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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157,
+March 5, 1898, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157, March 5, 1898
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 27, 2007 [EBook #21225]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1157
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, March 5, 1898.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1157.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                                              PAGE
+I.     ARCHÆOLOGY.--Requirements of Palestine Explorer       18489
+
+II.    BIOGRAPHY.--Emperor William II. of Germany.--An
+       interesting biographical account of the German
+       Emperor, with his latest portrait.--1 illustration    18486
+
+III.   CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Heat in Great Tunnels             18492
+
+IV.    ECONOMICS.--Causes of Poverty                         18490
+
+V.     ELECTRICITY.--Liquid Rheostats.--By H. S. WEBB        18498
+
+       The Neutral Use of Cables                             18489
+
+VI.    ETHNOLOGY.--The Influence of Scenery upon the
+       Character of Man                                      18488
+
+VII.   FORESTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining the Cubature of
+       Trees.--3 illustrations                               18493
+
+VIII.  GYMNASTICS.--A Novel Way of Riding a Bicycle.
+       --1 illustration                                      18489
+
+IX.    HYDROGRAPHY.--Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate  18490
+
+X.     LANDSCAPE GARDENING.--Park Making                     18490
+
+XI.    MARINE ENGINEERING.--The Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
+       Passenger Steamer "Bruce."--1 illustration            18492
+
+XII.   MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Machine Moulding without
+       Stripping Plates.--By E. H. MUMFORD.--A full
+       description of an ingenious moulding machine.--7
+       illustrations                                         18494
+
+XIII.  MEDICINE.--The Progress of Medical Education in the
+       United States                                         18499
+
+       Deaths under Anæsthetics                              18499
+
+XIV.   MISCELLANEOUS:
+
+       Engineering Notes                                     18491
+
+       Miscellaneous Notes                                   18491
+
+       Selected Formulæ                                      18491
+
+XV.    NATURAL HISTORY.--Tapirs in the Zoological Garden at
+       Breslau.--1 illustration                              18488
+
+XVI.   STEAM ENGINEERING.--An English Steam Fire Engine.
+       --1 illustration                                      18493
+
+XVII.  TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION.--My Recent Journey from the
+       Nile to Suakim.--By FREDERIC VILLIERS.--The advance
+       to Khartoum.--An important account of the recent
+       travels of the celebrated war correspondent.          18486
+
+XVIII. TECHNOLOGY.--Artificial India Rubber.--This article
+       describes some important experiments which have been
+       made in which India rubber substitutes have been
+       produced from oil of turpentine                       18495
+
+       Deep and Frosted Etching on Glass                     18496
+
+       The Koppel Electric Locomotives.--This article
+       describes a system of electric trolley traction for
+       narrow gage railroads.--7 illustrations               18497
+
+       Slate and its Applications.--This article details
+       some of the various uses to which slate is put in the
+       arts, with a view of slate store vats for breweries.  18496
+
+       Birthplace of the Oilcloth Industry.                  18496
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: LATEST PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY]
+
+EMPEROR WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY.
+
+
+Since William II. of Germany ascended the throne as German Emperor and
+King of Prussia, on June 15, 1888, the eyes of Europe have been fixed
+on him. He has always been rather an unknown quantity, and he is
+regarded by the powers as an _enfant terrible_. The press of the world
+delights in showing up his weak points, and the "war lord" undoubtedly
+has them, but, at the same time, he has qualities which are to be
+admired and which make him conspicuous among the rulers of Europe.
+
+He is popular in Germany, and it is not surprising, for, in spite of
+being autocratic to the last degree, he is honest, courageous,
+ambitious, hard working, and, withal, a thorough German, being
+intensely patriotic. Indeed, if the people of the Fatherland had the
+right to vote for a sovereign, they would undoubtedly choose the
+present constitutional ruler, for, while the virtues we have named may
+seem commonplace, they are not so when embodied in an emperor. One
+thing which places William at a disadvantage is his excessive
+frankness, which is, in him, almost a fault, for if he couched his
+utterances in courtly or diplomatic phrases, they would pass
+unchallenged, instead of being cited to ridicule him. His mistakes
+have largely resulted from his impulsive nature coupled with
+chauvinism, which is, perhaps, justifiable, or, at least, excusable,
+in a ruler.
+
+Since the time when William was a child he evidenced a strong desire
+to become acquainted with the details of the office to which his lofty
+birth entitled him. It is doubtful if any king since the time of
+Frederick the Great has studied the routine of the public offices and
+has made such practical inspections of industries of all kinds;
+indeed, there is hardly a man in Germany who has more general
+knowledge of the material development of the country.
+
+In the army he has worked his way up like any other officer and has a
+firm grasp on all the multifarious details of the military
+establishment of the great country. He believes in militarism, or in
+force to use a more common expression, but in this he is right, for it
+has taken two hundred and fifty years to bring Prussia to the position
+she now holds, and what she has gained at the point of the sword must
+be retained in the same way. The immense sacrifices which the people
+make to support the army and navy are deemed necessary for
+self-preservation, and with France on one side and Russia on the
+other, there really seems to be ample excuse for it. To-day the German
+army is as ready as in 1870, when Von Moltke walked down the Unter den
+Linden, the day after hostilities were declared, looking in the shop
+windows.
+
+No ruler, except possibly Peter the Great, ever gave so many _ex
+cathedra_ opinions on so many different subjects in the same length of
+time, and of course it cannot be supposed that he has not made
+mistakes, but it shows that it is only by prodigious industry that he
+has been able to gather the materials on which these utterances are
+based. He is indeed the "first servant of the state," and long before
+his court or indeed many of the housemaids of Berlin are awake, he is
+up and attending to affairs of all kinds.
+
+He is a great traveler, and knows Europe from the North Cape to the
+Golden Horn; and while flying across country in his comfortable
+vestibuled train, he dispatches business and acquires an excellent
+idea of the country, and no traveler can speak more intelligently of
+the countries through which he has traveled, and this information is
+brought out with good effect in his excellent after-dinner speeches.
+
+In speaking of the versatility of the Emperor, something should be
+said of him as a sportsman. He has given a splendid example to the
+Germans. He has tried to introduce baseball, football and polo, three
+American games. This may be traced to the time when Poultney Bigelow
+and J. A. Berrian were the Emperor's playmates. Fenimore Cooper was
+one of the favorite authors with the young scion of royalty. The
+Emperor is fond of hunting, yachting, tennis and other sports and is
+never so happy as when he stands on the bridge of the royal yacht
+Hohenzollern. He is a well known figure at Cowes and won the Queen's
+Cup in 1891.
+
+William II. was born January 27, 1859, in Berlin, and until he was
+fourteen years old his education was intrusted to Dr. Hintzpeter,
+assisted by Major Von Gottberg, who was military instructor. At this
+time his corps of teachers was increased by the addition of Prediger
+Persius, who prepared him for his confirmation, which took place
+September 1, 1874, at Potsdam. As William was to lead an active life,
+it was thought best to send him to the gymnasium at Cassel.
+
+Orders were given that he and his younger brother Henry, who
+accompanied him, should receive the same treatment as the other
+pupils, and this order was strictly obeyed. He graduated from this
+school January 24, 1877, just before his eighteenth birthday. After
+this his military career began with his entrance as an officer into
+the first Garde-regiment at Potsdam, that he might become thoroughly
+acquainted with practical service. The young prince was assigned to
+the company which his father had once commanded. After serving here
+for a short time he went to the university at Bonn, and from there he
+went back to the army again. Emperor William ascended the throne in
+June, 1888, upon the death of his father Frederick III.
+
+In 1880 he was betrothed to Augusta Victoria, Princess of
+Schleswig-Holstein, and on February 9, 1881, they were married. The
+Empress is about a year younger than the Emperor, and makes an
+excellent mother to her four little sons, to whom she is devoted.
+Their oldest child, little Prince William, the present Crown Prince,
+was born at Potsdam, May 6, 1882. His father's devotion to the army
+will doubtless prompt him to make a soldier of his son at an early
+age; in fact, he wore the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard before he
+was six years old.
+
+The imperial family consists of seven children. The
+eldest, the Crown Prince of Germany and Prussia, is Prince
+Friedrich-Wilhelm-Victor-August-Ernst, born May 6, 1882. The second
+child is Prince Wilhelm-Eitel-Friedrich-Christian-Karl, born July 7,
+1883. The third is Prince Adalbert-Ferdinand-Berenger-Victor, born
+July 14, 1884. Prince August-Wilhelm-Heinrich-Victor was born January
+29. 1887. The fifth child, Prince Oscar-Karl-Gustav-Adolf, was born
+July 27, 1888. The sixth child is Prince Joachim-Francois-Humbert. He
+was born December 17, 1890. The youngest is a girl, Princess
+Victoria-Louise-Adelaide-Mathilde-Charlotte. She was born September
+13, 1892.
+
+Our engraving is from the last portrait of the Emperor William, and we
+are indebted for it to the Illustrirte Zeitung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MY RECENT JOURNEY FROM THE NILE TO SUAKIM.
+
+BY FREDERIC VILLIERS, IN THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.
+
+
+THE ADVANCE TO KHARTOUM.
+
+The recent campaign in the Soudan was a bloodless one to the
+correspondent with the expedition, or, rather, on the tail of the
+advance. Yet I think, in spite of this little drawback, there is
+enough in the vicissitudes of my colleagues and myself during the
+recent advance of the Egyptian troops up the Nile to warrant me
+addressing you this afternoon. Especially as toward the end of the
+campaign the Sirdar, or Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, Sir
+Herbert Kitchener, became more sympathetic with our endeavors to get
+good copy for our journals, and allowed us to return home by the old
+trade route of the Eastern Soudan, over which no European had passed
+since the revolt of the Eastern tribes in 1883. Unfortunately, the
+period for campaigning in the Soudan is in the hottest months in the
+year, on the rising of the Nile at the end of July, when the cataracts
+begin to be practicable for navigation. At the same time, in spite of
+the heat, it is the healthiest period, for the water, in its brown,
+muddy, pea soup state, is wholesomer to drink, and the banks of the
+river, which, when exposed at low Nile, give off unhealthy
+exhalations, are protected from spreading fever germs by the flood. To
+show you how much the people of Egypt depend for their very existence
+on this extraordinary river, the average difference between high and
+low Nile, giving favorable results, is 26 feet. Twenty-eight feet
+would cause serious damage by inundation, and the Nile as low as 20
+feet would create a famine. The flood of the river depends entirely on
+the equatorial rains which cause the Upper White Nile to rise in April
+and the Blue Nile early in June. The muddy Atbara, joining her two
+sisters about the same time, sends the flood down to Lower Egypt
+toward the end of August at the rate of 100 miles a day. The Blue Nile
+in the middle of September falls rapidly away, while the Atbara leaves
+the trio in October. The White Nile is then left by herself to recede
+slowly and steadily from a current of four knots an hour to a sluggish
+and, in many parts, an unwholesome stream. Flies and mosquitoes
+increase, and fever is rife.
+
+I arrived in Cairo on a sweltering day in July, and found four
+colleagues, who had been waiting for a week the Sirdar's permission to
+proceed to the front, still waiting. Luckily, the day after my arrival
+a telegram came from headquarters, saying that "we might proceed as
+far as Assouan and their await further orders." This, anyhow, was a
+move in the right direction; so we at once started. It was rather a
+bustle for me to get things ready, for Sunday blocked the way and
+little could be done, even on that day, in Cairo. I procured a
+servant, a horse and two cases of stores, for the cry was "nothing to
+be had up country in the shape of food; hardly sufficient sustenance
+to keep the flies alive." My colleagues, who had the start of me, were
+able to procure many luxuries--a case of cloudy ammonia for their
+toilet, and one of chartreuse, komel and benedictine to make their
+after dinner coffee palatable, and some plum pudding, if Christmas
+should still find them on the warpath, were a few of the many items
+that made up the trousseau of these up-to-date war correspondents,
+though at least one of them had been wedded to the life for many
+years. Unfortunately I had no time to procure these luxuries, and I
+had to proceed ammonialess and puddingless to the seat of war. My
+comrades were quite right. Why not do yourself well if you can? One of
+them even went in for the luxury of having three shooting irons, two
+revolvers and a double-barrel slug pistol, so that when either of the
+weapons got hot while he was holding Baggara horsemen at bay, there
+was always one cooling, ready to hand. He also, which I believe is a
+phenomenal record with any campaigner, took with him thirteen pairs of
+riding breeches, a half dozen razors and an ice machine. Even our
+commander-in-chief, when campaigning, denies himself more than two
+shirts and never travels with ice machines. But the thirteen pairs
+impressed me considerably. Why thirteen, more than fifteen, or any
+other number? I came to the conclusion that my colleague must
+certainly be a member of that mystic body the "Thirteen Club," and as
+he had to bring in the odd number somewhere to keep the club fresh in
+his memory, he occasionally sat upon it.
+
+I found, after all, there was some wisdom in his eccentricity, for,
+when riding the camel, mounted on the rough saddle of the country, I
+often wished that I had my friend's forethought, and I should have
+been glad to have supplemented mine with his odd number. No doubt my
+colleague's idea in having such a variety of nether garments was to
+use them respectively, on a similar principle to the revolvers, when
+he rode in hot haste with his vivid account of the latest battle to
+the telegraph office.
+
+But, unfortunately, this recent campaign did not, after all,
+necessitate these elaborate preparations, for there were no dervishes
+for us to shoot at or descriptions of bloody battles to be
+telegraphed. At all events, the cloudy ammonia and the thirteen
+breeches, with the assistance of a silken sash--a different color for
+each day of the week--made the brightest and smartest looking little
+man in camp. However, when I reflect on this new style of war
+correspondent, who, I forgot to mention, also carried with him two
+tents, a couple of beds, sundry chairs and tables, a silver-mounted
+dressing case, two baths, and a gross of toothpicks, and I think of
+the severe simplicity of the old style of campaigning when a famous
+correspondent who is still on the warpath, and who always sees the
+fighting if there be any, on one arduous campaign took with him the
+modest outfit of a tooth brush and a cake of carbolic soap, I joyfully
+feel that with the younger generation our profession is keeping pace
+with the luxury of the times.
+
+
+FROM BERBER TO SUAKIM.
+
+Toward the end of the campaign four colleagues--Messrs. Knight,
+Gwynne, Scudamore, Maud--and myself, took this opportunity of
+traversing a country very little known to the outside world, and a
+route which no European had followed for fourteen years, from Berber
+to Suakim. Moreover, there was a spice of adventure about it; there
+was an uncertainty regarding an altogether peaceful time on the way--a
+contingency which always appeals strongly to Englishmen of a roving
+and adventurous disposition. Only quite recently raids organized by
+the apparently irrepressible Osman Digna had been successfully carried
+out a few miles north and south of Berber. At the moment General
+Hunter, with two battalions of troops, was marching along the banks of
+the River Atbara to hunt for Osman and his followers, but there was
+much speculation as to whether five-and-twenty dervish raiders were
+still this side of the river, and drawing their water from the wells
+on the Suakim road.
+
+I was hardly prepared for this journey--one, probably, of twelve
+days--for my campaigning outfit, which I was compelled to leave on
+board my nugger on the Nile, had not yet arrived in Berber.
+Unfortunately, I could not wait for the gear, as the Sirdar insisted
+on our departure at once, for the road would be certainly insecure
+directly General Hunter returned from covering our right flank on the
+Atbara. I had no clothes but what I stood up in, and I had been more
+or less standing up in them without change for the last two weeks.
+
+Our caravan of nineteen camels, with two young ones, quite babies,
+following their mothers, and a couple of donkeys, about seven in the
+evening of the 30th of October quitted the mud-baked town of Berber,
+sleeping in the light of a new moon, and silently moved across the
+desert toward the Eastern Star. Next morning at the Morabeh Well, six
+miles from Berber, our camels having filled themselves up with water,
+and our numerous girbas, or water skins, being charged with the
+precious liquid--till they looked as if they were about to burst--our
+loads were packed and we started on a journey of fifty-two miles
+before the next water could be reached.
+
+We made quite a formidable show trailing over the desert. Probably it
+would have been more impressive if our two donkeys had restrained
+their ambition, and kept in the rear instead of leading the van. But
+animals mostly have their own way in these parts, and asses are no
+exception to this rule. The two baby camels commenced "grousing" with
+their elders directly we halted or made a fresh advance; they probably
+had an inkling of what was in store for them. After all, the world
+must seem a hard and unsympathetic place when, having only known it
+for two or three weeks, you are compelled to make a journey of 240
+miles to keep up with your commissariat. One of these babies was only
+in its eighteenth day. In spite of its tender youth the little beast
+trotted by the side of its mother, refreshing itself whenever we came
+to a halt with a pull from her teats, and, to the astonishment of all,
+arrived in Suakim safe and sound after twelve days' marching.
+
+To the uninitiated regarding the "grousing" of camels, I should
+explain that it is a peculiar noise which comes from their long funnel
+necks early or late, and for what reason it is difficult to tell.
+Sometimes the sound is not unlike the bray of an ass, occasionally it
+reaches the dignity of the roar of a lion with the bleating of a goat
+thrown in, then as quickly changes to the solemnity of a church organ.
+It is altogether so strange a sound that nothing but a phonograph
+could convey any adequate idea of it. It is a thing to be heard. No
+pen can properly describe it. After a long march, and when you are
+preparing to relieve the brute of his load, he begins to grouse. When
+he is about to start in the morning he grouses. If you hit him, he
+grouses; if you pat his neck gently, he grouses; if you offer him
+something to eat, he grouses; and if you twist his tail, he makes the
+same extraordinary noise. The camel evidently has not a large
+vocabulary, and he is compelled to express all his various sensations
+in this simple manner.
+
+The first part of our journey was monotonous enough, miles and miles
+of weary sandy plains, with alternate stretches of agabas or stony
+deserts, scored with shallow depressions, where torrential rains had
+recently soaked into the sand, leaving a glassy, clay-like surface,
+which had flaked or cracked into huge fissures under the heat of the
+fierce sun. And at every few hundred yards we came to patches of
+coarse camel grass, which had evidently cropped up on the coming of
+the rain, and, by its present aspect, seemed to feel very sorry that
+it had been induced to put in an appearance, for its sustenance was
+now fast passing into vapor, and its green young life was rapidly
+dying out as the sun scorched the tender shoots to the roots. But
+camels thrive on this parched-up grass, and our brutes nibbled at it
+whenever one slackened the head-rope.
+
+We traversed the dreary plain, marked every few yards by the bleached
+bones of camels fallen by the way; the only living thing met with for
+two days being a snake of the cobra type trailing across our path. The
+evening of the second day we camped in a long wadi, or shallow valley,
+full of mimosa trees, where our camels were hobbled and allowed to
+graze. They delighted in nibbling the young branches of these prickly
+acacias, which carry thorns at least an inch in length, that serve
+excellently well for toothpicks. Yet camels seem to rejoice in
+browsing off these trees, and chew up their thorns without blinking.
+This I can partly understand, for the camel's usual diet of dry,
+coarse grass must become rather insipid, and as we sometimes take
+"sauce piquante" with our cold dishes, so he tickles his palate with
+one inch thorns.
+
+Climbing ridge after ridge of the dunes, we at last saw stretching
+before us in the moonlight the valley of Obak, an extensive wadi of
+mimosa and sunt trees. Our guides halted on a smooth stretch of sand,
+and I wondered why we were not resting by the wells. Near were three
+native women squatting round a dark object that looked to me, in the
+faint light of the moon, like a tray. I walked up to them, thinking
+they might have some grain upon it for sale, but found to my surprise
+that it was a hole in the sand, and I realized at once that this must
+be a well. One of the women was manipulating a leather bucket at the
+end of a rope, which after a considerable time she began hauling up to
+the surface. It was about half full of thick, muddy water. Further on
+along the wadi I now noticed other groups of natives squatting on the
+sand doing sentinel over the primitive wells. I never came across a
+more slovenly method of getting water. The mouths of the holes were
+not banked or protected; a rain storm or sand drift at any moment
+might have blocked them for a considerable period.
+
+Not being able to get water for the camels was a serious matter, as
+our animals were not of the strongest, nor had they been recently
+trained for a long journey without water. This was the evening of the
+third day from Berber, and many of the poor brutes were showing signs
+of weakness. We resolved, therefore, to hurry on at once to the next
+well, that of Ariab; so we left the inhospitable wadi, and started at
+three in the morning on our next stretch of fifty-three miles.
+
+These night marches were pleasant enough; it was only the hour or two
+before dawn when the heaviness of sleep troubled us; but just as we
+began nodding, and felt in danger of falling off our camels, the keen
+change in the temperature which freshens the desert in the early
+morning braced us up, and, fully awake, we watched for the coming of
+Venus. As she sailed across the heavens, she flooded the desert with a
+warm, soft light, which in its luminosity equaled an English summer
+moon, and shortly seemingly following her guidance, the great fiery
+shield of the sun stood up from the horizon, and broad day swept over
+the plain.
+
+Toward the evening we found ourselves in a bowlder-strewn basin amid
+rocky, sterile hills, evidently the offshoots and spurs of the
+Jeb-el-Gharr, which stood out a purple serrated mass on our left, and
+here we saw for the first time for many a month rain clouds piling up
+above the rocky heights. Their tops, catching the rosy glow from the
+declining sun, appeared in their quaint forms like loftier mountains
+with their snowy summits all aglow. This was, indeed, a grateful sight
+to us; the camels already pricked up their ears, for the smell of
+moisture was in the air. We knew that the end of our waterless journey
+was not far off; for where those clouds were discharging their
+precious burdens the valley of Ariab lay. But many a weary ridge of
+black rock and agaba must still be crossed before our goal was
+reached.
+
+We camped at six that evening till midnight, when we started on our
+record march. Unfortunately at this time my filter gave out, owing to
+the perishable nature of the rubber tubing; the remaining water in our
+girbas was foul and nauseating from the strong flavor of the skins. I
+resolved to try and hold out without touching the thick, greasy fluid,
+and wait till the wells of Ariab were reached. As we advanced, the
+signs of water became more and more apparent; the camel grass was
+greener down by the roots, and mimosa and sunt trees flourished at
+every few hundred yards. When morning came, for the first time we
+heard the chirruping and piping of birds. The camels increased their
+pace, and all became eager to reach our destination before the extreme
+heat of the day. But pass after pass was traversed, and valley after
+valley crossed, and yet the wadi of Ariab, with its cool, deep wells
+of precious water, was still afar. It was not till past two o'clock in
+the afternoon that a long, toilsome defile of rugged rock brought us
+on the edge of a steep descent, and before us lay the winding Khor of
+Ariab, with its mass of green fresh foliage throwing gentle shadows on
+the silver sand of its dry watercourse. It seemed an age as we
+traversed that extended khor before our guide pointed to a large tree
+on our right, and said "Moja." We dismounted under the shadow of its
+branches, and found awaiting us the sheikh of the valley, who pressed
+our hands and greeted us in a most friendly way; but I was almost mad
+with thirst, and asked for the well. I was taken to a mound a few
+yards from our retreat, on the sides of which were two or three clay
+scoop-outs, all dry but one, and this held a few gallons of tepid
+water, from which camels had been drinking. The man took a gourd, half
+filled it, and offered it to me to drink. "But the well, the well!" I
+cried. "Oh! that's a little higher up," said he, and he led me to a
+wide revetted well about fifty feet deep, at the bottom of which,
+reflecting the sky, shone the water like a mirror. "That's the water I
+want," said I. The man shook his head. "You cannot drink of that till
+your baggage camels arrive; we have no means of reaching it." I almost
+groaned aloud, and with the agony of the Ancient Mariner could well
+cry, "Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink." There was no
+help for it. I made my way back to the shadow of the tree, threw
+myself on my blanket, and, racked with thirst, tried to wait patiently
+for the coming of the camel men. Fortunately, the sheikh of the well
+was inspired with hospitality, and after a while brought us some fresh
+milk in a metal wash basin, a utensil which he evidently produced in
+honor of our visit. I took a long draught, and though it was
+associated with native ablutions, I shall always remember it with the
+greatest satisfaction. We camped for 24 hours in the sylvan vicinity
+of Ariab Wells--stretched ourselves in the broad shadows of its mimosa
+trees, and drank of and bathed in its sweet, cool waters.
+
+This long rest improved our camels wonderfully. By the bye, there was
+much speculation between two of our party regarding the behavior of
+these curious animals on arriving at the wells after their long
+waterless march. A general impression was that for the last few miles
+the camels would race for the waters, and thwart all endeavors to hold
+them in. My experience of the strange beast was otherwise, and
+subsequent events proved that I was right. When the Hamleh, as we
+christened our caravan, arrived, the camels quietly waited awhile
+after their burdens were taken from their humps. Then, as if an
+afterthought had struck them, they slowly approached the scoop-outs
+and with the most indifferent air would take a mouthful of the liquid,
+then, stiffening their necks, they would lift their heads and calmly
+survey the scenery around them, till their drivers would draw their
+attention to the fact that there was at least another draught of water
+in the pool. It should be remembered that these animals had just come
+off a continuous journey of nearly fifteen hours, without a halt, and
+had been for three whole days without water.
+
+We left our camping ground as the sun began to dip behind the hills
+shutting in the khor. Our way now lay in a more northeasterly
+direction, and the sun threw the hills and valleys we were approaching
+into a marvelous medley of glorious color, and more than one of us
+regretted that we had not brought our color boxes with us. Sometimes
+we seemed to catch a glimpse of the heather-clad Highlands of
+Scotland. Then a twist in the khor we were traversing suggested the
+rugged passes of Afghanistan. Gazelle and ariel stole among the foot
+hills or stood gazing at us as near as a stone's throw. One of our
+party, Mr. Gwynne, commenced stalking a gazelle, but, darkness setting
+in, the beast got away. For the rest of the journey to Suakim,
+however, he had good sport, and saved us many a time from going hungry
+with his shooting for the pot.
+
+About 34 miles from Ariab we came to one of the most interesting spots
+of the whole journey--the extensive Valley of Khokreb, wherein lay the
+deserted dervish dem, or stronghold. Here some followers of Osman
+Digna used to levy toll on all caravans and persons moving toward
+Suakim, or taking routes south. The dem consisted of a number of well
+built tokuls, or straw huts, standing in their compounds, with
+stabling for horses and pounds for cattle. The whole was surrounded
+with a staked wall, in front of which was a zariba of prickly mimosa
+bush, to stop a sudden onrush of an enemy. The place was intact, but
+there was not a living soul within it, or in the vast valley in which
+it stood, that we could see. In fact, our whole journey up to the
+present seemed to be through a country that might have been ravished
+by some plague or bore some fatal curse. As the light of the moon
+prevailed, we came upon an extensive plain shelving upward toward
+steep hills. Specks of bright light stood out against the distant
+background, and we presently found that the moonlight was glinting on
+spear heads, and soon a line of camels crept toward us, and marching
+as escort was a small guard of Hadendowahs, with spear and shield.
+
+We found the convoy to be a detachment of a caravan of 160 camel loads
+of stores sent from Suakim to Berber by that enterprising Greek,
+Angelo, of the former town. They had been on the road already eight
+days, having to move cautiously owing to rumors of dervish activity,
+but had arrived so far safely. We bivouacked for several hours in the
+Wadi of Salalat, which was quite parklike with its fine growth of sunt
+trees.
+
+When we had crossed the frontier between Bisheren and Hadendowah
+country we were in comparative safety regarding any molestation by the
+natives, for we were escorted by the son of the sheikh of one of the
+subtribes of the latter country. At all events, I must have been a
+sore temptation for any evil disposed Fuzzy Wuzzy; for, owing to my
+camel being badly galled by an ill-fitting saddle, I would find myself
+for many hours entirely alone picking my way by the light of the moon,
+the poor brute I was riding not being able to keep pace with the rest.
+All the following day our route lay over stony plains of a bolder type
+than any we had yet seen, and when in the heart of the Hadendowah
+Hills we came suddenly upon a scene in its weirdness the most
+extraordinary and most appallingly grand I had ever seen. A huge
+wilderness lay before us like the dry bed of a vast ocean, whose
+waters by some subterranean convulsion had been sucked into the bowels
+of the earth, leaving in its whirling eddies the debris of submarine
+mountains heaped up in rugged confusion or scattered over its sandy
+bottom. Porphyry and black granite bowlders, in every conceivable form
+and size, lay strewn over the plain. Sometimes so fantastic did their
+shapes become that the least imaginative of our party could picture
+the gigantic ruins of some mighty citadel, with its ramparts, bastions
+and towering castle. For many hours we were traversing this weird and
+desolate valley, and when the sun cast long shadows across our track
+as he sank to rest, his ruddy light falling upon the dark bowlders,
+polished with the sand storms of thousands of years, stray pieces of
+red granite would catch his rosy glint, and sparkle like giant rubies
+in a setting of black pearls.
+
+We found more life in ten miles of the Hadendowah country than during
+the whole of the first part of our journey. Flocks of sheep, goats and
+oxen passed us coming to the wells, or going to some pasturage up in
+the hills, but few natives came near us, and there were no signs of
+habitation anywhere. The wells we now passed were mere water holes
+similar to those met with up country in Australia. The flocks of the
+natives would hurry down at eventide and drink up all the water that
+had percolated through the sand during the day, befouling the pools in
+every conceivable way. Natives seem to revel in water contaminated by
+all kind of horrors. They wash the sore backs of their camels, bathe
+their sheep and drink from the same pool. At one large hole round
+which a number of natives were filling their girbas we halted, and
+procured some of the liquid, which was muddy and tepid, but
+wholesomer. A native caravan had camped near by and the Hadendowah
+escort of spearmen crowded round us.
+
+The Fuzzy Wuzzy is a much more pleasant object when seen through a
+binocular than when he is close to you. His frizzy locks are generally
+clotted with rancid butter, his slender garment is not over clean. He
+is a very plucky individual, as we know, thrifty, and lives upon next
+to nothing, but many live upon him. Several graybeards came up to
+salute their sheikh, who was traveling with us, and this they did by
+pressing his hand many times, and bowing low, but they glanced at us
+with no amiable eyes, and suddenly turned away. There was no absolute
+discourtesy; they simply did not want to be introduced. Probably they
+remembered the incident at Tamai, where many of their friends were
+pierced with British bullets. So they slung their shields, trailed
+their spears and turned away.
+
+My camel had much improved by gentle treatment and I was able to ride
+on ahead. Just as I neared the narrow neck of the Tamai Pass, two men
+and a boy climbed down toward us from a small guard house, on a lofty
+rock to our left. My camel man and I instinctively came to a halt, for
+the manner of the comers, who were fully armed, was impressive. They
+confronted us and immediately began questioning my camel man, after
+much altercation, during which I quietly leaned over my saddle and
+unbuttoned my revolver case, for they looked truculent and somewhat
+offensive. My camel man mysteriously felt about his waist belt, and
+eventually handed something to the foremost native, whereat he and his
+companions turned and began to reclimb the hill. As we went on our
+way, I inquired the reason of the men barring our path. "Oh," my man
+said, "it is simply a question of snuff." "Snuff," I exclaimed, in
+astonishment. "Yes; that was all they wanted--a little tobacco powder
+to chew." Here was a possible adventure that seemed as if it were
+going to end in smoke, and snuff was its finale.
+
+After all the Suakim-Berber road, that was looked upon as full of
+dramatic incident--for even our military friends in Berber, when they
+bid us goodby, said, "It was a very sporting thing to do. Great Scott!
+They only wished they had the luck to come along"--was a highway
+without even a highwayman upon it, and apparently for the moment as
+pleasantly safe, minus the hostelries en route, as the road from
+London to York. Prom the top of Tamai Pass, 2,870 feet--though of the
+same name, not to be confounded with the famous battle which took
+place further south--we began to make a rapid descent, and the last
+sixty miles of our journey were spent in traversing some of the most
+lovely mountain scenery I think I have ever visited. Sometimes one
+might be passing over a Yorkshire moorland, with its purple backing of
+hills, for the sky was lowering and threatened rain. Then the scene
+would as quickly change to a Swiss valley, when, on rounding the base
+of a spur, one would strike a weird, volcanic-torn country whose
+mountains piled up in utter confusion like the waves of the stormy
+Atlantic; and further on we would come out upon a plain once more
+scattered with gigantic bowlders of porphyry and trap, out of which
+the monoliths of ancient Thebes might have been fashioned.
+
+On the morning of the tenth day out from Berber, we sighted the fort
+and signal tower of the Egyptian post at Tambuk, on a lofty rugged
+rock, standing out in the middle of an immense khor. This was
+practically the beginning of the end of our long journey, and here we
+rested a few hours, once more drinking our fill of pure sparkling
+water from its revetted wells.
+
+About half an hour in a northeasterly direction, after a continual
+descent from the Egyptian fort, we noticed, at intervals between the
+hills in front of us, a straight band of blue which sparkled in the
+sunlight. At this sight I could not refrain from giving a cheer--it
+was the Red Sea that glistened with the sun--for it meant so much to
+us. Across its shining bosom was our path to civilization and its
+attendant comforts, which we had been denied for many a month. Night
+found us steadily descending to ward the seaboard, as we neared Otao,
+in the vicinity of which we were to bivouac for the night. My camel
+nearly stumbled over an old rusty rail thrown across my path, and
+further on I could trace in the moonlight the dark trail of a crazy
+permanent way, with its rails all askew.
+
+We were passing the old rail head of the Suakim-Berber Railway, that
+was started in 1885. I wondered, as I followed fifteen miles of this
+rusty line, a gradual slope of 1,800 feet toward the sea, whether the
+road I had only just traversed had ever been surveyed for a railway,
+and whether anybody had the slightest notion of the difficulties to be
+contended with in carrying out the scheme. Of course, modern
+engineering, with such men as Sir Benjamin Baker at the fore, can
+overcome any difficulty if money be no object, but who can possibly
+see any return for the enormous outlay an undertaking of this kind
+would entail?
+
+To start with, there is one up grade of 2,870 feet within forty miles
+from Suakim, and the khors, through which the railway must wind, are
+sometimes raging torrents. To obviate this, if the line be built of
+trestles (timber elevations), as with the Canadian Pacific Railway,
+there is no wood in the country but for domestic purposes. Material,
+for every detail, must be imported. A smaller matter, but also
+somewhat important--though water apparently can be found in the khors
+for the digging, it is a question whether a sufficient quantity can be
+got at all times for the requirements of a railway. The natives
+themselves are often very badly off for water, as in the case of the
+Obak wells.
+
+Wells run dry at odd times in this country, and can never be depended
+upon. Of course, water can be condensed at Suakim and stored. Further,
+a rival line is already in progress, which will connect Wady Halfa
+with Berber early this year. European goods coming by that line from
+Alexandria would be free of the Suez Canal dues, and certainly the
+directors of that line would treat freights favorably if Suakim should
+ever be connected with Berber by rail. As for the interior trade of
+the country, nearly all the population have either died from recent
+famine or have been killed off in the Mahdi's cause. There is no
+commercial center or even market to tap from one end of the road to
+the other.
+
+The next morning we came in view of Suakim, the city of white coral,
+with her surf-beaten opalesque reefs stretching as far as the eye
+could follow. It seemed strange to me to be peacefully moving toward
+her outlying forts, for when I was last in her vicinity one could not
+go twenty yards outside the town without being shot at or running the
+gauntlet of a few spears. But here I was, slowly approaching its
+walls, accompanied by some of the very men who in those days would
+have cut my throat without the slightest hesitation. Suakim had
+changed much for the better; her streets were cleaner, and mostly free
+from Oriental smells. But these sanitary changes always take place
+when British officers are to the fore.
+
+Surgeon Capt. Fleming is the medical officer responsible for the
+health of the town, and he has been instrumental in carrying out great
+reforms, especially in doing away with the tokuls and hovels, in which
+the Arabs herded together, and removing them to a special quarter
+outside the town.
+
+The principal feature about Suakim to-day is its remarkable water
+supply. In 1884 our troops had to depend on condensed sea water,
+supplied from an old steamer anchored in the harbor, and the town folk
+drew an uncertain supply from the few wells outside the town. But now
+Suakim never wants for water, and that of the best. She even boasts of
+a fountain in the little square opposite the governor's house.
+Engineer Mason is responsible for this state of efficiency, to which
+Suakim owes much of her present immunity from disease. During the last
+twelve years immense condensing works have been erected on Quarantine
+Station; but, better still, about two years ago Mr. Mason discovered
+an apparently inexhaustible supply near Gemaiza, about three miles
+from the town. There is a theory--which this water finding has made a
+possible fact--that as coral does not grow in fresh water, the
+channel which allows steamers to approach close up to the town,
+through her miles of coral reefs, is caused by a fresh water current
+running from the shore.
+
+However, on this theory Mason set to work and found a splendid supply
+at Fort Charter; an excavation in the khor there, about 200 feet long
+and 40 deep, is now an immense cistern of sweet water, the result of
+which the machines condensing 150 tons of water a day are now only
+required to produce one-half the quantity, saving the Egyptian
+government a considerable outlay.
+
+The natives look upon Mason as a magician, the man who turns the salt
+ocean into sweet water. But metal refuse, scraps of iron, old boiler
+plates, under his magic touch, are also turned into the most useful
+things. For instance, the steam hammer used in the government workshop
+is rigged on steel columns from the debris of an engine room of a
+wrecked vessel. The hammer is the crank of a disused shaft of a cotton
+machine, the anvil is from an old "monkey," that drove the piles for
+the Suakim landing stage in 1884; the two cylinders are from an effete
+ice machine, and the steam and exhaust pipes come from a useless
+locomotive of the old railway. A lathe, a beautiful piece of
+workmanship, is fashioned out of one of the guns found at Tamai. And
+the building which covers these useful implements was erected by this
+clever engineer in the Sirdar's service, who had utilized the rails of
+the old Suakim-Berber line as girders for its roof, and, in my humble
+opinion, this is probably the very best purpose for which they can be
+used.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TAPIRS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN AT BRESLAU.
+
+
+A fine pair of shabrack (Tapirus indicus) and another pair of American
+tapirs (Tapirus americanus) constitute the chief attraction of the
+house devoted to pachyderms in the Zoological Garden at Breslau, and
+interest in this section of the garden has recently been greatly
+enhanced by the appearance of a healthy young shabrack. This is only
+the second time that a shabrack tapir has been born in captivity in
+Europe, and as the other one, which was born in the Zoological Garden
+at Hamburg, did not live many days, but few knew of its existence;
+consequently, little or nothing is known of the care and development
+of the young of this species, although they are so numerous in their
+native lands. Farther India, Southwestern China and the neighboring
+large islands, where they also do well in captivity. The tapir was not
+known until the beginning of this century, and even now it is a great
+rarity in the European animal market, and as the greatest care is
+required to keep it alive for any length of time in captivity, it is
+seldom seen in zoological gardens; therefore, the fact that the
+shabrack tapirs in the Breslau garden have not only lived, but their
+number has increased, is so much more remarkable.
+
+[Illustration: SHABRACK TAPIR WITH YOUNG ONE (FIVE DAYS OLD) IN THE
+BRESLAU ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN. FROM DRAWING BY ERICH SUCKOW.]
+
+Our engraving shows that the five days old tapir resembles its mother
+in form, although its marking is quite different. Its spots and
+stripes are very similar to those of the young of the American tapir,
+several of which have been born in captivity in Europe. They shade
+from yellow to brown on black or very dark brown ground, and the spots
+on the legs take a whitish tone. This little one's fur is longer on
+the body than on the head and extremities, and is soft and thick, but
+has not the peculiar glossiness of the full grown animal. Its iris is
+a beautiful blue violet, while that of the old one is dark violet, and
+its little hoofs are reddish brown, while those of the mother are horn
+gray. When standing, the new comer measures about two feet in
+length and one foot two inches in height, having gained about one
+inch in height in five days. Its fine condition is doubtless due
+partly to the great care given it and partly to the healthy
+constitution of the mother, and it is the pet of its keepers and
+of the public.--Illustrirte Zeitung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF SCENERY UPON THE CHARACTER OF MAN.
+
+
+The effect of scenery upon the mind of man has often been noticed and
+much has been written about it. Illustrations of this are generally
+drawn from the historic lands and from the ancient people of the East.
+The civilized races, such as the Greeks, Romans and other nations who
+formerly dwelt on the coast of the Mediterranean, are taken as
+examples. The Greeks are said to have owed their peculiar character
+and their taste for art to the varied and beautiful scenery which
+surrounded them. Their mythology and poetry are full of allusions to
+the scenes of nature. Mountains and springs, rivers and seas all come
+in as the background of the picture which represents their character
+and history. The same is true of the Romans, Egyptians, Phenicians,
+Syrians, Hebrews, the ancient Trojans and Carthaginians. Each one of
+these nations seems to have been affected by scenery. They were all,
+with the exception of the Carthaginians, confined within the limits of
+a narrow territory, and remained long enough in it to have partaken
+fully of the effect of their surroundings.
+
+The Romans were warlike at the beginning, and bore the air of
+conquerors, but their taste for art and literature resembled that of
+the Greeks. The Egyptians were sensuous and luxurious people. Their
+character bore the stamp of the river Nile with its periodical
+overflow, its rich soil and mild climate. The type of their religion
+was drawn from the gods who inhabited the same river valley. The
+Phenicians were a maritime people; they were the first navigators who
+reached the great seas. Their gods resembled those of the Assyrians
+and Chaldeans, but their character resembled the seas over which they
+roved; they did not originate, but they transported the products and
+inventions of the ancient world.
+
+The Hebrews had a national character which seemed to have been
+narrowed down to a small compass by their isolation and by their
+history, but their religion was as grand as the mountains of the
+desert, and their poetry as beautiful as the scenery along the river
+Jordan, which ran as a great artery through their land. It was a holy
+land which gave impress to the Holy Book. The effect of scenery upon
+human character is also illustrated in the case of the ancient
+inhabitants of America. This land was isolated from the rest of the
+world for many centuries--perhaps for thousands of years. It is
+supposed that up to the time of the discovery the tribes were
+permanent in their seats.
+
+Each tribe had its own habitat, its own customs, its own mythology and
+its own history. The effect of scenery must be considered, if we are
+to understand the peculiarities which mark the different tribes. Some
+imagine that the Indians are all alike, that they are all cruel
+savages, all given to drunkenness and degradation and only waiting
+their opportunity to wreak their vengeance upon helpless women and
+children. Those who know them, however, are impressed with the great
+variety which is manifest among them, and are especially convinced
+that much of this comes from the scenery amid which they have lived.
+The Eastern tribes may have had considerable sameness, yet the
+Algonquins, who were the prairie Indians, and the Iroquois, who dwelt
+in the forest and amid the lakes of New York, differed from one
+another in almost every respect, and the Sioux and Dakotas, who were
+also prairie Indians, differed from both of these. They were great
+warriors and great hunters, but had a system of religion which
+differed from that of any other tribe.
+
+The Sioux were cradled amid the mountains of the East, and bear the
+same stamp of their native scenery. They resemble the Iroquois in many
+respects. The same is true of the Cherokees, who were allied to the
+Iroquois in race and language. They were always mountain Indians; but
+the Southern tribes were very different from either. They were a
+people who were well advanced in civilization so far as the term can
+be applied to the aborigines. Their skulls are without angles and
+differ greatly from the keel-shaped skulls. They were dolichocephalic
+rather than kumbocephalic. They resemble the Polynesians, while the
+northern tribes resembled the Mongolians. Whatever their original home
+was, their adopted habitat was in accord with their tastes and
+character. It did not change them but rather made their traits more
+permanent and stable.
