fi'l-Shari', 34 + Ilham, 37 + Ilka, 40 + 'Ilm-i-usul, 41 + Imam, 75 + Imam Abu Hanifa, 19 + Imam Ibn Malik, 20 + Imam As-Shafa'i, 21 + Imam Ibn Hanbal, 22 + Imamat, 75 + Imam Bara, 237 + Iman-i-mufassal, 116 + Iman-i-mujmal, 116 + Istidlal, 53 + Isharat, 53 + Ishrak fi'l-'ibadat, 108 + Ishrak fi'l-adab, 109 + Isnad, 67 + 'Itikaf, 249 + Iqamat, 194 + Iqtiza, 54 + I'tibar-ul-Amsal, 27 + + J. + + Jabrians, 132 + Jahannum, 172 + Jami'-i-Tirmizi, 86 + Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230 + Jannat, 171 + Jashn-i-milad-i-sharif, 245 + Jinn, 145 + Juz, 56 + + K. + + K'aba, 227 + Kalam, 135 + {267} + Kalima, 54, 116 + Karamians, 163 + Kasb, 130 + Kausar, 171 + Kinayah, 52 + Kiram-ul-Katibin, 141 + Kitman, 91 + Khafi, 50 + Kharigites, 76 + Khass, 48 + Kharq-i-'adat, 157 + Khulafa-i-Rashidin, 66 + Khutba, 201 + + L. + + Labbaik, 225 + Lahad, 211 + Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2 + + M. + + Mahmudiah, 83 + Majaz, 52 + Majzub, 95 + Maukadda', 200 + Makruh, 188 + Mansukh, 59 + Maqam-i-Mahmud, 169 + Marsiya, 238 + Marut, 142 + Mihrab, 243 + Mimbar, 239 + Miqat, 225 + Mizan, 165 + Mua'qqibat, 141 + Muawwal, 48 + Mu,azzin, 193 + Mubah, 188 + Mufassir, 33, 50 + Mufsid, 188 + Muhaddis, 67 + Mujassimians, 131 + Mu'jizat, 157 + Mujmal, 51 + Mujtahid, 17 + Mukham, 50 + Munkir, 145 + Murshid, 92 + Mutashabih, 52 + Musalli, 193 + Mushabihites, 131 + Mus-haf, 147 + Muharram, 237 + Muskhil, 51 + Mustahab, 188 + Mu'takif, 249 + Mustarik, 48 + Muta'h, 84 + Mutazilites, 125 + + N. + + Nabi, 153 + Nafkhatain-i-Sur, 161 + Nafl, 199 + Nakir, 145 + Namaz, 193 + Nass, 50 + Nasikh, 59 + Nisab, 218 + Niyyat, 194 + Nur-i-Muhammadi, 77 + {268} + + Q. + + Qadam-i-Rasul, 245 + Qadrians, 174 + Qaza, 214 + Qiam, 194 + Qias, 27, 28 + Qira,at, 43 + Qari, 43 + + R. + + Rak'at, 195 + Ramazan, 247 + Rami-ul-Jamar, 230 + Rasul, 153 + Rauza Khan, 258 + Roza, 213 + Roza-i-nazr, 214 + Roza-i-kafara, 214 + Ruh-ul-Amin, 4 + Ruku', 56 + Ruz-i-Tarwiah, 229 + + S. + + Sadqa, 250 + Saha,if-i-A'mal, 165 + Sahih-i-Bukhari, 67 + Sahih-i-Muslim, 68 + S'ai, 229 + Salat, 193 + Salat-ul-'Asr, 200 + Salat-ul-Fajr, 200 + Salat-ul-'Isha, 200 + Salat-ul-Ishraq, 200 + Salat-ul-Istisqa, 206 + Salat-ul-Istikhara, 213 + Salat-ul-Janaza, 207 + Salat-ul-Juma', 200 + Salat-ul-Khauf, 204 + Salat-ul-Khusuf, 206 + Salat-ul-Kusuf, 205 + Salat-ul-Maghrib, 200 + Salat-ul-Musafir, 204 + Salat-ut-Tarawih, 206 + Salat-ul-Tahajjud, 200 + Salat-uz-Zuha, 200 + Salat-uz-Zuhr, 200 + Salik, 92 + Sarih, 52 + Shafa'at-i-ba-izn, 108 + Shafa'at-i-muhabbat, 107 + Shafa'at-i-wajahat, 107 + Shirk, 105 + Shirk-ul-'Adat, 109 + Shirk-ul-ibadat, 108 + Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107 + Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107 + Sifat-i-Salbiah, 123 + Sifat-i-Sabutiah, 123 + Sihah-Sittah, 67 + Sipara, 56 + Sirat, 166 + Sufiism, 87-101 + Sunan-i-Abu Daud, 68 + Sunan-i-Nasai, 68 + Sunan-i-Majah, 69 + Sunnat, 10 + Sura, 55 + + T. + + Ta'awwuz, 195 + {269} + Taba-i-Tabi'in, 7 + Tabi'in, 7 + Tabut, 238 + Taharat, 189 + Tahrif, 149 + Takbir, 193 + Takia, 84 + Talbiyah, 225 + Talqin, 212 + Tasbih, 195 + Tashahhud, 188 + Tasmia', 195 + Tasmiyah, 195 + Tatair-i-Saha,if, 163 + Tauhid, 106 + Tauqifi, 132 + Tawaf, 227 + Tawaf-ul-Wida', 231 + Tayammum, 190 + Taziah, 238 + + U. + + Usul, 120 + 'Umrah, 231 + + W. + + Wahhabis, 101 + Wahi, 37 + Wajd, 93 + Wajib, 187 + Wajib-ul-Wajud, 132 + Waqi'a Khan, 239 + Wazu, 189 + Witr, 198 + + Z. + + Zakat, 218-222 + Zahir, 49 + Ziarat, 233 + + * * * * * + + +NOTES + +[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihad +is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmans_. + +[2] "Let none touch it but the purified." (Sura lvi. 78.) + +[3] "It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring +down the whole Koran at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the +earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been +published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it +would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he +pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be +published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure +way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from +any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section +III.) + +[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77. + +[5] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195. + +[6] "The grandeur of the Quran consists, its contents apart, in its +diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous +nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their +crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, +whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which +they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move +around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel +Deutsch, p. 122. + +[7] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194. + +[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called +Ashab (Companions); their disciples are named Tabi'in (Followers); their +disciples are known as Taba-i-Tabi'in (Followers of the Followers)." + +[9] "Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of +Cadesia (A.H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the +Coran." Muir, vol. i. p. 5. + +[10] Muavia. + +[11] The twelve Imams. + +[12] Al-Mahdi is still supposed to be alive. + +[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'li; that which Muhammad himself did. +(2) Sunnat-i-Qauli, that which he said should be practised. (3) +Sunnat-i-Taqriri, that which was done in his presence and which he did not +forbid. + +[14] Risala-i-Berkevi. + +[15] The great Wahhabi preacher Muhammad Isma'il, of whom some account will +be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Iman:--"The best of all ways is +to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of His +Apostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own +opinion to be exercised." + +[16] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195. + +[17] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 16. + +[18] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285. + +[19] "Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de +conformer ses actions a ce qui est indique dans les traditions attribuees +au Prophete," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465. + +[20] In June 1827, A.D., Sultan Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting +against interference in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, "the affairs of +which are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and all +the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of +religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatva +given by the Council of the 'Ulama, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-din's +proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or +Law. + +[21] "The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost +idolatrous. The Imam Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because +although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate +them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he +forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin +by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the +Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern +Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354. + +[22] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009. + +[23] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469. + +[24] Journal Asiatique 4me serie, tom. xii. + +[25] Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs, p. 29. + +[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594. + +[27] Ibid., p. 546. + +[28] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548. + +[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious +piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the +faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. +Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one +farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny +pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned +against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but +if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in +copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is +then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper +for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling. + +Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and +so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims +doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the +'Ulama declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be +clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is +very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is. + +[30] "Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, +being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered +unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme +Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is +among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and +this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, +neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four +(Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'Ali), who govern in concert with each other, as +if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none +of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalif) arises with a +knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment +enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat; +(4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single +person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the +reign of the Sunnat-followers.--Akhlak-i-Jalali, pp. 374. 378. + +[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amir 'Ali, p. 289. + +[32] The Muslim 'Ulama are certainly much fettered by their religion in the +pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes +decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern +Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269. + +[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the +flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music +of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less +churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their +ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to +extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was +touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but +the Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed; +blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, +when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two +hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, C.B., in +_Good Words_ for September 1880. + +[34] "The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems +to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his +belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level +man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, +on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid +disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antaeus-like, in the earth +which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is +that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which +pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in +ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with +the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. +The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; +the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."--_British Quarterly, No._ +cxxx. + +[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one +not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus +equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklif) in his +religious duties. + +[36] Commentators on the Quran. + +[37] The Traditionists. + +[38] Plural of Faqih, a theologian. + +[39] I have given the dates of their death. + +[40] Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs p. 72. + +[41] Dabistan, p. 214. + +[42] pp. 508-510. + +[43] "It (the Quran) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Sura xii. +104). + +[44] Zawabit-al-Quran, pp. 110, 111. + +[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of +Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Quran to +be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of +God." + +[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16. + +[47] "Were we to examine the Quran by the rules of rhetoric and criticism +as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge +that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result +as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very +book."--Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's +Biographical Dictionary. + +[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al +Khattab said; "I accorded with my cherisher (_i.e._, God) in three things. +One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in +Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the +place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O +messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see +that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it +will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, +that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking +honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his +Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better +in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said." + +'Ayesha said:--"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to +the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the +revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt +of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever +thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this +shall be no crime in thee.' (Sura xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in +which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He +doeth.'" + +[49] Les Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459. + +[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--"La generation suivante, je +veux dire les Tabis (Taba'in), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du +Prophete et se fit un merite de ne point s'ecarter des formes adoptees par +ceux qui, apres Mahommed, etaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui +avaient recu de lui les revelations celestes, soit par ecrit, soit de vive +voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397. + +[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it +to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance +with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary +given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any +other. + +[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--"Rien de tout cela +n'a pu se connaitre que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de +leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460. + +[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for +learning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as +follows:--They indicate that the style of the Quran is carried to such a +degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this +book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All +men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to +express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined." + +On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very +clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of +the passage as:--"God has placed these letters in several Suras as a sort +of defiance; as if He had said:--'Voila les elements dont se compose le +Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'egale par le style.'" Ibn +Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68. + +[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your +religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you; +and it is my pleasure that Islam be your religion; but whoso without wilful +leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, +will God be indulgent, merciful." (Sura v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206. + +[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Noeldeke in his "Geschichte des +Qurans" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's +English version of the Quran is, with some exceptions, an example of this +order. + +[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Sura is the +one generally repeated. + +[57] Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 216. + +[58] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 131. + +[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. +See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.' + +[60] Niaz