+
+The tribes of the northwest coast were seafarers; they inhabited the
+forest and worshiped the animals which were peculiar to the forest and
+took as their totems the eagle, wolf and raven, but they drew their
+subsistence in great part from the sea. They worshiped the animals of
+the seas, such as the shark, the whale and the sculpin. Their skill
+and courage as navigators have never been equaled. Taking their
+families and the few articles of commerce gathered from the forest
+they entered the symmetrical and beautifully carved canoes and
+breasted the storms and waves of the great sea near which they lived.
+There was a wildness in the waves which just suited them. The sea
+brought out the best traits and developed the heroic character. They
+were the "sea kings" of the Northwest. They were great navigators and
+great hero worshipers.
+
+The tribes of the interior, the Pueblos, the Zunis, differed from all
+other tribes. They were surrounded by wild tribes, such as the
+Apaches, Comanches and Navajoes. Whatever their origin, they had
+remained long enough in this territory to be affected by the scenery
+and surroundings. They were mild, luxurious, given over to religious
+ceremonies, made much of mythology and had many secret societies. They
+built their terraced houses, taking the cliffs and mesas as their
+patterns, and made them so similar to the rock and cliffs that it was
+difficult to recognize them at a distance. They did not mould the
+mountains into villages as the Mayas did, but they made their houses
+to conform to the mountains, and took the mountain gods and their
+nature divinities as chief objects of worship.
+
+The contrast between the ancient tribes of this region and the wild
+tribes which intruded upon them was very great. The Navajoes were a
+mountain people and drew their religion from the mountains. They
+borrowed many myths and customs from the ancient Pueblos, and like
+them, settled down to an agricultural life; but their sand paintings
+and their ceremonies reveal a taste for art and a poetical imagination
+which are very remarkable. The lone Indian who places his wigwam in
+the midst of the mountains seems to be always a stranger. The scenery
+has no effect upon him. It makes his spirit sad and his music
+plaintive, for he breathes out his spirit in his music. He never has
+had and never will have the character which some of his ancestors
+cultivated amid the wild scenes. His race is doomed; his fate is
+sealed. He can never catch up with the progress of the time.
+
+The railroad is bound to take the place of the Indian trail; the
+miners' cabin must supplant the Indian wigwam. Great cities will rise
+near where ancient villages stood, but the savage fails to appreciate
+the thought or the character of the people who have supplanted him.
+The wigwam amid the mountains is a symbol of what he is, but the
+locomotive at its side is an emblem of progress and of promise to
+those who will use their opportunities. The mountains are in the
+background--they suggest the possibilities which are before the
+settler. They interpose barriers, but the barriers themselves are
+fraught with good influences. Freedom has always dwelt among the
+mountains. Reverence for the Almighty has also prevailed. The leveling
+process must cease and man become more elevated in his thoughts as he
+rises to the altitude of these great heights.--The American
+Antiquarian.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NOVEL WAY OF RIDING A BICYCLE.
+
+
+"Artists" of the variety stage and the circus are always trying to
+find something new, for the same old trapeze performances, trials of
+strength, performances of rope dancers, etc., have been presented so
+many times that anyone who invents an entirely new trick is sure of
+making a large amount of money out of it; the more wild and dangerous
+it is, the better. Anything that naturally stands on its feet but can
+be made to stand on its head will be well received in the latter
+attitude by the public. Some such thought as this must have been in
+the mind of the man who conceived the idea of riding a bicycle on the
+ceiling instead of on the floor. The "trick" originated with the Swiss
+acrobat Di Batta, who, being too old to undertake such a performance
+himself, trained two of his pupils to do it, and they appeared with
+their wheel in Busch Circus in Berlin. The wheel, of course, ran on a
+track from which it was suspended in such a way that it could not
+fall, and the man who operated it used the handle bar as he would the
+cross bar of the trapeze. One would think that the position of the
+rider was sufficiently dangerous to satisfy any public, but the
+inventor of the trick sought to make it appear more wonderful by
+having the rider carry between his teeth a little trapeze from the
+crosspiece of which another man hung.
+
+[Illustration: BICYCLIST RIDING FROM THE CEILING OF A CIRCUS.]
+
+Different colored lights were thrown on the performers as they rode
+around the ceiling, and at the end of the performance first one and
+then the other dropped into the safety net which had been placed about
+sixty feet below them. We are indebted to the Illustrirte Zeitung for
+the cut and article.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF PALESTINE EXPLORER.
+
+
+Lieut.-Col. Conder says that the requirements for exploration demand a
+knowledge not only of Syrian antiquities, but of those of neighboring
+nations. It is necessary to understand the scripts and languages in
+use, and to study the original records as well as the art and
+architecture of various ages and countries. Much of our information
+is derived from Egyptian and Assyrian records of conquest, as well as
+from the monuments of Palestine itself. As regards scripts, the
+earliest alphabetical texts date only from about 900 B. C., but
+previous to this period we have to deal with the cuneiform, the
+Egyptian, the Hittite and the Cypriote characters.
+
+The explorer must know the history of the cuneiform from 2700 B. C.
+down to the Greek and Roman age, and the changes which occurred in the
+forms of some 550 characters originally hieroglyphics, but finally
+reduced to a rude alphabet by the Persians, and used not only in
+Babylonia and Assyria, but also as early as 1500 B. C. in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Armenia, Palestine and even by special scribes in Egypt. He
+should also be able to read the various Egyptian scripts--the 400
+hieroglyphics of the monuments, the hieratic, or running hand of the
+papyri, and the later demotic.
+
+The Hittite characters are quite distinct, and number at least 130
+characters, used in Syria and Asia Minor from 1500 B. C. or earlier
+down to about 700 B. C. The study of these characters is in its
+infancy. The syllabary of Cyprus was a character derived from these
+Hittite hieroglyphics, and used by the Greeks about 300 B. C. It
+includes some fifty characters, and was probably the original system
+whence the Phenician alphabet was derived. As regards alphabets, the
+explorer must study the early Phenician and the Hebrew, Samaritan and
+Moabite, with the later Aramean branch of this alphabet, whence square
+Hebrew is derived. He must also know the Ionian alphabet, whence Greek
+and Roman characters arose, and the early Arab scripts--Palmyrene,
+Nabathean and Sabean, whence are derived the Syriac, Cufic, Arabic and
+Himyaritic alphabets.
+
+As regards languages, the scholars of the last century had to deal
+only with Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic and Greek, but as the result
+of exploration we now deal with the ancient Egyptian whence Coptic is
+derived, and with various languages in cuneiform script, including the
+Akkadian (resembling pure Turkish) and the allied dialects of Susa,
+Media, Armenia and of the Hittites; the Assyrian, the earliest and
+most elaborate of Semitic languages; and Aryan tongues, such as the
+Persian, the Vannic and the Lycian.
+
+The art and architecture of Western Asia also furnish much information
+as to religious ideas, customs, dress and history, including inscribed
+seals and amulets, early coins and gems. The explorer must also study
+the remains of Greek, Roman, Arab and Crusader periods, in order to
+distinguish these from the earlier remains of the Canaanites,
+Phenicians, Hebrews, Egyptians and Assyrians, as well as the art of
+the Jews and Gnostics about the Christian era, and the later pagan
+structures down to the fourth century A.D.--Nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE NEUTRAL USE OF CABLES.
+
+
+Eleven submarine cables traverse the Atlantic between 60 and 40
+degrees north latitude. Nine of these connect the Canadian provinces
+and the United States with the territory of Great Britain; two (one
+American, the other Anglo-American) connect France. Of these, seven
+are largely owned, operated or controlled by American capital, while
+all the others are under English control and management. There is but
+one direct submarine cable connecting the territory of the United
+States with the continent of Europe, and that is the cable owned and
+operated by the Compagnie Francais Cables Telegraphiques, whose
+termini are Brest, France, and Cape Cod, on the coast of
+Massachusetts.
+
+All these cables between 60 and 40 degrees north latitude, which unite
+the United States with Europe, except the French cable, are under
+American or English control, and have their termini in the territory
+of Great Britain or the United States. In the event of war between
+these countries, unless restrained by conventional act, all these
+cables might be cut or subjected to exclusive censorship on the part
+of each of the belligerent states. Across the South Atlantic there are
+three cables, one American and two English, whose termini are
+Pernambuco, Brazil, and St. Louis, Africa, and near Lisbon, Portugal,
+with connecting English lines to England, one directly traversing the
+high seas between Lisbon and English territory and one touching at
+Vigo, Spain, at which point a German cable company has recently made a
+connection. The multiplication under English control of submarine
+cables has been the consistent policy of Great Britain, and to-day her
+cable communications connect the home government with all her colonies
+and with every strategic point, thus giving her exceptional advantages
+for commercial as well as for political purposes.
+
+The schedule blanks of rates of the English companies contain the
+following provisions: "The dispatches of the imperial government shall
+have priority when demanded. The cable must not, at any station,
+employ foreigners, and the lines must not pass through any office or
+be subject to the control of any foreign government. In the event of
+war, the government (of Great Britain) may occupy all the stations on
+English territory or under the protection of Great Britain, and it may
+use the cable by means of its own employes."
+
+It is not a pleasing reflection that in the actual situation the
+United States is at a great and embarrassing disadvantage. Meanwhile
+it would seem to be the policy of the United States to overcome this
+disadvantage by the multiplication of submarine cables under American
+or other than English competing foreign ownership and control.
+
+Although somewhat indeterminate, the policy of the United States in
+respect to the landing of foreign submarine cables, so far, at least,
+as the executive branch of the government is concerned, appears to be
+based chiefly upon considerations that shall guard against
+consolidation or amalgamation with other cable lines, while insisting
+upon reciprocal accommodations for American corporations and companies
+in foreign territory. The authority of the executive branch of the
+government to grant permission is exercised only in the absence of
+legislation by Congress regulating the subject, and concessions of the
+privileges heretofore have been subject to such further action by
+Congress in the matter as it may at any time take. Several bills are
+now pending in Congress relating to the landing of foreign submarine
+telegraph cables within the United States, and regulating the
+establishment of submarine telegraphic cable lines or systems in the
+United States. As this article is going to press, it is reported that
+the President has refused permission to a foreign cable company to
+renew a cable terminus within the territory of the United States, and
+that the question raised as to the power of the federal government to
+deny admission to the cable will be referred to the Attorney-General
+for an opinion. Meanwhile, the executive branch of the government
+holds to the doctrine that, in the absence of legislation by Congress,
+control of the landing and operation of foreign cables rests with the
+President. The question of the landing of foreign cables received some
+consideration from the late Attorney-General, in connection with an
+injunction suit brought by the United States against certain
+corporations engaged in placing on the coast of New York a cable
+having foreign connection. And he suggested for the consideration of
+Congress whether it would not be wise to give authority to some
+executive officer to grant or withhold consent to the entry of such
+foreign enterprises into this country on such terms and conditions as
+may be fixed by law.
+
+The principal and most important submarine cables traversing or
+connecting the great oceans are owned and operated by private
+corporations or companies. They are in number 310, and their length in
+nautical miles is 139,754. The length of cables owned or operated by
+state governments is, in nautical miles, 18,132.
+
+The policies of states, the movements of fleets and armies, and the
+regulation of the markets of the commercial world, depend upon
+devices, communications and orders that are habitually transmitted
+through the agency of submarine cables. In this view, the first aim is
+to safeguard from wanton destruction the delicate and expensive
+mechanism of these cables; the second is to restrain within the
+narrowest limits practicable interruptions in the operation of cables,
+even in the midst of hostilities; and the third is to encourage the
+establishment and extension of submarine cables owned and operated by
+American capital. All these ends may be advanced by the agreement of
+the powers to neutralize absolutely the submarine cable systems of
+the world. To do this will be a step in the direction of extending
+international jurisdiction, which is to be a controlling feature of
+the new periodical about to be established at Berlin, and to be
+printed in German, French and English, under the name of "Kosmodike."
+--Alexander Porter Morse in The Albany Law Journal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARK MAKING.
+
+
+Those who make public parks are apt to attempt too much and to injure
+not only the beauty, but the practical value of their creations by
+loading them with unnecessary and costly details. From the time when
+landscape gardening was first practiced as a fine art to the present
+day, park makers have been ambitious to change the face of nature--to
+dig lakes where lakes did not exist and to fill up lakes where they
+did exist, to cut down natural hills and to raise artificial ones, to
+plant in one place and to clear in another, and generally to spend
+money in construction entirely out of proportion to the value of the
+results obtained.
+
+The best art is simple in its expression, and the highest form of art
+in gardening is perhaps that which, taking advantage of such natural
+conditions as it finds, makes the best of them with the smallest
+expenditure of labor and money. Simplicity of design means not only
+economy of construction, but, what is of even more importance, economy
+of maintenance. The importance of making it possible to keep a great
+park in good condition without excessive annual expenditures for
+maintenance is a simple business proposition which would not seem to
+require much demonstration. Yet park makers, with their unnecessary
+walks and drives; with their expensive buildings which are always
+getting out of repair; their ponds, in which there is rarely water
+enough to keep them fresh; their brooks, which are frequently dry;
+their elaborate planting schemes, often ill suited to the positions
+where they are wanted, make parks expensive to construct and
+impossible to maintain in good condition, especially in this country,
+where the cost of labor is heavy and there is difficulty in obtaining
+under existing municipal methods skilled and faithful gardeners to
+keep anything like an elaborate garden in good condition. The most
+superficial examination of any of our large urban parks will show that
+wherever elaborate construction and planting have been attempted they
+have failed from subsequent neglect to produce the effects expected
+from them, and that broad, quiet, pastoral and sylvan features are the
+only permanent and really valuable ones we can hope to attain in our
+great city parks.
+
+It is needless, perhaps, to repeat what has been said so often in the
+columns of this journal, that in our judgment the greatest value and
+only justification of great urban parks exist in the fact that they
+can bring the country into the city and give to people who are obliged
+to pass their lives in cities the opportunity to enjoy the refreshment
+of mind and body which can only be found in communion with nature and
+the contemplation of beautiful natural objects harmoniously arranged.
+Parks have other and very important uses, but this is their highest
+claim to recognition. If it is the highest duty of the park maker to
+bring the country into the city, every road and every walk not
+absolutely needed to make the points of greatest interest and beauty
+easily accessible is an injury to his scheme, and every building and
+unnecessary construction of every kind reduces the value of his
+creation, as do trees and shrubs and other flowering plants which are
+out of harmony with their surroundings. Such things injure the
+artistic value of a park; they unnecessarily increase its cost and
+make the burden of annual maintenance more difficult to bear.
+Simplicity of design often means a saving of unnecessary expenditure,
+but it should not mean cheapness of construction. The most expensive
+parks to maintain are those which have been the most cheaply
+constructed, for cheap construction means expensive maintenance. Roads
+and walks should not be made where they are not needed, and they
+should not be made unnecessarily wide to accommodate possible crowds
+of another century, but those that are built should be constructed in
+the most thorough and durable manner possible, in order to reduce the
+cost of future care. When lawns are made, the work should be done
+thoroughly; and no tree or shrub should be planted in any manner but
+the best and in the most carefully prepared soil. Only as little work
+as possible should be done, but it should be done in the most
+permanent manner. The best investment a park maker can make is in good
+soil, for without an abundance of good soil it is impossible to
+produce large and permanent trees and good grass, and the chief value
+of any park is in its trees and grass; and if the money which has been
+spent in disfiguring American parks with unnecessary buildings and
+miscellaneous architectural terrors had been used in buying loam, they
+would not now present the dreary ranks of starved and stunted trees
+and the great patches of wornout turf which too often disfigure them.
+Only the hardiest trees and shrubs should be used in park planting;
+for there is no economy in planting trees or shrubs which are liable
+to be killed any year, partially, if not entirely, by frost or heat or
+drought, which annually ruin many exotic garden plants, nor is it wise
+to use in public parks plants which, unless carefully watched, are
+disfigured every year by insects. It costs a great deal of money to
+cut out dead and dying branches from trees and shrubs, to remove dead
+trees and fight insects, but work of this sort must be done, unless
+the selection of plants used to decorate our parks is made with the
+greatest care. Fortunately, the trees and shrubs which need the least
+attention, and are therefore the most economical ones to plant, are
+the best from an artistic point of view; and to produce large effects
+and such scenery as painters like to transfer to canvas, no great
+variety of material is needed. The most restful park scenery, and,
+therefore, the best, can be obtained by using judiciously a small
+number of varieties of the hardiest trees and shrubs, and the wise
+park maker will confine his choice to those species which Nature helps
+him to select, and which, therefore, stand the best chance of
+permanent success. No park can be beautiful unless the trees which
+adorn it are healthy, and no tree is healthy which suffers from
+uncongenial climatic conditions and insufficient nourishment. Even if
+they are not inharmonious in a natural combination, the trees and
+shrubs which need constant pruning to keep them from looking shabby
+are too expensive for park use and should, therefore, be rejected when
+broad, natural effects in construction and economy of maintenance are
+aimed for by the park maker.
+
+The sum of the matter of park construction is to make rural city parks
+less pretentious and artificial in design and to so construct them
+that the cost of maintenance will be reduced to the minimum. This will
+save money and lessen the danger of exhibitions of bad taste and
+encourage that simplicity which should be the controlling motive of
+sincere art.--Garden and Forest.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE.
+
+
+Few people realize that a very large part of inhabited Europe lies to
+the north of the latitude which in this country is considered the
+limit of habitation, says Prof. Ralph S. Tarr, in The Independent.
+London is situated in the same latitude as southern Labrador, where
+the inhabitants are scattered in small villages and are mainly summer
+residents who come there from the more southern lands to engage in
+fishing. During the winter their ports are closed by ice and
+navigation is stopped, while toward the British Isles steamers are
+constantly plying from all directions. The great city of St.
+Petersburg, which in winter is inaccessible to ships, but in summer
+enjoys a moderate climate, lies in the same latitude as the northern
+part of Labrador, where snow falls in every month of the year and
+where floating ice frequently retards navigation even in midsummer. As
+a result of the severity of climate the only people who find northern
+Labrador a place fit for existence are the Eskimo tribes, who win
+their living under great difficulties almost entirely from the sea. No
+white men live there, with the exception of some missionaries and the
+occasional traders.
+
+Everyone knows full well the reason for this difference in the
+climates of the two lands; the European coasts receive constant
+supplies of water that has been warmed in southern latitudes and
+carried northward in the great oceanic circulation and particularly in
+the Gulf Stream. The west winds, blowing toward the European coast,
+carry from this warm ocean belt air with higher temperature than that
+which exists over the land. On the eastern side of the Atlantic in
+place of a warm ocean current there is the cold Labrador current,
+which blows from the north and chills the water of the northwestern
+Atlantic. Therefore, the winds that come from the ocean blow over
+water that has been cooled, and the prevailing winds, which are from
+the west, come over the land, which is cool in winter and warm in
+summer.
+
+One may see these differences in climate and the causes for them even
+more strikingly exhibited within the Arctic belt than in this case
+which has been mentioned. The great land area of Greenland, with an
+area of six or seven hundred thousand square miles, is a highland
+capped over the greater part of its area with a snow field which
+completely buries all the land excepting that near the margins. The
+tongues from this ice field, whose area is some 500,000 square miles,
+reach into the sea and furnish innumerable icebergs that float away,
+chilling the waters. Notwithstanding the immense area of ice, the
+summer climate of the Greenland coast is remarkably moderate, even as
+far north as Melville Bay. The reason for this is the same as that
+mentioned for the climatic peculiarities of Europe. A current from the
+south, probably an eddy from the Gulf Stream, carries water northward
+along the Greenland coast, thus raising the temperature so that the
+ice which forms in the sea water and the bergs which float upon its
+surface are made to disappear during the warm part of the year.
+
+Sailing from the coast of Greenland at about the middle point, near
+Disco Island, in the early part of September, one leaves a land with a
+delightfully pleasant climate and warmth almost like that of the early
+autumn of temperate latitudes, and proceeding south-westward across
+Davis Straits to Baffin Land, two or three hundred miles southward,
+there finds himself in the midst of the conditions of early winter.
+The Greenland coast is not snow covered, plants are still in blossom
+and the hum of insects is heard; but in this more southern latitude,
+on the American side, the summer insects have entirely disappeared,
+only a few belated flowers are seen in protected places and a thin
+coat of snow covers all the land. Light snow may fall here during any
+time of the summer; but in spite of these differences Baffin Land is
+not ice covered, while Greenland is. The ice cap of the interior of
+Greenland is present less because of the severity of the climate at
+sea level than from the fact that the air which reaches this land has
+become humid in crossing the water areas, and further in the fact that
+the interior is a highland. On the Baffin Land side the interior is
+less elevated and there is less water to the westward in the direction
+from which the prevailing winds blow.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAUSES OF POVERTY.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Report of Richmond Mayo Smith, Franklin H. Giddings,
+   and Fred. W. Holls, Committee on Statistics of the New York
+   Charity Organization Society.--Condensed for Public Opinion.]
+
+
+The most interesting, and at the same time the most difficult, problem
+connected with an analysis of cases is to determine the real cause of
+destitution. It requires great experience and intelligence on the part
+of workers in charity to give even approximately the fundamental
+reason why a certain family has come to destitution. To classify cases
+from records without personal knowledge of each case, and then simply
+to count the cases, is a very inadequate method of arriving at the
+truth. The primary difficulty, of course, is to reach a
+classification. The one adopted by Mr. Warner in his book on American
+charities is: 1. Causes indicating misconduct; 2. Causes indicating
+misfortune. Under the first head come drink, immorality, laziness,
+shiftlessness and inefficiency, crime and dishonesty, a roving
+disposition. Under the second head come lack of normal support,
+matters of employment, matters of personal capacity, such as sickness
+or death in family, etc. The trouble with such a classification is
+that one cause may lie behind another, as drink is often the cause of
+lack of employment, of sickness or accident. On the other hand, lack
+of employment may lead to drink, immorality or laziness.
+
+With the limited number of cases that have been analyzed in this
+investigation, it would be impossible to expect any very conclusive
+results. We have endeavored, however, to make up for the small amount
+of the material by a careful and intelligent analysis, and by
+approaching the subject from three different points. We have first
+taken the alleged cause of distress--that is, the reason assigned by
+the person applying for relief. This, of course, will present the most
+favorable side, and the one most calculated to excite sympathy. We
+have, secondly, tabulated the real cause of distress, as gathered by
+the tabulator from the whole record. This, of course, is the judgment
+of an outside party, and the emphasis will be laid upon misfortune or
+misconduct according to the disposition of the investigator. We have,
+thirdly, the character of the man and woman as gathered from the
+record. This is supplementary evidence as to the real cause of
+distress. We go on now to present these three points of view. Loss of
+employment, 313; sickness or accident, 226; intemperance, 25;
+insufficient earnings, 52; physical defect or old age, 45; death of
+wage earner, 40; desertion, 40; other causes and uncertain, 103;
+total, 844. An attempt was made to follow the example of Mr. Booth and
+introduce supplementary causes as well as principal causes. About the
+only result, however, is that sickness often accompanies loss of
+employment, and that loss of employment often accompanies sickness or
+accident. It is clearly seen in this whole table how disposed
+applicants for relief are to attribute their distress to circumstances
+beyond their control.
+
+In the following table we have an attempt to analyze the real cause of
+distress, according to the judgment of the tabulator as gathered from
+the full record. In chronic cases the same cause is apt to appear in
+the successive applications. It was thought that this might lead to
+undue accumulation of particular causes. A separate tabulation,
+therefore, was made for the 500 first applications, and then for the
+total--832 applications. The table is as follows:
+
+THE REAL CAUSE OF DISTRESS.
+
+                           First Applications.  Total Applications.
+                           Number.    Percent.  Number.   Per cent.
+
+Lack of employment.           115        25.0      184        22.1
+Sickness or accident.         102        20.4      164        19.7
+Physical defects or old age.   27         5.4       42         5.0
+Death of wage earner.          18         3.6       30         3.6
+Desertion                      15         3.0       24         2.9
+Intemperance                   87        17.4      166        19.9
+Shiftlessness                  50        10.0      101        12.2
+No need                        86        17.2      121        14.6
+
+  Total                       500       100.0      832       100.0
+
+In this table it will be seen that emphasis is laid on misconduct
+rather than on misfortune. The difference between the two sets of
+returns is obvious. Where lack of employment and sickness have been
+alleged as accounting for 62-6/10 per cent. of the total, they are
+believed by the tabulator to really account for only 41-8/10 per cent.
+On the other hand, intemperance comes in as the real cause in 19-9/10
+per cent.; shiftlessness in 12-2/10 per cent. of the applications, and
+in 14-6/10 per cent. of the applications it was judged that there was
+no real need. It is very probable that these judgments are severe, but
+the result shows how frequently, at least, the personal character is a
+contributory cause of poverty.
+
+An attempt was made when reading the records to determine the general
+character of the man and woman--that is, the adult members of the
+family. Such classification is at the best very rough, and does not
+give us much information. It may be said that the character was put
+down as good unless something distinctly to the contrary appeared. The
+results are given in the following table:
+
+PERSONAL CHARACTER OF MAN AND WOMAN.
+
+               Male. Female. Total. Percentage.
+  Good          122     231    353      45
+  Criminal       15       1     16       2
+  Insane         ..       1      1      ..
+  Intemperate    81      56    137      17
+  Shiftless      56      52    108      14
+  Suspicious     13      30     43       6
+  Untruthful      5      15     20       3
+  Uncertain      38      65    103      13
+
+   Total        330     451    781     100
+
+  "Shiftless" includes  Male. Female. Total.
+  Professional beggers     5       5     10
+  Loss of independence     1       3      4
+  Lack of push             2       1      3
+  Laziness                 1      ..      1
+  Extravagance            ..       2      2
+  "Worthless"              7       5     12
+  Prostitute              ..       1      1
+
+  Total                   16      17     33
+  Shiftless indefinite    40      35     75
+
+  Total                   56      52    108
+
+It would seem from this table that the judgment of the investigators
+was lenient. In nearly one-half of the cases the character of the men
+and women was said to be good.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Fire tests of cast iron columns, made by order of the city authorities
+of Hamburg, are described in recent issues of the Deutsche Bauzeitung.
+The columns were 10 feet 8 inches long, 10.5 inches in diameter and of
+1/13 inch or 0.5 inch metal. They were loaded centrally and
+eccentrically, and some were cased with a fireproof covering. A
+hydraulic press was placed below the column and its crosshead above
+it, and then a hinged oven containing twelve large gas burners was
+clamped about the column. The oven was furnished with apparatus for
+measuring heat, with peep holes and with a water jet. On an average a
+load of 3.2 tons per square inch, with a heat of 1,400° F., produced
+deformation in thirty-five minutes in a centrally loaded column
+without casing. This showed itself by bulging all round in the middle
+of the heated part, especially where the metal happened to be thinner;
+fracture occurred finally in the middle of the thickest point of the
+bulge. If the load was less, this occurred at a higher temperature.
+Jets of water had no effect until deformation heat was reached. The
+casings had the effect of increasing the time before deformation began
+from half an hour to four or five hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGINEERING NOTES.
+
+
+THE MASSILON (Ohio) Bridge Company has received an order for the
+construction of a cantilever bridge 562 feet long and 18 feet wide,
+which is to be built by the New York Dredging Company at Honda, on the
+Magdalena River, in Colombia, South America.
+
+NAVIGATION ON the Amoo-Darya is to be extended considerably, so that
+Russian steamers will proceed upward on that river to Feisabad-Kalch,
+which is only about 200 miles from the scene of the recent Indian
+frontier troubles.--Uhland's Wochenschrift.
+
+A NEW process of manufacturing artificial stone has been patented in
+England. The stone is formed in steel moulds, which can be adjusted to
+any size, shape or design for which the finished stone may be
+required, and solid blocks weighing several hundred pounds have been
+easily produced.
+
+M. BERLIER, the well known engineer, has laid before the governments
+of Spain and Morocco a project for the construction of a tunnel under
+the Straits of Gibraltar. The execution of this plan would have
+immense economic consequences, so that its fate will be followed with
+interest. M. Berlier is the inventor of a new method of subterranean
+boring.
+
+"THE SALE of the steamers 'Pennsylvania,' 'Ohio,' 'Indiana,'
+'Illinois,' and 'Conemaugh,' by the International Navigation Company
+to the States Steamship Company for the Pacific trade leaves but five
+steamships flying the American flag crossing the Atlantic Ocean," says
+The Marine Record. "They are the 'St. Paul,' gross tons 11,629.21;
+'St. Louis,' gross tons 11,629.21; 'New York,' gross tons 10,802.61;
+'Paris,' gross tons 10,794.86; 'Evelyn,' gross tons 1,963.44, the
+latter three built in English shipyards and denationalized."
+
+JOHN MURPHY, general manager of the United Traction Company, of
+Pittsburg, reports the average life of motor gears on his line as two
+years, and the average life of pinions, nine months. He is employing
+the gears and pinions of the Simonds Manufacturing Company. The
+service is an exceedingly severe one, on account of the many grades on
+the line. The average life of trolley wheels is 1,000 miles, and the
+conditions under which they operate are quite severe, as the company
+has on its main line eighteen railroad crossings. A tempered copper
+wheel is employed.
+
+ACCORDING TO a recent correspondent of The Buffalo Express, in the
+Pennsylvania oil region during the last year over 300 gas engines have
+been placed on oil leases and are doing satisfactory work. The engines
+vary from 10 to 50 horse power. Every big machine shop in the oil
+regions is turning out gas engines. The machine shops are also using
+gas engines to drive their own machinery. During the last year twenty
+of the Standard Oil Company's pipe line pumping stations have been
+equipped with gas engines. In all the new stations and in old ones
+where new machinery is needed, the gas engine will be preferred. Where
+natural gas cannot be had and coal was formerly burned, gasoline is
+used. The pumping station engines are all provided with electric
+ignition.
+
+IN A recent issue of The Railway Age is published the following, based
+upon the last report of the Interstate Commerce Commission: "Last year
+the railways of the United States carried over 13,000,000,000
+passengers one mile. They also carried 95,000,000,000 tons of freight
+one mile. The total amount paid in dividends on stock was
+$87,603,371--call it $88,000,000. Of the total earnings of the
+railways, about 70 per cent. came from freight service and 30 per
+cent. from passenger service. Let us assume, then, that of the
+$88,000,000 paid in dividends, 70 per cent., or $61,600,000, was
+profit on freight service and $26,400,000 was profit on passenger
+service. Let us drop fractions and call it $62,000,000 from freight
+and $26,000,000 from passengers. By dividing the passenger profit into
+the number of passengers carried (13,000,000,000), we find that the
+railways had to carry a passenger 500 miles in order to earn $1 of
+profit--or five miles to earn 1 cent. Their average profit, therefore,
+was less than two-tenths of 1 cent for carrying a passenger (and his
+baggage) one mile. By dividing the freight profit into the freight
+mileage (95,000,000,000) we find that the railways had to carry one
+ton of freight 1,530 miles in order to earn $1, or over fifteen miles
+to earn 1 cent. The average profit, therefore, was less than
+one-fifteenth of a cent for carrying a ton of freight (besides loading
+and unloading it) one mile."
+
+THE RAILROADS in the United States have cost about $60,000 per mile,
+and probably a considerable percentage of this has not entered into
+the construction of the railroads and the equipment of same, says
+"Signal Engineer" in The Railroad Gazette. The railroads of Great
+Britain have cost about $240,000 a mile, and yet we claim for the
+United States more luxurious travel than can be found in Great
+Britain; and this is true so long as the travel is safe. The
+difference in the cost of construction in the United States and
+England may be found in the item of safety appliances. The railroads
+of Great Britain carried during the last year 800,000,000 passengers,
+with safety to all but five, and this was possible because the
+railroads, instead of expending their capital in luxurious equipment
+and passenger stations, chose rather to equip their lines with the
+most improved signaling and interlocking. The railroad companies of
+the United States in expending large sums for handsome and convenient
+terminals and luxurious cars are placing monuments before the public
+eye which naturally lead to the belief that every appointment of such
+roads is on the same high plane, and it requires much less expenditure
+to furnish luxurious equipment to be carried over 1,000 miles of road
+than it does to equip 10 miles of the 1,000 so as to make it safe; and
+since the expenditure for safety appliances and permanent way is not
+seen and felt by the passenger so long as he is carried in safety, it
+is not, therefore, so prominent before the public gaze as is the
+handsome station and the palatial car. On one road in Great Britain,
+having but 2,000 miles of track, there are employed more men in the
+manufacture and installation of signal work than are employed by all
+the signal companies and in the signal departments of all the
+railroads of the United States, where we are now operating about
+182,000 miles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
+
+
+ORDERS FOR large quantities of aluminum have been received within the
+last few weeks by the Pittsburg Reduction Company from the principal
+foreign nations for the equipment of their armies. The contracts
+aggregate about fifty tons a month, Russia being the largest consumer.
+
+ACCORDING TO the return published by the Minister of Agriculture, the
+consumption of horseflesh in Paris has decreased slightly in the last
+year, being only 4,472 tons, as against 4,664 tons for 1895-96. This
+was the meat derived from 20,878 horses, 53 mules and 232 donkeys
+slaughtered during the twelve months; but a very strict supervision is
+exercised, and 575 of these animals were condemned as unfit for human
+food. The flesh of the remainder was sold at 190 stalls or shops, and,
+although the fillet and undercut made as much as 9d. a pound, the
+inferior parts sold for 2d. or less, and most of the meat was used for
+making sausages.
+
+ACCORDING TO La Propriété Industrielle, 5,372 Austrian patents were
+granted in 1896 (5,215 in 1895). Of these, residents of the
+Austro-Hungarian monarchy received 2,070 (2,031 in 1895), Austrians
+coming first with 1,813 (1,683 in 1895), Hungarians second with 254
+(347 in 1895), while residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina secured 3
+patents (1 in 1895). Among foreigners the following show an increase
+over 1895: United States, 394 (335); Great Britain, 355 (313); France,
+244 (243); Switzerland, 94 (79); Belgium, 66 (48); Sweden and Norway,
+60 (40); Italy, 50 (45); Russia, 47 (40); Australia, 32 (10); and
+Netherlands, 26 (18). A decrease is shown by Germany, 1,887 (1,950);
+Denmark, 10 (17); Canada, 7 (14); and Spain, 6 (10). The total number
+of Austrian patents granted to foreigners in 1896 was 3,302, as
+against 3,184 in 1895.
+
+ENGLISH AND FRENCH LIGHTHOUSES.--An English engineer named Purves has
+just made a comparison in regard to the intensity of light of the
+lighthouses on the English coasts and those which illuminate the
+shores of France. The comparison shows results which are altogether
+favorable to France. The average illumination intensity of eighty-six
+English lighthouses of the first class is 20,680 candle power, while
+thirty-six first class French lighthouses give an average of 34,166
+candle power. The difference is more striking if the lighthouses
+constructed within the last ten years be considered. Since 1886 France
+has built eleven lighthouses, whose average intensity of light is
+8,200,000 candle power; the new lighthouse of Eckmühl gives
+40,000,000. According to Mr. Purves, the superior intensity of light
+of the French lighthouse lies in the use of the flashing rays, which
+have not yet found favor in England.
+
+IN AN address by Thomas Morris, before the Staffordshire, England,
+iron and steel works managers on the remarkable achievements that have
+been reached in the manufacture of fine wire, the interesting fact was
+mentioned that the lecturer had been presented by Warrington, the wire
+manufacturer, with specimens for which some $4.32 per pound were paid,
+or more than $8,600 per ton--drawn wire, largely used in the
+construction of piano and other musical and mechanical instruments.
+Among these specimens also was pinion wire, at a market price of
+$21.60 per pound, or $43,200 per ton. It took 754 hairsprings to weigh
+an ounce of 437œ grains; 27,000,000 of these were required to make a
+ton, and, taking one to be worth 1œ cents, the value of a ton of these
+cheap little things ran up to over $400,000. The barbed instruments
+used by dentists for extracting nerves from teeth were even more
+expensive, representing some $2,150,000 per ton.
+
+AT A fête in the Elysée Palace the other day one of the features
+prepared for the entertainment of the guests was a cinematograph,
+which contained views taken during President Faure's visit to St.
+Petersburg. One of the pictures settled for the President a question
+which had been troubling him considerably. Several months ago a German
+paper printed an interview with Bismarck, in which the ex-chancellor
+commented on M. Faure's visit to St. Petersburg, saying that the
+Frenchman had conducted himself according to etiquette except on one
+occasion, when, on his arrival in the Russian capital he had been
+saluted by the Cossack guard of honor, he had returned the salute with
+the hand, not with the hat. M. Faure being a civilian, this was a
+serious breach of etiquette, Bismarck said. The interview was
+reprinted in the French papers and caught the President's eye. He was
+much concerned about the matter and asked several friends who had been
+present if he had actually committed the breach. No one could
+remember. Then came the cinematograph show. As the small audience
+gazed upon the screen they saw the President's image advance with
+slow, dignified step before the Cossacks, then all at once raise his
+hand to his hat, which he lifted with the quick motion so familiar to
+Parisians. The guests burst into applause and the President smiled.
+Bismarck was mistaken.
+
+"WE HEAR a great deal regarding the decline of our shipping interests,
+and so far as our shipping in the foreign trade is concerned it is
+unfortunately true," says The Boston Commercial Bulletin. "But few
+people realize the immensity of our coastwise commerce. The Custom
+House figures on the shipping of the port of New York for 1897 show
+that there were 4,614 arrivals of vessels from foreign ports, 7,095
+from Eastern domestic ports, and 3,798 from Southern domestic ports.
+Of the foreign, 2,313 were British, of which 1,667 were steamships;
+952 were American, of which 323 were steamships, and 517 were German
+of which 444 were steamships. This statement shows that the arrivals
+from American ports were nearly three times those from foreign
+countries, though of course this proportion is not borne out in
+tonnage, vessels on the deep sea trade averaging larger. But it will
+be doubtless a surprise that of the shipping from foreign ports more
+than one-fifth were American. At other Atlantic and Gulf ports this
+proportion undoubtedly does not hold true, but these figures show a
+less doleful condition of the American marine than some people have
+been led to expect. When it is remembered that the coastwise fleet
+numbers many steamers of 2,000 to 3,000 tons and many sailing craft of
+1,000 tons and upward, it will be seen that we are yet a sea power of
+the first class, in fact exceeded only by England."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SELECTED FORMULÆ.
+
+
+ESSENCE OF PEPSIN.--
+
+  1. Pepsin (pure)                     128 grains.
+     Dilute muriatic acid                5 drops.
+     Simple elixir                       3 fl. ounces.
+     Glycerin                            1     "
+     Water                              16     "
+     Angelica wine                       6     "
+
+Dissolve by agitation and filter through purified talcum.
+
+  2. Glycerole of pepsin                 3 parts.
+     Sherry wine                         5   "
+     Glycerin                            1   "
+     Simple elixir, to make             16   "
+
+  3. Pepsin in scales                   64 grains.
+     Glycerin                            1 fl. ounce.
+     Elixir taraxacum compound           1      "
+     Alcohol                             2      "
+     Oil of cloves                       1 drop.
+     Sirup                               2 fl. ounces.
+     Dilute hydrochloric acid            1 fl. drachm.
+     Water, to make                     16 fl. ounces.
+
+                                 --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+APPLICATIONS TO INSECT BITES.--Brocq and Jacquet (Indépendance
+médicale, October 20) recommend the following for the bites of bugs,
+fleas and gnats:
+
+  1. Camphorated oil of chamomile        100 parts.
+     Liquid storax                        20   "
+     Essence of peppermint                 5   "
+  M.
+  2. Olive oil                            20 parts.
+     Storax ointment                      25   "
+     Balsam of Peru                        5   "
+  M.
+  3. Naphthol                        5 to 10 parts.
+     Ether, enough to dissolve it.
+     Menthol                         Πto 1 part.
+     Vaseline                        100 parts.
+
+
+BEAD FOR LIQUORS.--In the liquor trade, anything added to liquors to
+cause them to carry a "bead" and to hang in pearly drops about the
+side of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken is called
+"beading," the popular notion being that liquor is strong in alcohol
+in proportion as it "beads." The object of adding a so-called "bead
+oil" is to impart this quality to a low-proof liquor, so that it may
+appear to the eye to be of the proper strength. The following formulas
+for "bead oil" are given:
+
+  1. Sweet almond oil                   1 fl. ounce.
+     Sulphuric acid, concentrated       1      "
+     Sugar, lump, crushed               1 ounce.
+     Alcohol, sufficient.
+
+Triturate the oil and acid very carefully together in a glass,
+Wedgwood or porcelain mortar or other suitable vessel; add by degrees
+the sugar, continue trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, and
+then gradually add enough alcohol to render the whole perfectly fluid.
+Transfer to a quart bottle and wash out the mortar twice or oftener
+with strong alcohol until about 20 fluid ounces in all of the latter
+has been used, the washings to be added to the mixture in the bottle.
+Cautiously agitate the bottle, loosely corked, until admixture appears
+complete, and set aside in a cool place. This quantity of "oil" is
+supposed to be sufficient for 100 gallons of liquor, but is more
+commonly used for about 80 or 85 gallons. The liquor treated with this
+"oil" is usually allowed to become clearer by simple repose.
+
+  2. Soapwort, coarsely ground           13 ounces.
+     Diluted alcohol, enough to make      1 gallon.
+
+Extract the soapwort by maceration or percolation.
+
+This is also intended for 80 gallons of liquor, preferably adding to
+the latter one-half gallon of simple sirup.
+
+The ingredients of the above formulas, according to the "Manual of
+Beverages," are not injurious--not at least in the quantities required
+for "beading." It is said that beyond a certain degree of dilution of
+the liquor with water, these preparations fail to produce the intended
+effect. The addition of sugar or sirup increases their efficacy.
+                                           --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+QUININE HAIR TONIC.--
+
+  1. Quinine sulphate                     1 part.
+     Tincture cantharides                10  "
+     Glycerin                            75  "
+     Alcohol                            500  "
+     Tincture rhatany                    20  "
+     Spirit lavender                     50  "
+
+  2. Tincture cinchona                   50  "
+     Tincture cantharides                25  "
+     Peru balsam                         20  "
+     Tincture soap                      150  "
+     Cologne water                      250  "
+     Cognac                           2,000  "
+     Oil bergamot                        10  "
+     Oil sweet orange                    10  "
+     Oil rose geranium                    3  "
+
+  3. Bisulphate of quinine                œ ounce.
+     Vinegar of cantharides              2œ   "
+     Spirit of rosemary                  18   "
+     Lavender water                       8   "
+     Glycerite of borax                   1   "
+     Glycerin                            14   "
+     Distilled water                     80   "
+     Caramel, sufficient to color.
+
+                           --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+SOAP FOR REMOVING RUST.--
+                                   Parts by Weight.
+  Whiting                                 9
+  Oil soap                                6
+  Cyanide of potassium                    5
+  Water                                  60
+
+Dissolve the soap in water over the fire and add the cyanide, then
+little by little the whiting. If the compound is too thick, which may
+be due either to the whiting or the soap employed, add a little water
+until a paste is made which can be run into an iron or wooden mould.
+This will remove rust from steel and give it a good polish.--Oils,
+Colors and Drysalteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER STEAMER "BRUCE."
+
+
+Messrs A. & J. Inglis, shipbuilders and engineers, of Pointhouse,
+Glasgow, have recently built a somewhat unique and certainly
+interesting steamer, for the conveyance of passengers between Port an
+Basque, in Newfoundland, and Sydney, Cape Breton, in connection with
+the Newfoundland and Canadian systems of railways. The distance from
+port to port is about one hundred miles, and the vessel has been
+designed to make the run in six hours. Messrs. Reid, of Newfoundland,
+who have founded the line of steamers to perform this service,
+intrusted to Messrs. Inglis the task of producing a vessel in all
+respects suitable for the work to be accomplished. The steamer
+"Bruce," the pioneer steamer, an illustration of which we are enabled
+to produce, is the result. The navigation of the waters in which this
+vessel will be employed is attended with some difficulties. Not only
+are storms of frequent occurrence, but in the months of winter and
+spring large quantities of drift ice are commonly encountered.
+
+To obtain the necessary speed and carry all that was required on a
+suitable draught of water, it was essential that the "Bruce" should be
+built of steel, but in view of the severe structural and local
+stresses to which she must inevitably be subjected when at sea, it was
+necessary to afford adequate stiffening and means for preventing
+penetration or abrasion by ice. Hence the frames are more closely
+spaced than is usual in vessels of her size, numerous web frames
+associated with arched supports at the main deck and adjacent to the
+waterline are fitted throughout her entire length, and a belt of
+3-inch greenheart planking, with a steel sheathing over it at the fore
+part of the vessel, is further provided. Indeed, throughout the
+vessel, every precaution has been taken with a view to insure her
+efficiency and safety when running swiftly from port to port, while at
+the same time the materials employed have been most wisely,
+judiciously and economically distributed.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER STEAMER "BRUCE."]
+
+The dimensions of the "Bruce" are 230 feet long, 32 feet 6 inches
+broad, and 22 feet deep, her gross tonnage being 1250 tons. She has
+been built with very fine lines, a considerable rise of floor, and
+with a graceful outline, which gives her the appearance of a large
+yacht. Our illustration shows the "Bruce" when running at a speed of
+upward of 15 knots on the measured mile at Wemyss Bay. Not only has
+the structure of the vessel been skillfully designed, but her internal
+fittings are admirably arranged. It is really most interesting to note
+with what ingenuity passenger accommodation of a somewhat extensive
+character has been provided in so small a vessel. The "Bruce" has
+berths for seventy first-class and one hundred second class
+passengers, and the accommodation is of a very luxurious kind. The
+berths are between the awning and main decks, where there is also a
+special apartment set apart for ladies, and at the fore end for the
+officers' quarters. Besides these a large and handsome dining saloon
+is situated on the main deck, richly upholstered and fitted with
+unique little window recesses, which besides adding to the appearance
+of the apartment, furnishes additional dining accommodation. It is
+done up in dark mahogany panels, fringed with gold. The chairs are
+upholstered in blue morocco, and the floor is laid with a Turkey
+carpet. All the other rooms are in dark polished oak. A large smoking
+room is also provided on the main deck.
+
+The "Bruce" is further fitted with a complete installation of electric
+lighting, together with an electric search light; has Lord Kelvin's
+deep sea sounding apparatus and compasses, also Caldwell's steam
+steering gear and winches, Weir's evaporators and pumps. Alley and
+McLellan's feed water filters, and Howden's forced draught. She is
+steam heated throughout, and in every detail of the sanitary
+arrangements the health and comfort of the passengers have been
+attended to. Six lifeboats, having accommodation for 250 people, are
+hung in davits. When fully laden she carries 350 tons of cargo in her
+holds and 250 tons of coal in her bunkers.
+
+The contract speed for the "Bruce" was 15 knots--and to obtain this
+Messrs. Inglis fitted her with triple-expansion engines, which we
+shall illustrate in another impression, having cylinders 26 inches, 42
+inches and 65 inches in diameter, with a 42 inch stroke. Steam is
+supplied from four boilers loaded to a pressure of 160 pounds per
+square inch. When on the measured mile a mean speed of about 15Πknots
+was obtained with an indicated horse power of 2200, the engines
+running at 90 revolutions per minute.
+
+The vessel has arrived safely at Newfoundland, having performed the
+voyage at a mean speed of very little under 15 knots, a most
+satisfactory performance. She has been running some little time on her
+route and been giving most satisfactory results.--We are indebted to
+London Engineer for the cut and description.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEAT IN GREAT TUNNELS.
+
+
+One phase of the construction of tunnels through the Alps was recently
+discussed by M. Brandicourt, secretary of the Linnæan Society of the
+North of France, in the columns of La Nature. He showed that only a
+few thousand feet below the eternal snows of that region so high a
+temperature may be found that workmen can scarcely live in it. Nearly
+all of the other difficulties encountered in those enterprises had
+been foreseen. This one was a great surprise. It shows how the
+interior heat of the earth extends above sea level into all great
+mountainous uplifts on the earth's surface.
+
+During the tunneling of Mont Cenis, says M. Brandicourt, the
+temperature of the rock was found to be 27.5 degrees C. (81.5 degrees
+F.) at about 5,000 meters (16,000 feet) from the entrance. It reached
+29.5 degrees (86 degrees F.) in the last 500 meters (1,600 feet) of
+the central part. The workmen were then about 1,600 meters (5,100
+feet) below the Alpine summit, whose mean temperature is 3 degrees
+below zero (27 degrees F.) Thus there was a difference of 32.5
+degrees: that is, one "geothermic" degree corresponded to about 50
+meters.
+
+This elevation of temperature was not at first regarded with anxiety.
+Soon a draught would be produced and would ameliorate the situation.
+It was time, for the disease known as "miner's anæmia" had begun to
+claim its victims.
+
+The situation at St. Gothard was much more serious. As at Mont Cenis,
+a temperature of 29 degrees C. (85 degrees F.) was found about 5,000
+meters from the portals of the tunnel. But there remained yet 5,000
+meters of rock to pierce. In the center of the tunnel there was
+observed for several days a temperature of 35 degrees (95 degrees F.)
+Generally it did not vary much from 32.5 degrees (90.5 degrees F.), a
+sufficiently high degree, if we remember that the men's perspiration
+was transformed into water vapor, and that the air was nearly
+saturated with humidity. In these conditions work was very difficult,
+and the horses employed to remove the debris almost all succumbed.
+
+Man can bear more than animals. In an absolutely dry air he can endure
+a temperature of 50 degrees (122 degrees F.) But in an atmosphere
+saturated with water, underground, where the breath of the workmen
+fills the narrow space with poisonous vapors, a temperature of even 30
+degrees (86 degrees F.) entails serious consequences. In a large
+number of workmen the bodily heat rose to 40 degrees (104 degrees F.)
+and the pulse to 140 and even 150 a minute. The most robust were
+obliged to lay off one day out of three, and even the working day was
+itself reduced to five hours, instead of seven or eight.
+
+According to Dr. Giaconni, who for ten years attended the workmen at
+Mont Cenis and St. Gothard, the proportion of invalids was as large as
+60 to the 100.
+
+More strange yet, the report of the physicians who dwelt at the works
+notes the presence among the workmen of the intestinal parasites
+called "ankylostomes," which have been observed in Egypt and other
+tropical countries, and which are the cause of what scientists call
+"Egyptian chlorosis" or "intertropical hyperæmia." This pathologic
+state is observed only in the hottest regions of the earth. The victim
+becomes thin, pale and dark. He is bathed in continual sweat, devoured
+by inextinguishable thirst, and the prey of continual fever. And thus,
+adds Mr. Lentherie, "the most robust mountaineer had only to pass a
+few months in the depths of the Alps to contract the germs of a
+tropical disease. Under the thick layer of snow and ice that enveloped
+him he had to work naked like a tropical negro or an Indian stoker on
+a Red Sea steamer; and in this Alpine world, where everything outside
+reminds one of the polar climate, he sweltered as in a caldron and
+often died of heat."
+
+The bad conditions found at St. Gothard will be met also, very
+probably, in the new Alpine tunnels that have been projected in recent
+years--those at the Simplon, St. Bernard and Mont Blanc. It can be
+predicted that for Mont Blanc in particular the temperature of 40
+degrees (104 degrees F.) will be far exceeded. M. de Lapparent even
+considers that the figure of 55 degrees (131 degrees F.) proposed by
+some geologists is moderate, and errs by defect rather than by excess.
+
+The engineer Stockalpa, who for four years has directed one of the
+workshops at St. Gothard, and has made a profound study of this
+temperature question, does not hesitate to say that under Mont Blanc
+the temperature will be 33 degrees (91 degrees F.) at three kilometers
+from the entrance, that it will reach 50 degrees (122 degrees F.)
+under the Saussure Pass, and 53.5 degrees (128 degrees F.) under the
+Tacul Peak, falling again to 31 degrees (88 degrees F.) under the
+White Valley.
+
+These are only probabilities, but they are founded on facts, and we
+may imagine all the preventive measures that they will render
+imperative.
+
+The experience that has been acquired in these latter years has
+indicated the best methods of ventilation and cooling. The compressed
+air used in the workings produces by its escape a very sensible
+lowering of the temperature, which can be made still lower by using
+saline solutions whose freezing point is as low as -20 degrees (4
+degrees F.), and which will circulate through pipes along the tunnel.
+The removal of the debris can be effected by electric locomotives;
+thus the horses, which use up the precious air, can be done away
+with. The electric light, which can be operated without contamination
+or consuming the air, will also render great service; these
+improvements can all be carried out with ease. Together with the
+preceding, they will form a group of processes that will enable us to
+gain the victory over the interior heat of the great Alpine tunnels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.
+
+
+[Illustration: AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.]
+
+The machine which we illustrate has lately been constructed by Messrs.
+Merryweather & Sons, of Greenwich Road, with the view to combining the
+advantages of both horizontal and vertical steam fire engines.
+Hitherto the horizontal engine has been considered by some firemen to
+be less handy of access than the vertical, and the vertical engine has
+had the undoubted disadvantage of not being stoked from the footplate.
+By shortening the length of stroke and constructing a special pump,
+the makers have been able to keep the engine sufficiently high in
+relation to the boiler to enable the firedoor to be placed directly in
+the rear of the boiler and underneath the engine, thus enabling the
+boiler to be stoked en route, and allowing access from the footplate
+to the starting valve, the suction and delivery connections, the whole
+of the boiler fittings and feed arrangements. This enables one man to
+drive and stoke the engine, and to attend to the suction and delivery
+hoses, and it does not interfere at all with the stability of engine
+in traveling or at work, as the center of gravity is well below the
+top of the side frames. Another feature is the absence of a main steam
+pipe, a bracket being arranged on the cylinders containing the steam
+passages, to bolt directly onto the top of the boiler. The close
+proximity of the engine to the boiler renders it peculiarly suitable
+for cold climates, and times of frost, reducing the chances of the
+pump or feed arrangements being frozen up. The pump valves are
+arranged between the barrels, and are all accessible by the removal of
+one cover, which weighs but 12 lb. The engine, we understand, may be
+stopped, the cover removed, a damaged valve replaced, the cover put on
+again, and the engine restarted in two minutes. A slotted link is used
+with a crankshaft for regulating the length of stroke. All the
+bearings have large wearing surfaces, and substantial eccentric straps
+are used, the whole of the motion being simple and accessible. There
+are three different methods of feeding the boiler, viz., by feed pump
+driven by the crosshead of the main pump, by forcing water directly
+into the boiler from the main pump, and by an injector taking its
+water from a tank either supplied from the main pump or by a bucket
+when pumping dirty water. All the feed pipes are fitted with strainers
+where attached to the main pump. Drop feed lubricators are fitted on
+the cylinders, and an efficient system of lubrication is provided for
+the rest of the working parts. The carriage frame, hose box, etc., are
+of the same design as usually employed for engines of this class, with
+the exception of the fore carriage, which is fitted with a cross
+spring in the rear, as well as the two longitudinal springs. This
+arrangement makes the engine run more lightly, and removes much of the
+strain on the side frames when traveling rapidly on a rough road. The
+wheels are fairly light for the weight they have to carry, and have
+gun metal stock hoops with diamond pent rims to prevent the men
+slipping when mounting in a hurry. The engine and boiler work is
+brightly polished where-ever possible, and the whole machine has a
+handsome appearance.--Engineering.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF TREES.
+
+
+In the exploitation of forests it is an important matter to be able to
+measure the cubature of trees, and the process most generally employed
+consists in determining their height and mean circumference, the
+apparatus used for this latter measurement being compasses having the
+form of the calipers used by mechanics. The figure indicated is read
+upon the graduated rule and is called off in a loud voice to another
+person, who at once writes it down. There are several causes of error:
+it is possible that the reading may be incorrectly made or improperly
+called off, or be misunderstood or incorrectly noted. Finally, it is a
+somewhat fatiguing operation that is often dispensed with and the
+measurement made by estimate. In order to do away with all such causes
+of error, M. Jobez, a mining engineer, has had M. Peccaud construct
+an apparatus that automatically registers all the measurements upon a
+paper tape analogous to that used in the Morse telegraphic apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF
+TREES.]
+
+The registering mechanism (Fig. 1) is fixed to the movable branch that
+forms the slide of the instrument. It is so arranged that when this
+branch is slid along the rule carrying the graduations, a gearing
+causes the revolution of a wheel, D, which carries figures
+corresponding to such graduation. At the same time, two feed rollers,
+E, cause a small portion of the paper tape (which is wound upon a
+spool, A) to move forward and wind around a receiving spool, B. After
+the apparatus has been made accurately to embrace the trunk of the
+tree to be measured, it is removed and a pressure given to the lever,
+H, which applies the paper to the type wheel, D. A special button
+permits, in addition, of making a dot alongside of the numbers, if it
+be desired to attract attention to one of the measurements, either for
+distinguishing one kind of a tree from another or for any other
+reason.
+
+With this apparatus one man can make all the measurements and inscribe
+them without any possible error and without any fatigue. It is
+possible for him to inscribe a thousand numbers an hour, and the tapes
+are long enough to permit of 4,000 measurements being made without a
+change of paper. There is, therefore, a saving of time as well as
+perfect accuracy in the operation.
+
+In order to make the calculations necessary for the estimate, M.
+Laurand has devised a sliding rule which facilitates the operation and
+which is based upon the method that consists in knowing the height and
+mean circumference of the tree. The circumference taken in the middle
+is divided by 4, 4.8 or 5 according as one employs the quarter without
+deduction or the sixth or fifth deduced. This first result, multiplied
+by itself and by the height, gives the cubature of the tree. As for
+the value, that is the product of this latter number by the price per
+cubic meter. It will be seen that there is a series of somewhat
+lengthy operations to be performed, and it is in order to dispense
+with these that has been constructed the rule under consideration,
+which, like all calculating rules, consists of two parts, one of which
+slides upon the other (Fig. 2). Upon each of these there are two
+graduated scales, or four in all, the first of which is designed for
+the circumference and the second for the height of the tree, the third
+for the price of the cubic meter and the fourth for the total result,
+that is, the value of the entire tree. The arrangements are such that,
+after the number corresponding to the circumference of the tree has
+been brought opposite that corresponding to its height, the result
+will be found opposite the price per cubic meter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LAURAND'S CALCULATING RULE.]
+
+Thus, in the position represented in the figure, we may suppose a tree
+having a circumference of 2.5 m. and a height of 3.2 m.; then, if a
+cubic meter is worth 25 francs, the tree will be worth 20 francs.
+
+In order to simplify the calculations and the construction of the
+rule, no account is taken of points; but this is of no importance,
+since the error that might be made in misplacing one would be so great
+that it would be immediately detected. A 2 franc tree would not be
+confounded with a 20 or a 200 franc one. As an approximation, the
+first two figures of the result are obtained accurately; and that
+suffices, because, since the whole is based upon an approximate
+measurement, which is the mean circumference of the tree, we cannot
+exact absolute precision in the results. The essential thing is to
+have a practically acceptable figure.--La Nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+EGYPT'S POPULATION, according to the census taken last June, is
+9,750,000, more than double the population in 1846. The foreign
+residents are 112,000; of these, 38,000 are Greeks, 24,500 Italians,
+19,500 Britishers, including the army of occupation, and 14,000 French
+subjects, including Algerians and Tunisians. Twelve per cent. of the
+native males can read and write; the other Egyptians are illiterate.
+Cairo has 570,000 inhabitants, Alexandria 320,000, Port Said 42,000,
+and Suez 17,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MACHINE MOULDING WITHOUT STRIPPING PLATES.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Paper presented at the New York meeting (December,
+   1897) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and
+   forming part of volume xix. of the Transactions.]
+
+BY E. H. MUMFORD, PLAINFLELD, N. J.
+
+(Member of the Society.)
+
+
+Moulding machines may be classed under three heads. First, machines
+which only ram the moulds, and, when the ramming is done by means of a
+side lever, by hand, are generally called "squeezers." Second,
+machines which only draw the patterns, the ramming being accomplished
+by the usual hand methods. Third, machines which both ram the moulds
+and draw the patterns, ramming either by a hand-pulled lever or by
+fluid pressure on piston or plunger and drawing the patterns through a
+plate called a "stripping plate" or "drop plate"--till recently the
+usual method--or without the use of this plate fitting everywhere to
+pattern outline at the parting surface, the patterns being effectively
+machine guided in either case.
+
+It is to the third class that the machine which is used to illustrate
+the subject of this paper belongs, and which would seem to have enough
+that is novel in the application of machinery to the foundry to merit
+the attention of the society.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ORDINARY METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERN SPIKE AND
+RAPPER.]
+
+At the risk of appearing pedantic, but with a view to developing an
+appreciation of the true function of the method of pattern drawing
+used in this machine, attention is called to the following sectional
+views of moulds and ways of drawing patterns occurring in machine
+moulding. Fig. 1 shows an ordinary "gate" of fitting patterns being
+drawn from the drag or nowel part of the mould by means of a spike and
+rapper wielded by the moulder's hand after cope and drag have been
+rammed together on a "squeezer" and cope has been removed. Frequently
+the pernicious "swab" is used to soak and so strengthen joint outlines
+of the sand before drawing patterns, in such cases as this. In this
+case, before cope is lifted, these patterns must be vigorously rapped
+through the cope; an amount depending (and so does the size of the
+casting) upon the mood and strength of the moulder.
+
+Fig. 2 shows the stripping or drop plate method of drawing patterns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--STRIPPING PLATE METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERNS.]
+
+In this method the patterns are not rapped at all and are drawn in a
+practically straight line so that the mould is absolutely pattern
+size.
+
+The stripping plate is fitted accurately to every outline at the joint
+surface of the patterns, obviously at considerable expense, and, of
+course, at the instant of drawing the patterns, supports the joint
+surface of the mould entirely. This is, at first sight, an ideal
+method of drawing patterns, and it has for years been the only method
+practiced on machines. It has two disadvantages. The patterns are
+separated from the stripping plate by the necessary joint fissure
+between the two. Fine sand continually falls into this and, adhering
+to the joint surfaces more or less, grinds the fissure wider. This
+leads to a gradual reduction of size of patterns on vertical surfaces
+and a widening of the joint fissure often to such an extent that wire
+edges are formed on the mould, causing, on fine work, "crushing" and
+consequently dirty joints. A nicely fitted but worn plate of
+twenty-four pieces which had cost, at shop expense only, $250, was
+recently replaced by a plate of twenty-eight pieces, fitted ready for
+the machine under the new system about to be described, for not more
+than $25.
+
+The stripping plate method has another drawback, not always
+appreciated, probably because accepted as inevitable. Stripping plate
+patterns are not rapped, and there frequently occur on surface of
+patterns, remote from the action of the stripping plate, rectangular
+corners just as important to mould sharply as those at the parting
+line. Such corners have either to be filleted or "stooled" in
+stripping plate work, and neither method often is practicable. When
+the entire pattern and plate are vibrated so that the corners where
+the pattern joins the plate draw perfectly, as they do in the machine
+to be described, it is obvious that similar corners anywhere on
+pattern surface will draw equally well.
+
+The vibrating of patterns, or rather of moulds, during the operation
+of drawing the patterns possesses little of novelty. Ever since a
+bench moulder's neighbor first rapped the bench while he lifted a cope
+or drew a pattern, the thing has been done in one way or another. In
+fact, machines are now and then found on the market in which a device
+like a ratchet or other mechanical means for jarring the machine
+structure during pattern drawing renders the working of easy patterns
+without stripping plates possible.
+
+The idea of applying a power driven vibrator directly to the plate
+carrying the patterns to thus vibrate them independently of other
+parts of the machine and the flask and sand has been the subject of
+the issue of patents to Mr. Harris Tabor, and the various figures
+shown will serve to illustrate the mechanism.
+
+Briefly, the operation of the machine is as follows: The ramming head
+shown thrown back at the top of the machine is drawn into a vertical
+position after flask has been placed and filled with sand. The 3-way
+cock shown at the extreme left is then quickly opened, admitting
+compressed air of 70 to 80 pounds pressure to the inverted cylinder
+shown at the center of the cut. The cylinder, with the entire upper
+portion of the machine, is thus driven forcibly up against the ramming
+head, flask, sand and all. Often a single blow suffices to rain the
+mould--often the blow is quickly repeated, according to the demands of
+the particular mould in hand. Gravity returns the machine to its
+original position, as the 3-way cock opens to exhaust. After pushing
+the ramming head back and cutting sprue, if the half mould is cope,
+the operator seizes the lever shown just inside the 3-way cock at the
+right, and, drawing it forward and down, raises the outer frame of the
+top of machine containing the flask pins, with flask and sand thereon,
+away from the patterns, thus drawing them from the sand. Just as he
+seizes the pattern drawing lever with his right hand, he presses with
+his left on the head of a compression valve shown at the left side of
+top of machine, thus admitting air to the pneumatic vibrator already
+referred to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--POWER DRIVEN VIBRATOR MACHINE.]
+
+Fig. 3, a rear view of the machine, shows at the top center, with its
+inlet hose hanging to it, this vibrator, which is shown in section in
+Fig. 4. It consists simply of a double acting elongated piston having
+a stroke of about 5/16 inch in a valveless cylinder and impacting upon
+hardened anvils at either end at the estimated rate of 5,000 blows per
+minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION THROUGH VIBRATOR.]
+
+The method of communicating the rapid yet small oscillations of the
+vibrator to the patterns and yet keeping them from being transmitted
+to the rest of the mechanism is this:
+
+A frame, called a vibrator frame, to which the pneumatic vibrator is
+bolted and keyed, is shown in Fig. 5. To this frame the plate carrying
+the patterns, often, in cases of patterns having irregular parting
+lines, forming one and the same casting with the patterns, is fastened
+by the four machine screws, the small tapped holes for which are shown
+in the corners. In fact, in changing patterns, the process consists of
+simply removing these four machine screws, taking up the pattern
+plate and screwing to the vibrator frame the new pattern plate. The
+vibrator frame itself is secured to the machine structure by the four
+larger bolts, the holes for which are shown in the inner corners.
+These bolts are, as shown in Fig. 7, surrounded by thick bushings.
+These bushings are elastic to such a degree as to absorb the sharp
+vibrations of vibrator frame and patterns, while so firm and well
+fitted as to hold patterns accurately to their position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--VIBRATOR FRAME.]
+
+The action of the vibrator is such as to give to the entire pattern
+surface an exceedingly violent shiver, making it impossible that any
+sand should adhere to this surface, while the magnitude of the actual
+movement of the pattern is so slight that it is found to fill the
+mould so completely that it is impracticable to draw it a second time
+without rapping. Yet, so truly are the patterns held and so little
+disturbed from their original position, that it is perfectly
+practicable to return patterns to a mould having the finest ornamental
+surface in the ordinary practice of "printing back."
+
+In cases where deep pockets of hanging sand occur, which cannot be
+held during lifting off and rolling over, machines are arranged to
+roll the flask over in their operation and draw the patterns up under
+the influence of the pneumatic vibrator, though, owing to the time
+consumed in the rolling over process (and each operation counts in
+seconds on a moulding machine) this style of machine is not usually as
+rapid in its working as the simpler type, in which the flasks come off
+in the same way they go on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SET OF PATTERNS FITTED TO PLATES.]
+
+Fig. 6 shows a set of patterns as they are ordinarily fitted to plates
+for this machine. Round holes will be noticed at places in the plate
+surface. These are openings for the insertion of what are called
+"stools."
+
+When it is found necessary to support the sand surface at any point,
+or generally, round holes are drilled through either plate or pattern
+surface and loose cylindrical pieces are dropped into these holes,
+their upper end surfaces being flush with the plate or pattern surface
+and their lower ends resting on the plate called, from this use, a
+stool plate. This plate appears in Fig. 7 at A and is hung solidly by
+the brackets shown at B from the frame which carries the flasks, so
+that it has the same upward motion as the flasks, and the upper ends
+of the stools remain in contact with the sand of the mould until same
+is lifted from machine. Fig. 7, showing a vertical section through a
+machine, will make perfectly clear the position and action of these
+stools.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. VERTICAL SECTIONS FITTED TO PLATES.]
+
+As illustrating the importance of being able to work without stripping
+plates on a line of work which is much more extended than that
+possible with them, we may say that a machinist with a drill press
+supplied with split patterns and planed pattern plates has matched and
+fixed five sets of from four to eight pieces in a day: and wooden
+patterns fitted for temporary use in the same way are of frequent
+occurrence when it is not thought wise to go to the expense of metal
+patterns on account of the relatively small number of castings to be
+made from them.
+
+It is not perhaps too much to say that pattern expense is not the
+final evil of the costly and not durable stripping plate patterns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARTIFICIAL INDIA RUBBER.
+
+
+One of the most recent important events in the history of chemistry
+was the discovery by an English professor that a substance
+corresponding in every respect to India rubber may be produced from
+oil of turpentine.
+
+Dr. W. A. Tilden, professor of chemistry in Mason College, Birmingham,
+began a series of experiments with a liquid hydrocarbon substance,
+known to chemists as isoprene, which was primarily discovered and
+named by Greville Williams, a well known English chemist, some years
+ago as a product of the destructive distillation of India rubber. In
+1884, says The New York Sun, Dr. Tilden discovered that an identical
+substance was among the more volatile compounds obtained by the action
+of moderate heat upon oil of turpentine and other vegetable oils, such
+as rape seed oil, linseed oil and castor oil.
+
+Isoprene is a very volatile liquid, boiling at a temperature of about
+30 degrees Fahrenheit. Chemical analysis shows it to be composed of
+carbon and hydrogen in the proportions of five to eight.
+
+In the course of his experiments Dr. Tilden found that when isoprene
+is brought into contact with strong acids, such as aqueous
+hydrochloric acid, for example, it is converted into a tough elastic
+solid, which is, to all appearances, true India rubber.
+
+Specimens of isoprene were made from several vegetable oils in the
+course of Dr. Tilden's work on those compounds. He preserved several
+of them and stowed the bottles containing them away upon an unused
+shelf in his laboratory.
+
+After some months had elapsed he was surprised at finding the contents
+of the bottles containing the substance derived from the turpentine
+entirely changed in appearance. In place of a limpid, colorless liquid
+the bottles contained a dense sirup, in which were floating several
+large masses of a solid of a yellowish color. Upon examination this
+turned out to be India rubber.
+
+This is the first instance on record of the spontaneous change of
+isoprene into India rubber. According to the doctor's hypothesis, this
+spontaneous change can only be accounted for by supposing that a small
+quantity of acetic or formic acid had been produced by the oxidizing
+action of the air, and that the presence of this compound had been the
+means of transforming the rest.
+
+Upon inserting the ordinary chemical test paper, the liquid was found
+to be slightly acid. It yielded a small portion of unchanged isoprene.
+
+The artificial India rubber found floating in the liquid upon analysis
+showed all the constituents of natural rubber. Like the latter, it
+consisted of two substances, one of which was more soluble in benzine
+or in carbon bisulphide than the other. A solution of the artificial
+rubber in benzine left on evaporation a residue which agreed in all
+characteristics with the residuum of the best Para rubber similarly
+dissolved and evaporated.
+
+The artificial rubber was found to unite with natural rubber in the
+same way as two pieces of ordinary pure rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound.
+
+Although the discovery is very interesting from a chemical point of
+view, it has not as yet any commercial importance. It is from such
+beginnings as these, however, that cheap chemical substitutes for many
+natural products have been developed. Few persons outside of those
+directly connected with rubber industries realize the vast quantities
+imported yearly into this country. Last year there were brought into
+United States ports, as shown by the reports of the customs officers,
+no less than 34,348,000 pounds of India rubber. The industry has been
+steadily progressive since the invention of machinery for
+manufacturing it into the various articles of everyday use. The
+wonderful growth of the India rubber interests in this country will be
+seen from the statistics compiled in the tenth census.
+
+In 1870 there were imported 5,132,000 pounds at an average rate of $1
+per pound; in 1880 the imports were 17,835,000 pounds, at an average
+price of 85 cents per pound; in 1890 31,949,000 pounds were imported,
+at an average price of 75 cents per pound. The present price of India
+rubber varies from 75 cents per pound for fine Para rubber to 45 cents
+per pound for the cheapest grade.
+
+It will be seen that, notwithstanding the increase in importations,
+the price of the raw material remains at a comparatively high figure.
+Many experiments have been made to find a substance possessing the
+same properties as India rubber, but which could be produced at a
+cheaper rate.
+
+Many of the compositions which have been invented have been well
+adapted for use for certain purposes and have been used to adulterate
+the pure rubber, but no substance has been produced which could even
+approach India rubber in several of its important characteristics.
+There has never been a substance yet recommended as a substitute for
+rubber which possessed the extraordinary elasticity which makes it
+indispensable in the manufacture of so many articles of common use.
+
+Great hopes were at one time placed in a product prepared from linseed
+oil. It was found that a material could be produced from it which
+would to a certain extent equal India rubber compositions in
+elasticity and toughness.
+
+It was argued that linseed oil varnish, when correctly prepared,
+should be clear, and dry in a few hours into a transparent, glossy
+mass of great tenacity. By changing the mode of preparing linseed oil
+varnish in so far as to boil the oil until it became a very thick
+fluid and spun threads, when it was taken from the boiler, a mass was
+obtained which in drying assumed a character resembling that of a
+thick, congealed solution of glue.
+
+Resin was added to the mass while hot, in a quantity depending upon
+the product designed to be made, and requiring a greater or less
+degree of elasticity.
+
+Many other recipes have been advocated at different times to make a
+product resembling caoutchouc out of linseed oil in combination with
+other substances, but all have failed to give satisfaction, save as
+adulterants to pure rubber.
+
+Among the best compounds in use in rubber factories at present is one
+made by boiling linseed oil to the consistency of thick glue.
+Unbleached shellac and a small quantity of lampblack is then stirred
+in. The mass is boiled and stirred until thoroughly mixed. It is then
+placed in flat vessels exposed to the air to congeal.
+
+While still warm the blocks formed in the flat vessels are passed
+between rollers to mix it as closely as possible. This compound was
+asserted by its inventor to be a perfect substitute for caoutchouc. It
+was also stated that it could be vulcanized. This was found to be an
+error, however. The compound, upon the addition of from 15 to 25 per
+cent. of pure rubber, may be vulcanized and used as a substitute for
+vulcanized rubber.
+
+Compounds of coal tar, asphalt, etc., with caoutchouc have been
+frequently tested, but they can only be used for very inferior goods.
+
+The need for a substitute for gutta percha is even more acute than for
+artificial India rubber. A compound used in its stead for many
+purposes is known as French gutta percha. This possesses nearly all
+the properties of gutta percha. It may be frequently used for the same
+purposes and has the advantage of not cracking when exposed to the
+air.
+
+Its inventors claimed that it was a perfect substitute for India
+rubber and gutta percha, fully as elastic and tough and not
+susceptible to injury from great pressure or high temperature.
+
+The composition of this ambitious substance is as follows: One part,
+by weight, of equal parts of wood tar oil and coal tar oil, or of the
+latter alone, is heated for several hours at a temperature of from 252
+to 270 degrees Fahrenheit, with two parts, by weight, of hemp oil,
+until the mass can be drawn into threads. Then one-half part, by
+weight, of linseed oil, thickened by boiling, is added. To each 100
+parts of the compound one-twentieth to one-tenth part of ozokerite and
+the same quantity of spermaceti are added.
+
+The entire mixture is then again heated to 252 degrees Fahrenheit and
+one-fifteenth to one-twelfth part of sulphur is added. The substance
+thus obtained upon cooling is worked up in a similar manner to natural
+India rubber. It has not been successfully used, however, without the
+addition of a quantity of pure rubber to give it the requisite
+elasticity.
+
+A substitute for gutta percha is obtained by boiling the bark of the
+birch tree, especially the outer part, in water over an open fire.
+This produces a black fluid mass, which quickly becomes solid and
+compact upon exposure to air.
+
+Each gutta percha and India rubber factory has a formula of its own
+for making up substances as nearly identical with the natural product
+as possible, which are used to adulterate the rubber and gutta percha
+used in the factory. No one has as yet, however, succeeded in
+discovering a perfect substitute for either rubber or gutta percha.
+
+The history of chemistry contains many instances where natural
+products have been supplanted by artificial compounds possessing the
+same properties and characteristics. One of the most notable of these
+is the substance known as alizarine, the coloring matter extracted
+from the madder root. This, like India rubber, is a hydrocarbon.
+
+Prior to 1869 all calico printing was done with the coloring matter
+derived from the madder root, and its cultivation was a leading
+industry in the eastern and southern portions of Europe.
+
+In 1869 alizarine was successfully produced from the refuse coal tar
+of gas works and the calico printing business was revolutionized.
+
+The essence of vanilla, made from the vanilla bean, and used as a
+flavoring extract, has been supplanted by the substance christened
+vanilla by chemists, which possesses the same characteristics and is
+made from sawdust.
+
+Isoprene, from which Dr. Tilden produced India rubber, is
+comparatively a new product, as derived from oil of turpentine. It yet
+remains to be seen whether rubber can be synthetically produced
+certainly and cheaply. The result of further experiments will be
+awaited with interest, as the production of artificial rubber at
+moderate cost would be an event of enormous importance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEEP AND FROSTED ETCHING ON GLASS.
+
+
+The best means of producing these effects is by printing from a steel
+plate or lithographic stone on thin transfer paper, which, in turn, is
+made to give up the design to the surface of the glass, the exposed
+portions of the latter being then etched with acid.
+
+In preparing the steel plate, a coating of varnish is prepared by
+mixing 200 parts by weight of oil of turpentine, 150 of Syrian
+asphaltum, 100 of beeswax, 50 of stearin, and 50 of Venice turpentine
+in the warm. The design is then copied in outline by tracing from the
+original, the shading being reproduced in a less detailed manner, but
+with fewer and bolder strokes, in order to adapt the picture to the
+process. It is then pricked through the tracing paper on to the
+varnish coating of the plate, and, after clearing out the lines with
+graving needles, the plate is etched with a mixture of 1 vol. of water
+and 4 to 7 vols. of nitric acid, either by application or immersion;
+in the latter event the back of the plate must be varnished over. When
+the metal is bitten by the acid to about 1-75 of an inch in depth, the
+operation is finished.
+
+To transfer the design to the glass it is printed from the steel plate
+on to thin silk paper, the ink used being compounded from 500 parts of
+oil of turpentine, 1,500 of Syrian asphalt, 500 of beeswax, 400 of
+paraffin, and 300 of thick litho varnish. The printing is performed in
+the usual manner, and the transfer laid on the warmed surface of the
+glass sheet or ware to be decorated, rubbed over uniformly with a
+cloth to make the ink adhere to the glass, and then the paper is
+moistened and taken off again, leaving the imprinted design behind. It
+is well to have the ink fairly thick, and rely on warmth to impart the
+necessary fluidity; otherwise the design may come away with the paper
+in patches, and be imperfect.
+
+For etching in the design on the glass, the edges of the latter are
+coated with the protective varnish, and then hydrofluoric acid is
+brushed over the exposed portions, which are thereby corroded, leaving
+the parts covered by the ink standing in relief. According as a clear
+or frosted etching is desired, the etching liquid is modified, being,
+for the latter purpose, composed of 500 parts of ammonium fluoride,
+100 of common salt, 300 of fuming hydrofluoric acid and 30 of ammonia.
+This is brushed over the glass two or three times, and then rinsed off
+with lukewarm water. For deep etching, hydrofluoric acid is diluted
+with 1œ vols. of water and stored for twenty-four hours before use.
+The objects are immersed in the baths for thirty to fifty minutes, and
+kept quite still the while. If the etching is to be left clear, the
+acid is neutralized by boiling the glass in soda, but if to be frosted
+afterward it is coated with the first named etching liquid while still
+damp. Finally, the ink is washed off with turpentine, the glass rubbed
+over with sawdust, washed in hot lye and rinsed with water.
+
+Grained or lined designs can be very suitably printed from a litho
+stone, on paper faced with a mixture of 1,500 parts of water, 250 of
+wheaten starch, 1,000 of glycerine and 200 of a thick solution of gum
+arabic, the ink for printing being prepared by melting and mixing 500
+parts of pure tallow, 250 of white beeswax, 250 of liquid mastic, and
+150 of pale resin, with 100 parts of lampblack, 5 of minium, and 500
+of litho varnish. In transferring the design to the glass, the latter,
+if flat, may be passed between India rubber rollers or protected by
+layers of gutta percha when the pressure is applied. The impression
+produced by this lithographic process has to be strengthened to enable
+the thin coating of ink to resist the etching liquid, and this is done
+by dusting powdered resin over the printed surface of the glass,
+brushing off all that does not adhere, and causing the remainder to
+attach itself to the ink by means of warmth, and so form an impervious
+covering. The further treatment is the same as that already described.
+These methods are particularly suitable for reproducing landscapes,
+etc., on thinly flashed glass of various colors.--Diamant.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SLATE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
+
+
+Slate is, as we know, merely a variety of argillite. Slate quarries
+are found in England, Switzerland and Italy, but it is in France
+especially that the industry has been most extensively developed by
+reason of the large deposits that underlie its surface, particularly
+in the province of Anjou, where they extend from Trelaze to Avrille, a
+distance of six miles, and in the department of Ardennes, at Remogne,
+Fumay, etc.
+
+Normandy, Brittany, Dauphiny and Marne likewise possess quarries,
+although they are not so productive.
+
+The exploitation is commonly done in open quarry. After the vegetable
+mould (which in this case is called "cover") has been removed, we meet
+with a solid slate which it is difficult to split into laminæ, and it
+is not until a depth of at least fifteen feet is reached that we find
+a material that is fit to be exploited. All the best beds of slate, in
+fact, improve in quality in proportion as they lie deeper under the
+surface, near to which they have little value. Without entering into
+details as to the exploitation of this product, let us say that the
+blocks have to be divided in the quarry, since, in the open air, they
+rapidly lose the property of readily splitting into thin, even laminæ.
+
+[Illustration: SLATE STORE-VATS FOR BREWERIES.]
+
+Slate has but slight affinity for water, and, moreover, resists
+atmospheric influences, humidity and heat pretty well.
+
+This property renders it valuable for a large number of domestic
+purposes.
+
+There is no certain proof, it is true, that it was employed by the
+ancients, but it is, nevertheless, extremely probable that it was used
+in mass at an early period for stair heads, pillars for buildings and
+as a material for fencing.
+
+The exploitation of the material became especially active at the
+period when the idea occurred to some one to use slate for the rooting
+of houses. It was employed for this purpose along with tiles as far
+back as the eleventh century in the majority of schistose districts.
+It is well known, for example, that Fumay (Ardennes) at this period
+had a brotherhood of slate quarrymen.
+
+A method of getting out the material and cutting it regularly was
+found toward the end of the twelfth century, and it was not till then
+that it became of general application. Moreover, with the advent of
+the Gothic period slate became indispensable for castle roofs, which
+have a conical form.
+
+The best slate for roofing purposes is hard, heavy and of a bluish
+gray color. A good slate should readily split into even laminæ; it
+should not be absorbent of water either on its face or endwise, a
+property evinced by its not increasing perceptibly in weight after
+immersion in water; and it should be sound, compact and not apt to
+disintegrate in the air.
+
+For a long time past there have been used in schools slate tablets
+upon which the pupils write with a pencil made of soft gray schist.
+This application, which is capable of rendering services in a host of
+details of domestic economy, has given rise to artificial slates,
+which, made by a process of moulding a composition analogous to
+cardboard pulp, present the same advantages as ordinary slate, while
+being much lighter.
+
+Along about 1834 an Englishman of the name of Magnus utilized the
+property that slate possesses of taking a fine polish in the invention
+of what are called enameled slates. These products are used especially
+in the manufacture of table tops, mantelpieces, altars, etc. They very
+closely imitate the most expensive marbles, and their properties,
+along with their low price, have been the cause of their introduction
+into the houses of all classes of the English population, as well as
+into those of entire Europe and America.
+
+The ease with which slate is obtained in slabs of large dimensions has
+greatly contributed in recent times toward still further increasing
+its applications. One of the first of such applications was the
+substitution of it in urinals for cast iron plates, which very rapidly
+oxidize and become impregnated with nauseous odors that necessitate a
+frequent cleaning and constitute a permanent source of infection.
+
+For a few years past, too, slate has been used, in the manufacture of
+vats designed for breweries. These vats, of which we show in the
+accompanying figure a model of the installation employed in the Ivry
+Brewery, are each 6œ feet square and 5 feet in depth. For leading the
+beer, which, upon coming from the brewing apparatus, must rest for a
+few days, they are connected by a system of pipes. A second system of
+pipes, which in our figure is seen running along the cellar vault,
+serves as a cooling apparatus and maintains a temperature of 5° C.
+above zero in the vats arranged in two rows to the right and left.
+
+The details or even a simple enumeration of the new applications of
+slate would, in order to be anywhere nearly complete, necessitate a
+lengthy article. Let us say in conclusion that slate is substituted
+for wood, which is too easily attackable, and for marble, which is
+much more costly, in our laboratories and amphitheaters and everywhere
+where the manipulation and stay of easily corrupted liquids and solids
+require the greatest cleanliness in the material of construction.--La
+Science en Famille.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIRTHPLACE OF THE OILCLOTH INDUSTRY.
+
+
+In Kennebec County, Me., is the quiet borough of East Winthrop, for
+more than half a century known wherever oilcloth carpeting was used as
+Baileyville.
+
+Were it not for the inventive brain of one of East Winthrop's early
+inhabitants, says a contemporary, the village would hardly be known
+across the lake, but early in the present century one of the numerous
+family of Maine Baileys evolved a scheme to fill his purse faster than
+the slow process of nature was likely to do it in growing crops.
+
+Oilcloth carpetings were not known in the long ago, when Ezekiel
+Bailey pictured in his mind how they might be made, and it was in the
+little hamlet of East Winthrop that the conceit of their manufacture
+was hatched and executed. Ezekiel Bailey was, in the days prior to the
+war of 1812, looked upon as a very likely boy. He was studious and
+industrious, and while other boys of the village were out in the white
+oak groves setting box traps for gray squirrels, and spearing pickerel
+by torch light in the waters of Cobosseecontee, Ezekiel was busy in
+his little workshop fashioning useful things to be used about the
+house.
+
+Just how and when and where he was prompted to attempt the making of
+oilcloth carpet nobody now living at East Winthrop seems to know. Many
+of the burghers thought he was "a-wastin' uv his time," but they
+thought different some years later when great factories for the
+manufacture of oilcloth floor carpeting were erected in East Winthrop,
+Hallowell, New Jersey, and other places.
+
+And Ezekiel? He amassed a considerable fortune and left the path of
+life much easier for his kin to pursue. Having met a peddler one day,
+he bought a table cover made of a combination of burlap and paint.