Namah, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250. + +[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679. + +[62] "He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed +in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680. + +[63] The Kafi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 329. The +Man-la-yastah-zirah-al-Faqih, by Shaikh 'Ali, A.H. 381. The Tahzib and the +Istibsar by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balaghat by +Sayyud Razi A.H. 406. + +[64] If the Isnad is good, internal improbability carries with it little +weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to +this effect:--"A relation made by Shafa'i on the authority of Malik, and by +him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is +really the golden chain." + +[65] Nur-ul-Hidayah, p. 5. + +[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to the +Nur-ul-Hidayah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqayah. + +[67] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 123. + +[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya,--"Lives of the Prophets." + +[69] Hyat-un-Nafis. + +[70] The Shia'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imams are +more logical than the Romanists, thus:-- + +"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of +persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of +the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be +needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of +all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires +the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, +it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be +infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the +tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the +spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. iii. +p. 260. + +[71] It is a common Musalman belief that the body of a prophet casts no +shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over +Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last +Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had +learned the art that none might name," he says:-- + + "His form no darkening shadow traced + Upon the sunny wall." + +It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical +honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could +only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he +became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous +belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the +Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the +universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in +magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the +Musalman belief regarding the shadows of prophets. + +[72] The Sunnis esteem and respect the Imams, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of the +House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly +appointed Khalifs. + +[73] The names are 'Ali, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-din, Muhammad Baqr, +Ja'far Sadiq, Musa Kazim, 'Ali Musa Raza, Muhammad Taqi, Muhammad Naqi, +Hasan 'Askari, Abu 'l-Qasim (or Imam Mahdi). + +[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Ali. + +[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islam under the +Arabs, pp. 168-184. + +[76] Islam under the Khalifs, p. 139. + +[77] Miskat-ul-Musabih. + +[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah. + +[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatva pronounced by the +Council of the 'Ulama in July 1879 anent Khair-ud-din's proposed reform, +which would have placed the Sultan in the position of a constitutional +sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:-- +"The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalif to place beside him a +power superior to his own. The Khalif ought to reign alone and govern as +master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond +that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would +consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, +which should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalif, to transfer +the supreme power of the Khalif to one Vakil." This, the latest and most +important decision of the jurists of Islam, is quite in accordance with all +that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible +that so long as the Sultan rules as Khalif, he must oppose any attempt to +set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform. + +[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the +Sufi idea of absorption into the Divine Being. + + "That each who seems a separate whole + Should move his rounds, and fusing all + The skirts of self again, should fall + Remerging in the general soul, + + Is faith as vague as all unsweet: + Eternal form shall still divide + The eternal soul from all beside; + And I shall know him when we meet." + Tennyson's "In Memoriam." + +[81] "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du +materialisme, lui est en realite identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas +plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus elevee et plus poetique." Poesie +Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2. + +[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth. + +[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix. + +[84] "Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont ete seulement ecrits pour +l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de +l'exterieur, pour le _zahir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le +sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poesie Philosophique et religieuse +chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13. + +[85] The word Darvish, or Darwish, is of Persian origin. It is derived from +'dar,' a door, and 'wiz' the root of the verb 'awikhtan,' to hang; hence +the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' +and the word becomes 'Darwish.' Some Musalmans, however, do not like this +idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, +and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, +and "wish," like; and so a durwish is one 'like a pearl.' The wish is from +wash, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express +similitude; or the long vowel in wash may by a figure of speech, called +Imala, be changed into the i of wish. I think the first derivation the more +probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghias-ul-Lugbat, gives both +derivations. + +[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' +Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51. + +[87] La Poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin +de Tassy, p. 7. + +[88] Sufi doctrines of the Moolla Shah by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique +6me Serie, tom. 13. + +[89] "That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may +readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his +errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear +strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest +spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was +equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm; +and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islam, was the +thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good +tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who +might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters." +Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of +contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The +same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian +Literature"--_Calcutta Review_, No. lix. + +[90] The following are the names of the Wahhabi chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, +died A.D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Aziz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Aziz, +died 1814; 'Abd-Ullah-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830; +Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ullah, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221. + +[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10. + +[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras +Presidency, where the total Musalman population is about 2,000,000. + +[93] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149. + +[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369. + +[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372. + +[96] Ibid, p. 372. + +[97] Muhammad Isma'il concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Iman, with +the prayer--"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at +and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnis and strictly +submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhabis +do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror +of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress +through their influence. + +[98] "Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," +has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to +speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can +affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islam in the East. In +no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief +(taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very +lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one +common creed of the Quran and its author."