+Such things were a luxury in the country at that time, and Ezekiel
+Bailey was shrewd enough to foresee a big demand for them if the cost
+could be moderated a bit. While thinking, an idea came to him, and
+following the idea a small voice which whispered: "Make 'em yourself."
+He decided to try, and there is a legend to the effect that half the
+farmers of the village quit work to see the first table cover.
+
+Procuring a square of burlap, or rather enough burlap from which to
+fashion a square of the desired size, Ezekiel Bailey framed up the
+fabric as the good old grandmas used to hitch up quilts at a quilting
+bee, the only difference being that the burlap was framed or stretched
+over a table made of planed boards large enough for the full spread of
+the burlap. With paint and brush he began his work. The first coat was
+a tiller; the next, a thicker one, gave body to the cloth, and when
+this was rubbed down to a smooth surface the last coat was prepared.
+This was of a different color and was spread on thick. Then, with a
+straight edge, a piece of board with a true, thin edge, reaching
+across the whole surface of painted cloth, the finishing touches were
+put on. Commencing at one end of the fabric, the straight edge was
+moved back and forth, and straight along over the fresh paint once or
+twice, and the whole thing left to dry.
+
+The first table covers were great curiosities, and the homes of the
+Baileys were visited by all the neighboring housewives, who were
+anxious to see "how they worked." Of course, it was easy to keep them
+clean, and they saved the woodwork of the table, which was
+recommendation enough. To see a cloth was to covet it, and it was not
+long before Ezekiel Bailey had a considerable business. Employing a
+boy to help him, he turned out table cloths as fast as his limited
+facilities would permit, and, as he progressed, new ideas for
+decorating took shape in his mind. In less than a year he had men out
+on the road selling them.
+
+The turning out to perfection of an oilcloth carpet in those days was
+a task that would make a person in these piping times of labor-saving
+machinery wish for something easier. All the smoothing or rubbing down
+was done by hand. Heavy, long-bladed knives, as big as the "Sword of
+Bunker Hill," were used to scrape down the rough body coats of paint,
+and a smooth surface, on which to stamp the geometrical figures in
+colors, was fetched after long and laborious polishing with bricks and
+pumice stone.
+
+Drummers employed by Mr. Bailey traveled to Massachusetts, to New
+York, and away down into the South, and ere long the demand for
+oilcloth carpeting became so general that other factories were built
+and made to chatter and clank with the new industry. There was living
+not far from East Winthrop at this time a shrewd, wideawake Yankee
+farmer named Sampson, who had kept his weather eye peeled on the
+progress of Ezekiel Bailey, and when housewives everywhere began to
+yearn for the new carpeting, taking a neighbor in as a partner, Mr.
+Sampson built a factory, and in a very short time was in a position to
+be considered a formidable rival of Mr. Bailey.
+
+But the originator of the oilcloth carpet was not to be outdone.
+Discerning good returns from a plant established close to a big center
+of consumption, Mr. Bailey entered into a deal with New Jersey
+capitalists, and a big factory was set a-going in that State. A
+trusted employe of the Bailey concern, Levi Richardson (who still
+lives and is the proprietor of a modest little store in East
+Winthrop), was sent to New Jersey to instruct the green hands there
+in the art of manufacture. While thus engaged, Mr. Richardson's brain
+was busy with the problem of labor saving, and one day a phantom
+device for smoothing and rubbing down the first rough coats on the
+burlaps took form in his mind, and for some weeks he spent his spare
+time in experimenting. The result was the present patent used in most
+factories, whereby as much rubbing down can be done in one day as
+could have been accomplished in four by the old hand method.
+--Industrial World.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE KOPPEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.
+
+
+The question of the design of small locomotives for use on pioneer
+lines has been always a difficult matter.
+
+The needs of the railway contractor have called for such locomotives,
+for which several systems of power have been tried. In many ways the
+electric locomotive has distinct advantages over its rivals, steam and
+compressed air, for these narrow gage lines. Reviewing these
+advantages briefly, we see that the electrical equipment is more
+economical to work, as one good stationary engine develops power much
+more cheaply than several small locomotives. Again, the electric
+locomotive can be more readily designed for narrow gages than steam or
+compressed air locomotives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--AN ELECTRIC LINE EQUIPPED ON THE KOPPEL
+SYSTEM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE SECTION WITH THE SUPPORT FOR THE OVERHEAD
+LINE.]
+
+A new system of equipment of such lines is now being introduced into
+this country by Mr. Arthur Koppel, of 96 Leadenhall Street, E. C. The
+keynote of this system is flexibility, the arrangements being such
+that extensions or alterations can be readily effected. In fact, the
+line is portable, and it is claimed also to be cheaper than the
+ordinary construction. The overhead conductor is employed, as can be
+seen from Fig. 1, which gives a general view of a locomotive and train
+of skips on a line actually at work abroad. The supports for the wire
+are not provided by separate posts and brackets in the usual way, but
+by arched carriers attached to the sections of railway line, thereby
+forming a portable section of the electric railway, as illustrated by
+Fig. 2. The steel carrier or "arch" is fixed to one of the sleepers,
+which is made of sufficient length for that purpose. On the straight
+line these line supports are placed about 25 yards apart. In curves of
+a small radius each section of tramway is provided with an arch, to
+keep the line of the wire as nearly as possible parallel to the curve
+of the line. Apart from these special extended sleepers with wire
+carriers attached, the line is constructed in the ordinary mariner
+with rails 14 lb. per yard and upward. As the electric locomotives are
+lighter than steam locomotives, the weight of rail required is
+somewhat less. The special trolley for erecting the wires along the
+railway line is shown in Fig. 3. This consists of an ordinary four
+wheeled platform wagon with ladder, and wire drum with tightening gear
+and clamps or grips for anchoring the trolley to the line. The wire is
+led over a sheave on top of the ladder and fixed to the picket post at
+the beginning of the line. When erecting the wire the trolley is
+pushed beyond the first carrier arch, clamped on to the rails, and the
+wire is then tightened by means of the tightening gear. It is then
+firmly fixed to the insulator on the carrier arch The tension in the
+copper wire is taken up by a second portable ladder, which is also
+provided with a tightening gear and can be clamped to the rails in the
+same manner as the trolley, so that the trolley can then be pushed
+behind the second carrier arch and the process previously described
+repeated. By the tension in the wire the carrier arches acquire the
+necessary stability, while without the procedure previously described
+it would be impossible to use such light arches attached to the
+sleepers. On permanent lines, the extreme ends of the wire are
+attached to properly anchored picket posts. On portable lines, on the
+other hand, the trolley with the wire drum is fixed to the rails at
+the end of the line, as shown in Fig. 3, so as to enable the line to
+be lengthened or shortened, as may be required, with ease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE STRAINING GEAR AND TERMINAL ANCHOR.]
+
+Care is taken in insulating the drum and ladders so as to prevent
+leakage from this erecting trolley to earth. The feeders from the
+power house to the overhead wire and to the rails respectively are
+erected on light iron posts, which have also been standardized by Mr.
+Koppel. A specimen of these posts with an anchored stay is shown in
+Fig. 4. All these details are arranged for convenience of the
+contractor required to rapidly equip a line of railway, which can also
+be removed as soon as the work has been done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--LIGHT POLE FOR CARRYING THE FEEDERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE.]
+
+The locomotive used is varied in form with the gage of the line, but
+we are particularly concerned with those for gages under 24 inches.
+One form of such locomotive without a hood to protect the driver is
+shown in Fig. 5. In this locomotive the gear is the same as that of
+the next illustration, but it is securely boxed in a watertight iron
+cover. The controlling gear is then placed vertically in front. Figs.
+6 and 7 show the details of the electrical and mechanical parts of
+this locomotive when fitted with a platform at either end, and with a
+hood. The motor. M, is of the internal pole type, and is supported on
+the underframe of the wagon. A double gear is used. The first is a
+spur gearing, connecting the motor to a countershaft placed under the
+motor. This gear reduces the speed of rotation to about 200
+revolutions. The countershaft is then connected to the two axles of
+the trolley by chain gearing. This gives the necessary flexibility
+between the car body and the wheel required, as the springs give to
+any inequality of the rails. In this gearing there is no change of
+speed. The underframe is provided with spring axle boxes, and also
+with spring buffers and drawbars. The speed of the motor can be
+regulated within very wide limits by the regulator, R. An effective
+hand brake is also provided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--END ELEVATION OF LOCOMOTIVE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--DETAILED ELEVATION OF A KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE WITH
+A DOUBLE PLATFORM AND HOOD.]
+
+For gages of 20 inches and upward the motors can be mounted on springs
+and attached to the running axles inside of the wagon underframe. This
+construction is particularly recommended by Mr. Koppel where, in order
+to mount heavy gradients, the dead load of the motor car must be
+assisted by the paying load to produce the necessary adhesion. In such
+cases several motor wagons would be used in the same train. As regards
+the working voltage, this can be varied to suit special requirements,
+but the locomotive we illustrate was designed for 110 volts. At this
+pressure its possible working speed was at least eight miles per hour.
+The supply of power is also a matter not referred to particularly, as
+in many cases a lighting plant is used by the contractors, which could
+also be employed to provide the necessary energy for the electric
+railway. The good work done by small electric locomotives in the
+excavation work for the Waterloo and City Railway[1] will convince our
+large contractors of the valuable service which electricity can render
+both above and below ground.--The Electrical Engineer.
+
+  [Footnote 1: Electrical Engineer, vol. xvi., p. 499.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A connection between Servian and Roumanian railways is to be
+established by bridging the Danube. It is reported proposals have
+already been made to the governments interested, by the Union Bridge
+Company, also by British and French constructors.--Uhland's
+Wochenschrift.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LIQUID RHEOSTATS.
+
+BY H. S. WEBB.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: In American Electrician.]
+
+
+The object in view when the following tests were commenced was to
+obtain some data from which the dimensions of a liquid rheostat for
+the dissipation as heat of a given amount of energy could be
+calculated, or at least estimated, when the maximum current and E.M.F.
+are known. These tests were rather hastily made and are far from being
+as complete as I should like to have them, and are published only to
+answer some inquiries for information on the subject.
+
+In the first test, an ordinary Daniell jar (6Πinches in diameter by 8
+inches deep) with horizontal sheet iron electrodes was filled with tap
+water. It would not carry 4 amperes for over fifteen or twenty
+minutes, although the jar was full of water and the plates only Ÿ inch
+apart. After that length of time it became too hot, causing great
+variation in the current on account of the large amount of gas
+liberated, much of which adhered to the under surface of the upper
+electrode. The difference of potential between the plates was 200
+volts.
+
+A run was made with 1 ampere and then with 2 amperes for one hour. In
+the latter case the voltage between the electrodes was about 71 volts
+and the temperature rose to about 167° F.
+
+From these tests it would be safe to allow a vessel with a cross
+section of 30.7 square inches to carry from 2 to 2œ amperes when tap
+water and horizontal electrodes are used.
+
+In test No. 2 the same jar and electrodes were used as in the
+preceding test, but the tap water was replaced by a saturated solution
+of salt water. Eleven amperes with a potential difference of 7 volts
+between the electrodes, which were 7Ÿ inches apart, were passed
+through the solution for three hours, and the temperature at the end
+of the run was 122° F., and was rising very slowly.
+
+Although the current per square inch is much greater, the watts
+absorbed per cubic inch is much less in this case than when water was
+used. With the water carrying 2 amperes the watts absorbed would be
+over 10 per cubic inch, while for the saturated solution of salt when
+carrying 11 amperes it would be only about 0.4 watt.
+
+In test No. 3 use was made of a long, wooden rectangular trough (42
+inches by 6œ inches by 8 inches) with vertical, sheet iron electrodes.
+The cross section of the liquid, which was a 10 per cent. solution of
+salt in water, was 44 square inches, and with 10 amperes passing
+through the solution for 1Ÿ hours the temperature rose to 95° F., and
+was rising slowly at the end of the run.
+
+The plates were 41Ÿ inches apart, and at the end of the run the
+voltmeter across the terminals read 20. This gives a current density
+of nearly Πampere per square inch and 0.11 watt per cubic inch. These
+values are too low to be considered maximum values, for this cross
+section of a 10 per cent. salt solution would probably carry 13 to 15
+amperes safely.
+
+It appears that as the amount of salt in the solution is increased
+from zero to saturation, the maximum current carrying capacity is
+increased, but the watts absorbed per cubic inch are less.
+
+A very small addition of salt to tap water makes the solution a much
+better conductor than the water, and reduces greatly the safe maximum
+watts absorbed. In using glass vessels, such as Daniell jars, there is
+danger of cracking the jar if the temperature rises much above 165° to
+175° F.
+
+In test No. 4 an ordinary whisky barrel, filled up with tap water, was
+used. Two horizontal circular iron plates (3/16 inch thick) were used
+for electrodes. The diameter of the inside of the barrel was
+approximately 19-1/2 inches. With the two plates 26-3/8 inches apart a
+difference of potential of 486 volts gave a current of 2.6 amperes.
+With the plates 7/8 inch apart, 228 volts gave 35.5 amperes at the end
+of one hour, when all the water in the barrel was very hot (175° F.),
+and there was quite a good deal of gas given off. The current density
+in this case was about 0.12 ampere per square inch and the watts
+absorbed 30.5 per cubic inch. If it were not for the large amount of
+water above both electrodes, it is doubtful if this current density
+could have been maintained.
+
+In test No. 5 a rectangular box, in which were placed two vertical
+sheet iron plates, was filled with tap water. The distance between the
+plates was 5/8 inch, and with a difference of potential of 414 at
+start and 397 at end of the run, a current of 35 amperes was kept
+flowing for 35 minutes. Cold tap water was kept running in between the
+electrodes at the rate of 6.11 pounds per minute (about 1/10 cubic
+foot) by means of a small rubber tube about 1/4 inch inside diameter.
+This test is very interesting in comparison with the preceding. The
+current carrying capacity, 0.3 ampere per square inch, was more than
+double, and the energy absorbed 183 watts per cubic inch, more than
+six times as great as in case where running water was not used.
+
+The temperature in some places between the plates occasionally rose as
+high as 205° F., and it was necessary, in order to avoid too violent
+ebullition, to keep the inflowing stream of water directed along the
+water surface between the two plates. Less water would not have been
+sufficient, and, of course, by using more water, the temperature
+could have been kept lower, or with the same temperature the watts
+absorbed could have been increased.
+
+When a large current density is used, there is considerable
+decomposition of the iron electrodes when either salt or pure water is
+used, and in the case of horizontal electrodes, the under surface of
+the top plate may become covered with bubbles of gas, making the
+resistance between the plates quite variable. For large current
+density a horizontal top plate is not advisable, unless a large number
+of holes are drilled through it. A better form for the top electrode
+would be a hollow cylinder long enough to give sufficient surface.
+Washing soda is often a convenient substance to use instead of salt.
+
+If, from experience, the size of a liquid rheostat for absorbing a
+given amount of energy cannot be estimated, the dimensions may be
+calculated approximately as follows:
+
+Suppose, for instance, it is desired to absorb 60 amperes at 40 volts
+difference of potential between the electrodes. Now, it is
+inconvenient to obtain a saturated solution of salt, and to use tap
+water would require too large a cross section--especially if a barrel
+or trough is to be used--in order to have the resistance with the
+plates at a safe distance apart, small enough to give 60 amperes with
+40 volts.
+
+Let us try a 10 per cent. solution of salt. Suppose the maximum
+current this will carry is Πampere per square inch, which will give a
+cross section of the solution of at least 60 ÷ Œ = 240 square inches.
+Now, the specific resistance per inch cube (i.e., the resistance
+between two opposite surfaces of a cube whose side measures 1 inch) of
+the 10 per cent. solution of salt used in test No. 3 was 2.12 ohms.
+The drop, CR, will be 2.12 × Œ = 0.53 volt per inch length of solution
+between electrodes. Hence, the electrodes will have to be 40/0.53 = 75
+inches apart. This would require about three barrels connected in
+series. This was taken merely as an illustration, because its specific
+resistance was known when the current density was Πampere per square
+inch. This solution, however, will carry safely 1/3 ampere per square
+inch, but I used the previous figure, since I did not know its
+specific resistance for this current density, because its specific
+resistance will be lower for a larger current density on account of
+the higher temperature which it will have, for the resistance of a
+solution decreases as its temperature increases.
+
+To reduce this length would require a solution of higher specific
+resistance, that is, a solution containing less than 10 per cent. of
+salt, and an increase in the cross section, since the maximum carrying
+capacity also diminishes as the percentage of salt diminishes. Only
+approximate calculations are useful because variations in temperature,
+amount of salt actually in solution and the rate at which heat can be
+radiated, all combine to give results which may vary widely from those
+calculated.
+
+As a matter of fact, it is seldom necessary or advisable to use a
+solution containing over 2 or 3 per cent. of salt. The best way to
+add salt to a liquid rheostat is to make a strong solution in a
+separate vessel and add as much of this solution as is needed. This
+avoids the annoying increase in conductivity of the solution which
+happens when the salt itself is added and is gradually dissolved.
+
+Liquid rheostats are ever so much more satisfactory for alternating
+than for direct current testing. The electrodes and solution are
+practically free from decomposition, and a given cross section seems
+to be able to carry a larger alternating than direct current--probably
+due partly to the absence of the scum on the surface which hinders the
+radiation of heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PROGRESS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+A retrospective survey of the progress made and of the reforms
+instituted in medical education in the United States is instructive.
+In many respects there is cause for much congratulation, while for
+other reasons the situation gives rise to feelings of alarm. It is
+pleasing to note and it augurs well for the future that a decided
+advance has been made in the direction of a more thorough medical
+training, yet at the same time it is discouraging to observe that,
+despite these progressive steps, competition does not abate, but
+rather daily becomes more acute. Dr. William T. Slayton has just
+issued his small annual volume on "Medical Education and Registration
+in the United States and Canada." From a study of this book, which
+fairly bristles with facts, a sufficiently comprehensive opinion may
+be formed in regard to the present state of medical education in this
+country. According to this work, there is now a grand total of one
+hundred and fifty-four medical schools. Of this number, one hundred
+and seventeen require attendance on four annual courses of lectures,
+and twenty-seven require attendance on sessions of eight months, and
+ten on nine months each year. Twenty-nine States and the District of
+Columbia require an examination for license to practice medicine;
+eighteen of these require both a diploma from a recognized college and
+an examination. Fifteen States require a diploma from a college
+recognized by them or an examination. Five States, viz., Vermont,
+Michigan, Kansas, Wyoming and Nevada, have practically no laws
+governing the practice of medicine; Alaska the same. In order to gain
+a clear comprehension of the existing state of affairs, a comparison
+of the number of students at two periods, with a lapse of years
+intervening sufficient to eliminate all minor variations, will be more
+to the point than merely regarding the multiplication of schools. Many
+of these mushroom institutions are not worthy of notice, containing
+perhaps a dozen students, and brought into existence only for the
+purpose of profit or from other motives of self-interest. The number
+of students is as reliable an index as can be given. For instance,
+taking the decade between 1883-84 and 1893-94, it will be found that
+the students in regular schools in 1883-84 numbered 10,600; in 1893-94
+they had increased to 17,601. Students in homoeopathic schools in
+1883-84 were 1,267; in 1893-94, 1,666. The number of eclectic students
+was stationary at the two periods. The increase during the period from
+1893-94 to the present time has been at about the same ratio.
+
+These figures reveal more plainly than words the existing condition of
+affairs, which must, too, in the nature of things, continue until that
+time when all the States fall into line and resolve to adopt a four
+years' course of not less than eight months.
+
+To make yet another comparison, the total number of medical schools in
+Austria and Germany, with a population exceeding that of this country,
+is twenty-nine. Great Britain, with more than half the population, has
+seventeen; while Russia, with one hundred million inhabitants, has
+nine. Of course we do not argue that America, with her immense
+territory and scattered population, does not need greater facilities
+for the study of medicine than do thickly inhabited countries, as
+Germany and Great Britain; but we do contend that when a city of the
+size of St. Louis has as many schools as Russia, the craze for
+multiplying these schools is being carried to absurd and harmful
+lengths. However, that the number of schools and their yearly supply
+of graduates of medicine are far beyond the demand is perfectly well
+known to all. The Medical Record and other medical journals have fully
+discussed and insisted upon that point for a considerable time. The
+real question at issue is by what means to remedy or at least to
+lessen the bad effects of the system as quickly as possible. The first
+and most important steps toward this desirable consummation have been
+already taken, and when a four years' course comes into practice
+throughout the country, the difficult problem of checking excessive
+competition will at any rate be much nearer its solution. Why should
+France, Germany, Great Britain and other European nations consider
+that a course of from five to seven years is not too long to acquire a
+good knowledge of medical work, while in many parts of America two or
+three years' training is esteemed ample for the manufacture of a
+full-fledged doctor? Such methods are unfair both to the public and to
+the medical profession, and the result is that in numerous instances
+the short-time graduate has either to learn most of the practical part
+of his duties by hard experience, to starve, or to utilize his
+abilities in some more lucrative path of life. Taking into
+consideration the fact that the theory and practice of medicine have
+become so extended within recent years, it must be readily conceded
+that four years is barely sufficient time in which to gain a
+satisfactory insight into their various departments. For a person,
+however gifted, to hope to receive an adequate medical training in two
+or three years is vain.
+
+In those States in which the facilities for securing a medical
+education are abundant, and where the time and money to be expended
+are within the reach everyone, there is always the danger that an
+undue proportion will forsake trade in order to join the profession.
+This is especially the case when times are bad. Many persons seem to
+be possessed of the idea that the practice of medicine as a means of
+livelihood should be regarded as a something to fall back upon when
+other resources fail. Accordingly, when trade is depressed and money
+is scarce, there is a rush to enter its ranks. That this view of the
+matter is altogether an erroneous one is too self-evident to need any
+demonstrative proof. Again, although the question of a universal four
+years' course is a most important one, it must not be forgotten that
+examination takes almost as conspicuous a place. It is desirable that
+every one entering on medical studies should possess a general
+education. With the exception of a few unimportant schools, the
+entrance examinations would appear to afford the necessary test. Then
+comes the much more vital point of how to gage, in the fairest
+possible manner, the extent of the medical knowledge of those who have
+undergone their full term of study. For various reasons the conducting
+of the final examinations by professors in the school in which the
+student has been taught is open to many and grave objections, more
+especially when these professors are themselves teachers in that
+school. As has been pointed out in The Medical Record on more than one
+occasion, the most obviously fair regulation is that of independent
+examination by an unbiased State board. If this plan were carried into
+execution, medical education in America generally would rest on a
+firmer basis than in Great Britain, in which country the standard,
+although nowhere so low as in parts of the United States, still varies
+very considerably in the different schools. The General Medical
+Council of England has arrived at the conclusion that competition must
+be checked, and has lately brought into force two drastic measures
+calculated to attain this object; one is the lengthening of the course
+to five years, and, more recently, the abolishing of the unqualified
+assistant. The medical profession of America is quite as conscious of
+the disastrous results of competition as are its fellow practitioners
+on the other side, and should use every legitimate means to sweep away
+the evils of the present system.--Medical Record.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEATHS UNDER ANÆSTHETICS.
+
+
+On December 17, 1897, a fatality occurred during the administration of
+ether. The patient, a woman aged forty-four years, who suffered from
+"internal cancer," was admitted for operation into the new hospital
+for women, Euston Road. It was considered that an operation would
+afford a chance of the prolongation of her life. At the time of
+admission the patient was in a very exhausted condition. Mrs. Keith,
+the anæsthetist to the hospital, administered nitrous oxide gas,
+followed by ether, which combination of anæsthetics the patient took
+well. After the expiration of thirty minutes and while the operation
+was in progress the patient became so collapsed that the surgeon was
+requested by the anæsthetist to desist from further surgical procedure
+and she at once complied. Resuscitative measures were at once applied,
+but the patient died after about ten minutes from circulatory failure
+arising from surgical shock and collapse. We have not received any
+particulars as to the means adopted to restore the woman or whether
+hemorrhage was severe. In all such cases posture, warmth and guarding
+the patient from the effects of hemorrhage are undoubtedly the most
+important points for attention both before and during the operation.
+The fact is established that both chloroform and ether cause a fall
+of body temperature, and so increase shock unless the trunk and limbs
+are kept wrapped in flannel or cotton-wool. The fall of temperature
+under severe abdominal and vaginal operations again is considerable. A
+profound anæsthesia allows of a considerable drop in arterial tension,
+which has been shown to be least when the limbs and pelvis are placed
+at a higher level than the head. Again, saline transfusion of Ringer's
+fluid certainly lessens the collapse in such cases when the bleeding,
+always severe, has been excessive. We do not doubt that such a severe
+operation undertaken when the patient was in a dangerous state of
+exhaustion was as far as possible safeguarded by every precaution, and
+we regret we have not been favored with the particulars of the methods
+employed. A death following the administration of ether is reported
+from the Corbett Hospital, Stourbridge.[1] The patient, aged
+thirty-nine years, was admitted on September 21, 1897, suffering from
+fracture of the right femur. A prolonged application of splints led to
+a stiffness with adhesions about the knee joint which were to be dealt
+with under an anæsthetic on December 8. Ether was given from a
+Clover's inhaler; one ounce was used. The induction was slightly
+longer than usual but was marked by no unusual phenomena. No sickness
+occurred during or after anæsthesia and no respiratory spasm was seen.
+There was a short struggling stage followed by true anæsthesia when
+the operation, a very brief one, was rapidly performed. The patient
+was then taken back to the ward and the corneal reflex was noticed as
+being present. Voluntary movements were also said to have been seen.
+Later he opened his eyes "and seemed to recognize an onlooker." After
+this no special supervision was exercised. A hospital porter engaged
+in the ward noticed the man was breathing in gasps; this was twenty
+minutes after the patient had been taken from the operating theater
+and half an hour subsequent to the first administration of the ether.
+The surgeons were fetched from the operating theater and found by that
+time that the man was dead. "He was lying with his head thrown back,
+so that no possible difficulty of breathing could have arisen due to
+his position. The eyes were open and the lips slightly parted; nor was
+there any sign of any struggle for breath having taken place." The
+ether was analyzed and found to fulfill the British Pharmacopoeia
+tests for purity. The necropsy revealed that the right heart was
+distended with venous fluid blood. The lungs also were loaded with
+blood, as were all the viscera. We cannot but feel that the fact shown
+at the post mortem examination seemed to indicate that the man died
+from asphyxia and not from heart failure. No doubt patients appear to
+resume consciousness after an anæsthetic and even mutter
+semi-intelligible words and recognize familiar faces. They then sink
+into deep sleep just like the stupefaction of the drunken, and in this
+condition the tongue falls back and the slightest cause--a little
+thick mucus or the dropping of the jaw--will completely prevent
+ventilation of the lungs taking place. Two very similar cases occurred
+in the practice of a French surgeon, who promptly opened the trachea
+and forced air into the lungs, with the result that both patients
+survived. In his cases chloroform had been given. A death under
+chloroform occurred at the infirmary, Kidderminster. The patient, a
+boy, aged eight years and nine months, suffered from a congenital
+hernia upon which it became necessary to operate for its radical cure.
+The house surgeon, Mr. Oliphant, M.B., C.M. Edin., administered
+chloroform from lint. In about eight minutes the breathing ceased, the
+operation not having then been commenced. Upon artificial respiration
+being adopted the child appeared to rally, but sank almost immediately
+and died within two minutes. The necropsy showed no organic disease.
+At the inquest the coroner asked Dr. Oliphant whether an inhaler was
+not a better means of giving chloroform, and whether that substance
+was not the most dangerous of the anæsthetics in common use, and
+received the answer that inhalers were not satisfactory for giving
+chloroform and that it was a matter of opinion as to which was the
+most dangerous anæsthetic. We so often hear that the Scotch schools
+never meet with casualties under anæsthetics because they always use
+chloroform, and prefer to dispense with any apparatus, that we can
+readily accept the replies given to the coroner as representing the
+views current among the majority of even the thoughtful alumni of
+those great centers of medical training. A glance over the long list
+of casualties under chloroform will unfortunately show that whatever
+charm Syme exercised during his life has not survived to his
+followers, and overdosage with chloroform proves as fatal in the hands
+of those who hail from beyond the Tweed as well as "down south." A
+death from chloroform contained in the A.C.E. mixture occurred at the
+General Hospital, Birmingham, on December 15. The patient, a girl,
+aged five years and ten months, suffered from hypertrophied tonsils
+and post-nasal adenoid growths. She was given the A.C.E. mixture by
+Mr. McCardie, one of the anæsthetists to the institution, and
+tonsillotomy was performed. As consciousness was returning some
+chloroform was given to enable Mr. Haslam, the operator, to remove the
+growths. She died at once from respiratory failure, in spite of
+restorative measures. A necropsy showed absence of organic disease.
+The anæsthetist regarded the death as one from cardiac failure due to
+reflex inhibition by irritation of the vagus. We are not told the
+posture of the child or the method employed.--The Lancet.
+
+  [Footnote 1: We are indebted to Mr. Hammond Smith, honorary
+  surgeon to the hospital, and Mr. Edgar Collis for the notes of the
+  case.--Ed. Lancet]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The resistance of nickel steel to the attack of water increases with
+the nickel contents. The least expanding alloys, containing about 36
+per cent. of nickel, are sufficiently unassailable, and can be exposed
+for months to air saturated with moisture without being tainted by
+rust. With a view of testing the expansion of nickel steel,
+experiments have been carried out by allowing measuring rods to remain
+in warm water for some hours, according to The Iron and Coal Trades
+Review. They were not wiped off when taken out, but were exposed for a
+longer period to hot steam, but the lines traced on the polished
+surfaces were not altered. The rough surfaces, when exposed to steam,
+were covered after several days with a continuous, but little
+adhesive, coat of rust.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT BOOKS
+
+
+APPLIED MECHANICS. A Treatise for the Use of Students who have
+time to work Experimental, Numerical, and Graphical Exercises
+illustrating the subject. By John Perry. With 371 illustrations.
+12mo, cloth. 678 pages. London, 1897.                       $3 50
+
+ARCHITECTURE. Architectural Drawing for Mechanics. By I. P.
+Hicks. A comprehensive treatise on Architectural Drawing for
+Building Mechanics, showing the learner how to proceed step by
+step in every detail of the work. Square 12mo, cloth. 6
+illustrations. 94 pages. New York, 1897.                    $1 00
+
+ARCHITECTURE. The Planning and Construction of High Office
+Buildings. By W. H. Birkmire. 8vo, cloth. Illustrated. 345
+pages. New York, 1898.                                      $3 50
+
+ARCHES. A Treatise on Arches. Designed for the Use of Engineers
+and Students in Technical Schools. By M. A. Howe. 8vo, cloth. New
+York, 1897.                                                 $4 00
+
+ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. Their Properties, Occurrence and Use. By
+R. H. Jones. With 11 Collotype Plates and other illustrations.
+8vo, cloth. London, 1897.                                   $6 50
+
+ASSAYING. A Manual of Assaying Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper. By
+Walter Lee Brown. Seventh edition. 533 pages. Illustrated. 12mo.
+cloth. Chicago,1897.                                        $2 60
+
+ASTRONOMY. A New Astronomy. By David P. Todd. 12mo, cloth. 480
+pages. Profusely illustrated. New York, 1898.               $1 50
+
+BEVERAGES. Standard Manual for Soda and other Beverages. A
+Treatise especially adapted to the requirements of Druggists and
+Confectioners. By A. Emil Hiss. 12mo, cloth. 260 pages. Chicago,
+1897.                                                       $4 00
+
+BICYCLE REPAIRING. A Manual compiled from articles in "The Iron
+Age." By S. D. V. Burr. 8vo, cloth. 166 pages. Fully illustrated.
+New York.                                                   $1 00
+
+BOOT MAKING AND MENDING. Including Repairing, Lasting and
+Finishing. With numerous engravings and diagrams. Edited by Paul
+N. Hasluck. (Work Handbooks.) 16mo, cloth. 160 pages, fully
+illustrated. New York, 1897.                                $0 50
+
+BOTANY. A Text Book of General Botany. By Carlton C. Curtis,
+Tutor in Botany in Columbia University. 8vo, cloth. 359 pages,
+illustrated. New York, 1897.                                $3 00
+
+BREWING CALCULATIONS. Gaging and Tabulation, Formulæ, Tables and
+General Information for Brewers, and Excise Officers Surveying
+Breweries. By Claude H. Bater. 64mo, vest pocket size. 340 pages.
+London, 1898.                                               $0 60
+
+BRIDGES. DePontibus: A Pocket Book for Bridge Engineers. By J. A.
+L. Waddell. 12mo, leather. Pocketbook form with flap. 403 pages.
+New York, 1898.                                             $3 00
+
+CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. A Textbook for Architects, Engineers,
+Surveyors and Craftsmen. Fully illustrated and written by
+Banister F. Fletcher and H. Philip Fletcher. 12mo, cloth. 293
+pages. London, 1898.                                       $2 00
+
+CHEMISTRY FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS. By Chas. F. Townsend. Illustrated.
+12mo, cloth. New York, 1897.                               $0 75
+
+COMPRESSED AIR. Practical Information upon Air Compression and
+the Transmission and Application of Compressed Air. By Frank
+Richards. 12mo, cloth. 203 pages. Illustrated. New York.   $1 50
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
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+<title>
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, March 5, 1898.</title>
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157,
+March 5, 1898, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157, March 5, 1898
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 27, 2007 [EBook #21225]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="margin-left:-10%; margin-right: -10%:">
+<a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1157</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, March 5, 1898.</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1157.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>PAGE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art01">ARCHÆOLOGY.&mdash;Requirements of Palestine Explorer</a></td>
+<td align="right">18489</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art02">BIOGRAPHY.&mdash;Emperor William II. of Germany.&mdash;An
+interesting biographical account of the German
+Emperor, with his latest portrait.&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+<td align="right">18486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art03">CIVIL ENGINEERING.&mdash;Heat in Great Tunnels</a></td>
+<td align="right">18492</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art04">ECONOMICS.&mdash;Causes of Poverty</a></td>
+<td align="right">18490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art05">ELECTRICITY.&mdash;Liquid Rheostats.&mdash;By H. S. WEBB</a></td>
+<td align="right">18498</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art06">The Neutral Use of Cables</a></td>
+<td align="right">18489</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art07">ETHNOLOGY.&mdash;The Influence of Scenery upon the
+Character of Man</a></td>
+<td align="right">18488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art08">FORESTRY.&mdash;Apparatus for Obtaining the Cubature of
+Trees.&mdash;3 illustrations</a></td>
+<td align="right">18493</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art09">GYMNASTICS.&mdash;A Novel Way of Riding a Bicycle.
+--1 illustration</a></td>
+<td align="right">18489</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art10">HYDROGRAPHY.&mdash;Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate</a></td>
+<td align="right">18490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art11">LANDSCAPE GARDENING.&mdash;Park Making</a></td>
+<td align="right">18490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XI.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art12">MARINE ENGINEERING.&mdash;The Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
+Passenger Steamer "Bruce."&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+<td align="right">18492</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art13">MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;Machine Moulding without
+Stripping Plates.&mdash;By E. H. MUMFORD.&mdash;A full
+description of an ingenious moulding machine.&mdash;7
+illustrations</a></td>
+<td align="right">18494</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art14">MEDICINE.&mdash;The Progress of Medical Education in the
+United States</a></td>
+<td align="right">18499</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art15">Deaths under Anæsthetics</a></td>
+<td align="right">18499</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XIV.</td>
+<td align="left">MISCELLANEOUS:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art16">Engineering Notes</a></td>
+<td align="right">18491</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art17">Miscellaneous Notes</a></td>
+<td align="right">18491</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art18">Selected Formulæ</a></td>
+<td align="right">18491</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XV.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art19">NATURAL HISTORY.&mdash;Tapirs in the Zoological Garden at
+Breslau.&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+<td align="right">18488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XVI.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art20">STEAM ENGINEERING.&mdash;An English Steam Fire Engine.
+--1 illustration</a></td>
+<td align="right">18493</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XVII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art21">TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION.&mdash;My Recent Journey from the
+Nile to Suakim.&mdash;By FREDERIC VILLIERS.&mdash;The advance
+to Khartoum.&mdash;An important account of the recent
+travels of the celebrated war correspondent</a></td>
+<td align="right">18486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XVIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art22">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Artificial India Rubber.&mdash;This article
+describes some important experiments which have been
+made in which India rubber substitutes have been
+produced from oil of turpentine</a></td>
+<td align="right">18495</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art23">Deep and Frosted Etching on Glass</a></td>
+<td align="right">18496</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art24">The Koppel Electric Locomotives.&mdash;This article
+describes a system of electric trolley traction for
+narrow gage railroads.&mdash;7 illustrations</a></td>
+<td align="right">18497</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art25">Slate and its Applications.&mdash;This article details
+some of the various uses to which slate is put in the
+arts, with a view of slate store vats for breweries</a></td>
+<td align="right">18496</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left"><a href="#art26">Birthplace of the Oilcloth Industry</a></td>
+<td align="right">18496</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Page_18485" id="Page_18485"></a>
+<a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" alt="William II Seated Portrait" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">LATEST PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>EMPEROR WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY.</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a name="Page_18486" id="Page_18486"></a>
+Since William II. of Germany ascended the throne as German Emperor and
+King of Prussia, on June 15, 1888, the eyes of Europe have been fixed
+on him. He has always been rather an unknown quantity, and he is
+regarded by the powers as an <i>enfant terrible</i>. The press of the world
+delights in showing up his weak points, and the "war lord" undoubtedly
+has them, but, at the same time, he has qualities which are to be
+admired and which make him conspicuous among the rulers of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>He is popular in Germany, and it is not surprising, for, in spite of
+being autocratic to the last degree, he is honest, courageous,
+ambitious, hard working, and, withal, a thorough German, being
+intensely patriotic. Indeed, if the people of the Fatherland had the
+right to vote for a sovereign, they would undoubtedly choose the
+present constitutional ruler, for, while the virtues we have named may
+seem commonplace, they are not so when embodied in an emperor. One
+thing which places William at a disadvantage is his excessive
+frankness, which is, in him, almost a fault, for if he couched his
+utterances in courtly or diplomatic phrases, they would pass
+unchallenged, instead of being cited to ridicule him. His mistakes
+have largely resulted from his impulsive nature coupled with
+chauvinism, which is, perhaps, justifiable, or, at least, excusable,
+in a ruler.</p>
+
+<p>Since the time when William was a child he evidenced a strong desire
+to become acquainted with the details of the office to which his lofty
+birth entitled him. It is doubtful if any king since the time of
+Frederick the Great has studied the routine of the public offices and
+has made such practical inspections of industries of all kinds;
+indeed, there is hardly a man in Germany who has more general
+knowledge of the material development of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In the army he has worked his way up like any other officer and has a
+firm grasp on all the multifarious details of the military
+establishment of the great country. He believes in militarism, or in
+force to use a more common expression, but in this he is right, for it
+has taken two hundred and fifty years to bring Prussia to the position
+she now holds, and what she has gained at the point of the sword must
+be retained in the same way. The immense sacrifices which the people
+make to support the army and navy are deemed necessary for
+self-preservation, and with France on one side and Russia on the
+other, there really seems to be ample excuse for it. To-day the German
+army is as ready as in 1870, when Von Moltke walked down the Unter den
+Linden, the day after hostilities were declared, looking in the shop
+windows.</p>
+
+<p>No ruler, except possibly Peter the Great, ever gave so many <i>ex
+cathedra</i> opinions on so many different subjects in the same length of
+time, and of course it cannot be supposed that he has not made
+mistakes, but it shows that it is only by prodigious industry that he
+has been able to gather the materials on which these utterances are
+based. He is indeed the "first servant of the state," and long before
+his court or indeed many of the housemaids of Berlin are awake, he is
+up ind attending to affairs of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>He is a great traveler, and knows Europe from the North Cape to the
+Golden Horn; and while flying across country in his comfortable
+vestibuled train, he dispatches business and acquires an excellent
+idea of the country, and no traveler can speak more intelligently of
+the countries through which he has traveled, and this information is
+brought out with good effect in his excellent after-dinner speeches.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the versatility of the Emperor, something should be
+said of him as a sportsman. He has given a splendid example to the
+Germans. He has tried to introduce baseball, football and polo, three
+American games. This may be traced to the time when Poultney Bigelow
+and J. A. Berrian were the Emperor's playmates. Fenimore Cooper was
+one of the favorite authors with the young scion of royalty. The
+Emperor is fond of hunting, yachting, tennis and other sports and is
+never so happy as when he stands on the bridge of the royal yacht
+Hohenzollern. He is a well known figure at Cowes and won the Queen's
+Cup in 1891.</p>
+
+<p>William II. was born January 27, 1859, in Berlin, and until he was
+fourteen years old his education was intrusted to Dr. Hintzpeter,
+assisted by Major Von Gottberg, who was military instructor. At this
+time his corps of teachers was increased by the addition of Prediger
+Persius, who prepared him for his confirmation, which took place
+September 1, 1874, at Potsdam. As William was to lead an active life,
+it was thought best to send him to the gymnasium at Cassel.</p>
+
+<p>Orders were given that he and his younger brother Henry, who
+accompanied him, should receive the same treatment as the other
+pupils, and this order was strictly obeyed. He graduated from this
+school January 24, 1877, just before his eighteenth birthday. After
+this his military career began with his entrance as an officer into
+the first Garde-regiment at Potsdam, that he might become thoroughly
+acquainted with practical service. The young prince was assigned to
+the company which his father had once commanded. After serving here
+for a short time he went to the university at Bonn, and from there he
+went back to the army again. Emperor William ascended the throne in
+June, 1888, upon the death of his father Frederick III.</p>
+
+<p>In 1880 he was betrothed to Augusta Victoria, Princess of
+Schleswig-Holstein, and on February 9, 1881, they were married. The
+Empress is about a year younger than the Emperor, and makes an
+excellent mother to her four little sons, to whom she is devoted.
+Their oldest child, little Prince William, the present Crown Prince,
+was born at Potsdam, May 6, 1882. His father's devotion to the army
+will doubtless prompt him to make a soldier of his son at an early
+age; in fact, he wore the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard before he
+was six years old.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial family consists of seven children. The eldest, the Crown
+Prince of Germany and Prussia, is Prince
+Friedrich-Wilhelm-Victor-August-Ernst, born May 6, 1882. The second
+child is Prince Wilhelm-Eitel-Friedrich-Christian-Karl, born July 7,
+1883. The third is Prince Adalbert-Ferdinand-Berenger-Victor, born
+July 14, 1884. Prince August-Wilhelm-Heinrich-Victor was born January
+29. 1887. The fifth child, Prince Oscar-Karl-Gustav-Adolf, was born
+July 27, 1888. The sixth child is Prince Joachim-Francois-Humbert. He
+was born December 17, 1890. The youngest is a girl, Princess
+Victoria-Louise-Adelaide-Mathilde-Charlotte. She was born September
+13, 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Our engraving is from the last portrait of the Emperor William, and we
+are indebted for it to the Illustrirte Zeitung.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>MY RECENT JOURNEY FROM THE NILE TO SUAKIM.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">Frederic Villiers</span>, in The Journal of the Society of Arts.</h3>
+
+<h3>THE ADVANCE TO KHARTOUM.</h3>
+
+<p>The recent campaign in the Soudan was a bloodless one to the
+correspondent with the expedition, or, rather, on the tail of the
+advance. Yet I think, in spite of this little drawback, there is
+enough in the vicissitudes of my colleagues and myself during the
+recent advance of the Egyptian troops up the Nile to warrant me
+addressing you this afternoon. Especially as toward the end of the
+campaign the Sirdar, or Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, Sir
+Herbert Kitchener, became more sympathetic with our endeavors to get
+good copy for our journals, and allowed us to return home by the old
+trade route of the Eastern Soudan, over which no European had passed
+since the revolt of the Eastern tribes in 1883. Unfortunately, the
+period for campaigning in the Soudan is in the hottest months in the
+year, on the rising of the Nile at the end of July, when the cataracts
+begin to be practicable for navigation. At the same time, in spite of
+the heat, it is the healthiest period, for the water, in its brown,
+muddy, pea soup state, is wholesomer to drink, and the banks of the
+river, which, when exposed at low Nile, give off unhealthy
+exhalations, are protected from spreading fever germs by the flood. To
+show you how much the people of Egypt depend for their very existence
+on this extraordinary river, the average difference between high and
+low Nile, giving favorable results, is 26 feet. Twenty-eight feet
+would cause serious damage by inundation, and the Nile as low as 20
+feet would create a famine. The flood of the river depends entirely on
+the equatorial rains which cause the Upper White Nile to rise in April
+and the Blue Nile early in June. The muddy Atbara, joining her two
+sisters about the same time, sends the flood down to Lower Egypt
+toward the end of August at the rate of 100 miles a day. The Blue Nile
+in the middle of September falls rapidly away, while the Atbara leaves
+the trio in October. The White Nile is then left by herself to recede
+slowly and steadily from a current of four knots an hour to a sluggish
+and, in many parts, an unwholesome stream. Flies and mosquitoes
+increase, and fever is rife.</p>
+
+<p>I arrived in Cairo on a sweltering day in July, and found four
+colleagues, who had been waiting for a week the Sirdar's permission to
+proceed to the front, still waiting. Luckily, the day after my arrival
+a telegram came from headquarters, saying that "we might proceed as
+far as Assouan and their await further orders." This, anyhow, was a
+move in the right direction; so we at once started. It was rather a
+bustle for me to get things ready, for Sunday blocked the way and
+little could be done, even on that day, in Cairo. I procured a
+servant, a horse and two cases of stores, for the cry was "nothing to
+be had up country in the shape of food; hardly sufficient sustenance
+to keep the flies alive." My colleagues, who had the start of me, were
+able to procure many luxuries&mdash;a case of cloudy ammonia for their
+toilet, and one of chartreuse, komel and benedictine to make their
+after dinner coffee palatable, and some plum pudding, if Christmas
+should still find them on the warpath, were a few of the many items
+that made up the trousseau of these up-to-date war correspondents,
+though at least one of them had been wedded to the life for many
+years. Unfortunately I had no time to procure these luxuries, and I
+had to proceed ammonialess and puddingless to the seat of war. My
+comrades were quite right. Why not do yourself well if you can? One of
+them even went in for the luxury of having three shooting irons, two
+revolvers and a double-barrel slug pistol, so that when either of the
+weapons got hot while he was holding Baggara horsemen at bay, there
+was always one cooling, ready to hand. He also, which I believe is a
+phenomenal record with any campaigner, took with him thirteen pairs of
+riding breeches, a half dozen razors and an ice machine. Even our
+commander-in-chief, when campaigning, denies himself more than two
+shirts and never travels with ice machines. But the thirteen pairs
+impressed me considerably. Why thirteen, more than fifteen, or any
+other number? I came to the conclusion that my colleague must
+certainly be a member of that mystic body the "Thirteen Club," and as
+he had to bring in the odd number somewhere to keep the club fresh in
+his memory, he occasionally sat upon it.</p>
+
+<p>I found, after all, there was some wisdom in his eccentricity, for,
+when riding the camel, mounted on the rough saddle of the country, I
+often wished that I had my friend's forethought, and I should have
+been glad to have supplemented mine with his odd number. No doubt my
+colleague's idea in having such a variety of nether garments was to
+use them respectively, on a similar principle to the revolvers, when
+he rode in hot haste with his vivid account of the latest battle to
+the telegraph office.</p>
+
+<p>But, unfortunately, this recent campaign did not, after all,
+necessitate these elaborate preparations, for there were no dervishes
+for us to shoot at or descriptions of bloody battles to be
+telegraphed. At all events, the cloudy ammonia and the thirteen
+breeches, with the assistance of a silken sash&mdash;a different color for
+each day of the week&mdash;made the brightest and smartest looking little
+man in camp. However, when I reflect on this new style of war
+correspondent, who, I forgot to mention, also carried with him two
+tents, a couple of beds, sundry chairs and tables, a silver-mounted
+dressing case, two baths, and a gross of toothpicks, and I think of
+the severe simplicity of the old style of campaigning when a famous
+correspondent who is still on the warpath, and who always sees the
+fighting if there be any, on one arduous campaign took with him the
+modest outfit of a tooth brush and a cake of carbolic soap, I joyfully
+feel that with the younger generation our profession is keeping pace
+with the luxury of the times.</p>
+
+<h3>FROM BERBER TO SUAKIM.</h3>
+
+<p>Toward the end of the campaign four colleaguesMessrs. Knight, Gwynne,
+Scudamore, Maud&mdash;and myself, took this opportunity of traversing a
+country very little known to the outside world, and a route which no
+European had followed for fourteen years, from Berber to Suakim.
+Moreover, there was a spice of adventure about it; there was an
+uncertainty regarding an altogether peaceful time on the way&mdash;a
+contingency which always appeals strongly to Englishmen of a roving
+and adventurous disposition. Only quite recently raids organized by
+the apparently irrepressible Osman Digna had been successfully carried
+out a few miles north and south of Berber. At the moment General
+Hunter, with two battalions of troops, was marching along the banks of
+the River Atbara to hunt for Osman and his followers, but there was
+much speculation as to whether five-and-twenty dervish raiders were
+still this side of the river, and drawing their water from the wells
+on the Suakim road.</p>
+
+<p>I was hardly prepared for this journey&mdash;one, probably, of twelve
+days&mdash;for my campaigning outfit, which I was compelled to leave on
+board my nugger on the Nile, had not yet arrived in Berber.
+Unfortunately, I could not wait for the gear, as the Sirdar insisted
+on our departure at once, for the road would be certainly insecure
+directly General Hunter returned from covering our right flank on the
+Atbara. I had no clothes but what I stood up in, and I had been more
+or less standing up in them without change for the last two weeks.</p>
+
+<p>Our caravan of nineteen camels, with two young ones, quite babies,
+following their mothers, and a couple of donkeys, about seven in the
+evening of the 30th of October quitted the mud-baked town of Berber,
+sleeping in the light of a new moon, and silently moved across the
+desert toward the Eastern Star. Next morning at the Morabeh Well, six
+miles from Berber, our camels having filled themselves up with water,
+and our numerous girbas, or water skins, being charged with the
+precious liquid&mdash;till they looked as if they were about to burst&mdash;our
+loads were packed and we started on a journey of fifty-two miles
+before the next water could be reached.</p>
+
+<p>We made quite a formidable show trailing over the desert. Probably it
+would have been more impressive if our two donkeys had restrained
+their ambition, and kept in the rear instead of leading the van. But
+animals mostly have their own way in these parts, and asses are no
+exception to this rule. The two baby camels commenced "grousing" with
+their elders directly we halted or made a fresh advance; they probably
+had an inkling of what was in store for them. After all, the world
+must seem a hard and unsympathetic place when, having only known it
+for two or three weeks, you are compelled to make a journey of 240
+miles to keep up with your commissariat. One of these babies was only
+in its eighteenth day. In spite of its tender youth the little beast
+trotted by the side of its mother, refreshing itself whenever we came
+to a halt with a pull from her teats, and, to the astonishment of all,
+arrived in Suakim safe and sound after twelve days' marching.</p>
+
+<p>To the uninitiated regarding the "grousing" of camels, I should
+explain that it is a peculiar noise which comes from their long funnel
+necks early or late, and for what reason it is difficult to tell.
+Sometimes the sound is not unlike the bray of an ass, occasionally it
+reaches the dignity of the roar of a lion with the bleating of a goat
+thrown in, then as quickly changes to the solemnity of a church organ.
+It is altogether so strange a sound that nothing but a phonograph
+could convey any adequate idea of it. It is a thing to be heard. No
+pen can properly describe it. After a long march, and when you are
+preparing to relieve the brute of his load, he begins to grouse. When
+he is about to start in the morning he grouses. If you hit him, he
+grouses; if you pat his neck gently, he grouses; if you offer him
+something to eat, he grouses; and if you twist his tail, he makes the
+same extraordinary noise. The camel evidently has not a large
+vocabulary, and he is compelled to express all his various sensations
+in this simple manner.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of our journey was monotonous enough, miles and miles
+of weary sandy plains, with alternate stretches of agabas or stony
+deserts, scored with shallow depressions, where torrential rains had
+recently soaked into the sand, leaving a glassy, clay-like surface,
+which had flaked or cracked into huge fissures under the heat of the
+fierce sun. And at every few hundred yards we came to patches of
+coarse camel grass, which had evidently cropped up on the coming of
+the rain, and, by its present aspect, seemed to feel very sorry that
+it had been induced to put in an appearance, for its sustenance was
+now fast passing into vapor, and its green young life was rapidly
+dying out as the sun scorched the tender shoots to the roots. But
+camels thrive on this parched-up grass, and our brutes nibbled at it
+whenever one slackened the head-rope.</p>
+
+<p>We traversed the dreary plain, marked every few yards by the bleached
+bones of camels fallen by the way; the only living thing met with for
+two days being a snake of the cobra type trailing across our path. The
+evening of the second day we camped in a long wadi, or shallow valley,
+full of mimosa trees, where our camels were hobbled and allowed to
+graze. They delighted in nibbling the young branches of these prickly
+acacias, which carry thorns at least an inch in length, that serve
+excellently well for toothpicks. Yet camels seem to rejoice in
+browsing off these trees, and chew up their thorns without blinking.
+This I can partly understand, for the camel's usual diet of dry,
+coarse grass must become rather insipid, and as we sometimes take
+"sauce piquante" with our cold dishes, so he tickles his palate with
+one inch thorns.</p>
+
+<p>Climbing ridge after ridge of the dunes, we at last saw stretching
+before us in the moonlight the valley of Obak, an extensive wadi of
+mimosa and sunt trees. Our guides halted on a smooth stretch of sand,
+and I wondered why we were not resting by the wells. Near were three
+native women squatting round a dark object that looked to me, in the
+faint light of the moon, like a tray. I walked up to them, thinking
+they might have some grain upon it for sale, but found to my surprise
+that it was a hole in the sand, and I realized at once that this must
+be a well. One of the women was manipulating a leather bucket at the
+end of a rope, which after a considerable time she began hauling up to
+the surface. It was about half full of thick, muddy water. Further on
+along the wadi I now<a name="Page_18487" id="Page_18487"></a> noticed other groups of natives squatting on the
+sand doing sentinel over the primitive wells. I never came across a
+more slovenly method of getting water. The mouths of the holes were
+not banked or protected; a rain storm or sand drift at any moment
+might have blocked them for a considerable period.</p>
+
+<p>Not being able to get water for the camels was a serious matter, as
+our animals were not of the strongest, nor had they been recently
+trained for a long journey without water. This was the evening of the
+third day from Berber, and many of the poor brutes were showing signs
+of weakness. We resolved, therefore, to hurry on at once to the next
+well, that of Ariab; so we left the inhospitable wadi, and started at
+three in the morning on our next stretch of fifty-three miles.</p>
+
+<p>These night marches were pleasant enough; it was only the hour or two
+before dawn when the heaviness of sleep troubled us; but just as we
+began nodding, and felt in danger of falling off our camels, the keen
+change in the temperature which freshens the desert in the early
+morning braced us up, and, fully awake, we watched for the coming of
+Venus. As she sailed across the heavens, she flooded the desert with a
+warm, soft light, which in its luminosity equaled an English summer
+moon, and shortly seemingly following her guidance, the great fiery
+shield of the sun stood up from the horizon, and broad day swept over
+the plain.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the evening we found ourselves in a bowlder-strewn basin amid
+rocky, sterile hills, evidently the offshoots and spurs of the
+Jeb-el-Gharr, which stood out a purple serrated mass on our left, and
+here we saw for the first time for many a month rain clouds piling up
+above the rocky heights. Their tops, catching the rosy glow from the
+declining sun, appeared in their quaint forms like loftier mountains
+with their snowy summits all aglow. This was, indeed, a grateful sight
+to us; the camels already pricked up their ears, for the smell of
+moisture was in the air. We knew that the end of our waterless journey
+was not far off; for where those clouds were discharging their
+precious burdens the valley of Ariab lay. But many a weary ridge of
+black rock and agaba must still be crossed before our goal was
+reached.</p>
+
+<p>We camped at six that evening till midnight, when we started on our
+record march. Unfortunately at this time my filter gave out, owing to
+the perishable nature of the rubber tubing; the remaining water in our
+girbas was foul and nauseating from the strong flavor of the skins. I
+resolved to try and hold out without touching the thick, greasy fluid,
+and wait till the wells of Ariab were reached. As we advanced, the
+signs of water became more and more apparent; the camel grass was
+greener down by the roots, and mimosa and sunt trees flourished at
+every few hundred yards. When morning came, for the first time we
+heard the chirruping and piping of birds. The camels increased their
+pace, and all became eager to reach our destination before the extreme
+heat of the day. But pass after pass was traversed, and valley after
+valley crossed, and yet the wadi of Ariab, with its cool, deep wells
+of precious water, was still afar. It was not till past two o'clock in
+the afternoon that a long, toilsome defile of rugged rock brought us
+on the edge of a steep descent, and before us lay the winding Khor of
+Ariab, with its mass of green fresh foliage throwing gentle shadows on
+the silver sand of its dry watercourse. It seemed an age as we
+traversed that extended khor before our guide pointed to a large tree
+on our right, and said "Moja." We dismounted under the shadow of its
+branches, and found awaiting us the sheikh of the valley, who pressed
+our hands and greeted us in a most friendly way; but I was almost mad
+with thirst, and asked for the well. I was taken to a mound a few
+yards from our retreat, on the sides of which were two or three clay
+scoop-outs, all dry but one, and this held a few gallons of tepid
+water, from which camels had been drinking. The man took a gourd, half
+filled it, and offered it to me to drink. "But the well, the well!" I
+cried. "Oh! that's a little higher up," said he, and he led me to a
+wide revetted well about fifty feet deep, at the bottom of which,
+reflecting the sky, shone the water like a mirror. "That's the water I
+want," said I. The man shook his head. "You cannot drink of that till
+your baggage camels arrive; we have no means of reaching it." I almost
+groaned aloud, and with the agony of the Ancient Mariner could well
+cry, "Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink." There was no
+help for it. I made my way back to the shadow of the tree, threw
+myself on my blanket, and, racked with thirst, tried to wait patiently
+for the coming of the camel men. Fortunately, the sheikh of the well
+was inspired with hospitality, and after a while brought us some fresh
+milk in a metal wash basin, a utensil which he evidently produced in
+honor of our visit. I took a long draught, and though it was
+associated with native ablutions, I shall always remember it with the
+greatest satisfaction. We camped for 24 hours in the sylvan vicinity
+of Ariab Wells&mdash;stretched ourselves in the broad shadows of its mimosa
+trees, and drank of and bathed in its sweet, cool waters.</p>
+
+<p>This long rest improved our camels wonderfully. By the bye, there was
+much speculation between two of our party regarding the behavior of
+these curious animals on arriving at the wells after their long
+waterless march. A general impression was that for the last few miles
+the camels would race for the waters, and thwart all endeavors to hold
+them in. My experience of the strange beast was otherwise, and
+subsequent events proved that I was right. When the Hamleh, as we
+christened our caravan, arrived, the camels quietly waited awhile
+after their burdens were taken from their humps. Then, as if an
+afterthought had struck them, they slowly approached the scoop-outs
+and with the most indifferent air would take a mouthful of the liquid,
+then, stiffening their necks, they would lift their heads and calmly
+survey the scenery around them, till their drivers would draw their
+attention to the fact that there was at least another draught of water
+in the pool. It should be remembered that these animals had just come
+off a continuous journey of nearly fifteen hours, without a halt, and
+had been for three whole days without water.</p>
+
+<p>We left our camping ground as the sun began to dip behind the hills
+shutting in the khor. Our way now lay in a more northeasterly
+direction, and the sun threw the hills and valleys we were approaching
+into a marvelous medley of glorious color, and more than one of us
+regretted that we had not brought our color boxes with us. Sometimes
+we seemed to catch a glimpse of the heather-clad Highlands of
+Scotland. Then a twist in the khor we were traversing suggested the
+rugged passes of Afghanistan. Gazelle and ariel stole among the foot
+hills or stood gazing at us as near as a stone's throw. One of our
+party, Mr. Gwynne, commenced stalking a gazelle, but, darkness setting
+in, the beast got away. For the rest of the journey to Suakim,
+however, he had good sport, and saved us many a time from going hungry
+with his shooting for the pot.</p>
+
+<p>About 34 miles from Ariab we came to one of the most interesting spots
+of the whole journey&mdash;the extensive Valley of Khokreb, wherein lay the
+deserted dervish dem, or stronghold. Here some followers of Osman
+Digna used to levy toll on all caravans and persons moving toward
+Suakim, or taking routes south. The dem consisted of a number of well
+built tokuls, or straw huts, standing in their compounds, with
+stabling for horses and pounds for cattle. The whole was surrounded
+with a staked wall, in front of which was a zariba of prickly mimosa
+bush, to stop a sudden onrush of an enemy. The place was intact, but
+there was not a living soul within it, or in the vast valley in which
+it stood, that we could see. In fact, our whole journey up to the
+present seemed to be through a country that might have been ravished
+by some plague or bore some fatal curse. As the light of the moon
+prevailed, we came upon an extensive plain shelving upward toward
+steep hills. Specks of bright light stood out against the distant
+background, and we presently found that the moonlight was glinting on
+spear heads, and soon a line of camels crept toward us, and marching
+as escort was a small guard of Hadendowahs, with spear and shield.</p>
+
+<p>We found the convoy to be a detachment of a caravan of 160 camel loads
+of stores sent from Suakim to Berber by that enterprising Greek,
+Angelo, of the former town. They had been on the road already eight
+days, having to move cautiously owing to rumors of dervish activity,
+but had arrived so far safely. We bivouacked for several hours in the
+Wadi of Salalat, which was quite parklike with its fine growth of sunt
+trees.</p>
+
+<p>When we had crossed the frontier between Bisheren and Hadendowah
+country we were in comparative safety regarding any molestation by the
+natives, for we were escorted by the son of the sheikh of one of the
+subtribes of the latter country. At all events, I must have been a
+sore temptation for any evil disposed Fuzzy Wuzzy; for, owing to my
+camel being badly galled by an ill-fitting saddle, I would find myself
+for many hours entirely alone picking my way by the light of the moon,
+the poor brute I was riding not being able to keep pace with the rest.
+All the following day our route lay over stony plains of a bolder type
+than any we had yet seen, and when in the heart of the Hadendowah
+Hills we came suddenly upon a scene in its weirdness the most
+extraordinary and most appallingly grand I had ever seen. A huge
+wilderness lay before us like the dry bed of a vast ocean, whose
+waters by some subterranean convulsion had been sucked into the bowels
+of the earth, leaving in its whirling eddies the debris of submarine
+mountains heaped up in rugged confusion or scattered over its sandy
+bottom. Porphyry and black granite bowlders, in every conceivable form
+and size, lay strewn over the plain. Sometimes so fantastic did their
+shapes become that the least imaginative of our party could picture
+the gigantic ruins of some mighty citadel, with its ramparts, bastions
+and towering castle. For many hours we were traversing this weird and
+desolate valley, and when the sun cast long shadows across our track
+as he sank to rest, his ruddy light falling upon the dark bowlders,
+polished with the sand storms of thousands of years, stray pieces of
+red granite would catch his rosy glint, and sparkle like giant rubies
+in a setting of black pearls.</p>
+
+<p>We found more life in ten miles of the Hadendowah country than during
+the whole of the first part of our journey. Flocks of sheep, goats and
+oxen passed us coming to the wells, or going to some pasturage up in
+the hills, but few natives came near us, and there were no signs of
+habitation anywhere. The wells we now passed were mere water holes
+similar to those met with up country in Australia. The flocks of the
+natives would hurry down at eventide and drink up all the water that
+had percolated through the sand during the day, befouling the pools in
+every conceivable way. Natives seem to revel in water contaminated by
+all kind of horrors. They wash the sore backs of their camels, bathe
+their sheep and drink from the same pool. At one large hole round
+which a number of natives were filling their girbas we halted, and
+procured some of the liquid, which was muddy and tepid, but
+wholesomer. A native caravan had camped near by and the Hadendowah
+escort of spearmen crowded round us.</p>
+
+<p>The Fuzzy Wuzzy is a much more pleasant object when seen through a
+binocular than when he is close to you. His frizzy locks are generally
+clotted with rancid butter, his slender garment is not over clean. He
+is a very plucky individual, as we know, thrifty, and lives upon next
+to nothing, but many live upon him. Several graybeards came up to
+salute their sheikh, who was traveling with us, and this they did by
+pressing his hand many times, and bowing low, but they glanced at us
+with no amiable eyes, and suddenly turned away. There was no absolute
+discourtesy; they simply did not want to be introduced. Probably they
+remembered the incident at Tamai, where many of their friends were
+pierced with British bullets. So they slung their shields, trailed
+their spears and turned away.</p>
+
+<p>My camel had much improved by gentle treatment and I was able to ride
+on ahead. Just as I neared the narrow neck of the Tamai Pass, two men
+and a boy climbed down toward us from a small guard house, on a lofty
+rock to our left. My camel man and I instinctively came to a halt, for
+the manner of the comers, who were fully armed, was impressive. They
+confronted us and immediately began questioning my camel man, after
+much altercation, during which I quietly leaned over my saddle and
+unbuttoned my revolver case, for they looked truculent and somewhat
+offensive. My camel man mysteriously felt about his waist belt, and
+eventually handed something to the foremost native, whereat he and his
+companions turned and began to reclimb the hill. As we went on our
+way, I inquired the reason of the men barring our path. "Oh," my man
+said, "it is simply a question of snuff." "Snuff," I exclaimed, in
+astonishment. "Yes; that was all they wanted&mdash;a little tobacco powder
+to chew." Here was a possible adventure that seemed as if it were
+going to end in smoke, and snuff was its finale.</p>
+
+<p>After all the Suakim-Berber road, that was looked upon as full of
+dramatic incident&mdash;for even our military friends in Berber, when they
+bid us goodby, said, "It was a very sporting thing to do. Great Scott!
+They only wished they had the luck to come along"&mdash;was a highway
+without even a highwayman upon it, and apparently for the moment as
+pleasantly safe, minus the hostelries en route, as the road from
+London to York. Prom the top of Tamai Pass, 2,870 feet&mdash;though of the
+same name, not to be confounded with the famous battle which took
+place further south&mdash;we began to make a rapid descent, and the last
+sixty miles of our journey were spent in traversing some of the most
+lovely mountain scenery I think I have ever visited. Sometimes one
+might be passing over a Yorkshire moorland, with its purple backing of
+hills, for the sky was lowering and threatened rain. Then the scene
+would as quickly change to a Swiss valley, when, on rounding the base
+of a spur, one would strike a weird, volcanic-torn country whose
+mountains piled up in utter confusion like the waves of the stormy
+Atlantic; and further on we would come out upon a plain once more
+scattered with gigantic bowlders of porphyry and trap, out of which
+the monoliths of ancient Thebes might have been fashioned.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the tenth day out from Berber, we sighted the fort
+and signal tower of the Egyptian post at Tambuk, on a lofty rugged
+rock, standing out in the middle of an immense khor. This was
+practically the beginning of the end of our long journey, and here we
+rested a few hours, once more drinking our fill of pure sparkling
+water from its revetted wells.</p>
+
+<p>About half an hour in a northeasterly direction, after a continual
+descent from the Egyptian fort, we noticed, at intervals between the
+hills in front of us, a straight band of blue which sparkled in the
+sunlight. At this sight I could not refrain from giving a cheer&mdash;it
+was the Red Sea that glistened with the sun &mdash;for it meant so much to
+us. Across its shining bosom was our path to civilization and its
+attendant comforts, which we had been denied for many a month. Night
+found us steadily descending to ward the seaboard, as we neared Otao,
+in the vicinity of which we were to bivouac for the night. My camel
+nearly stumbled over an old rusty rail thrown across my path, and
+further on I could trace in the moonlight the dark trail of a crazy
+permanent way, with its rails all askew.</p>
+
+<p>We were passing the old rail head of the Suakim-Berber Railway, that
+was started in 1885. I wondered, as I followed fifteen miles of this
+rusty line, a gradual slope of 1,800 feet toward the sea, whether the
+road I had only just traversed had ever been surveyed for a railway,
+and whether anybody had the slightest notion of the difficulties to be
+contended with in carrying out the scheme. Of course, modern
+engineering, with such men as Sir Benjamin Baker at the fore, can
+overcome any difficulty if money be no object, but who can possibly
+see any return for the enormous outlay an undertaking of this kind
+would entail?</p>
+
+<p>To start with, there is one up grade of 2,870 feet within forty miles
+from Suakim, and the khors, through which the railway must wind, are
+sometimes raging torrents. To obviate this, if the line be built of
+trestles (timber elevations), as with the Canadian Pacific Railway,
+there is no wood in the country but for domestic purposes. Material,
+for every detail, must be imported. A smaller matter, but also
+somewhat important&mdash;though water apparently can be found in the khors
+for the digging, it is a question whether a sufficient quantity can be
+got at all times for the requirements of a railway. The natives
+themselves are often very badly off for water, as in the case of the
+Obak wells.</p>
+
+<p>Wells run dry at odd times in this country, and can never be depended
+upon. Of course, water can be condensed at Suakim and stored. Further,
+a rival line is already in progress, which will connect Wady Halfa
+with Berber early this year. European goods coming by that line from
+Alexandria would be free of the Suez Canal dues, and certainly the
+directors of that line would treat freights favorably if Suakim should
+ever be connected with Berber by rail. As for the interior trade of
+the country, nearly all the population have either died from recent
+famine or have been killed off in the Mahdi's cause. There is no
+commercial center or even market to tap from one end of the road to
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>The next morning we came in view of Suakim, the city of white coral,
+with her surf-beaten opalesque reefs stretching as far as the eye
+could follow. It seemed strange to me to be peacefully moving toward
+her outlying forts, for when I was last in her vicinity one could not
+go twenty yards outside the town without being shot at or running the
+gauntlet of a few spears. But here I was, slowly approaching its
+walls, accompanied by some of the very men who in those days would
+have cut my throat without the slightest hesitation. Suakim had
+changed much for the better; her streets were cleaner, and mostly free
+from Oriental smells. But these sanitary changes always take place
+when British officers are to the fore.</p>
+
+<p>Surgeon Capt. Fleming is the medical officer responsible for the
+health of the town, and he has been instrumental in carrying out great
+reforms, especially in doing away with the tokuls and hovels, in which
+the Arabs herded together, and removing them to a special quarter
+outside the town.</p>
+
+<p>The principal feature about Suakim to-day is its remarkable water
+supply. In 1884 our troops had to depend on condensed sea water,
+supplied from an old steamer anchored in the harbor, and the town folk
+drew an uncertain supply from the few wells outside the town. But now
+Suakim never wants for water, and that of the best. She even boasts of
+a fountain in the little square opposite the governor's house.
+Engineer Mason is responsible for this state of efficiency, to which
+Suakim owes much of her present immunity from disease. During the last
+twelve years immense condensing works have been erected on Quarantine
+Station; but, better still, about two years ago Mr. Mason discovered
+an apparently inexhaustible supply near Gemaiza, about three miles
+from the town. There is a theory&mdash;which this water finding has made a
+possible fact&mdash;that as coral does not grow in fresh water,
+<a name="Page_18488" id="Page_18488"></a> the
+channel which allows steamers to approach close up to the town,
+through her miles of coral reefs, is caused by a fresh water current
+running from the shore.</p>
+
+<p>However, on this theory Mason set to work and found a splendid supply
+at Fort Charter; an excavation in the khor there, about 200 feet long
+and 40 deep, is now an immense cistern of sweet water, the result of
+which the machines condensing 150 tons of water a day are now only
+required to produce one-half the quantity, saving the Egyptian
+government a considerable outlay.</p>
+
+<p>The natives look upon Mason as a magician, the man who turns the salt
+ocean into sweet water. But metal refuse, scraps of iron, old boiler
+plates, under his magic touch, are also turned into the most useful
+things. For instance, the steam hammer used in the government workshop
+is rigged on steel columns from the debris of an engine room of a
+wrecked vessel. The hammer is the crank of a disused shaft of a cotton
+machine, the anvil is from an old "monkey," that drove the piles for
+the Suakim landing stage in 1884; the two cylinders are from an effete
+ice machine, and the steam and exhaust pipes come from a useless
+locomotive of the old railway. A lathe, a beautiful piece of
+workmanship, is fashioned out of one of the guns found at Tamai. And
+the building which covers these useful implements was erected by this
+clever engineer in the Sirdar's service, who had utilized the rails of
+the old Suakim-Berber line as girders for its roof, and, in my humble
+opinion, this is probably the very best purpose for which they can be
+used.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>TAPIRS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN AT BRESLAU.</h2>
+
+<p>A fine pair of shabrack (Tapirus indicus) and another pair of American
+tapirs (Tapirus americanus) constitute the chief attraction of the
+house devoted to pachyderms in the Zoological Garden at Breslau, and
+interest in this section of the garden has recently been greatly
+enhanced by the appearance of a healthy young shabrack. This is only
+the second time that a shabrack tapir has been born in captivity in
+Europe, and as the other one, which was born in the Zoological Garden
+at Hamburg, did not live many days, but few knew of its existence;
+consequently, little or nothing is known of the care and development
+of the young of this species, although they are so numerous in their
+native lands. Farther India, Southwestern China and the neighboring
+large islands, where they also do well in captivity. The tapir was not
+known until the beginning of this century, and even now it is a great
+rarity in the European animal market, and as the greatest care is
+required to keep it alive for any length of time in captivity, it is
+seldom seen in zoological gardens; therefore, the fact that the
+shabrack tapirs in the Breslau garden have not only lived, but their
+number has increased, is so much more remarkable.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a href="./images/4.png"><img src="./images/4_th.png" alt="SHABRACK TAPIR WITH YOUNG ONE (FIVE DAYS OLD)" title="" /></a>
+<br /><span class="caption">
+SHABRACK TAPIR WITH YOUNG ONE (FIVE DAYS OLD) IN THE
+BRESLAU ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN.<br /><span class="smcap">from drawing by erich suckow.</span>
+</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our engraving shows that the five days old tapir resembles its mother
+in form, although its marking is quite different. Its spots and
+stripes are very similar to those of the young of the American tapir,
+several of which have been born in captivity in Europe. They shade
+from yellow to brown on black or very dark brown ground, and the spots
+on the legs take a whitish tone. This little one's fur is longer on
+the body than on the head and extremities, and is soft and thick, but
+has not the peculiar glossiness of the full grown animal. Its iris is
+a beautiful blue violet, while that of the old one is dark violet, and
+its little hoofs are reddish brown, while those of the mother are horn
+gray. When standing, the new comer measures about two feet in length
+and one foot two inches in height, having gained about one inch in
+height in five days. Its fine condition is doubtless due partly to the
+great care given it and partly to the healthy constitution of the
+mother, and it is the pet of its keepers and of the
+public.&mdash;Illustrirte Zeitung.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a> THE INFLUENCE OF SCENERY UPON THE CHARACTER OF MAN.</h2>
+
+<p>The effect of scenery upon the mind of man has often been noticed and
+much has been written about it. Illustrations of this are generally
+drawn from the historic lands and from the ancient people of the East.
+The civilized races, such as the Greeks, Romans and other nations who
+formerly dwelt on the coast of the Mediterranean, are taken as
+examples. The Greeks are said to have owed their peculiar character
+and their taste for art to the varied and beautiful scenery which
+surrounded them. Their mythology and poetry are full of allusions to
+the scenes of nature. Mountains and springs, rivers and seas all come
+in as the background of the picture which represents their character
+and history. The same is true of the Romans, Egyptians, Phenicians,
+Syrians, Hebrews, the ancient Trojans and Carthaginians. Each one of
+these nations seems to have been affected by scenery. They were all,
+with the exception of the Carthaginians, confined within the limits of
+a narrow territory, and remained long enough in it to have partaken
+fully of the effect of their surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans were warlike at the beginning, and bore the air of
+conquerors, but their taste for art and literature resembled that of
+the Greeks. The Egyptians were sensuous and luxurious people. Their
+character bore the stamp of the river Nile with its periodical
+overflow, its rich soil and mild climate. The type of their religion
+was drawn from the gods who inhabited the same river valley. The
+Phenicians were a maritime people; they were the first navigators who
+reached the great seas. Their gods resembled those of the Assyrians
+and Chaldeans, but their character resembled the seas over which they
+roved; they did not originate, but they transported the products and
+inventions of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrews had a national character which seemed to have been
+narrowed down to a small compass by their isolation and by their
+history, but their religion was as grand as the mountains of the
+desert, and their poetry as beautiful as the scenery along the river
+Jordan, which ran as a great artery through their land. It was a holy
+land which gave impress to the Holy Book. The effect of scenery upon
+human character is also illustrated in the case of the ancient
+inhabitants of America. This land was isolated from the rest of the
+world for many centuries&mdash;perhaps for thousands of years. It is
+supposed that up to the time of the discovery the tribes were
+permanent in their seats.</p>
+
+<p>Each tribe had its own habitat, its own customs, its own mythology and
+its own history. The effect of scenery must be considered, if we are
+to understand the peculiarities which mark the different tribes. Some
+imagine that the Indians are all alike, that they are all cruel
+savages, all given to drunkenness and degradation and only waiting
+their opportunity to wreak their vengeance upon helpless women and
+children. Those who know them, however, are impressed with the great
+variety which is manifest among them, and are especially convinced
+that much of this comes from the scenery amid which they have lived.
+The Eastern tribes may have had considerable sameness, yet the
+Algonquins, who were the prairie Indians, and the Iroquois, who dwelt
+in the forest and amid the lakes of New York, differed from one
+another in almost every respect, and the Sioux and Dakotas, who were
+also prairie Indians, differed from both of these. They were great
+warriors and great hunters, but had a system of religion which
+differed from that of any other tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The Sioux were cradled amid the mountains of the East, and bear the
+same stamp of their native scenery. They resemble the Iroquois in many
+respects. The same is true of the Cherokees, who were allied to the
+Iroquois in race and language. They were always mountain Indians; but
+the Southern tribes were very different from either. They were a
+people who were well advanced in civilization so far as the term can
+be applied to the aborigines. Their skulls are without angles and
+differ greatly from the keel-shaped skulls. They were dolichocephalic
+rather than kumbocephalic. They resemble the Polynesians, while the
+northern tribes resembled the Mongolians. Whatever their original home
+was, their adopted habitat was in accord with their tastes and
+character. It did not change them but rather made their traits more
+permanent and stable.</p>
+
+<p>The tribes of the northwest coast were seafarers; they inhabited the
+forest and worshiped the animals which were peculiar to the forest and
+took as their totems the eagle, wolf and raven, but they drew their
+subsistence in great part from the sea. They worshiped the animals of
+the seas, such as the shark, the whale and the sculpin. Their skill
+and courage as navigators have never been equaled. Taking their
+families and the few articles of commerce gathered from the forest
+they entered the symmetrical and beautifully carved canoes and
+breasted the storms and waves of the great sea near which they lived.
+There was a wildness in the waves which just suited them. The sea
+brought out the best traits and developed the heroic character. They
+were the "sea kings" of the Northwest. They were great navigators and
+great hero worshipers.</p>
+
+<p>The tribes of the interior, the Pueblos, the Zunis, differed from all
+other tribes. They were surrounded by wild tribes, such as the
+Apaches, Comanches and Navajoes. Whatever their origin, they had
+remained long enough in this territory to be affected by the scenery
+and surroundings. They were mild, luxurious, given over to religious
+ceremonies, made much of mythology and had many secret societies. They
+built their terraced houses, taking the cliffs and mesas as their
+patterns, and made them so similar to the rock and cliffs that it was
+difficult to recognize them at a distance. They did not mould the
+mountains into villages as the Mayas did, but they made their houses
+to conform to the mountains, and took the mountain gods and their
+nature divinities as chief objects of worship.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between the ancient tribes of this region and the wild
+tribes which intruded upon them was very great. The Navajoes were a
+mountain people and drew their religion from the mountains. They
+borrowed many myths and customs from the ancient Pueblos, and like
+them, settled down to an agricultural life; but their sand paintings
+and their ceremonies reveal a taste for art and a poetical imagination
+which are very remarkable. The lone Indian who places his wigwam in
+the midst of the mountains seems to be always a stranger. The scenery
+has no effect upon him. It makes his spirit sad and his music
+plaintive, for he breathes out his spirit in his music. He never has
+had and never will have the character which some of his ancestors
+cultivated amid the wild scenes. His race is doomed; his fate is
+sealed. He can never catch up with the progress of the time.</p>
+
+<p>The railroad is bound to take the place of the Indian trail; the
+miners' cabin must supplant the Indian wigwam. Great cities will rise
+near where ancient villages stood, but the savage fails to appreciate
+the thought or the character of the people who have supplanted him.
+The wigwam amid the mountains is a symbol of what he is, but the
+locomotive at its side is an emblem of progress and of promise to
+those who will use their opportunities. The mountains are in the
+background&mdash;they suggest the possibilities which are before the
+settler. They interpose barriers, but the barriers themselves are
+fraught with good influences. Freedom has always dwelt among the
+mountains. Reverence for the Almighty has also prevailed. The leveling
+process must cease and man become more elevated in his thoughts as he
+rises to the altitude of these great heights.&mdash;The American
+Antiquarian.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a><a name="Page_18489" id="Page_18489"></a>A NOVEL WAY OF RIDING A BICYCLE.</h2>
+
+<p>"Artists" of the variety stage and the circus are always trying to
+find something new, for the same old trapeze performances, trials of
+strength, performances of rope dancers, etc., have been presented so
+many times that anyone who invents an entirely new trick is sure of
+making a large amount of money out of it; the more wild and dangerous
+it is, the better. Anything that naturally stands on its feet but can
+be made to stand on its head will be well received in the latter
+attitude by the public. Some such thought as this must have been in
+the mind of the man who conceived the idea of riding a bicycle on the
+ceiling instead of on the floor. The "trick" originated with the Swiss
+acrobat Di Batta, who, being too old to undertake such a performance
+himself, trained two of his pupils to do it, and they appeared with
+their wheel in Busch Circus in Berlin. The wheel, of course, ran on a
+track from which it was suspended in such a way that it could not
+fall, and the man who operated it used the handle bar as he would the
+cross bar of the trapeze. One would think that the position of the
+rider was sufficiently dangerous to satisfy any public, but the
+inventor of the trick sought to make it appear more wonderful by
+having the rider carry between his teeth a little trapeze from the
+crosspiece of which another man hung.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/5.png"><img src="./images/5_th.png" alt="Bicyclist hanging upside down" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">BICYCLIST RIDING FROM THE CEILING OF A CIRCUS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Different colored lights were thrown on the performers as they rode
+around the ceiling, and at the end of the performance first one and
+then the other dropped into the safety net which had been placed about
+sixty feet below them. We are indebted to the Illustrirte Zeitung for
+the cut and article.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>REQUIREMENTS OF PALESTINE EXPLORER.</h2>
+
+<p>Lieut.-Col. Conder says that the requirements for exploration demand a
+knowledge not only of Syrian antiquities, but of those of neighboring
+nations. It is necessary to understand the scripts and languages in
+use, and to study the original records as well as the art and
+architecture of various ages and countries. Much of our information
+is derived from Egyptian and Assyrian records of conquest, as well as
+from the monuments of Palestine itself. As regards scripts, the
+earliest alphabetical texts date only from about 900 B. C., but
+previous to this period we have to deal with the cuneiform, the
+Egyptian, the Hittite and the Cypriote characters.</p>
+
+<p>The explorer must know the history of the cuneiform from 2700 B. C.