--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. +10. + +[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of +Islam,' as the subject of it is technically called Iman, or faith. The +Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one +God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual +sense of a body of dogmas. + +[100] Iqrarun bil-lisani wa tasdiqun bil janani. + +[101] Amantu billahi kama hua bismaihi wa sifatihi wa qabiltu jami'a +ahkamihi. + +[102] Amantu billahi wa malaikatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi +wal-youm-il-akhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min allahi ta'ala +wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti. + +[103] He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage elementaire de la religion Musulmane +le plus estime et le plus repandu en Turquie," p. 154. + +[104] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 27. + +[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the +"Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela +n'est pas toutefois un motif pour deprecier notre intelligence et nos +facultes perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste: +elle nous fournit des resultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit +pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent a +l'unite de Dieu, a la vie future, a la nature du prophetisme, au veritable +caractere des attributs divine et a tout ce qui est au dela de sa portee. +Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdite." Vol. iii. p. 45. + +[106] "Telle fut la regle suivie par les anciens musulmans a l'egard des +verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du meme genre +qui se presentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la meme +source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67. + +This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and +origin of the Quran and the Sunnat. + +[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565. + +[108] "The Musulman Authors distinguish between the earlier and later +Mutakalliman. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely +religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the +Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though +they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Melanges de +Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320. + +[109] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250. + +[110] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250. + +[111] Dabistan, p. 218. + +[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343. + +[113] "C'etait l'epoque de la plus grande splendeur exterieure de l'empire +des Arabes, ou leur pouvoir, et en meme temps leur culture intellectuelle +et littaraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me +Serie, Tome xii. p. 104. + +[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took +place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the +Khalifs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can +be found in Osborn's "Khalifs of Baghdad." A short review of the latter +will be found in a note at the end of this chapter. + +[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669. + +[116] Ibid, p. 228. + +[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'etablissement des preuves (fondees sur la +raison) fut adopte par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur +traites, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour +arriver a la decouverte de la verite et pour obtenir, au moyen de la +demonstration, la connaissance de ce qui etait ignore jusqu' alors. Les +scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de +confirmer la verite des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers +Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs +avaient emises." Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169. + +[118] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 63 + +[119] "Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand +aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Sura vii. 179.) + +[120] "The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance +between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's +Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3. + +[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394. + +[122] "The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except +in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were +destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict +between Free-thought and the spirit of Islam were obliterated." Osborn's +Khalifs of Baghdad, p. 148. + +[123] Sura xxxix, 68, 69. + +[124] L'Islamisme d'apres le Coran, p. 135. + +[125] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 112. + +[126] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 187. + +[127] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 58. + +[128] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 19. + +[129] "From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, +both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed, +the boundary of the world itself."--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. +48. + +[130] See also Sura xxxviii. 89. + +[131] Sharh-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 140. + +[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'di says in the Bustan, "Yetimi kih +nakardah Quran darust, kutub khana-i-chand millat bashust."--"The Perfect +one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the +library of all the peoples' creeds." + +[133] Sharh-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 147. Mansukh shud tilawatan wa Kitabatan, +_i.e._ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated. +Also Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 64. Din-i-wai Nasikh-i-jami'-i-adian ast.--"His +religion abrogates all religions." + +[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. +This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation +for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus +in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that +one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not +believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit +(Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New +Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Koran. We +hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the +contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles +of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the role of a liberal +Musalman, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text +which, literally translated, is as follows:--"Now it should be considered +that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the +Taurat by the coming of the Zabur, and the Zabur by the coming of the +Injil, and the Injil by the coming of the Quran are abrogated _on account +of the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c." + +The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text; +but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the +Syed says in effect: "The books _are abrogated_ but not because they were +imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was +defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the +previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an +apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmans is, in this instance, at +least, as conservative as the most bigoted. + +[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22. + +[136] Ibid, p. 31. + +[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with +the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. +publication--The Koran--by Sir W. Muir. + +[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. pp. +64-95. + +[139] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 59. + +[140] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 59. + +[141] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 65. + +[142] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205. + +[143] "That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is +maintained on the authority of:--"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, +those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Sura x. +63.) + +[144] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 125. + +[145] Sirat-ul-Islam, p. 18. + +[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shia'h practices in the month of +Muharram. Shia'hs consider this a good act. + +[147] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 18. + +[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the +world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; +and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship," +would not have been fulfilled. + +[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawi,--"Thy remissness in +propagating Islam." + +[150] Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 332. + +[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish +said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to +gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees +and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; +or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; +or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than +a man, an Apostle?" (Sura xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to +say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles +were confined to their own times. The Quran the great miracle of Islam, was +for all ages. He needed no other sign than this. + +[152] "Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Sura xciv. 1). Tradition +relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a +black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event. + +[153] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami. + +[154] Tafsir-i-Husaini. p. 362 + +[155] For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of +Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112. + +[156] "All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'raj is that the +Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and +that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his +Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is +not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual +bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Kafir, (infidel) as he denies +the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Quran. He who denies the +ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings +preserved in the Traditions is a "fasiq," (sinner), though he remains a +Muslim. + +[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second +blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Quran. + +[158] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 183. + +[159] According to Bukhari and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a +distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of +those who perspire. + +[160] "That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their +whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces." + +[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there +see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55. + +[162] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 47. + +[163] Tafsir-i-Husaini, vol. i. p. 397. + +[164] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 25. + +[165] Miskat-ul-Musabih, book xxiii. ch. 12. + +[166] "Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to +admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as +parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual +acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to +be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's +Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73. + +[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfuz, is referred to in Sura lxxxv. 22, as that +on which the Quran is written. In Sura xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are +said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the +Imam-ul-Mubin, the clear prototype. + +[168] "The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of +Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, +who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His +own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in +Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault +which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God +selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve +tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant +and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I +was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in +the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a +matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'" + +[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their +descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness +against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we +witness it.'" (Sura vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets +and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, +also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was +formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_., the Jews, +the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into +several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape +in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This +passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhabi author of the +Takwiyat-ul-Iman. + +[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbas says: "This verse refers to the +decree, _e.g._ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom +He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." +Tafsir-Hisaini, vol. ii. page 9. + +[171] Melanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458. + +[172] Thus the poet Faizi says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our +free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both +worlds settled our affairs long before we were made." + +[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In +the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulama, named Ahmad, +was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman +residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common +Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent +representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but +he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his +family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the +kind has been done. + +[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Serie, tome 17, p. 582 + +[175] This is the Shafa'ite form which the Hanifites consider wrong. + +[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160. + +[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixieme, p. 368. + +[178] Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315. + +[179] For a statement of the Ash'arian doctrines see pp. 130-131. + +[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim +philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was +an Arab. + +[181] Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429. + +[182] "Apres lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe +veritablement digne de ce nom." Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par +S. Munk, p. 458. + +[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the +height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a +Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching +of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality +it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, +though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country +in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and +customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36. + +[184] "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first +place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, +and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islamism, which +arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, +and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, +this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian; +the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. +p. 34. + +[185] The Persian term for this is Namaz, a word in commoner use in India +than Sulat. Both terms will henceforth be employed. + +[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who +says the name of God when making wazu will be clean; whereas, if he says it +not, only the part washed will be pure." + +[187] Before commencing the wazu, say: "I am going to purify myself from +all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of +duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the +name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace +to be Muslims. Islam is a truth and infidelity a falsehood." + +When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to +purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my +teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of +judgment." + +When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, +perfume me with the odours of Paradise." + +When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place +the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with +favour." + +When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection +the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each +act. + +[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namaz +expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary +sense is 'Du'a.' + +[189] It is taken from the Sirat-un-Najat, pp. 30-33. + +[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people +to prayers. + +[191] "God is Great." + +[192] The followers of Imam As-Shafa'i and the women of all sects place the +hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women +stand with the feet close together. + +[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at +the first rak'at. + +[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazan, +which portion is then called a ruku'. (Ante. p. 57.) + +[195] In a mosque the Imam says the first sentences alone; the people the +second. + +[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and +put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it +is sufficient. + +[197] Here the Shia'hs say:--"I rise and sit by the power of God." + +[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats. + +[199] The Shia'hs stop here and omit the rest. + +[200] The Shia'hs omit the Du'a and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with +the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous +servants." + +[201] The Fatva, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this +chapter. + +[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent +table. + +[203] The Musalli may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven. + +[204] Nur-ul-Hidaayat, p. 155. + +[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed. + +[206] One who says, "Allahu Akbar--God is Great." + +[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghar) when +they fled from Mecca to Madina. See Sura ix. 40. + +[208] Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 153. + +[209] Sirat-un-Najat, p. 40. + +[210] Qiam is one of the positions in a Namaz and is here used by +synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salat-ut-Tarawih is called with reference +to this Tradition the Salat-ul-Qiamiah. + +[211] Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 141. + +[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalman State on +payment of a special tax. + +[213] The Shafa'ites raise the hands at the recital of each of the four +Takbirs; the other sects do so only at the first. + +[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:-- + +"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him +a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an +intercessor for us." + +[215] The Imam makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salam may be on his +guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper +makes the Niyyat that the Salam may be on his guardian angels, on his +fellow worshippers and on the Imam. + +[216] _i.e._, the deceased's. + +[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c. + +[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Sura. Muslims explain it thus. We +accept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference, +though as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the +254th verse. + +[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim +Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word +often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial +observance is taklilif, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from +these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious +man--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing +religious duties. + +[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in. + +[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen +in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the +maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day +each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple +fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue +of women. + +[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person +on whose behalf it is made. + +[223] Sura ii. 256. + +[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement and +cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the +aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 30. +Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 120. + +[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalman doctor he was in +Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would +break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should +be the consequence. + +[226] "The former are called Zakat, either because they increase a man's +store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue +of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance +from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are +called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship +of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. + +[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor +person. + +[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sa', and a sa' is +equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one +camel, is about 480 lb. + +[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called +waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque. + +[230] The two famous disciples of Imam Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad. + +[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihram (_i.e._, making unlawful), because +now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of +doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlal (_i.e._, making lawful), for +now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the +world. + +[232] This statement of names is taken from the Nur-ul-Hidayat p. 211, and +that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islam; but Burton speaks of Al +Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Miqat. It was there that +he assumed the Ihram. The explanation probably is that a Haji must not +approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihram than the places named in the +text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one +of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act. + +[233] Talbiyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I +am here." The Talbiyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is +preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Allahumma, Labbaik! La +Sharika laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ni'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! La +Sharika laka, Labbaik! + +[234] "The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be +kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz._, a crow, a +kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton). + +[235] The Musjid-ul-Haram is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is +a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The +Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba. + +[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be +found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madina and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is +far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is +of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred +a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind +(to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to human +beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and +he who entereth is safe.' (Sura iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to +mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels +as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of +all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the +black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death +of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not +eat the little fish in the Haram. Invalids recover their health by rubbing +themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black +stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions +of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Quran. Waistcoats made +of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle. + +[237] The whole seven are one Usbu'. + +[238] The Maqam-i-Ibrahim is a small building, supported, by six pillars +about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a +fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left +open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain +the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba. + +[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Sura cix; in the +second, Sura cxii. + +[240] "Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifat during the +afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton). + +[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifat. "When our parents +forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval +purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahan, +the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifat and Adam at +Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which +the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his +foot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always be +country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where +our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their +recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifat. They lived here till death +took place." (Burton). + +[242] The Shafa'i rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a +night and day to reduce the five Namaz to three by joining some. The Hanafi +code allows the shortened form only on this day. + +[243] "The Shaitan-ul-Kabir is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight +feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." +(Burton). + +[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihram, the +shaving of the head, the going to Safa and Marwah, the throwing of the +stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the +sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. +Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his +side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably +have been extinct long ago. Safa and Marwah were hills held in +superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt +about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the +Prophet, "Safa and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then +maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if +he go round about them both." (Sura ii. 153). + +[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when +to pause. Thus toi stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jim for +ja,iz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), la for no (no pause), mim for +la'zim (necessary to pause), (.) is a full stop. + +[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were +brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other +language. + +[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of +speech could learn these words in a very short time. + +[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity +to human compositions. + +[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of +the martyrs, but now being empty the Tazias become mere ordinary frames and +can be destroyed, Qanun-i-Islam, p. 146. + +[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown +into a tank. + +[251] The Mihrab is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of +Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the +expression in the prayer means that 'Ali is to be the object toward which +the faithful look. + +[252] The twelve Imams, Muhammad and Fatima. + +[253] The 'Id-gah is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a +long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There +is a Mihrab in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps +doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Id-gah. + +[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one +day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the +mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say +eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel +for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told +him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the +stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qanun-i-Islam, p. 152. + +[255] The Baqr-'Id is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa. + +[256] Mishkat-ul-Musabih, Book vii. ch. 1. + +[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qanun-i-Islam p. +170. + +[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty. + +[259] Khutbaha-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104. + +[260] "Observations on the Musalmans of India." Mrs. Mir Husan 'Ali, p. +192." + +[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in +the Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 61. + +[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said +that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may +purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat +as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for +something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. +Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 60. + +[263] According to the Imams Shafa'i and Malik no one must offer up the +sacrifice until the Imam who has officiated at the previous Namaz has slain +his victim. Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 61. + +[264] Arayish-i-Mahfil p. 144. + + * * * * * + +Corrections made to printed original. + +Page 29 "It is moreover the unanimous opinion" - 'moveover' in original. + +Page 33 "the Imam-i-A'zam or great Imam" - Imam-i-'Azam in original, +corrected by Errata. + +Page 40 "This is technically called Ilka" - Ilka in original, corrected by +Errata. + +Page 91 "Sa'di in the Bustan says" - Bustun in original, corrected by +Errata. + +Page 92 "the famous Maulana Jelal-ud-din Rumi" - Maolana in original, +corrected by Errata. + +Page 93 "It is Fana--extinction." - Fana in original, corrected by Errata. + +Page 188 "a still lower class of action which are mubah." - mubah in +original, corrected by Errata. + +Page 190 "(12) the whole head must be rubbed once" - '(13)' in original. + +Page 192 "A man one day came to the Prophet" - 'come' in original. + +Page 218 "Islam, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock)." - Hurriat in +original, corrected by Errata. + +Note 133 "Also Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 64." - Tamil-ul-Iman in original, +corrected by Errata. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faith of Islam, by Edward Sell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAITH OF ISLAM *** + +***** This file should be named 20660.txt or 20660.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/6/20660/ + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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