+down to the Greek and Roman age, and the changes which occurred in the
+forms of some 550 characters originally hieroglyphics, but finally
+reduced to a rude alphabet by the Persians, and used not only in
+Babylonia and Assyria, but also as early as 1500 B. C. in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Armenia, Palestine and even by special scribes in Egypt. He
+should also be able to read the various Egyptian scripts&mdash;the 400
+hieroglyphics of the monuments, the hieratic, or running hand of the
+papyri, and the later demotic.</p>
+
+<p>The Hittite characters are quite distinct, and number at least 130
+characters, used in Syria and Asia Minor from 1500 B. C. or earlier
+down to about 700 B. C. The study of these characters is in its
+infancy. The syllabary of Cyprus was a character derived from these
+Hittite hieroglyphics, and used by the Greeks about 300 B. C. It
+includes some fifty characters, and was probably the original system
+whence the Phenician alphabet was derived. As regards alphabets, the
+explorer must study the early Phenician and the Hebrew, Samaritan and
+Moabite, with the later Aramean branch of this alphabet, whence square
+Hebrew is derived. He must also know the Ionian alphabet, whence Greek
+and Roman characters arose, and the early Arab scripts&mdash;Palmyrene,
+Nabathean and Sabean, whence are derived the Syriac, Cufic, Arabic and
+Himyaritic alphabets.</p>
+
+<p>As regards languages, the scholars of the last century had to deal
+only with Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic and Greek, but as the result
+of exploration we now deal with the ancient Egyptian whence Coptic is
+derived, and with various languages in cuneiform script, including the
+Akkadian (resembling pure Turkish) and the allied dialects of Susa,
+Media, Armenia and of the Hittites; the Assyrian, the earliest and
+most elaborate of Semitic languages; and Aryan tongues, such as the
+Persian, the Vannic and the Lycian.</p>
+
+<p>The art and architecture of Western Asia also furnish much information
+as to religious ideas, customs, dress and history, including inscribed
+seals and amulets, early coins and gems. The explorer must also study
+the remains of Greek, Roman, Arab and Crusader periods, in order to
+distinguish these from the earlier remains of the Canaanites,
+Phenicians, Hebrews, Egyptians and Assyrians, as well as the art of
+the Jews and Gnostics about the Christian era, and the later pagan
+structures down to the fourth century A.D.&mdash;Nature.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE NEUTRAL USE OF CABLES.</h2>
+
+<p>Eleven submarine cables traverse the Atlantic between 60 and 40
+degrees north latitude. Nine of these connect the Canadian provinces
+and the United States with the territory of Great Britain; two (one
+American, the other Anglo-American) connect France. Of these, seven
+are largely owned, operated or controlled by American capital, while
+all the others are under English control and management. There is but
+one direct submarine cable connecting the territory of the United
+States with the continent of Europe, and that is the cable owned and
+operated by the Compagnie Francais Cables Telegraphiques, whose
+termini are Brest, France, and Cape Cod, on the coast of
+Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p>All these cables between 60 and 40 degrees north latitude, which unite
+the United States with Europe, except the French cable, are under
+American or English control, and have their termini in the territory
+of Great Britain or the United States. In the event of war between
+these countries, unless restrained by conventional act, all these
+cables might be cut or subjected to exclusive censorship on the part
+of each of the belligerent states. Across the South Atlantic there are
+three cables, one American and two English, whose termini are
+Pernambuco, Brazil, and St. Louis, Africa, and near Lisbon, Portugal,
+with connecting English lines to England, one directly traversing the
+high seas between Lisbon and English territory and one touching at
+Vigo, Spain, at which point a German cable company has recently made a
+connection. The multiplication under English control of submarine
+cables has been the consistent policy of Great Britain, and today her
+cable communications connect the home government with all her colonies
+and with every strategic point, thus giving her exceptional advantages
+for commercial as well as for political purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The schedule blanks of rates of the English companies contain the
+following provisions: "The dispatches of the imperial government shall
+have priority when demanded. The cable must not, at any station,
+employ foreigners, and the lines must not pass through any office or
+be subject to the control of any foreign government. In the event of
+war, the government (of Great Britain) may occupy all the stations on
+English territory or under the protection of Great Britain, and it may
+use the cable by means of its own employes."</p>
+
+<p>It is not a pleasing reflection that in the actual situation the
+United States is at a great and embarrassing disadvantage. Meanwhile
+it would seem to be the policy of the United States to overcome this
+disadvantage by the multiplication of submarine cables under American
+or other than English competing foreign ownership and control.</p>
+
+<p>Although somewhat indeterminate, the policy of the United States in
+respect to the landing of foreign submarine cables, so far, at least,
+as the executive branch of the government is concerned, appears to be
+based chiefly upon considerations that shall guard against
+consolidation or amalgamation with other cable lines, while insisting
+upon reciprocal accommodations for American corporations and companies
+in foreign territory. The authority of the executive branch of the
+government to grant permission is exercised only in the absence of
+legislation by Congress regulating the subject, and concessions of the
+privileges heretofore have been subject to such further action by
+Congress in the matter as it may at any time take. Several bills are
+now pending in Congress relating to the landing of foreign submarine
+telegraph cables within the United States, and regulating the
+establishment of submarine telegraphic cable lines or systems in the
+United States. As this article is going to press, it is reported that
+the President has refused permission to a foreign cable company to
+renew a cable terminus within the territory of the United States, and
+that the question raised as to the power of the federal government to
+deny admission to the cable will be referred to the Attorney-General
+for an opinion. Meanwhile, the executive branch of the government
+holds to the doctrine that, in the absence of legislation by Congress,
+control of the landing and operation of foreign cables rests with the
+President. The question of the landing of foreign cables received some
+consideration from the late Attorney-General, in connection with an
+injunction suit brought by the United States against certain
+corporations engaged in placing on the coast of New York a cable
+having foreign connection. And he suggested for the consideration of
+Congress whether it would not be wise to give authority to some
+executive officer to grant or withhold consent to the entry of such
+foreign enterprises into this country on such terms and conditions as
+may be fixed by law.</p>
+
+<p>The principal and most important submarine cables traversing or
+connecting the great oceans are owned and operated by private
+corporations or companies. They are in number 310, and their length in
+nautical miles is 139,754. The length of cables owned or operated by
+state governments is, in nautical miles, 18,132.</p>
+
+<p>The policies of states, the movements of fleets and armies, and the
+regulation of the markets of the commercial world, depend upon
+devices, communications and orders that are habitually transmitted
+through the agency of submarine cables. In this view, the first aim is
+to safeguard from wanton destruction the delicate and expensive
+mechanism of these cables; the second is to restrain within the
+narrowest limits practicable interruptions in the operation of cables,
+even in the midst of hostilities; and the third is to encourage the
+establishment and extension of submarine cables owned and operated by
+American capital. All these ends may be advanced by the agreement of
+the powers<a name="Page_18490" id="Page_18490"></a> to neutralize absolutely the submarine cable systems of
+the world. To do this will be a step in the direction of extending
+international jurisdiction, which is to be a controlling feature of
+the new periodical about to be established at Berlin, and to be
+printed in German, French and English, under the name of "Kosmodike."
+&mdash;Alexander Porter Morse in The Albany Law Journal.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>PARK MAKING.</h2>
+
+<p>Those who make public parks are apt to attempt too much and to injure
+not only the beauty, but the practical value of their creations by
+loading them with unnecessary and costly details. From the time when
+landscape gardening was first practiced as a fine art to the present
+day, park makers have been ambitious to change the face of nature&mdash;to
+dig lakes where lakes did not exist and to fill up lakes where they
+did exist, to cut down natural hills and to raise artificial ones, to
+plant in one place and to clear in another, and generally to spend
+money in construction entirely out of proportion to the value of the
+results obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The best art is simple in its expression, and the highest form of art
+in gardening is perhaps that which, taking advantage of such natural
+conditions as it finds, makes the best of them with the smallest
+expenditure of labor and money. Simplicity of design means not only
+economy of construction, but, what is of even more importance, economy
+of maintenance. The importance of making it possible to keep a great
+park in good condition without excessive annual expenditures for
+maintenance is a simple business proposition which would not seem to
+require much demonstration. Yet park makers, with their unnecessary
+walks and drives; with their expensive buildings which are always
+getting out of repair; their ponds, in which there is rarely water
+enough to keep them fresh; their brooks, which are frequently dry;
+their elaborate planting schemes, often ill suited to the positions
+where they are wanted, make parks expensive to construct and
+impossible to maintain in good condition, especially in this country,
+where the cost of labor is heavy and there is difficulty in obtaining
+under existing municipal methods skilled and faithful gardeners to
+keep anything like an elaborate garden in good condition. The most
+superficial examination of any of our large urban parks will show that
+wherever elaborate construction and planting have been attempted they
+have failed from subsequent neglect to produce the effects expected
+from them, and that broad, quiet, pastoral and sylvan features are the
+only permanent and really valuable ones we can hope to attain in our
+great city parks.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless, perhaps, to repeat what has been said so often in the
+columns of this journal, that in our judgment the greatest value and
+only justification of great urban parks exist in the fact that they
+can bring the country into the city and give to people who are obliged
+to pass their lives in cities the opportunity to enjoy the refreshment
+of mind and body which can only be found in communion with nature and
+the contemplation of beautiful natural objects harmoniously arranged.
+Parks have other and very important uses, but this is their highest
+claim to recognition. If it is the highest duty of the park maker to
+bring the country into the city, every road and every walk not
+absolutely needed to make the points of greatest interest and beauty
+easily accessible is an injury to his scheme, and every building and
+unnecessary construction of every kind reduces the value of his
+creation, as do trees and shrubs and other flowering plants which are
+out of harmony with their surroundings. Such things injure the
+artistic value of a park; they unnecessarily increase its cost and
+make the burden of annual maintenance more difficult to bear.
+Simplicity of design often means a saving of unnecessary expenditure,
+but it should not mean cheapness of construction. The most expensive
+parks to maintain are those which have been the most cheaply
+constructed, for cheap construction means expensive maintenance. Roads
+and walks should not be made where they are not needed, and they
+should not be made unnecessarily wide to accommodate possible crowds
+of another century, but those that are built should be constructed in
+the most thorough and durable manner possible, in order to reduce the
+cost of future care. When lawns are made, the work should be done
+thoroughly; and no tree or shrub should be planted in any manner but
+the best and in the most carefully prepared soil. Only as little work
+as possible should be done, but it should be done in the most
+permanent manner. The best investment a park maker can make is in good
+soil, for without an abundance of good soil it is impossible to
+produce large and permanent trees and good grass, and the chief value
+of any park is in its trees and grass; and if the money which has been
+spent in disfiguring American parks with unnecessary buildings and
+miscellaneous architectural terrors had been used in buying loam, they
+would not now present the dreary ranks of starved and stunted trees
+and the great patches of wornout turf which too often disfigure them.
+Only the hardiest trees and shrubs should be used in park planting;
+for there is no economy in planting trees or shrubs which are liable
+to be killed any year, partially, if not entirely, by frost or heat or
+drought, which annually ruin many exotic garden plants, nor is it wise
+to use in public parks plants which, unless carefully watched, are
+disfigured every year by insects. It costs a great deal of money to
+cut out dead and dying branches from trees and shrubs, to remove dead
+trees and fight insects, but work of this sort must be done, unless
+the selection of plants used to decorate our parks is made with the
+greatest care. Fortunately, the trees and shrubs which need the least
+attention, and are therefore the most economical ones to plant, are
+the best from an artistic point of view; and to produce large effects
+and such scenery as painters like to transfer to canvas, no great
+variety of material is needed. The most restful park scenery, and,
+therefore, the best, can be obtained by using judiciously a small
+number of varieties of the hardiest trees and shrubs, and the wise
+park maker will confine his choice to those species which Nature helps
+him to select, and which, therefore, stand the best chance of
+permanent success. No park can be beautiful unless the trees which
+adorn it are healthy, and no tree is healthy which suffers from
+uncongenial climatic conditions and insufficient nourishment. Even if
+they are not inharmonious in a natural combination, the trees and
+shrubs which need constant pruning to keep them from looking shabby
+are too expensive for park use and should, therefore, be rejected when
+broad, natural effects in construction and economy of maintenance are
+aimed for by the park maker.</p>
+
+<p>The sum of the matter of park construction is to make rural city parks
+less pretentious and artificial in design and to so construct them
+that the cost of maintenance will be reduced to the minimum. This will
+save money and lessen the danger of exhibitions of bad taste and
+encourage that simplicity which should be the controlling motive of
+sincere art.&mdash;Garden and Forest.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>INFLUENCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE.</h2>
+
+<p>Few people realize that a very large part of inhabited Europe lies to
+the north of the latitude which in this country is considered the
+limit of habitation, says Prof. Ralph S. Tarr, in The Independent.
+London is situated in the same latitude as southern Labrador, where
+the inhabitants are scattered in small villages and are mainly summer
+residents who come there from the more southern lands to engage in
+fishing. During the winter their ports are closed by ice and
+navigation is stopped, while toward the British Isles steamers are
+constantly plying from all directions. The great city of St.
+Petersburg, which in winter is inaccessible to ships, but in summer
+enjoys a moderate climate, lies in the same latitude as the northern
+part of Labrador, where snow falls in every month of the year and
+where floating ice frequently retards navigation even in midsummer. As
+a result of the severity of climate the only people who find northern
+Labrador a place fit for existence are the Eskimo tribes, who win
+their living under great difficulties almost entirely from the sea. No
+white men live there, with the exception of some missionaries and the
+occasional traders.</p>
+
+<p>Everyone knows full well the reason for this difference in the
+climates of the two lands; the European coasts receive constant
+supplies of water that has been warmed in southern latitudes and
+carried northward in the great oceanic circulation and particularly in
+the Gulf Stream. The west winds, blowing toward the European coast,
+carry from this warm ocean belt air with higher temperature than that
+which exists over the land. On the eastern side of the Atlantic in
+place of a warm ocean current there is the cold Labrador current,
+which blows from the north and chills the water of the northwestern
+Atlantic. Therefore, the winds that come from the ocean blow over
+water that has been cooled, and the prevailing winds, which are from
+the west, come over the land, which is cool in winter and warm in
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>One may see these differences in climate and the causes for them even
+more strikingly exhibited within the Arctic belt than in this case
+which has been mentioned. The great land area of Greenland, with an
+area of six or seven hundred thousand square miles, is a highland
+capped over the greater part of its area with a snow field which
+completely buries all the land excepting that near the margins. The
+tongues from this ice field, whose area is some 500,000 square miles,
+reach into the sea and furnish innumerable icebergs that float away,
+chilling the waters. Notwithstanding the immense area of ice, the
+summer climate of the Greenland coast is remarkably moderate, even as
+far north as Melville Bay. The reason for this is the same as that
+mentioned for the climatic peculiarities of Europe. A current from the
+south, probably an eddy from the Gulf Stream, carries water northward
+along the Greenland coast, thus raising the temperature so that the
+ice which forms in the sea water and the bergs which float upon its
+surface are made to disappear during the warm part of the year.</p>
+
+<p>Sailing from the coast of Greenland at about the middle point, near
+Disco Island, in the early part of September, one leaves a land with a
+delightfully pleasant climate and warmth almost like that of the early
+autumn of temperate latitudes, and proceeding south-westward across
+Davis Straits to Baffin Land, two or three hundred miles southward,
+there finds himself in the midst of the conditions of early winter.
+The Greenland coast is not snow covered, plants are still in blossom
+and the hum of insects is heard; but in this more southern latitude,
+on the American side, the summer insects have entirely disappeared,
+only a few belated flowers are seen in protected places and a thin
+coat of snow covers all the land. Light snow may fall here during any
+time of the summer; but in spite of these differences Baffin Land is
+not ice covered, while Greenland is. The ice cap of the interior of
+Greenland is present less because of the severity of the climate at
+sea level than from the fact that the air which reaches this land has
+become humid in crossing the water areas, and further in the fact that
+the interior is a highland. On the Baffin Land side the interior is
+less elevated and there is less water to the westward in the direction
+from which the prevailing winds blow.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>CAUSES OF POVERTY.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>The most interesting, and at the same time the most difficult, problem
+connected with an analysis of cases is to determine the real cause of
+destitution. It requires great experience and intelligence on the part
+of workers in charity to give even approximately the fundamental
+reason why a certain family has come to destitution. To classify cases
+from records without personal knowledge of each case, and then simply
+to count the cases, is a very inadequate method of arriving at the
+truth. The primary difficulty, of course, is to reach a
+classification. The one adopted by Mr. Warner in his book on American
+charities is: 1. Causes indicating misconduct; 2. Causes indicating
+misfortune. Under the first head come drink, immorality, laziness,
+shiftlessness and inefficiency, crime and dishonesty, a roving
+disposition. Under the second head come lack of normal support,
+matters of employment, matters of personal capacity, such as sickness
+or death in family, etc. The trouble with such a classification is
+that one cause may lie behind another, as drink is often the cause of
+lack of employment, of sickness or accident. On the other hand, lack
+of employment may lead to drink, immorality or laziness.</p>
+
+<p>With the limited number of cases that have been analyzed in this
+investigation, it would be impossible to expect any very conclusive
+results. We have endeavored, however, to make up for the small amount
+of the material by a careful and intelligent analysis, and by
+approaching the subject from three different points. We have first
+taken the alleged cause of distress&mdash;that is, the reason assigned by
+the person applying for relief. This, of course, will present the most
+favorable side, and the one most calculated to excite sympathy. We
+have, secondly, tabulated the real cause of distress, as gathered by
+the tabulator from the whole record. This, of course, is the judgment
+of an outside party, and the emphasis will be laid upon misfortune or
+misconduct according to the disposition of the investigator. We have,
+thirdly, the character of the man and woman as gathered from the
+record. This is supplementary evidence as to the real cause of
+distress. We go on now to present these three points of view. Loss of
+employment, 313; sickness or accident, 226; intemperance, 25;
+insufficient earnings, 52; physical defect or old age, 45; death of
+wage earner, 40; desertion, 40; other causes and uncertain, 103;
+total, 844. An attempt was made to follow the example of Mr. Booth and
+introduce supplementary causes as well as principal causes. About the
+only result, however, is that sickness often accompanies loss of
+employment, and that loss of employment often accompanies sickness or
+accident. It is clearly seen in this whole table how disposed
+applicants for relief are to attribute their distress to circumstances
+beyond their control.</p>
+
+<p>In the following table we have an attempt to analyze the real cause of
+distress, according to the judgment of the tabulator as gathered from
+the full record. In chronic cases the same cause is apt to appear in
+the successive applications. It was thought that this might lead to
+undue accumulation of particular causes. A separate tabulation,
+therefore, was made for the 500 first applications, and then for the
+total&mdash;832 applications. The table is as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE REAL CAUSE OF DISTRESS.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th align="center" colspan="2">First Applications.</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Total Applications.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th align="right">Number.</th><th align="right">Percent.</th><th align="right">Number.</th><th align="right">Per cent.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lack of employment.</td><td align="right">115</td><td align="right">25.0</td><td align="right">184</td><td align="right">22.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sickness or accident.</td><td align="right">102</td><td align="right">20.4</td><td align="right">164</td><td align="right">19.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Physical defects or old age.</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">5.4</td><td align="right">42</td><td align="right">5.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Death of wage earner.</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">3.6</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">3.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Desertion</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">3.0</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">2.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Intemperance</td><td align="right">87</td><td align="right">17.4</td><td align="right">166</td><td align="right">19.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shiftlessness</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="right">10.0</td><td align="right">101</td><td align="right">12.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">No need</td><td align="right">86</td><td align="right">17.2</td><td align="right">121</td><td align="right">14.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">500</td><td align="right">100.0</td><td align="right">832</td><td align="right">100.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In this table it will be seen that emphasis is laid on misconduct
+rather than on misfortune. The difference between the two sets of
+returns is obvious. Where lack of employment and sickness have been
+alleged as accounting for 62<span class="frac"><sup>6</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> per cent. of the total, they are
+believed by the tabulator to really account for only 41<span class="frac"><sup>8</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> per cent.
+On the other hand, intemperance comes in as the real cause in 19<span class="frac"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span>
+per cent.; shiftlessness in 12<span class="frac"><sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> per cent. of the applications, and
+in 14<span class="frac"><sup>6</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> per cent. of the applications it was judged that there was
+no real need. It is very probable that these judgments are severe, but
+the result shows how frequently, at least, the personal character is a
+contributory cause of poverty.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt was made when reading the records to determine the general
+character of the man and woman&mdash;that is, the adult members of the
+family. Such classification is at the best very rough, and does not
+give us much information. It may be said that the character was put
+down as good unless something distinctly to the contrary appeared. The
+results are given in the following table:</p>
+
+<p class="center">PERSONAL CHARACTER OF MAN AND WOMAN.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><th align="right">Male.</th><th align="right">Female.</th><th align="right">Total.</th><th align="right">Percentage.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Good</td><td align="right">122</td><td align="right">231</td><td align="right">353</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Criminal</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Insane</td><td align="right">..</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Intemperate</td><td align="right">81</td><td align="right">56</td><td align="right">137</td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shiftless</td><td align="right">56</td><td align="right">52</td><td align="right">108</td><td align="right">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Suspicious</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">43</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Untruthful</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uncertain</td><td align="right">38</td><td align="right">65</td><td align="right">103</td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">330</td><td align="right">451</td><td align="right">781</td><td align="right">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2"  summary="">
+<tr><th align="left">"Shiftless" includes</th><th align="right">Male.</th><th align="right">Female.</th><th align="right">Total.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Professional beggers</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Loss of independence</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lack of push</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Laziness</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">..</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Extravagance</td><td align="right">..</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"Worthless"</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Prostitute</td><td align="right">..</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shiftless indefinite</td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">35</td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">56</td><td align="right">52</td><td align="right">108</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would seem from this table that the judgment of the investigators
+was lenient. In nearly one-half of the cases the character of the men
+and women was said to be good.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Fire tests of cast iron columns, made by order of the city authorities
+of Hamburg, are described in recent issues of the Deutsche Bauzeitung.
+The columns were 10 feet 8 inches long, 10.5 inches in diameter and of
+1/13 inch or 0.5 inch metal. They were loaded centrally and
+eccentrically, and some were cased with a fireproof covering. A
+hydraulic press was placed below the column and its crosshead above
+it, and then a hinged oven containing twelve large gas burners was
+clamped about the column. The oven was furnished with apparatus for
+measuring heat, with peep holes and with a water jet. On an average a
+load of 3.2 tons per square inch, with a heat of 1,400&deg; F., produced
+deformation in thirty-five minutes in a centrally loaded column
+without casing. This showed itself by bulging all round in the middle
+of the heated part, especially where the metal happened to be thinner;
+fracture occurred finally in the middle of the thickest point of the
+bulge. If the load was less, this occurred at a higher temperature.
+Jets of water had no effect until deformation heat was reached. The
+casings had the effect of increasing the time before deformation began
+from half an hour to four or five hours.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Report of Richmond Mayo Smith, Franklin H. Giddings, and
+Fred. W. Holls, Committee on Statistics of the New York Charity
+Organization Society.&mdash;Condensed for Public Opinion.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a><a name="Page_18491" id="Page_18491"></a>ENGINEERING NOTES.</h2>
+
+<p><b>The Massilon</b> (Ohio) Bridge Company has received an order for the
+construction of a cantilever bridge 562 feet long and 18 feet wide,
+which is to be built by the New York Dredging Company at Honda, on the
+Magdalena River, in Colombia, South America.</p>
+
+<p><b>Navigation on</b> the Amoo-Darya is to be extended considerably, so that
+Russian steamers will proceed upward on that river to Feisabad-Kalch,
+which is only about 200 miles from the scene of the recent Indian
+frontier troubles.&mdash;Uhland's Wochenschrift.</p>
+
+<p><b>A new</b> process of manufacturing artificial stone has been patented in
+England. The stone is formed in steel moulds, which can be adjusted to
+any size, shape or design for which the finished stone may be
+required, and solid blocks weighing several hundred pounds have been
+easily produced.</p>
+
+<p><b>M. Berlier</b>, the well known engineer, has laid before the governments
+of Spain and Morocco a project for the construction of a tunnel under
+the Straits of Gibraltar. The execution of this plan would have
+immense economic consequences, so that its fate will be followed with
+interest. M. Berlier is the inventor of a new method of subterranean
+boring.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<b>The sale</b> of the steamers 'Pennsylvania,' 'Ohio,' 'Indiana,'
+'Illinois,' and 'Conemaugh,' by the International Navigation Company
+to the States Steamship Company for the Pacific trade leaves but five
+steamships flying the American flag crossing the Atlantic Ocean," says
+The Marine Record. "They are the 'St. Paul,' gross tons 11,629.21;
+'St. Louis,' gross tons 11,629.21; 'New York,' gross tons 10,802.61;
+'Paris,' gross tons 10,794.86; 'Evelyn,' gross tons 1,963.44, the
+latter three built in English shipyards and denationalized."</p>
+
+<p><b>John Murphy</b>, general manager of the United Traction Company, of
+Pittsburg, reports the average life of motor gears on his line as two
+years, and the average life of pinions, nine months. He is employing
+the gears and pinions of the Simonds Manufacturing Company. The
+service is an exceedingly severe one, on account of the many grades on
+the line. The average life of trolley wheels is 1,000 miles, and the
+conditions under which they operate are quite severe, as the company
+has on its main line eighteen railroad crossings. A tempered copper
+wheel is employed.</p>
+
+<p><b>According to</b> a recent correspondent of The Buffalo Express, in the
+Pennsylvania oil region during the last year over 300 gas engines have
+been placed on oil leases and are doing satisfactory work. The engines
+vary from 10 to 50 horse power. Every big machine shop in the oil
+regions is turning out gas engines. The machine shops are also using
+gas engines to drive their own machinery. During the last year twenty
+of the Standard Oil Company's pipe line pumping stations have been
+equipped with gas engines. In all the new stations and in old ones
+where new machinery is needed, the gas engine will be preferred. Where
+natural gas cannot be had and coal was formerly burned, gasoline is
+used. The pumping station engines are all provided with electric
+ignition.</p>
+
+<p><b>In a</b> recent issue of The Railway Age is published the following, based
+upon the last report of the Interstate Commerce Commission: "Last year
+the railways of the United States carried over 13,000,000,000
+passengers one mile. They also carried 95,000,000,000 tons of freight
+one mile. The total amount paid in dividends on stock was
+$87,603,371&mdash;call it $88,000,000. Of the total earnings of the
+railways, about 70 per cent. came from freight service and 30 per
+cent. from passenger service. Let us assume, then, that of the
+$88,000,000 paid in dividends, 70 per cent., or $61,600,000, was
+profit on freight service and $26,400,000 was profit on passenger
+service. Let us drop fractions and call it $62,000,000 from freight
+and $26,000,000 from passengers. By dividing the passenger profit into
+the number of passengers carried (13,000,000,000), we find that the
+railways had to carry a passenger 500 miles in order to earn $1 of
+profit&mdash;or five miles to earn 1 cent. Their average profit, therefore,
+was less than two-tenths of 1 cent for carrying a passenger (and his
+baggage) one mile. By dividing the freight profit into the freight
+mileage (95,000,000,000) we find that the railways had to carry one
+ton of freight 1,530 miles in order to earn $1, or over fifteen miles
+to earn 1 cent. The average profit, therefore, was less than
+one-fifteenth of a cent for carrying a ton of freight (besides loading
+and unloading it) one mile."</p>
+
+<p><b>The railroads</b> in the United States have cost about $60,000 per mile,
+and probably a considerable percentage of this has not entered into
+the construction of the railroads and the equipment of same, says
+"Signal Engineer" in The Railroad Gazette. The railroads of Great
+Britain have cost about $240,000 a mile, and yet we claim for the
+United States more luxurious travel than can be found in Great
+Britain; and this is true so long as the travel is safe. The
+difference in the cost of construction in the United States and
+England may be found in the item of safety appliances. The railroads
+of Great Britain carried during the last year 800,000,000 passengers,
+with safety to all but five, and this was possible because the
+railroads, instead of expending their capital in luxurious equipment
+and passenger stations, chose rather to equip their lines with the
+most improved signaling and interlocking. The railroad companies of
+the United States in expending large sums for handsome and convenient
+terminals and luxurious cars are placing monuments before the public
+eye which naturally lead to the belief that every appointment of such
+roads is on the same high plane, and it requires much less expenditure
+to furnish luxurious equipment to be carried over 1,000 miles of road
+than it does to equip 10 miles of the 1,000 so as to make it safe; and
+since the expenditure for safety appliances and permanent way is not
+seen and felt by the passenger so long as he is carried in safety, it
+is not, therefore, so prominent before the public gaze as is the
+handsome station and the palatial car. On one road in Great Britain,
+having but 2,000 miles of track, there are employed more men in the
+manufacture and installation of signal work than are employed by all
+the signal companies and in the signal departments of all the
+railroads of the United States, where we are now operating about
+182,000 miles.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.</h2>
+
+<p><b>Orders for</b> large quantities of aluminum have been received within the
+last few weeks by the Pittsburg Reduction Company from the principal
+foreign nations for the equipment of their armies. The contracts
+aggregate about fifty tons a month, Russia being the largest consumer.</p>
+
+<p><b>According to</b> the return published by the Minister of Agriculture, the
+consumption of horseflesh in Paris has decreased slightly in the last
+year, being only 4,472 tons, as against 4,664 tons for 1895-96. This
+was the meat derived from 20,878 horses, 53 mules and 232 donkeys
+slaughtered during the twelve months; but a very strict supervision is
+exercised, and 575 of these animals were condemned as unfit for human
+food. The flesh of the remainder was sold at 190 stalls or shops, and,
+although the fillet and undercut made as much as 9d. a pound, the
+inferior parts sold for 2d. or less, and most of the meat was used for
+making sausages.</p>
+
+<p><b>According to</b> La Propri&eacute;t&eacute; Industrielle, 5,372 Austrian patents were
+granted in 1896 (5,215 in 1895). Of these, residents of the
+Austro-Hungarian monarchy received 2,070 (2,031 in 1895), Austrians
+coming first with 1,813 (1,683 in 1895), Hungarians second with 254
+(347 in 1895), while residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina secured 3
+patents (1 in 1895). Among foreigners the following show an increase
+over 1895: United States, 394 (335); Great Britain, 355 (313); France,
+244 (243); Switzerland, 94 (79); Belgium, 66 (48); Sweden and Norway,
+60 (40); Italy, 50 (45); Russia, 47 (40); Australia, 32 (10); and
+Netherlands, 26 (18). A decrease is shown by Germany, 1,887 (1,950);
+Denmark, 10 (17); Canada, 7 (14); and Spain, 6 (10). The total number
+of Austrian patents granted to foreigners in 1896 was 3,302, as
+against 3,184 in 1895.</p>
+
+<p><b>English and French Lighthouses.</b>&mdash;An English engineer named Purves has
+just made a comparison in regard to the intensity of light of the
+lighthouses on the English coasts and those which illuminate the
+shores of France. The comparison shows results which are altogether
+favorable to France. The average illumination intensity of eighty-six
+English lighthouses of the first class is 20,680 candle power, while
+thirty-six first class French lighthouses give an average of 34,166
+candle power. The difference is more striking if the lighthouses
+constructed within the last ten years be considered. Since 1886 France
+has built eleven lighthouses, whose average intensity of light is
+8,200,000 candle power; the new lighthouse of Eckm&uuml;hl gives
+40,000,000. According to Mr. Purves, the superior intensity of light
+of the French lighthouse lies in the use of the flashing rays, which
+have not yet found favor in England.</p>
+
+<p><b>In an</b> address by Thomas Morris, before the Staffordshire, England,
+iron and steel works managers on the remarkable achievements that have
+been reached in the manufacture of fine wire, the interesting fact was
+mentioned that the lecturer had been presented by Warrington, the wire
+manufacturer, with specimens for which some $4.32 per pound were paid,
+or more than $8,600 per ton&mdash;drawn wire, largely used in the
+construction of piano and other musical and mechanical instruments.
+Among these specimens also was pinion wire, at a market price of
+$21.60 per pound, or $43,200 per ton. It took 754 hairsprings to weigh
+an ounce of 437&frac12; grains; 27,000,000 of these were required to make a
+ton, and, taking one to be worth 1&frac12; cents, the value of a ton of these
+cheap little things ran up to over $400,000. The barbed instruments
+used by dentists for extracting nerves from teeth were even more
+expensive, representing some $2,150,000 per ton.</p>
+
+<p><b>At a</b> f&ecirc;te in the Elys&eacute;e Palace the other day one of the features
+prepared for the entertainment of the guests was a cinematograph,
+which contained views taken during President Faure's visit to St.
+Petersburg. One of the pictures settled for the President a question
+which had been troubling him considerably. Several months ago a German
+paper printed an interview with Bismarck, in which the ex-chancellor
+commented on M. Faure's visit to St. Petersburg, saying that the
+Frenchman had conducted himself according to etiquette except on one
+occasion, when, on his arrival in the Russian capital he had been
+saluted by the Cossack guard of honor, he had returned the salute with
+the hand, not with the hat. M. Faure being a civilian, this was a
+serious breach of etiquette, Bismarck said. The interview was
+reprinted in the French papers and caught the President's eye. He was
+much concerned about the matter and asked several friends who had been
+present if he had actually committed the breach. No one could
+remember. Then came the cinematograph show. As the small audience
+gazed upon the screen they saw the President's image advance with
+slow, dignified step before the Cossacks, then all at once raise his
+hand to his hat, which he lifted with the quick motion so familiar to
+Parisians. The guests burst into applause and the President smiled.
+Bismarck was mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<b>We hear</b> a great deal regarding the decline of our shipping interests,
+and so far as our shipping in the foreign trade is concerned it is
+unfortunately true," says The Boston Commercial Bulletin. "But few
+people realize the immensity of our coastwise commerce. The Custom
+House figures on the shipping of the port of New York for 1897 show
+that there were 4,614 arrivals of vessels from foreign ports, 7,095
+from Eastern domestic ports, and 3,798 from Southern domestic ports.
+Of the foreign, 2,313 were British, of which 1,667 were steamships;
+952 were American, of which 323 were steamships, and 517 were German
+of which 444 were steamships. This statement shows that the arrivals
+from American ports were nearly three times those from foreign
+countries, though of course this proportion is not borne out in
+tonnage, vessels on the deep sea trade averaging larger. But it will
+be doubtless a surprise that of the shipping from foreign ports more
+than one-fifth were American. At other Atlantic and Gulf ports this
+proportion undoubtedly does not hold true, but these figures show a
+less doleful condition of the American marine than some people have
+been led to expect. When it is remembered that the coastwise fleet
+numbers many steamers of 2,000 to 3,000 tons and many sailing craft of
+1,000 tons and upward, it will be seen that we are yet a sea power of
+the first class, in fact exceeded only by England."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>SELECTED FORMUL&AElig;.</h2>
+
+<p><b>Essence of Pepsin.&mdash;</b></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top" rowspan="6">1.</td><td align="left">Pepsin (pure)</td><td align="right">128</td><td align="left">grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dilute muriatic acid</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="left">drops.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Simple elixir</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="left">fl. ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerin</td><td align="right">1</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">16</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Angelica wine</td><td align="right">6</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="3">Dissolve by agitation and filter through purified talcum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top" rowspan="4">2.</td><td align="left">Glycerole of pepsin</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sherry wine</td><td align="right">5</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerin</td><td align="right">1</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Simple elixir, to make</td><td align="right">16</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top" rowspan="8">3.</td><td align="left">Pepsin in scales</td><td align="right">64</td><td align="left">grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerin</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">fl. ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elixir taraxacum compound</td><td align="right">1</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alcohol</td><td align="right">2</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oil of cloves</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">drop.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sirup</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="left">fl. ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dilute hydrochloric acid</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">fl. drachm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water, to make</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="left">fl. ounces.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="right">&mdash;Pharmaceutical Era.</p>
+
+<p><b>Applications to Insect Bites.</b>&mdash;Brocq and Jacquet (Ind&eacute;pendance
+m&eacute;dicale, October 20) recommend the following for the bites of bugs,
+fleas and gnats:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="3">1.</td><td align="left">Camphorated oil of chamomile</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Liquid storax</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Essence of peppermint</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>M.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'valign="top" rowspan="3">2.</td><td align="left">Olive oil</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Storax ointment</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Balsam of Peru</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='center'>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>M.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="4">3.</td><td align="left">Naphthol</td><td align='right' colspan="2">5 to 10 parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ether, enough to dissolve it.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Menthol</td><td align='right' colspan="2">&frac14; to 1 part.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vaseline</td><td align='right' colspan="2">100 parts.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Bead for Liquors.</b>&mdash;In the liquor trade, anything added to liquors to
+cause them to carry a "bead" and to hang in pearly drops about the
+side of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken is called
+"beading," the popular notion being that liquor is strong in alcohol
+in proportion as it "beads." The object of adding a so-called "bead
+oil" is to impart this quality to a low-proof liquor, so that it may
+appear to the eye to be of the proper strength. The following formulas
+for "bead oil" are given:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="4">1.</td><td align="left">Sweet almond oil</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">fl. ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sulphuric acid, concentrated</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, lump, crushed</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alcohol, sufficient.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Triturate the oil and acid very carefully together in a glass,
+Wedgwood or porcelain mortar or other suitable vessel; add by degrees
+the sugar, continue trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, and
+then gradually add enough alcohol to render the whole perfectly fluid.
+Transfer to a quart bottle and wash out the mortar twice or oftener
+with strong alcohol until about 20 fluid ounces in all of the latter
+has been used, the washings to be added to the mixture in the bottle.
+Cautiously agitate the bottle, loosely corked, until admixture appears
+complete, and set aside in a cool place. This quantity of "oil" is
+supposed to be sufficient for 100 gallons of liquor, but is more
+commonly used for about 80 or 85 gallons. The liquor treated with this
+"oil" is usually allowed to become clearer by simple repose.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="2">2.</td><td align="left">Soapwort, coarsely ground</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="left">ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Diluted alcohol, enough to make</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">gallon.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Extract the soapwort by maceration or percolation.</p>
+
+<p>This is also intended for 80 gallons of liquor, preferably adding to
+the latter one-half gallon of simple sirup.</p>
+
+<p>The ingredients of the above formulas, according to the "Manual of
+Beverages," are not injurious&mdash;not at least in the quantities required
+for "beading." It is said that beyond a certain degree of dilution of
+the liquor with water, these preparations fail to produce the intended
+effect. The addition of sugar or sirup increases their
+efficacy.&mdash;Pharmaceutical Era.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quinine Hair Tonic.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="6">1.</td>
+<td align="left">Quinine sulphate</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">part.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tincture cantharides </td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerin</td><td align="right">75</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alcohol</td><td align="right">500</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tincture rhatany</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spirit lavender</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="9">2.</td>
+<td align="left">Tincture cinchona</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tincture cantharides</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peru balsam</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tincture soap</td><td align="right">150</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cologne water</td><td align="right">250</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cognac</td><td align="right">2,000</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oil bergamot</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oil sweet orange</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oil rose geranium</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' valign="top" rowspan="9">3.</td>
+<td align="left">Bisulphate of quinine</td><td align="right">&frac12;</td><td align="left">ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vinegar of cantharides</td><td align="right">2&frac12;</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spirit of rosemary</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lavender water</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerite of borax</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glycerin</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Distilled water</td><td align="right">80</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Caramel, sufficient to color.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="right">&mdash;Pharmaceutical Era.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soap for Removing Rust.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>Parts by Weight.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whiting</td><td align='right'>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oil soap</td><td align='right'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cyanide of potassium</td><td align='right'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Dissolve the soap in water over the fire and add the cyanide, then
+little by little the whiting. If the compound is too thick, which may
+be due either to the whiting or the soap employed, add a little water
+until a paste is made which can be run into an iron or wooden mould.
+This will remove rust from steel and give it a good polish.&mdash;Oils,
+Colors and Drysalteries.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a><a name="Page_18492" id="Page_18492"></a>THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER STEAMER "BRUCE."</h2>
+
+<p>Messrs A. &amp; J. Inglis, shipbuilders and engineers, of Pointhouse,
+Glasgow, have recently built a somewhat unique and certainly
+interesting steamer, for the conveyance of passengers between Port an
+Basque, in Newfoundland, and Sydney, Cape Breton, in connection with
+the Newfoundland and Canadian systems of railways. The distance from
+port to port is about one hundred miles, and the vessel has been
+designed to make the run in six hours. Messrs. Reid, of Newfoundland,
+who have founded the line of steamers to perform this service,
+intrusted to Messrs. Inglis the task of producing a vessel in all
+respects suitable for the work to be accomplished. The steamer
+"Bruce," the pioneer steamer, an illustration of which we are enabled
+to produce, is the result. The navigation of the waters in which this
+vessel will be employed is attended with some difficulties. Not only
+are storms of frequent occurrence, but in the months of winter and
+spring large quantities of drift ice are commonly encountered.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain the necessary speed and carry all that was required on a
+suitable draught of water, it was essential that the "Bruce" should be
+built of steel, but in view of the severe structural and local
+stresses to which she must inevitably be subjected when at sea, it was
+necessary to afford adequate stiffening and means for preventing
+penetration or abrasion by ice. Hence the frames are more closely
+spaced than is usual in vessels of her size, numerous web frames
+associated with arched supports at the main deck and adjacent to the
+waterline are fitted throughout her entire length, and a belt of
+3-inch greenheart planking, with a steel sheathing over it at the fore
+part of the vessel, is further provided. Indeed, throughout the
+vessel, every precaution has been taken with a view to insure her
+efficiency and safety when running swiftly from port to port, while at
+the same time the materials employed have been most wisely,
+judiciously and economically distributed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/8.png"><img src="images/8_th.png" width="600" height="393" alt="THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER
+STEAMER BRUCE." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER
+STEAMER &quot;BRUCE.&quot;</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the "Bruce" are 230 feet long, 32 feet 6 inches
+broad, and 22 feet deep, her gross tonnage being 1250 tons. She has
+been built with very fine lines, a considerable rise of floor, and
+with a graceful outline, which gives her the appearance of a large
+yacht. Our illustration shows the "Bruce" when running at a speed of
+upward of 15 knots on the measured mile at Wemyss Bay. Not only has
+the structure of the vessel been skillfully designed, but her internal
+fittings are admirably arranged. It is really most interesting to note
+with what ingenuity passenger accommodation of a somewhat extensive
+character has been provided in so small a vessel. The "Bruce" has
+berths for seventy first-class and one hundred second class
+passengers, and the accommodation is of a very luxurious kind. The
+berths are between the awning and main decks, where there is also a
+special apartment set apart for ladies, and at the fore end for the
+officers' quarters. Besides these a large and handsome dining saloon
+is situated on the main deck, richly upholstered and fitted with
+unique little window recesses, which besides adding to the appearance
+of the apartment, furnishes additional dining accommodation. It is
+done up in dark mahogany panels, fringed with gold. The chairs are
+upholstered in blue morocco, and the floor is laid with a Turkey
+carpet. All the other rooms are in dark polished oak. A large smoking
+room is also provided on the main deck.</p>
+
+<p>The "Bruce" is further fitted with a complete installation of electric
+lighting, together with an electric search light; has Lord Kelvin's
+deep sea sounding apparatus and compasses, also Caldwell's steam
+steering gear and winches, Weir's evaporators and pumps. Alley and
+McLellan's feed water filters, and Howden's forced draught. She is
+steam heated throughout, and in every detail of the sanitary
+arrangements the health and comfort of the passengers have been
+attended to. Six lifeboats, having accommodation for 250 people, are
+hung in davits. When fully laden she carries 350 tons of cargo in her
+holds and 250 tons of coal in her bunkers.</p>
+
+<p>The contract speed for the "Bruce" was 15 knots&mdash;and to obtain this
+Messrs. Inglis fitted her with triple-expansion engines, which we
+shall illustrate in another impression, having cylinders 26 inches, 42
+inches and 65 inches in diameter, with a 42 inch stroke. Steam is
+supplied from four boilers loaded to a pressure of 160 pounds per
+square inch. When on the measured mile a mean speed of about 15&frac14; knots
+was obtained with an indicated horse power of 2200, the engines
+running at 90 revolutions per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel has arrived safely at Newfoundland, having performed the
+voyage at a mean speed of very little under 15 knots, a most
+satisfactory performance. She has been running some little time on her
+route and been giving most satisfactory results.&mdash;We are indebted to
+London Engineer for the cut and description.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>HEAT IN GREAT TUNNELS.</h2>
+
+<p>One phase of the construction of tunnels through the Alps was recently
+discussed by M. Brandicourt, secretary of the Linn&aelig;an Society of the
+North of France, in the columns of La Nature. He showed that only a
+few thousand feet below the eternal snows of that region so high a
+temperature may be found that workmen can scarcely live in it. Nearly
+all of the other difficulties encountered in those enterprises had
+been foreseen. This one was a great surprise. It shows how the
+interior heat of the earth extends above sea level into all great
+mountainous uplifts on the earth's surface.</p>
+
+<p>During the tunneling of Mont Cenis, says M. Brandicourt, the
+temperature of the rock was found to be 27.5 degrees C. (81.5 degrees
+F.) at about 5,000 meters (16,000 feet) from the entrance. It reached
+29.5 degrees (86 degrees F.) in the last 500 meters (1,600 feet) of
+the central part. The workmen were then about 1,600 meters (5,100
+feet) below the Alpine summit, whose mean temperature is 3 degrees
+below zero (27 degrees F.) Thus there was a difference of 32.5
+degrees: that is, one "geothermic" degree corresponded to about 50
+meters.</p>
+
+<p>This elevation of temperature was not at first regarded with anxiety.
+Soon a draught would be produced and would ameliorate the situation.
+It was time, for the disease known as "miner's an&aelig;mia" had begun to
+claim its victims.</p>
+
+<p>The situation at St. Gothard was much more serious. As at Mont Cenis,
+a temperature of 29 degrees C. (85 degrees F.) was found about 5,000
+meters from the portals of the tunnel. But there remained yet 5,000
+meters of rock to pierce. In the center of the tunnel there was
+observed for several days a temperature of 35 degrees (95 degrees F.)
+Generally it did not vary much from 32.5 degrees (90.5 degrees F.), a
+sufficiently high degree, if we remember that the men's perspiration
+was transformed into water vapor, and that the air was nearly
+saturated with humidity. In these conditions work was very difficult,
+and the horses employed to remove the debris almost all succumbed.</p>
+
+<p>Man can bear more than animals. In an absolutely dry air he can endure
+a temperature of 50 degrees (122 degrees F.) But in an atmosphere
+saturated with water, underground, where the breath of the workmen
+fills the narrow space with poisonous vapors, a temperature of even 30
+degrees (86 degrees F.) entails serious consequences. In a large
+number of workmen the bodily heat rose to 40 degrees (104 degrees F.)
+and the pulse to 140 and even 150 a minute. The most robust were
+obliged to lay off one day out of three, and even the working day was
+itself reduced to five hours, instead of seven or eight.</p>
+
+<p>According to Dr. Giaconni, who for ten years attended the workmen at
+Mont Cenis and St. Gothard, the proportion of invalids was as large as
+60 to the 100.</p>
+
+<p>More strange yet, the report of the physicians who dwelt at the works
+notes the presence among the workmen of the intestinal parasites
+called "ankylostomes," which have been observed in Egypt and other
+tropical countries, and which are the cause of what scientists call
+"Egyptian chlorosis" or "intertropical hyper&aelig;mia." This pathologic
+state is observed only in the hottest regions of the earth. The victim
+becomes thin, pale and dark. He is bathed in continual sweat, devoured
+by inextinguishable thirst, and the prey of continual fever. And thus,
+adds Mr. Lentherie, "the most robust mountaineer had only to pass a
+few months in the depths of the Alps to contract the germs of a
+tropical disease. Under the thick layer of snow and ice that enveloped
+him he had to work naked like a tropical negro or an Indian stoker on
+a Red Sea steamer; and in this Alpine world, where everything outside
+reminds one of the polar climate, he sweltered as in a caldron and
+often died of heat."</p>
+
+<p>The bad conditions found at St. Gothard will be met also, very
+probably, in the new Alpine tunnels that have been projected in recent
+years&mdash;those at the Simplon, St. Bernard and Mont Blanc. It can be
+predicted that for Mont Blanc in particular the temperature of 40
+degrees (104 degrees F.) will be far exceeded. M. de Lapparent even
+considers that the figure of 55 degrees (131 degrees F.) proposed by
+some geologists is moderate, and errs by defect rather than by excess.</p>
+
+<p>The engineer Stockalpa, who for four years has directed one of the
+workshops at St. Gothard, and has made a profound study of this
+temperature question, does not hesitate to say that under Mont Blanc
+the temperature will be 33 degrees (91 degrees F.) at three kilometers
+from the entrance, that it will reach 50 degrees (122 degrees F.)
+under the Saussure Pass, and 53.5 degrees (128 degrees F.) under the
+Tacul Peak, falling again to 31 degrees (88 degrees F.) under the
+White Valley.</p>
+
+<p>These are only probabilities, but they are founded on facts, and we
+may imagine all the preventive measures that they will render
+imperative.</p>
+
+<p>The experience that has been acquired in these latter years has
+indicated the best methods of ventilation and cooling. The compressed
+air used in the workings produces by its escape a very sensible
+lowering of the temperature, which can be made still lower by using
+saline solutions whose freezing point is as low as -20 degrees (4
+degrees F.), and which will circulate through pipes along the tunnel.
+The removal of the debris can be effected by electric locomotives;
+thus the horses, which use up the precious air, can be done<a name="Page_18493" id="Page_18493"></a> away
+with. The electric light, which can be operated without contamination
+or consuming the air, will also render great service; these
+improvements can all be carried out with ease. Together with the
+preceding, they will form a group of processes that will enable us to
+gain the victory over the interior heat of the great Alpine tunnels.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/9a.png"><img src="./images/9a_th.png" alt="Fire Engine" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The machine which we illustrate has lately been constructed by Messrs.
+Merryweather &amp; Sons, of Greenwich Road, with the view to combining the
+advantages of both horizontal and vertical steam fire engines.
+Hitherto the horizontal engine has been considered by some firemen to
+be less handy of access than the vertical, and the vertical engine has
+had the undoubted disadvantage of not being stoked from the footplate.
+By shortening the length of stroke and constructing a special pump,
+the makers have been able to keep the engine sufficiently high in
+relation to the boiler to enable the firedoor to be placed directly in
+the rear of the boiler and underneath the engine, thus enabling the
+boiler to be stoked en route, and allowing access from the footplate
+to the starting valve, the suction and delivery connections, the whole
+of the boiler fittings and feed arrangements. This enables one man to
+drive and stoke the engine, and to attend to the suction and delivery
+hoses, and it does not interfere at all with the stability of engine
+in traveling or at work, as the center of gravity is well below the
+top of the side frames. Another feature is the absence of a main steam
+pipe, a bracket being arranged on the cylinders containing the steam
+passages, to bolt directly onto the top of the boiler. The close
+proximity of the engine to the boiler renders it peculiarly suitable
+for cold climates, and times of frost, reducing the chances of the
+pump or feed arrangements being frozen up. The pump valves are
+arranged between the barrels, and are all accessible by the removal of
+one cover, which weighs but 12 lb. The engine, we understand, may be
+stopped, the cover removed, a damaged valve replaced, the cover put on
+again, and the engine restarted in two minutes. A slotted link is used
+with a crankshaft for regulating the length of stroke. All the
+bearings have large wearing surfaces, and substantial eccentric straps
+are used, the whole of the motion being simple and accessible. There
+are three different methods of feeding the boiler, viz., by feed pump
+driven by the crosshead of the main pump, by forcing water directly
+into the boiler from the main pump, and by an injector taking its
+water from a tank either supplied from the main pump or by a bucket
+when pumping dirty water. All the feed pipes are fitted with strainers
+where attached to the main pump. Drop feed lubricators are fitted on
+the cylinders, and an efficient system of lubrication is provided for
+the rest of the working parts. The carriage frame, hose box, etc., are
+of the same design as usually employed for engines of this class, with
+the exception of the fore carriage, which is fitted with a cross
+spring in the rear, as well as the two longitudinal springs. This
+arrangement makes the engine run more lightly, and removes much of the
+strain on the side frames when traveling rapidly on a rough road. The
+wheels are fairly light for the weight they have to carry, and have
+gun metal stock hoops with diamond pent rims to prevent the men
+slipping when mounting in a hurry. The engine and boiler work is
+brightly polished where-ever possible, and the whole machine has a
+handsome appearance.&mdash;Engineering.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF TREES.</h2>
+
+<p>In the exploitation of forests it is an important matter to be able to
+measure the cubature of trees, and the process most generally employed
+consists in determining their height and mean circumference, the
+apparatus used for this latter measurement being compasses having the
+form of the calipers used by mechanics. The figure indicated is read
+upon the graduated rule and is called off in a loud voice to another
+person, who at once writes it down. There are several causes of error:
+it is possible that the reading may be incorrectly made or improperly
+called off, or be misunderstood or incorrectly noted. Finally, it is a
+somewhat fatiguing operation that is often dispensed with and the
+measurement made by estimate. In order to do away with all such causes
+of error, M. Jobez, a mining engineer, has had M. Peccaud construct
+an apparatus that automatically registers all the measurements upon a
+paper tape analogous to that used in the Morse telegraphic apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" alt="Apparatus for Obtaining the Cubature of Trees." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF TREES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The registering mechanism (Fig. 1) is fixed to the movable branch that
+forms the slide of the instrument. It is so arranged that when this
+branch is slid along the rule carrying the graduations, a gearing
+causes the revolution of a wheel, D, which carries figures
+corresponding to such graduation. At the same time, two feed rollers,
+E, cause a small portion of the paper tape (which is wound upon a
+spool, A) to move forward and wind around a receiving spool, B. After
+the apparatus has been made accurately to embrace the trunk of the
+tree to be measured, it is removed and a pressure given to the lever,
+H, which applies the paper to the type wheel, D. A special button
+permits, in addition, of making a dot alongside of the numbers, if it
+be desired to attract attention to one of the measurements, either for
+distinguishing one kind of a tree from another or for any other
+reason.</p>
+
+<p>With this apparatus one man can make all the measurements and inscribe
+them without any possible error and without any fatigue. It is
+possible for him to inscribe a thousand numbers an hour, and the tapes
+are long enough to permit of 4,000 measurements being made without a
+change of paper. There is, therefore, a saving of time as well as
+perfect accuracy in the operation.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make the calculations necessary for the estimate, M.
+Laurand has devised a sliding rule which facilitates the operation and
+which is based upon the method that consists in knowing the height and
+mean circumference of the tree. The circumference taken in the middle
+is divided by 4, 4.8 or 5 according as one employs the quarter without
+deduction or the sixth or fifth deduced. This first result, multiplied
+by itself and by the height, gives the cubature of the tree. As for
+the value, that is the product of this latter number by the price per
+cubic meter. It will be seen that there is a series of somewhat
+lengthy operations to be performed, and it is in order to dispense
+with these that has been constructed the rule under consideration,
+which, like all calculating rules, consists of two parts, one of which
+slides upon the other (Fig. 2). Upon each of these there are two
+graduated scales, or four in all, the first of which is designed for
+the circumference and the second for the height of the tree, the third
+for the price of the cubic meter and the fourth for the total result,
+that is, the value of the entire tree. The arrangements are such that,
+after the number corresponding to the circumference of the tree has
+been brought opposite that corresponding to its height, the result
+will be found opposite the price per cubic meter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/9c.png"><img src="./images/9c_th.png" alt="Drawing of a complex ruler." title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;LAURAND'S CALCULATING RULE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, in the position represented in the figure, we may suppose a tree
+having a circumference of 2.5 m. and a height of 3.2 m.; then, if a
+cubic meter is worth 25 francs, the tree will be worth 20 francs.</p>
+
+<p>In order to simplify the calculations and the construction of the
+rule, no account is taken of points; but this is of no importance,
+since the error that might be made in misplacing one would be so great
+that it would be immediately detected. A 2 franc tree would not be
+confounded with a 20 or a 200 franc one. As an approximation, the
+first two figures of the result are obtained accurately; and that
+suffices, because, since the whole is based upon an approximate
+measurement, which is the mean circumference of the tree, we cannot
+exact absolute precision in the results. The essential thing is to
+have a practically acceptable figure.&mdash;La Nature.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><b>Egypt's population</b>, according to the census taken last June, is
+9,750,000, more than double the population in 1846. The foreign
+residents are 112,000; of these, 38,000 are Greeks, 24,500 Italians,
+19,500 Britishers, including the army of occupation, and 14,000 French
+subjects, including Algerians and Tunisians. Twelve per cent. of the
+native males can read and write; the other Egyptians are illiterate.
+Cairo has 570,000 inhabitants, Alexandria 320,000, Port Said 42,000,
+and Suez 17,000.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a><a name="Page_18494" id="Page_18494"></a>MACHINE MOULDING WITHOUT STRIPPING PLATES.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">E. H. Mumford</span>, Plainfleld, N.J.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">(Member of the Society.)</p>
+
+<p>Moulding machines may be classed under three heads. First, machines
+which only ram the moulds, and, when the ramming is done by means of a
+side lever, by hand, are generally called "squeezers." Second,
+machines which only draw the patterns, the ramming being accomplished
+by the usual hand methods. Third, machines which both ram the moulds
+and draw the patterns, ramming either by a hand-pulled lever or by
+fluid pressure on piston or plunger and drawing the patterns through a
+plate called a "stripping plate" or "drop plate"&mdash;till recently the
+usual method&mdash;or without the use of this plate fitting everywhere to
+pattern outline at the parting surface, the patterns being effectively
+machine guided in either case.</p>
+
+<p>It is to the third class that the machine which is used to illustrate
+the subject of this paper belongs, and which would seem to have enough
+that is novel in the application of machinery to the foundry to merit
+the attention of the society.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10a.png" alt="Fig. 1. ORDINARY METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERN SPIKE AND RAPPER." title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;ORDINARY METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERN SPIKE AND RAPPER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the risk of appearing pedantic, but with a view to developing an
+appreciation of the true function of the method of pattern drawing
+used in this machine, attention is called to the following sectional
+views of moulds and ways of drawing patterns occurring in machine
+moulding. Fig. 1 shows an ordinary "gate" of fitting patterns being
+drawn from the drag or nowel part of the mould by means of a spike and
+rapper wielded by the moulder's hand after cope and drag have been
+rammed together on a "squeezer" and cope has been removed. Frequently
+the pernicious "swab" is used to soak and so strengthen joint outlines
+of the sand before drawing patterns, in such cases as this. In this
+case, before cope is lifted, these patterns must be vigorously rapped
+through the cope; an amount depending (and so does the size of the
+casting) upon the mood and strength of the moulder.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2 shows the stripping or drop plate method of drawing patterns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/10b.png"><img src="./images/10b_th.png" alt="Fig. 2. STRIPPING PLATE METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERNS." title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;STRIPPING PLATE METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERNS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this method the patterns are not rapped at all and are drawn in a
+practically straight line so that the mould is absolutely pattern
+size.</p>
+
+<p>The stripping plate is fitted accurately to every outline at the joint
+surface of the patterns, obviously at considerable expense, and, of
+course, at the instant of drawing the patterns, supports the joint
+surface of the mould entirely. This is, at first sight, an ideal
+method of drawing patterns, and it has for years been the only method
+practiced on machines. It has two disadvantages. The patterns are
+separated from the stripping plate by the necessary joint fissure
+between the two. Fine sand continually falls into this and, adhering
+to the joint surfaces more or less, grinds the fissure wider. This
+leads to a gradual reduction of size of patterns on vertical surfaces
+and a widening of the joint fissure often to such an extent that wire
+edges are formed on the mould, causing, on fine work, "crushing" and
+consequently dirty joints. A nicely fitted but worn plate of
+twenty-four pieces which had cost, at shop expense only, $250, was
+recently replaced by a plate of twenty-eight pieces, fitted ready for
+the machine under the new system about to be described, for not more
+than $25.</p>
+
+<p>The stripping plate method has another drawback, not always
+appreciated, probably because accepted as inevitable. Stripping plate
+patterns are not rapped, and there frequently occur on surface of
+patterns, remote from the action of the stripping plate, rectangular
+corners just as important to mould sharply as those at the parting
+line. Such corners have either to be filleted or "stooled" in
+stripping plate work, and neither method often is practicable. When
+the entire pattern and plate are vibrated so that the corners where
+the pattern joins the plate draw perfectly, as they do in the machine
+to be described, it is obvious that similar corners anywhere on
+pattern surface will draw equally well.</p>
+
+<p>The vibrating of patterns, or rather of moulds, during the operation
+of drawing the patterns possesses little of novelty. Ever since a
+bench moulder's neighbor first rapped the bench while he lifted a cope
+or drew a pattern, the thing has been done in one way or another. In
+fact, machines are now and then found on the market in which a device
+like a ratchet or other mechanical means for jarring the machine
+structure during pattern drawing renders the working of easy patterns
+without stripping plates possible.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of applying a power driven vibrator directly to the plate
+carrying the patterns to thus vibrate them independently of other
+parts of the machine and the flask and sand has been the subject of
+the issue of patents to Mr. Harris Tabor, and the various figures
+shown will serve to illustrate the mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>Briefly, the operation of the machine is as follows: The ramming head
+shown thrown back at the top of the machine is drawn into a vertical
+position after flask has been placed and filled with sand. The 3-way
+cock shown at the extreme left is then quickly opened, admitting
+compressed air of 70 to 80 pounds pressure to the inverted cylinder
+shown at the center of the cut. The cylinder, with the entire upper
+portion of the machine, is thus driven forcibly up against the ramming
+head, flask, sand and all. Often a single blow suffices to rain the
+mould&mdash;often the blow is quickly repeated, according to the demands of
+the particular mould in hand. Gravity returns the machine to its
+original position, as the 3-way cock opens to exhaust. After pushing
+the ramming head back and cutting sprue, if the half mould is cope,
+the operator seizes the lever shown just inside the 3-way cock at the
+right, and, drawing it forward and down, raises the outer frame of the
+top of machine containing the flask pins, with flask and sand thereon,
+away from the patterns, thus drawing them from the sand. Just as he
+seizes the pattern drawing lever with his right hand, he presses with
+his left on the head of a compression valve shown at the left side of
+top of machine, thus admitting air to the pneumatic vibrator already
+referred to.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/10c.png"><img src="./images/10c_th.png" alt="Fig. 3 Vibrator Machine" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;POWER DRIVEN VIBRATOR MACHINE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 3, a rear view of the machine, shows at the top center, with its
+inlet hose hanging to it, this vibrator, which is shown in section in
+Fig. 4. It consists simply of a double acting elongated piston having
+a stroke of about <span class="frac"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch in a valveless cylinder and impacting upon
+hardened anvils at either end at the estimated rate of 5,000 blows per
+minute.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10d.png" alt="Fig. 4 Vibrator Cross-section" title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;SECTION THROUGH VIBRATOR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of communicating the rapid yet small oscillations of the
+vibrator to the patterns and yet keeping them from being transmitted
+to the rest of the mechanism is this:</p>
+
+<p>A frame, called a vibrator frame, to which the pneumatic vibrator is
+bolted and keyed, is shown in Fig. 5. To this frame the plate carrying
+the patterns, often, in cases of patterns having irregular parting
+lines, forming one and the same casting with the patterns, is fastened
+by the four machine screws, the small tapped holes for which are shown
+in the corners. In fact, in changing patterns, the process consists of
+simply re<a name="Page_18495" id="Page_18495"></a>moving these four machine screws, taking up the pattern
+plate and screwing to the vibrator frame the new pattern plate. The
+vibrator frame itself is secured to the machine structure by the four
+larger bolts, the holes for which are shown in the inner corners.
+These bolts are, as shown in Fig. 7, surrounded by thick bushings.
+These bushings are elastic to such a degree as to absorb the sharp
+vibrations of vibrator frame and patterns, while so firm and well
+fitted as to hold patterns accurately to their position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10e.png" alt="Fig. 5 Vibrator Frame" title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;VIBRATOR FRAME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The action of the vibrator is such as to give to the entire pattern
+surface an exceedingly violent shiver, making it impossible that any
+sand should adhere to this surface, while the magnitude of the actual
+movement of the pattern is so slight that it is found to fill the
+mould so completely that it is impracticable to draw it a second time
+without rapping. Yet, so truly are the patterns held and so little
+disturbed from their original position, that it is perfectly
+practicable to return patterns to a mould having the finest ornamental
+surface in the ordinary practice of "printing back."</p>
+
+<p>In cases where deep pockets of hanging sand occur, which cannot be
+held during lifting off and rolling over, machines are arranged to
+roll the flask over in their operation and draw the patterns up under
+the influence of the pneumatic vibrator, though, owing to the time
+consumed in the rolling over process (and each operation counts in
+seconds on a moulding machine) this style of machine is not usually as
+rapid in its working as the simpler type, in which the flasks come off
+in the same way they go on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/11a.png"><img src="./images/11a_th.png" alt="Fig. 6 Patterns" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6. SET OF PATTERNS FITTED TO PLATES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 6 shows a set of patterns as they are ordinarily fitted to plates
+for this machine. Round holes will be noticed at places in the plate
+surface. These are openings for the insertion of what are called
+"stools."</p>
+
+<p>When it is found necessary to support the sand surface at any point,
+or generally, round holes are drilled through either plate or pattern
+surface and loose cylindrical pieces are dropped into these holes,
+their upper end surfaces being flush with the plate or pattern surface
+and their lower ends resting on the plate called, from this use, a
+stool plate. This plate appears in Fig. 7 at A and is hung solidly by
+the brackets shown at B from the frame which carries the flasks, so
+that it has the same upward motion as the flasks, and the upper ends
+of the stools remain in contact with the sand of the mould until same
+is lifted from machine. Fig. 7, showing a vertical section through a
+machine, will make perfectly clear the position and action of these
+stools.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11b.png" alt="Fig. 7 VERTICAL SECTIONS FITTED TO PLATES." title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7. VERTICAL SECTIONS FITTED TO PLATES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As illustrating the importance of being able to work without stripping
+plates on a line of work which is much more extended than that
+possible with them, we may say that a machinist with a drill press
+supplied with split patterns and planed pattern plates has matched and
+fixed five sets of from four to eight pieces in a day: and wooden
+patterns fitted for temporary use in the same way are of frequent
+occurrence when it is not thought wise to go to the expense of metal
+patterns on account of the relatively small number of castings to be
+made from them.</p>
+
+<p>It is not perhaps too much to say that pattern expense is not the
+final evil of the costly and not durable stripping plate patterns.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Paper presented at the New York meeting (December, 1897)
+of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and forming part of
+volume xix. of the Transactions.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>ARTIFICIAL INDIA RUBBER.</h2>
+
+<p>One of the most recent important events in the history of chemistry
+was the discovery by an English professor that a substance
+corresponding in every respect to India rubber may be produced from
+oil of turpentine.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. W.A. Tilden, professor of chemistry in Mason College, Birmingham,
+began a series of experiments with a liquid hydrocarbon substance,
+known to chemists as isoprene, which was primarily discovered and
+named by Greville Williams, a well known English chemist, some years
+ago as a product of the destructive distillation of India rubber. In
+1884, says The New York Sun, Dr. Tilden discovered that an identical
+substance was among the more volatile compounds obtained by the action
+of moderate heat upon oil of turpentine and other vegetable oils, such
+as rape seed oil, linseed oil and castor oil.</p>
+
+<p>Isoprene is a very volatile liquid, boiling at a temperature of about
+30 degrees Fahrenheit. Chemical analysis shows it to be composed of
+carbon and hydrogen in the proportions of five to eight.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of his experiments Dr. Tilden found that when isoprene
+is brought into contact with strong acids, such as aqueous
+hydrochloric acid, for example, it is converted into a tough elastic
+solid, which is, to all appearances, true India rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens of isoprene were made from several vegetable oils in the
+course of Dr. Tilden's work on those compounds. He preserved several
+of them and stowed the bottles containing them away upon an unused
+shelf in his laboratory.</p>
+
+<p>After some months had elapsed he was surprised at finding the contents
+of the bottles containing the substance derived from the turpentine
+entirely changed in appearance. In place of a limpid, colorless liquid
+the bottles contained a dense sirup, in which were floating several
+large masses of a solid of a yellowish color. Upon examination this
+turned out to be India rubber.</p>
+
+<p>This is the first instance on record of the spontaneous change of
+isoprene into India rubber. According to the doctor's hypothesis, this
+spontaneous change can only be accounted for by supposing that a small
+quantity of acetic or formic acid had been produced by the oxidizing
+action of the air, and that the presence of this compound had been the
+means of transforming the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Upon inserting the ordinary chemical test paper, the liquid was found
+to be slightly acid. It yielded a small portion of unchanged isoprene.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial India rubber found floating in the liquid upon analysis
+showed all the constituents of natural rubber. Like the latter, it
+consisted of two substances, one of which was more soluble in benzine
+or in carbon bisulphide than the other. A solution of the artificial
+rubber in benzine left on evaporation a residue which agreed in all
+characteristics with the residuum of the best Para rubber similarly
+dissolved and evaporated.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial rubber was found to unite with natural rubber in the
+same way as two pieces of ordinary pure rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound.</p>
+
+<p>Although the discovery is very interesting from a chemical point of
+view, it has not as yet any commercial importance. It is from such
+beginnings as these, however, that cheap chemical substitutes for many
+natural products have been developed. Few persons outside of those
+directly connected with rubber industries realize the vast quantities
+imported yearly into this country. Last year there were brought into
+United States ports, as shown by the reports of the customs officers,
+no less than 34,348,000 pounds of India rubber. The industry has been
+steadily progressive since the invention of machinery for
+manufacturing it into the various articles of everyday use. The
+wonderful growth of the India rubber interests in this country will be
+seen from the statistics compiled in the tenth census.</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 there were imported 5,132,000 pounds at an average rate of $1
+per pound; in 1880 the imports were 17,835,000 pounds, at an average
+price of 85 cents per pound; in 1890 31,949,000 pounds were imported,
+at an average price of 75 cents per pound. The present price of India
+rubber varies from 75 cents per pound for fine Para rubber to 45 cents
+per pound for the cheapest grade.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that, notwithstanding the increase in importations,
+the price of the raw material remains at a comparatively high figure.
+Many experiments have been made to find a substance possessing the
+same properties as India rubber, but which could be produced at a
+cheaper rate.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the compositions which have been invented have been well
+adapted for use for certain purposes and have been used to adulterate
+the pure rubber, but no substance has been produced which could even
+approach India rubber in several of its important characteristics.
+There has never been a substance yet recommended as a substitute for
+rubber which possessed the extraordinary elasticity which makes it
+indispensable in the manufacture of so many articles of common use.</p>
+
+<p>Great hopes were at one time placed in a product prepared from linseed
+oil. It was found that a material could be produced from it which
+would to a certain extent equal India rubber compositions in
+elasticity and toughness.</p>
+
+<p>It was argued that linseed oil varnish, when correctly prepared,
+should be clear, and dry in a few hours into a transparent, glossy
+mass of great tenacity. By changing the mode of preparing linseed oil
+varnish in so far as to boil the oil until it became a very thick
+fluid and spun threads, when it was taken from the boiler, a mass was
+obtained which in drying assumed a character resembling that of a
+thick, congealed solution of glue.</p>
+
+<p>Resin was added to the mass while hot, in a quantity depending upon
+the product designed to be made, and requiring a greater or less
+degree of elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>Many other recipes have been advocated at different times to make a
+product resembling caoutchouc out of linseed oil in combination with
+other substances, but all have failed to give satisfaction, save as
+adulterants to pure rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Among the best compounds in use in rubber factories at present is one
+made by boiling linseed oil to the consistency of thick glue.
+Unbleached shellac and a small quantity of lampblack is then stirred
+in. The mass is boiled and stirred until thoroughly mixed. It is then
+placed in flat vessels exposed to the air to congeal.</p>
+
+<p>While still warm the blocks formed in the flat vessels are passed
+between rollers to mix it as closely as possible. This compound was
+asserted by its inventor to be a perfect substitute for caoutchouc. It
+was also stated that it could be vulcanized. This was found to be an
+error, however. The compound, upon the addition of from 15 to 25 per
+cent. of pure rubber, may be vulcanized and used as a substitute for
+vulcanized rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Compounds of coal tar, asphalt, etc., with caoutchouc have been
+frequently tested, but they can only be used for very inferior goods.</p>
+
+<p>The need for a substitute for gutta percha is even more acute than for
+artificial India rubber. A compound used in its stead for many
+purposes is known as French gutta percha. This possesses nearly all
+the properties of gutta percha. It may be frequently used for the same
+purposes and has the advantage of not cracking when exposed to the
+air.</p>
+
+<p>Its inventors claimed that it was a perfect substitute<a name="Page_18496" id="Page_18496"></a> for India
+rubber and gutta percha, fully as elastic and tough and not
+susceptible to injury from great pressure or high temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of this ambitious substance is as follows: One part,
+by weight, of equal parts of wood tar oil and coal tar oil, or of the
+latter alone, is heated for several hours at a temperature of from 252
+to 270 degrees Fahrenheit, with two parts, by weight, of hemp oil,
+until the mass can be drawn into threads. Then one-half part, by
+weight, of linseed oil, thickened by boiling, is added. To each 100
+parts of the compound one-twentieth to one-tenth part of ozokerite and
+the same quantity of spermaceti are added.</p>
+
+<p>The entire mixture is then again heated to 252 degrees Fahrenheit and
+one-fifteenth to one-twelfth part of sulphur is added. The substance
+thus obtained upon cooling is worked up in a similar manner to natural
+India rubber. It has not been successfully used, however, without the
+addition of a quantity of pure rubber to give it the requisite
+elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>A substitute for gutta percha is obtained by boiling the bark of the
+birch tree, especially the outer part, in water over an open fire.
+This produces a black fluid mass, which quickly becomes solid and
+compact upon exposure to air.</p>
+
+<p>Each gutta percha and India rubber factory has a formula of its own
+for making up substances as nearly identical with the natural product
+as possible, which are used to adulterate the rubber and gutta percha
+used in the factory. No one has as yet, however, succeeded in
+discovering a perfect substitute for either rubber or gutta percha.</p>
+
+<p>The history of chemistry contains many instances where natural
+products have been supplanted by artificial compounds possessing the
+same properties and characteristics. One of the most notable of these
+is the substance known as alizarine, the coloring matter extracted
+from the madder root. This, like India rubber, is a hydrocarbon.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1869 all calico printing was done with the coloring matter
+derived from the madder root, and its cultivation was a leading
+industry in the eastern and southern portions of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 alizarine was successfully produced from the refuse coal tar
+of gas works and the calico printing business was revolutionized.</p>
+
+<p>The essence of vanilla, made from the vanilla bean, and used as a
+flavoring extract, has been supplanted by the substance christened
+vanilla by chemists, which possesses the same characteristics and is
+made from sawdust.</p>
+
+<p>Isoprene, from which Dr. Tilden produced India rubber, is
+comparatively a new product, as derived from oil of turpentine. It yet
+remains to be seen whether rubber can be synthetically produced
+certainly and cheaply. The result of further experiments will be
+awaited with interest, as the production of artificial rubber at
+moderate cost would be an event of enormous importance.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>DEEP AND FROSTED ETCHING ON GLASS.</h2>
+
+<p>The best means of producing these effects is by printing from a steel
+plate or lithographic stone on thin transfer paper, which, in turn, is
+made to give up the design to the surface of the glass, the exposed
+portions of the latter being then etched with acid.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing the steel plate, a coating of varnish is prepared by
+mixing 200 parts by weight of oil of turpentine, 150 of Syrian
+asphaltum, 100 of beeswax, 50 of stearin, and 50 of Venice turpentine
+in the warm. The design is then copied in outline by tracing from the
+original, the shading being reproduced in a less detailed manner, but
+with fewer and bolder strokes, in order to adapt the picture to the
+process. It is then pricked through the tracing paper on to the
+varnish coating of the plate, and, after clearing out the lines with
+graving needles, the plate is etched with a mixture of 1 vol. of water
+and 4 to 7 vols. of nitric acid, either by application or immersion;
+in the latter event the back of the plate must be varnished over. When
+the metal is bitten by the acid to about 1-75 of an inch in depth, the
+operation is finished.</p>
+
+<p>To transfer the design to the glass it is printed from the steel plate
+on to thin silk paper, the ink used being compounded from 500 parts of
+oil of turpentine, 1,500 of Syrian asphalt, 500 of beeswax, 400 of
+paraffin, and 300 of thick litho varnish. The printing is performed in
+the usual manner, and the transfer laid on the warmed surface of the
+glass sheet or ware to be decorated, rubbed over uniformly with a
+cloth to make the ink adhere to the glass, and then the paper is
+moistened and taken off again, leaving the imprinted design behind. It
+is well to have the ink fairly thick, and rely on warmth to impart the
+necessary fluidity; otherwise the design may come away with the paper
+in patches, and be imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>For etching in the design on the glass, the edges of the latter are
+coated with the protective varnish, and then hydrofluoric acid is
+brushed over the exposed portions, which are thereby corroded, leaving
+the parts covered by the ink standing in relief. According as a clear
+or frosted etching is desired, the etching liquid is modified, being,
+for the latter purpose, composed of 500 parts of ammonium fluoride,
+100 of common salt, 300 of fuming hydrofluoric acid and 30 of ammonia.
+This is brushed over the glass two or three times, and then rinsed off
+with lukewarm water. For deep etching, hydrofluoric acid is diluted
+with 1&frac12; vols. of water and stored for twenty-four hours before use.
+The objects are immersed in the baths for thirty to fifty minutes, and
+kept quite still the while. If the etching is to be left clear, the
+acid is neutralized by boiling the glass in soda, but if to be frosted
+afterward it is coated with the first named etching liquid while still
+damp. Finally, the ink is washed off with turpentine, the glass rubbed
+over with sawdust, washed in hot lye and rinsed with water.</p>
+
+<p>Grained or lined designs can be very suitably printed from a litho
+stone, on paper faced with a mixture of 1,500 parts of water, 250 of
+wheaten starch, 1,000 of glycerine and 200 of a thick solution of gum
+arabic, the ink for printing being prepared by melting and mixing 500
+parts of pure tallow, 250 of white beeswax, 250 of liquid mastic, and
+150 of pale resin, with 100 parts of lampblack, 5 of minium, and 500
+of litho varnish. In transferring the design to the glass, the latter,
+if flat, may be passed between India rubber rollers or protected by
+layers of gutta percha when the pressure is applied. The impression
+produced by this lithographic process has to be strengthened to enable
+the thin coating of ink to resist the etching liquid, and this is done
+by dusting powdered resin over the printed surface of the glass,
+brushing off all that does not adhere, and causing the remainder to
+attach itself to the ink by means of warmth, and so form an impervious
+covering. The further treatment is the same as that already described.
+These methods are particularly suitable for reproducing landscapes,
+etc., on thinly flashed glass of various colors.&mdash;Diamant.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>SLATE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.</h2>
+
+<p>Slate is, as we know, merely a variety of argillite. Slate quarries
+are found in England, Switzerland and Italy, but it is in France
+especially that the industry has been most extensively developed by
+reason of the large deposits that underlie its surface, particularly
+in the province of Anjou, where they extend from Trelaze to Avrille, a
+distance of six miles, and in the department of Ardennes, at Remogne,
+Fumay, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Normandy, Brittany, Dauphiny and Marne likewise possess quarries,
+although they are not so productive.</p>
+
+<p>The exploitation is commonly done in open quarry. After the vegetable
+mould (which in this case is called "cover") has been removed, we meet
+with a solid slate which it is difficult to split into lamin&aelig;, and it
+is not until a depth of at least fifteen feet is reached that we find
+a material that is fit to be exploited. All the best beds of slate, in
+fact, improve in quality in proportion as they lie deeper under the
+surface, near to which they have little value. Without entering into
+details as to the exploitation of this product, let us say that the
+blocks have to be divided in the quarry, since, in the open air, they
+rapidly lose the property of readily splitting into thin, even lamin&aelig;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/12.png"><img src="./images/12_th.png" alt="Brewery Storage Vats" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">SLATE STORE-VATS FOR BREWERIES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Slate has but slight affinity for water, and, moreover, resists
+atmospheric influences, humidity and heat pretty well.</p>
+
+<p>This property renders it valuable for a large number of domestic
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>There is no certain proof, it is true, that it was employed by the
+ancients, but it is, nevertheless, extremely probable that it was used
+in mass at an early period for stair heads, pillars for buildings and
+as a material for fencing.</p>
+
+<p>The exploitation of the material became especially active at the
+period when the idea occurred to some one to use slate for the rooting
+of houses. It was employed for this purpose along with tiles as far
+back as the eleventh century in the majority of schistose districts.
+It is well known, for example, that Fumay (Ardennes) at this period
+had a brotherhood of slate quarrymen.</p>
+
+<p>A method of getting out the material and cutting it regularly was
+found toward the end of the twelfth century, and it was not till then
+that it became of general application. Moreover, with the advent of
+the Gothic period slate became indispensable for castle roofs, which
+have a conical form.</p>
+
+<p>The best slate for roofing purposes is hard, heavy and of a bluish
+gray color. A good slate should readily split into even lamin&aelig;; it
+should not be absorbent of water either on its face or endwise, a
+property evinced by its not increasing perceptibly in weight after
+immersion in water; and it should be sound, compact and not apt to
+disintegrate in the air.</p>
+
+<p>For a long time past there have been used in schools slate tablets
+upon which the pupils write with a pencil made of soft gray schist.
+This application, which is capable of rendering services in a host of
+details of domestic economy, has given rise to artificial slates,
+which, made by a process of moulding a composition analogous to
+cardboard pulp, present the same advantages as ordinary slate, while
+being much lighter.</p>
+
+<p>Along about 1834 an Englishman of the name of Magnus utilized the
+property that slate possesses of taking a fine polish in the invention
+of what are called enameled slates. These products are used especially
+in the manufacture of table tops, mantelpieces, altars, etc. They very
+closely imitate the most expensive marbles, and their properties,
+along with their low price, have been the cause of their introduction
+into the houses of all classes of the English population, as well as
+into those of entire Europe and America.</p>
+
+<p>The ease with which slate is obtained in slabs of large dimensions has
+greatly contributed in recent times toward still further increasing
+its applications. One of the first of such applications was the
+substitution of it in urinals for cast iron plates, which very rapidly
+oxidize and become impregnated with nauseous odors that necessitate a
+frequent cleaning and constitute a permanent source of infection.</p>
+
+<p>For a few years past, too, slate has been used, in the manufacture of
+vats designed for breweries. These vats, of which we show in the
+accompanying figure a model of the installation employed in the Ivry
+Brewery, are each 6&frac12; feet square and 5 feet in depth. For leading the
+beer, which, upon coming from the brewing apparatus, must rest for a
+few days, they are connected by a system of pipes. A second system of
+pipes, which in our figure is seen running along the cellar vault,
+serves as a cooling apparatus and maintains a temperature of 5&deg; C.
+above zero in the vats arranged in two rows to the right and left.</p>
+
+<p>The details or even a simple enumeration of the new applications of
+slate would, in order to be anywhere nearly complete, necessitate a
+lengthy article. Let us say in conclusion that slate is substituted
+for wood, which is too easily attackable, and for marble, which is
+much more costly, in our laboratories and amphitheaters and everywhere
+where the manipulation and stay of easily corrupted liquids and solids
+require the greatest cleanliness in the material of construction.&mdash;La
+Science en Famille.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>BIRTHPLACE OF THE OILCLOTH INDUSTRY.</h2>
+
+<p>In Kennebec County, Me., is the quiet borough of East Winthrop, for
+more than half a century known wherever oilcloth carpeting was used as
+Baileyville.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not for the inventive brain of one of East Winthrop's early
+inhabitants, says a contemporary, the village would hardly be known
+across the lake, but early in the present century one of the numerous
+family of Maine Baileys evolved a scheme to fill his purse faster than
+the slow process of nature was likely to do it in growing crops.</p>
+
+<p>Oilcloth carpetings were not known in the long ago, when Ezekiel
+Bailey pictured in his mind how they might be made, and it was in the
+little hamlet of East Winthrop that the conceit of their manufacture
+was hatched and executed. Ezekiel Bailey was, in the days prior to the
+war of 1812, looked upon as a very likely boy. He was studious and
+industrious, and while other boys of the village were out in the white
+oak groves setting box traps for gray squirrels, and spearing pickerel
+by torch light in the waters of Cobosseecontee, Ezekiel was busy in
+his little workshop fashioning useful things to be used about the
+house.</p>
+
+<p>Just how and when and where he was prompted to attempt the making of
+oilcloth carpet nobody now living at East Winthrop seems to know. Many
+of the burghers thought he was "a-wastin' uv his time," but<a name="Page_18497" id="Page_18497"></a> they
+thought different some years later when great factories for the
+manufacture of oilcloth floor carpeting were erected in East Winthrop,
+Hallowell, New Jersey, and other places.</p>
+
+<p>And Ezekiel? He amassed a considerable fortune and left the path of
+life much easier for his kin to pursue. Having met a peddler one day,
+he bought a table cover made of a combination of burlap and paint.
+Such things were a luxury in the country at that time, and Ezekiel
+Bailey was shrewd enough to foresee a big demand for them if the cost
+could be moderated a bit. While thinking, an idea came to him, and
+following the idea a small voice which whispered: "Make 'em yourself."
+He decided to try, and there is a legend to the effect that half the
+farmers of the village quit work to see the first table cover.</p>
+
+<p>Procuring a square of burlap, or rather enough burlap from which to
+fashion a square of the desired size, Ezekiel Bailey framed up the
+fabric as the good old grandmas used to hitch up quilts at a quilting
+bee, the only difference being that the burlap was framed or stretched
+over a table made of planed boards large enough for the full spread of
+the burlap. With paint and brush he began his work. The first coat was
+a tiller; the next, a thicker one, gave body to the cloth, and when
+this was rubbed down to a smooth surface the last coat was prepared.
+This was of a different color and was spread on thick. Then, with a
+straight edge, a piece of board with a true, thin edge, reaching
+across the whole surface of painted cloth, the finishing touches were
+put on. Commencing at one end of the fabric, the straight edge was
+moved back and forth, and straight along over the fresh paint once or
+twice, and the whole thing left to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The first table covers were great curiosities, and the homes of the
+Baileys were visited by all the neighboring housewives, who were
+anxious to see "how they worked." Of course, it was easy to keep them
+clean, and they saved the woodwork of the table, which was
+recommendation enough. To see a cloth was to covet it, and it was not
+long before Ezekiel Bailey had a considerable business. Employing a
+boy to help him, he turned out table cloths as fast as his limited
+facilities would permit, and, as he progressed, new ideas for
+decorating took shape in his mind. In less than a year he had men out
+on the road selling them.</p>
+
+<p>The turning out to perfection of an oilcloth carpet in those days was
+a task that would make a person in these piping times of labor-saving
+machinery wish for something easier. All the smoothing or rubbing down
+was done by hand. Heavy, long-bladed knives, as big as the "Sword of
+Bunker Hill," were used to scrape down the rough body coats of paint,
+and a smooth surface, on which to stamp the geometrical figures in
+colors, was fetched after long and laborious polishing with bricks and
+pumice stone.</p>
+
+<p>Drummers employed by Mr. Bailey traveled to Massachusetts, to New
+York, and away down into the South, and ere long the demand for
+oilcloth carpeting became so general that other factories were built
+and made to chatter and clank with the new industry. There was living
+not far from East Winthrop at this time a shrewd, wideawake Yankee
+farmer named Sampson, who had kept his weather eye peeled on the
+progress of Ezekiel Bailey, and when housewives everywhere began to
+yearn for the new carpeting, taking a neighbor in as a partner, Mr.
+Sampson built a factory, and in a very short time was in a position to
+be considered a formidable rival of Mr. Bailey.</p>
+
+<p>But the originator of the oilcloth carpet was not to be outdone.
+Discerning good returns from a plant established close to a big center
+of consumption, Mr. Bailey entered into a deal with New Jersey
+capitalists, and a big factory was set a-going in that State. A
+trusted employe of the Bailey concern, Levi Richardson (who still
+lives and is the proprietor of a modest little store in East
+Winthrop), was sent to New Jersey to instruct the green hands there
+in the art of manufacture. While thus engaged, Mr. Richardson's brain
+was busy with the problem of labor saving, and one day a phantom
+device for smoothing and rubbing down the first rough coats on the
+burlaps took form in his mind, and for some weeks he spent his spare
+time in experimenting. The result was the present patent used in most
+factories, whereby as much rubbing down can be done in one day as
+could have been accomplished in four by the old hand
+method.&mdash;Industrial World.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>THE KOPPEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.</h2>
+
+<p>The question of the design of small locomotives for use on pioneer
+lines has been always a difficult matter.</p>
+
+<p>The needs of the railway contractor have called for such locomotives,
+for which several systems of power have been tried. In many ways the
+electric locomotive has distinct advantages over its rivals, steam and
+compressed air, for these narrow gage lines. Reviewing these
+advantages briefly, we see that the electrical equipment is more
+economical to work, as one good stationary engine develops power much
+more cheaply than several small locomotives. Again, the electric
+locomotive can be more readily designed for narrow gages than steam or
+compressed air locomotives.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/13a.png"><img src="./images/13a_th.png" alt="Fig. 1 AN ELECTRIC LINE EQUIPPED ON THE KOPPEL SYSTEM." title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1&mdash;AN ELECTRIC LINE EQUIPPED ON THE KOPPEL SYSTEM.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 314px;">
+<img src="./images/13b.png" alt="Fig. 2 THE SECTION WITH THE SUPPORT FOR THE OVERHEAD LINE" title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;THE SECTION WITH THE SUPPORT FOR THE
+OVERHEAD LINE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A new system of equipment of such lines is now being introduced into
+this country by Mr. Arthur Koppel, of 96 Leadenhall Street, E. C. The
+keynote of this system is flexibility, the arrangements being such
+that extensions or alterations can be readily effected. In fact, the
+line is portable, and it is claimed also to be cheaper than the
+ordinary construction. The overhead conductor is employed, as can be
+seen from Fig. 1, which gives a general view of a locomotive and train
+of skips on a line actually at work abroad. The supports for the wire
+are not provided by separate posts and brackets in the usual way, but
+by arched carriers attached to the sections of railway line, thereby
+forming a portable section of the electric railway, as illustrated by
+Fig. 2. The steel carrier or "arch" is fixed to one of the sleepers,
+which is made of sufficient length for that purpose. On the straight
+line these line supports are placed about 25 yards apart. In curves of
+a small radius each section of tramway is provided with an arch, to
+keep the line of the wire as nearly as possible parallel to the curve
+of the line. Apart from these special extended sleepers with wire
+carriers attached, the line is constructed in the ordinary mariner
+with rails 14 lb. per yard and upward. As the electric locomotives are
+lighter than steam locomotives, the weight of rail required is
+somewhat less. The special trolley for erecting the wires along the
+railway line is shown in Fig. 3. This consists of an ordinary four
+wheeled platform wagon with ladder, and wire drum with tightening gear
+and clamps or grips for anchoring the trolley to the line. The wire is
+led over a sheave on top of the ladder and fixed to the picket post at
+the beginning of the line. When erecting the wire the trolley is
+pushed beyond the first carrier arch, clamped on to the rails, and the
+wire is then tightened by means of the tightening gear. It is then
+firmly fixed to the insulator on the carrier arch The tension in the
+copper wire is taken up by a second portable ladder, which is also
+provided with a tightening gear and can be clamped to the rails in the
+same manner as the trolley, so that the trolley can then be pushed
+behind the second carrier arch and the process previously described
+repeated. By the tension in the wire the carrier arches acquire the
+necessary stability, while without the procedure previously described
+it would be impossible to use such light arches attached to the
+sleepers. On permanent lines, the extreme ends of the wire are
+attached to properly anchored picket posts. On portable lines, on the
+other hand, the trolley with the wire drum is fixed to the rails at
+the end of the line, as shown in Fig. 3, so as to enable the line to
+be lengthened or shortened, as may be required, with ease.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/14a.png"><img src="./images/14a_th.png" alt="Fig. 3 Straining Gear and Terminal Anchor" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;THE STRAINING GEAR AND TERMINAL ANCHOR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Care is taken in insulating the drum and ladders so as to prevent
+leakage from this erecting trolley to earth. The feeders from the
+power house to the overhead wire and to the rails respectively are
+erected on light iron posts, which have also been standardized by Mr.
+Koppel. A specimen of these posts with an anchored stay is shown in
+Fig. 4. All these details are arranged for convenience of the
+contractor required to rapidly equip a line of railway, which can also
+be removed as soon as the work has been done.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td>
+<img src="./images/14b.png" alt="Fig. 4 Light pole for Feeders." title="" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;LIGHT POLE FOR CARRYING THE FEEDERS.</span>
+</td>
+<td>
+<a href="./images/14c.png"><img src="./images/14c_th.png" alt="Fig. 5 Locomotive" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;THE KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE.</span>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The locomotive used is varied in form with the gage of the line, but
+we are particularly concerned with those for gages under 24 inches.
+One form of such locomotive without a hood to protect the driver is
+shown in Fig. 5. In this locomotive the gear is the same as that of
+the next illustration, but it is securely boxed in a watertight iron
+cover. The controlling gear is then placed vertically in front. Figs.
+6 and 7 show the details of the electrical and mechanical parts of
+this locomotive when fitted with a platform at either end, and with a
+hood. The motor. M, is of the internal pole type, and is supported on
+the underframe of the wagon. A double gear is used. The first is a
+spur gearing, connecting the motor to a countershaft placed under the
+motor. This gear reduces the speed of rotation to about 200
+revolutions. The countershaft is then connected to the two axles of
+the trolley by chain gearing. This gives the necessary flexibility
+between the car body and the wheel required, as the<a name="Page_18498" id="Page_18498"></a> springs give to
+any inequality of the rails. In this gearing there is no change of
+speed. The underframe is provided with spring axle boxes, and also
+with spring buffers and drawbars. The speed of the motor can be
+regulated within very wide limits by the regulator, R. An effective
+hand brake is also provided.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/14d.png"><img src="./images/14d_th.png" alt="Fig. 6 Locomotive End View" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;END ELEVATION OF LOCOMOTIVE.</span>
+<br />
+<a href="./images/15.png"><img src="./images/15_th.png" alt="Fig. 7 Detail View of Locomotive" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;DETAILED ELEVATION OF A KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE WITH A DOUBLE PLATFORM AND HOOD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For gages of 20 inches and upward the motors can be mounted on springs
+and attached to the running axles inside of the wagon underframe. This
+construction is particularly recommended by Mr. Koppel where, in order
+to mount heavy gradients, the dead load of the motor car must be
+assisted by the paying load to produce the necessary adhesion. In such
+cases several motor wagons would be used in the same train. As regards
+the working voltage, this can be varied to suit special requirements,
+but the locomotive we illustrate was designed for 110 volts. At this
+pressure its possible working speed was at least eight miles per hour.
+The supply of power is also a matter not referred to particularly, as
+in many cases a lighting plant is used by the contractors, which could
+also be employed to provide the necessary energy for the electric
+railway. The good work done by small electric locomotives in the
+excavation work for the Waterloo and City Railway<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> will convince our
+large contractors of the valuable service which electricity can render
+both above and below ground.&mdash;The Electrical Engineer.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Electrical Engineer, vol. xvi., p. 499.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>A connection between Servian and Roumanian railways is to be
+established by bridging the Danube. It is reported proposals have
+already been made to the governments interested, by the Union Bridge
+Company, also by British and French constructors.&mdash;Uhland's
+Wochenschrift.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>LIQUID RHEOSTATS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">H. S. Webb.</span><a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The object in view when the following tests were commenced was to
+obtain some data from which the dimensions of a liquid rheostat for
+the dissipation as heat of a given amount of energy could be
+calculated, or at least estimated, when the maximum current and E.M.F.
+are known. These tests were rather hastily made and are far from being
+as complete as I should like to have them, and are published only to
+answer some inquiries for information on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>In the first test, an ordinary Daniell jar (6&frac14; inches in diameter by 8
+inches deep) with horizontal sheet iron electrodes was filled with tap
+water. It would not carry 4 amperes for over fifteen or twenty
+minutes, although the jar was full of water and the plates only &frac34; inch
+apart. After that length of time it became too hot, causing great
+variation in the current on account of the large amount of gas
+liberated, much of which adhered to the under surface of the upper
+electrode. The difference of potential between the plates was 200
+volts.</p>
+
+<p>A run was made with 1 ampere and then with 2 amperes for one hour. In
+the latter case the voltage between the electrodes was about 71 volts
+and the temperature rose to about 167&deg; F.</p>
+
+<p>From these tests it would be safe to allow a vessel with a cross
+section of 30.7 square inches to carry from 2 to 2&frac12; amperes when tap
+water and horizontal electrodes are used.</p>
+
+<p>In test No. 2 the same jar and electrodes were used as in the
+preceding test, but the tap water was replaced by a saturated solution
+of salt water. Eleven amperes with a potential difference of 7 volts
+between the electrodes, which were 7&frac34; inches apart, were passed
+through the solution for three hours, and the temperature at the end
+of the run was 122&deg; F., and was rising very slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Although the current per square inch is much greater, the watts
+absorbed per cubic inch is much less in this case than when water was
+used. With the water carrying 2 amperes the watts absorbed would be
+over 10 per cubic inch, while for the saturated solution of salt when
+carrying 11 amperes it would be only about 0.4 watt.</p>
+
+<p>In test No. 3 use was made of a long, wooden rectangular trough (42
+inches by 6&frac12; inches by 8 inches) with vertical, sheet iron electrodes.
+The cross section of the liquid, which was a 10 per cent. solution of
+salt in water, was 44 square inches, and with 10 amperes passing
+through the solution for 1&frac34; hours the temperature rose to 95&deg; F., and
+was rising slowly at the end of the run.</p>
+
+<p>The plates were 41&frac34; inches apart, and at the end of the run the
+voltmeter across the terminals read 20. This gives a current density
+of nearly &frac14; ampere per square inch and 0.11 watt per cubic inch. These
+values are too low to be considered maximum values, for this cross
+section of a 10 per cent. salt solution would probably carry 13 to 15
+amperes safely.</p>
+
+<p>It appears that as the amount of salt in the solution is increased
+from zero to saturation, the maximum current carrying capacity is
+increased, but the watts absorbed per cubic inch are less.</p>
+
+<p>A very small addition of salt to tap water makes the solution a much
+better conductor than the water, and reduces greatly the safe maximum
+watts absorbed. In using glass vessels, such as Daniell jars, there is
+danger of cracking the jar if the temperature rises much above 165&deg; to
+175&deg; F.</p>
+
+<p>In test No. 4 an ordinary whisky barrel, filled up with tap water, was
+used. Two horizontal circular iron plates (3/16 inch thick) were used
+for electrodes. The diameter of the inside of the barrel was
+approximately 19œ inches. With the two plates 26<span class="frac"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inches apart a
+difference of potential of 486 volts gave a current of 2.6 amperes.
+With the plates <span class="frac"><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch apart, 228 volts gave 35.5 amperes at the end
+of one hour, when all the water in the barrel was very hot (175&deg; F.),
+and there was quite a good deal of gas given off. The current density
+in this case was about 0.12 ampere per square inch and the watts
+absorbed 30.5 per cubic inch. If it were not for the large amount of
+water above both electrodes, it is doubtful if this current density
+could have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>In test No. 5 a rectangular box, in which were placed two vertical
+sheet iron plates, was filled with tap water. The distance between the
+plates was <span class="frac"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch, and with a difference of potential of 414 at
+start and 397 at end of the run, a current of 35 amperes was kept
+flowing for 35 minutes. Cold tap water was kept running in between the
+electrodes at the rate of 6.11 pounds per minute (about <span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> cubic
+foot) by means of a small rubber tube about Πinch inside diameter.
+This test is very interesting in comparison with the preceding. The
+current carrying capacity, 0.3 ampere per square inch, was more than
+double, and the energy absorbed 183 watts per cubic inch, more than
+six times as great as in case where running water was not used.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature in some places between the plates occasionally rose as
+high as 205&deg; F., and it was necessary, in order to avoid too violent
+ebullition, to keep the inflowing stream of water directed along the
+water surface between the two plates. Less water would not have been
+sufficient, and, of course, by using more<a name="Page_18499" id="Page_18499"></a> water, the temperature
+could have been kept lower, or with the same temperature the watts
+absorbed could have been increased.</p>
+
+<p>When a large current density is used, there is considerable
+decomposition of the iron electrodes when either salt or pure water is
+used, and in the case of horizontal electrodes, the under surface of
+the top plate may become covered with bubbles of gas, making the
+resistance between the plates quite variable. For large current
+density a horizontal top plate is not advisable, unless a large number
+of holes are drilled through it. A better form for the top electrode
+would be a hollow cylinder long enough to give sufficient surface.
+Washing soda is often a convenient substance to use instead of salt.</p>
+
+<p>If, from experience, the size of a liquid rheostat for absorbing a
+given amount of energy cannot be estimated, the dimensions may be
+calculated approximately as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Suppose, for instance, it is desired to absorb 60 amperes at 40 volts
+difference of potential between the electrodes. Now, it is
+inconvenient to obtain a saturated solution of salt, and to use tap
+water would require too large a cross section&mdash;especially if a barrel
+or trough is to be used&mdash;in order to have the resistance with the
+plates at a safe distance apart, small enough to give 60 amperes with
+40 volts.</p>
+
+<p>Let us try a 10 per cent. solution of salt. Suppose the maximum
+current this will carry is &frac14; ampere per square inch, which will give a
+cross section of the solution of at least 60 &divide; &frac14; = 240 square inches.
+Now, the specific resistance per inch cube (i.e., the resistance
+between two opposite surfaces of a cube whose side measures 1 inch) of
+the 10 per cent. solution of salt used in test No. 3 was 2.12 ohms.
+The drop, CR, will be 2.12 x &frac14; = 0.53 volt per inch length of solution
+between electrodes. Hence, the electrodes will have to be 40/0.53 = 75
+inches apart. This would require about three barrels connected in
+series. This was taken merely as an illustration, because its specific
+resistance was known when the current density was &frac14; ampere per square
+inch. This solution, however, will carry safely <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> ampere per square
+inch, but I used the previous figure, since I did not know its
+specific resistance for this current density, because its specific
+resistance will be lower for a larger current density on account of
+the higher temperature which it will have, for the resistance of a
+solution decreases as its temperature increases.</p>
+
+<p>To reduce this length would require a solution of higher specific
+resistance, that is, a solution containing less than 10 per cent. of
+salt, and an increase in the cross section, since the maximum carrying
+capacity also diminishes as the percentage of salt diminishes. Only
+approximate calculations are useful because variations in temperature,
+amount of salt actually in solution and the rate at which heat can be
+radiated, all combine to give results which may vary widely from those
+calculated.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, it is seldom necessary or advisable to use a
+solution containing over 2 or 3 per cent. of salt. The best way to
+add salt to a liquid rheostat is to make a strong solution in a
+separate vessel and add as much of this solution as is needed. This
+avoids the annoying increase in conductivity of the solution which
+happens when the salt itself is added and is gradually dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>Liquid rheostats are ever so much more satisfactory for alternating
+than for direct current testing. The electrodes and solution are
+practically free from decomposition, and a given cross section seems
+to be able to carry a larger alternating than direct current&mdash;probably
+due partly to the absence of the scum on the surface which hinders the
+radiation of heat.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In American Electrician.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>THE PROGRESS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.</h2>
+
+<p>A retrospective survey of the progress made and of the reforms
+instituted in medical education in the United States is instructive.
+In many respects there is cause for much congratulation, while for
+other reasons the situation gives rise to feelings of alarm. It is
+pleasing to note and it augurs well for the future that a decided
+advance has been made in the direction of a more thorough medical
+training, yet at the same time it is discouraging to observe that,
+despite these progressive steps, competition does not abate, but
+rather daily becomes more acute. Dr. William T. Slayton has just
+issued his small annual volume on "Medical Education and Registration
+in the United States and Canada." From a study of this book, which
+fairly bristles with facts, a sufficiently comprehensive opinion may
+be formed in regard to the present state of medical education in this
+country. According to this work, there is now a grand total of one
+hundred and fifty-four medical schools. Of this number, one hundred
+and seventeen require attendance on four annual courses of lectures,
+and twenty-seven require attendance on sessions of eight months, and
+ten on nine months each year. Twenty-nine States and the District of
+Columbia require an examination for license to practice medicine;
+eighteen of these require both a diploma from a recognized college and
+an examination. Fifteen States require a diploma from a college
+recognized by them or an examination. Five States, viz., Vermont,
+Michigan, Kansas, Wyoming and Nevada, have practically no laws
+governing the practice of medicine; Alaska the same. In order to gain
+a clear comprehension of the existing state of affairs, a comparison
+of the number of students at two periods, with a lapse of years
+intervening sufficient to eliminate all minor variations, will be more
+to the point than merely regarding the multiplication of schools. Many
+of these mushroom institutions are not worthy of notice, containing
+perhaps a dozen students, and brought into existence only for the
+purpose of profit or from other motives of self-interest. The number
+of students is as reliable an index as can be given. For instance,
+taking the decade between 1883-84 and 1893-94, it will be found that
+the students in regular schools in 1883-84 numbered 10,600; in 1893-94
+they had increased to 17,601. Students in homoeopathic schools in
+1883-84 were 1,267; in 1893-94, 1,666. The number of eclectic students
+was stationary at the two periods. The increase during the period from
+1893-94 to the present time has been at about the same ratio.</p>
+
+<p>These figures reveal more plainly than words the existing condition of
+affairs, which must, too, in the nature of things, continue until that
+time when all the States fall into line and resolve to adopt a four
+years' course of not less than eight months.</p>
+
+<p>To make yet another comparison, the total number of medical schools in
+Austria and Germany, with a population exceeding that of this country,
+is twenty-nine. Great Britain, with more than half the population, has
+seventeen; while Russia, with one hundred million inhabitants, has
+nine. Of course we do not argue that America, with her immense
+territory and scattered population, does not need greater facilities
+for the study of medicine than do thickly inhabited countries, as
+Germany and Great Britain; but we do contend that when a city of the
+size of St. Louis has as many schools as Russia, the craze for
+multiplying these schools is being carried to absurd and harmful
+lengths. However, that the number of schools and their yearly supply
+of graduates of medicine are far beyond the demand is perfectly well
+known to all. The Medical Record and other medical journals have fully
+discussed and insisted upon that point for a considerable time. The
+real question at issue is by what means to remedy or at least to
+lessen the bad effects of the system as quickly as possible. The first
+and most important steps toward this desirable consummation have been
+already taken, and when a four years' course comes into practice
+throughout the country, the difficult problem of checking excessive
+competition will at any rate be much nearer its solution. Why should
+France, Germany, Great Britain and other European nations consider
+that a course of from five to seven years is not too long to acquire a
+good knowledge of medical work, while in many parts of America two or
+three years' training is esteemed ample for the manufacture of a
+full-fledged doctor? Such methods are unfair both to the public and to
+the medical profession, and the result is that in numerous instances
+the short-time graduate has either to learn most of the practical part
+of his duties by hard experience, to starve, or to utilize his
+abilities in some more lucrative path of life. Taking into
+consideration the fact that the theory and practice of medicine have
+become so extended within recent years, it must be readily conceded
+that four years is barely sufficient time in which to gain a
+satisfactory insight into their various departments. For a person,
+however gifted, to hope to receive an adequate medical training in two
+or three years is vain.</p>
+
+<p>In those States in which the facilities for securing a medical
+education are abundant, and where the time and money to be expended
+are within the reach everyone, there is always the danger that an
+undue proportion will forsake trade in order to join the profession.
+This is especially the case when times are bad. Many persons seem to
+be possessed of the idea that the practice of medicine as a means of
+livelihood should be regarded as a something to fall back upon when
+other resources fail. Accordingly, when trade is depressed and money
+is scarce, there is a rush to enter its ranks. That this view of the
+matter is altogether an erroneous one is too self-evident to need any
+demonstrative proof. Again, although the question of a universal four
+years' course is a most important one, it must not be forgotten that
+examination takes almost as conspicuous a place. It is desirable that
+every one entering on medical studies should possess a general
+education. With the exception of a few unimportant schools, the
+entrance examinations would appear to afford the necessary test. Then
+comes the much more vital point of how to gage, in the fairest
+possible manner, the extent of the medical knowledge of those who have
+undergone their full term of study. For various reasons the conducting
+of the final examinations by professors in the school in which the
+student has been taught is open to many and grave objections, more
+especially when these professors are themselves teachers in that
+school. As has been pointed out in The Medical Record on more than one
+occasion, the most obviously fair regulation is that of independent
+examination by an unbiased State board. If this plan were carried into
+execution, medical education in America generally would rest on a
+firmer basis than in Great Britain, in which country the standard,
+although nowhere so low as in parts of the United States, still varies
+very considerably in the different schools. The General Medical
+Council of England has arrived at the conclusion that competition must
+be checked, and has lately brought into force two drastic measures
+calculated to attain this object; one is the lengthening of the course
+to five years, and, more recently, the abolishing of the unqualified
+assistant. The medical profession of America is quite as conscious of
+the disastrous results of competition as are its fellow practitioners
+on the other side, and should use every legitimate means to sweep away
+the evils of the present system.&mdash;Medical Record.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>DEATHS UNDER AN&AElig;STHETICS.</h2>
+
+<p>On December 17, 1897, a fatality occurred during the administration of
+ether. The patient, a woman aged forty-four years, who suffered from
+"internal cancer," was admitted for operation into the new hospital
+for women, Euston Road. It was considered that an operation would
+afford a chance of the prolongation of her life. At the time of
+admission the patient was in a very exhausted condition. Mrs. Keith,
+the an&aelig;sthetist to the hospital, administered nitrous oxide gas,
+followed by ether, which combination of an&aelig;sthetics the patient took
+well. After the expiration of thirty minutes and while the operation
+was in progress the patient became so collapsed that the surgeon was
+requested by the an&aelig;sthetist to desist from further surgical procedure
+and she at once complied. Resuscitative measures were at once applied,
+but the patient died after about ten minutes from circulatory failure
+arising from surgical shock and collapse. We have not received any
+particulars as to the means adopted to restore the woman or whether
+hemorrhage was severe. In all such cases posture, warmth and guarding
+the patient from the effects of hemorrhage are undoubtedly the most
+important points for attention both before and during the operation.
+The fact is established that both chloroform and ether cause a fall<a name="Page_18500" id="Page_18500"></a>
+of body temperature, and so increase shock unless the trunk and limbs
+are kept wrapped in flannel or cotton-wool. The fall of temperature
+under severe abdominal and vaginal operations again is considerable. A
+profound an&aelig;sthesia allows of a considerable drop in arterial tension,
+which has been shown to be least when the limbs and pelvis are placed
+at a higher level than the head. Again, saline transfusion of Ringer's
+fluid certainly lessens the collapse in such cases when the bleeding,
+always severe, has been excessive. We do not doubt that such a severe
+operation undertaken when the patient was in a dangerous state of
+exhaustion was as far as possible safeguarded by every precaution, and
+we regret we have not been favored with the particulars of the methods
+employed. A death following the administration of ether is reported
+from the Corbett Hospital, Stourbridge.<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The patient, aged
+thirty-nine years, was admitted on September 21, 1897, suffering from
+fracture of the right femur. A prolonged application of splints led to
+a stiffness with adhesions about the knee joint which were to be dealt
+with under an an&aelig;sthetic on December 8. Ether was given from a
+Clover's inhaler; one ounce was used. The induction was slightly
+longer than usual but was marked by no unusual phenomena. No sickness
+occurred during or after an&aelig;sthesia and no respiratory spasm was seen.
+There was a short struggling stage followed by true an&aelig;sthesia when
+the operation, a very brief one, was rapidly performed. The patient
+was then taken back to the ward and the corneal reflex was noticed as
+being present. Voluntary movements were also said to have been seen.
+Later he opened his eyes "and seemed to recognize an onlooker." After
+this no special supervision was exercised. A hospital porter engaged
+in the ward noticed the man was breathing in gasps; this was twenty
+minutes after the patient had been taken from the operating theater
+and half an hour subsequent to the first administration of the ether.
+The surgeons were fetched from the operating theater and found by that
+time that the man was dead. "He was lying with his head thrown back,
+so that no possible difficulty of breathing could have arisen due to
+his position. The eyes were open and the lips slightly parted; nor was
+there any sign of any struggle for breath having taken place." The
+ether was analyzed and found to fulfill the British Pharmacop&oelig;ia
+tests for purity. The necropsy revealed that the right heart was
+distended with venous fluid blood. The lungs also were loaded with
+blood, as were all the viscera. We cannot but feel that the fact shown
+at the post mortem examination seemed to indicate that the man died
+from asphyxia and not from heart failure. No doubt patients appear to
+resume consciousness after an an&aelig;sthetic and even mutter
+semi-intelligible words and recognize familiar faces. They then sink
+into deep sleep just like the stupefaction of the drunken, and in this
+condition the tongue falls back and the slightest cause&mdash;a little
+thick mucus or the dropping of the jaw&mdash;will completely prevent
+ventilation of the lungs taking place. Two very similar cases occurred
+in the practice of a French surgeon, who promptly opened the trachea
+and forced air into the lungs, with the result that both patients
+survived. In his cases chloroform had been given. A death under
+chloroform occurred at the infirmary, Kidderminster. The patient, a
+boy, aged eight years and nine months, suffered from a congenital
+hernia upon which it became necessary to operate for its radical cure.
+The house surgeon, Mr. Oliphant, M.B., C.M. Edin., administered
+chloroform from lint. In about eight minutes the breathing ceased, the
+operation not having then been commenced. Upon artificial respiration
+being adopted the child appeared to rally, but sank almost immediately
+and died within two minutes. The necropsy showed no organic disease.
+At the inquest the coroner asked Dr. Oliphant whether an inhaler was
+not a better means of giving chloroform, and whether that substance
+was not the most dangerous of the an&aelig;sthetics in common use, and
+received the answer that inhalers were not satisfactory for giving
+chloroform and that it was a matter of opinion as to which was the
+most dangerous an&aelig;sthetic. We so often hear that the Scotch schools
+never meet with casualties under an&aelig;sthetics because they always use
+chloroform, and prefer to dispense with any apparatus, that we can
+readily accept the replies given to the coroner as representing the
+views current among the majority of even the thoughtful alumni of
+those great centers of medical training. A glance over the long list
+of casualties under chloroform will unfortunately show that whatever
+charm Syme exercised during his life has not survived to his
+followers, and overdosage with chloroform proves as fatal in the hands
+of those who hail from beyond the Tweed as well as "down south." A
+death from chloroform contained in the A.C.E. mixture occurred at the
+General Hospital, Birmingham, on December 15. The patient, a girl,
+aged five years and ten months, suffered from hypertrophied tonsils
+and post-nasal adenoid growths. She was given the A.C.E. mixture by
+Mr. McCardie, one of the an&aelig;sthetists to the institution, and
+tonsillotomy was performed. As consciousness was returning some
+chloroform was given to enable Mr. Haslam, the operator, to remove the
+growths. She died at once from respiratory failure, in spite of
+restorative measures. A necropsy showed absence of organic disease,
+The an&aelig;sthetist regarded the death as one from cardiac failure due to
+reflex inhibition by irritation of the vagus. We are not told the
+posture of the child or the method employed.&mdash;The Lancet.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> We are indebted to Mr. Hammond Smith, honorary surgeon to
+the hospital, and Mr. Edgar Collis for the notes of the case.&mdash;Ed.
+Lancet</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The resistance of nickel steel to the attack of water increases with
+the nickel contents. The least expanding alloys, containing about 36
+per cent. of nickel, are sufficiently unassailable, and can be exposed
+for months to air saturated with moisture without being tainted by
+rust. With a view of testing the expansion of nickel steel,
+experiments have been carried out by allowing measuring rods to remain
+in warm water for some hours, according to The Iron and Coal Trades
+Review. They were not wiped off when taken out, but were exposed for a
+longer period to hot steam, but the lines traced on the polished
+surfaces were not altered. The rough surfaces, when exposed to steam,
+were covered after several days with a continuous, but little
+adhesive, coat of rust.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>Recent Books</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Applied Mechanics.</b> A Treatise for the Use of Students who
+have time to work Experimental, Numerical, and Graphical Exercises
+illustrating the subject. By John Perry. With 371 illustrations.
+12mo, cloth. 678 pages. London, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$3&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Architecture.</b> Architectural Drawing for Mechanics. By I.P.
+Hicks. A comprehensive treatise on Architectural Drawing
+for Building Mechanics, showing the learner how to proceed step
+by step in every detail of the work. Square 12mo, cloth. 6 illustrations.
+94 pages. New York, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$1&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Architecture.</b> The Planning and Construction of High Office
+Buildings. By W.H. Birkmire. 8vo, cloth. Illustrated. 345 pages.
+New York, 1898.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$3&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Arches.</b> A Treatise on Arches. Designed for the Use of Engineers
+and Students in Technical Schools. By M.A. Howe. 8vo,
+cloth. New York, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$4&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Asbestos and Asbestic.</b> Their Properties, Occurrence and
+Use. By R. H. Jones. With 11 Collotype Plates and other illustrations.
+8vo, cloth. London, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$6&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Assaying.</b> A Manual of Assaying Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper. By
+Walter Lee Brown. Seventh edition. 533 pages. Illustrated. 12mo.
+cloth. Chicago, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$2&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Astronomy.</b> A New Astronomy. By David P. Todd. 12mo,
+cloth. 480 pages. Profusely illustrated. New York, 1898.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$1&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Beverages.</b> Standard Manual for Soda and other Beverages.
+A Treatise especially adapted to the requirements of Druggists
+and Confectioners. By A. Emil Hiss. 12mo, cloth. 260 pages.
+Chicago, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$4&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Bicycle Repairing.</b> A Manual compiled from articles in
+"The Iron Age." By S.D.V. Burr. 8vo, cloth. 166 pages. Fully
+illustrated. New York.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$1&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Boot Making and Mending.</b> Including Repairing, Lasting
+and Finishing. With numerous engravings and diagrams.
+Edited by Paul N. Hasluck. (Work Handbooks.) 16mo, cloth.
+160 pages, fully illustrated. New York, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$0&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Botany.</b> A Text Book of General Botany. By Carlton C. Curtis,
+Tutor in Botany in Columbia University. 8vo, cloth. 359 pages,
+illustrated. New York, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$3&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Brewing Calculations.</b> Gaging and Tabulation, Formul&aelig;,
+Tables and General Information for Brewers, and Excise Officers
+Surveying Breweries. By Claude H. Bater. 64mo, vest pocket
+size. 340 pages. London, 1898.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$0&nbsp;60</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Bridges.</b> DePontibus: A Pocket Book for Bridge Engineers.
+By J.A.L. Waddell. 12mo, leather. Pocketbook form with flap.
+403 pages. New York, 1898.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$3&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Carpentry and Joinery.</b> A Textbook for Architects, Engineers,
+Surveyors and Craftsmen. Fully illustrated and written by
+Banister F. Fletcher and H. Philip Fletcher. 12mo, cloth. 293
+pages. London, 1898.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$2&nbsp;00</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Chemistry for Photographers.</b> By Chas. F. Townsend.
+Illustrated. 12mo, cloth. New York, 1897.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$0&nbsp;75</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Compressed Air.</b> Practical Information upon Air Compression
+and the Transmission and Application of Compressed Air.
+By Frank Richards. 12mo, cloth. 203 pages. Illustrated. New
+York.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><b>$1&nbsp;50</b></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><b>Our large Catalogue of American and Foreign Scientific and Technical
+Books, embracing more than Fifty different subjects, and containing
+116 pages, will be mailed, free, to any address in the world.</b></p>
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+<h3><span class="smcap">By</span> GEO. M. HOPKINS.</h3>
+
+<p><b>Seventeenth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 840 Pages. 800
+Illustrations. Elegantly bound in Cloth. Price, by mail, postpaid,
+$4.00; Half Morocco, $5.00.</b></p>
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+
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+has influenced thousands of men in the choice of a career. It will
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+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+1157, March 5, 1898, by Various
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157,
+March 5, 1898, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1157, March 5, 1898
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 27, 2007 [EBook #21225]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1157
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, March 5, 1898.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1157.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                                              PAGE
+I.     ARCHAEOLOGY.--Requirements of Palestine Explorer       18489
+
+II.    BIOGRAPHY.--Emperor William II. of Germany.--An
+       interesting biographical account of the German
+       Emperor, with his latest portrait.--1 illustration    18486
+
+III.   CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Heat in Great Tunnels             18492
+
+IV.    ECONOMICS.--Causes of Poverty                         18490
+
+V.     ELECTRICITY.--Liquid Rheostats.--By H. S. WEBB        18498
+
+       The Neutral Use of Cables                             18489
+
+VI.    ETHNOLOGY.--The Influence of Scenery upon the
+       Character of Man                                      18488
+
+VII.   FORESTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining the Cubature of
+       Trees.--3 illustrations                               18493
+
+VIII.  GYMNASTICS.--A Novel Way of Riding a Bicycle.
+       --1 illustration                                      18489
+
+IX.    HYDROGRAPHY.--Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate  18490
+
+X.     LANDSCAPE GARDENING.--Park Making                     18490
+
+XI.    MARINE ENGINEERING.--The Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
+       Passenger Steamer "Bruce."--1 illustration            18492
+
+XII.   MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Machine Moulding without
+       Stripping Plates.--By E. H. MUMFORD.--A full
+       description of an ingenious moulding machine.--7
+       illustrations                                         18494
+
+XIII.  MEDICINE.--The Progress of Medical Education in the
+       United States                                         18499
+
+       Deaths under Anaesthetics                              18499
+
+XIV.   MISCELLANEOUS:
+
+       Engineering Notes                                     18491
+
+       Miscellaneous Notes                                   18491
+
+       Selected Formulae                                      18491
+
+XV.    NATURAL HISTORY.--Tapirs in the Zoological Garden at
+       Breslau.--1 illustration                              18488
+
+XVI.   STEAM ENGINEERING.--An English Steam Fire Engine.
+       --1 illustration                                      18493
+
+XVII.  TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION.--My Recent Journey from the
+       Nile to Suakim.--By FREDERIC VILLIERS.--The advance
+       to Khartoum.--An important account of the recent
+       travels of the celebrated war correspondent.          18486
+
+XVIII. TECHNOLOGY.--Artificial India Rubber.--This article
+       describes some important experiments which have been
+       made in which India rubber substitutes have been
+       produced from oil of turpentine                       18495
+
+       Deep and Frosted Etching on Glass                     18496
+
+       The Koppel Electric Locomotives.--This article
+       describes a system of electric trolley traction for
+       narrow gage railroads.--7 illustrations               18497
+
+       Slate and its Applications.--This article details
+       some of the various uses to which slate is put in the
+       arts, with a view of slate store vats for breweries.  18496
+
+       Birthplace of the Oilcloth Industry.                  18496
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: LATEST PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY]
+
+EMPEROR WILLIAM II. OF GERMANY.
+
+
+Since William II. of Germany ascended the throne as German Emperor and
+King of Prussia, on June 15, 1888, the eyes of Europe have been fixed
+on him. He has always been rather an unknown quantity, and he is
+regarded by the powers as an _enfant terrible_. The press of the world
+delights in showing up his weak points, and the "war lord" undoubtedly
+has them, but, at the same time, he has qualities which are to be
+admired and which make him conspicuous among the rulers of Europe.
+
+He is popular in Germany, and it is not surprising, for, in spite of
+being autocratic to the last degree, he is honest, courageous,
+ambitious, hard working, and, withal, a thorough German, being
+intensely patriotic. Indeed, if the people of the Fatherland had the
+right to vote for a sovereign, they would undoubtedly choose the
+present constitutional ruler, for, while the virtues we have named may
+seem commonplace, they are not so when embodied in an emperor. One
+thing which places William at a disadvantage is his excessive
+frankness, which is, in him, almost a fault, for if he couched his
+utterances in courtly or diplomatic phrases, they would pass
+unchallenged, instead of being cited to ridicule him. His mistakes
+have largely resulted from his impulsive nature coupled with
+chauvinism, which is, perhaps, justifiable, or, at least, excusable,
+in a ruler.
+
+Since the time when William was a child he evidenced a strong desire
+to become acquainted with the details of the office to which his lofty
+birth entitled him. It is doubtful if any king since the time of
+Frederick the Great has studied the routine of the public offices and
+has made such practical inspections of industries of all kinds;
+indeed, there is hardly a man in Germany who has more general
+knowledge of the material development of the country.
+
+In the army he has worked his way up like any other officer and has a
+firm grasp on all the multifarious details of the military
+establishment of the great country. He believes in militarism, or in
+force to use a more common expression, but in this he is right, for it
+has taken two hundred and fifty years to bring Prussia to the position
+she now holds, and what she has gained at the point of the sword must
+be retained in the same way. The immense sacrifices which the people
+make to support the army and navy are deemed necessary for
+self-preservation, and with France on one side and Russia on the
+other, there really seems to be ample excuse for it. To-day the German
+army is as ready as in 1870, when Von Moltke walked down the Unter den
+Linden, the day after hostilities were declared, looking in the shop
+windows.
+
+No ruler, except possibly Peter the Great, ever gave so many _ex
+cathedra_ opinions on so many different subjects in the same length of
+time, and of course it cannot be supposed that he has not made
+mistakes, but it shows that it is only by prodigious industry that he
+has been able to gather the materials on which these utterances are
+based. He is indeed the "first servant of the state," and long before
+his court or indeed many of the housemaids of Berlin are awake, he is
+up and attending to affairs of all kinds.
+
+He is a great traveler, and knows Europe from the North Cape to the
+Golden Horn; and while flying across country in his comfortable
+vestibuled train, he dispatches business and acquires an excellent
+idea of the country, and no traveler can speak more intelligently of
+the countries through which he has traveled, and this information is
+brought out with good effect in his excellent after-dinner speeches.
+
+In speaking of the versatility of the Emperor, something should be
+said of him as a sportsman. He has given a splendid example to the
+Germans. He has tried to introduce baseball, football and polo, three
+American games. This may be traced to the time when Poultney Bigelow
+and J. A. Berrian were the Emperor's playmates. Fenimore Cooper was
+one of the favorite authors with the young scion of royalty. The
+Emperor is fond of hunting, yachting, tennis and other sports and is
+never so happy as when he stands on the bridge of the royal yacht
+Hohenzollern. He is a well known figure at Cowes and won the Queen's
+Cup in 1891.
+
+William II. was born January 27, 1859, in Berlin, and until he was
+fourteen years old his education was intrusted to Dr. Hintzpeter,
+assisted by Major Von Gottberg, who was military instructor. At this
+time his corps of teachers was increased by the addition of Prediger
+Persius, who prepared him for his confirmation, which took place
+September 1, 1874, at Potsdam. As William was to lead an active life,
+it was thought best to send him to the gymnasium at Cassel.
+
+Orders were given that he and his younger brother Henry, who
+accompanied him, should receive the same treatment as the other
+pupils, and this order was strictly obeyed. He graduated from this
+school January 24, 1877, just before his eighteenth birthday. After
+this his military career began with his entrance as an officer into
+the first Garde-regiment at Potsdam, that he might become thoroughly
+acquainted with practical service. The young prince was assigned to
+the company which his father had once commanded. After serving here
+for a short time he went to the university at Bonn, and from there he
+went back to the army again. Emperor William ascended the throne in
+June, 1888, upon the death of his father Frederick III.
+
+In 1880 he was betrothed to Augusta Victoria, Princess of
+Schleswig-Holstein, and on February 9, 1881, they were married. The
+Empress is about a year younger than the Emperor, and makes an
+excellent mother to her four little sons, to whom she is devoted.
+Their oldest child, little Prince William, the present Crown Prince,
+was born at Potsdam, May 6, 1882. His father's devotion to the army
+will doubtless prompt him to make a soldier of his son at an early
+age; in fact, he wore the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard before he
+was six years old.
+
+The imperial family consists of seven children. The
+eldest, the Crown Prince of Germany and Prussia, is Prince
+Friedrich-Wilhelm-Victor-August-Ernst, born May 6, 1882. The second
+child is Prince Wilhelm-Eitel-Friedrich-Christian-Karl, born July 7,
+1883. The third is Prince Adalbert-Ferdinand-Berenger-Victor, born
+July 14, 1884. Prince August-Wilhelm-Heinrich-Victor was born January
+29. 1887. The fifth child, Prince Oscar-Karl-Gustav-Adolf, was born
+July 27, 1888. The sixth child is Prince Joachim-Francois-Humbert. He
+was born December 17, 1890. The youngest is a girl, Princess
+Victoria-Louise-Adelaide-Mathilde-Charlotte. She was born September
+13, 1892.
+
+Our engraving is from the last portrait of the Emperor William, and we
+are indebted for it to the Illustrirte Zeitung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MY RECENT JOURNEY FROM THE NILE TO SUAKIM.
+
+BY FREDERIC VILLIERS, IN THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.
+
+
+THE ADVANCE TO KHARTOUM.
+
+The recent campaign in the Soudan was a bloodless one to the
+correspondent with the expedition, or, rather, on the tail of the
+advance. Yet I think, in spite of this little drawback, there is
+enough in the vicissitudes of my colleagues and myself during the
+recent advance of the Egyptian troops up the Nile to warrant me
+addressing you this afternoon. Especially as toward the end of the
+campaign the Sirdar, or Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, Sir
+Herbert Kitchener, became more sympathetic with our endeavors to get
+good copy for our journals, and allowed us to return home by the old
+trade route of the Eastern Soudan, over which no European had passed
+since the revolt of the Eastern tribes in 1883. Unfortunately, the
+period for campaigning in the Soudan is in the hottest months in the
+year, on the rising of the Nile at the end of July, when the cataracts
+begin to be practicable for navigation. At the same time, in spite of
+the heat, it is the healthiest period, for the water, in its brown,
+muddy, pea soup state, is wholesomer to drink, and the banks of the
+river, which, when exposed at low Nile, give off unhealthy
+exhalations, are protected from spreading fever germs by the flood. To
+show you how much the people of Egypt depend for their very existence
+on this extraordinary river, the average difference between high and
+low Nile, giving favorable results, is 26 feet. Twenty-eight feet
+would cause serious damage by inundation, and the Nile as low as 20
+feet would create a famine. The flood of the river depends entirely on
+the equatorial rains which cause the Upper White Nile to rise in April
+and the Blue Nile early in June. The muddy Atbara, joining her two
+sisters about the same time, sends the flood down to Lower Egypt
+toward the end of August at the rate of 100 miles a day. The Blue Nile
+in the middle of September falls rapidly away, while the Atbara leaves
+the trio in October. The White Nile is then left by herself to recede
+slowly and steadily from a current of four knots an hour to a sluggish
+and, in many parts, an unwholesome stream. Flies and mosquitoes
+increase, and fever is rife.
+
+I arrived in Cairo on a sweltering day in July, and found four
+colleagues, who had been waiting for a week the Sirdar's permission to
+proceed to the front, still waiting. Luckily, the day after my arrival
+a telegram came from headquarters, saying that "we might proceed as
+far as Assouan and their await further orders." This, anyhow, was a
+move in the right direction; so we at once started. It was rather a
+bustle for me to get things ready, for Sunday blocked the way and
+little could be done, even on that day, in Cairo. I procured a
+servant, a horse and two cases of stores, for the cry was "nothing to
+be had up country in the shape of food; hardly sufficient sustenance
+to keep the flies alive." My colleagues, who had the start of me, were
+able to procure many luxuries--a case of cloudy ammonia for their
+toilet, and one of chartreuse, komel and benedictine to make their
+after dinner coffee palatable, and some plum pudding, if Christmas
+should still find them on the warpath, were a few of the many items
+that made up the trousseau of these up-to-date war correspondents,
+though at least one of them had been wedded to the life for many
+years. Unfortunately I had no time to procure these luxuries, and I
+had to proceed ammonialess and puddingless to the seat of war. My
+comrades were quite right. Why not do yourself well if you can? One of
+them even went in for the luxury of having three shooting irons, two
+revolvers and a double-barrel slug pistol, so that when either of the
+weapons got hot while he was holding Baggara horsemen at bay, there
+was always one cooling, ready to hand. He also, which I believe is a
+phenomenal record with any campaigner, took with him thirteen pairs of
+riding breeches, a half dozen razors and an ice machine. Even our
+commander-in-chief, when campaigning, denies himself more than two
+shirts and never travels with ice machines. But the thirteen pairs
+impressed me considerably. Why thirteen, more than fifteen, or any
+other number? I came to the conclusion that my colleague must
+certainly be a member of that mystic body the "Thirteen Club," and as
+he had to bring in the odd number somewhere to keep the club fresh in
+his memory, he occasionally sat upon it.
+
+I found, after all, there was some wisdom in his eccentricity, for,
+when riding the camel, mounted on the rough saddle of the country, I
+often wished that I had my friend's forethought, and I should have
+been glad to have supplemented mine with his odd number. No doubt my
+colleague's idea in having such a variety of nether garments was to
+use them respectively, on a similar principle to the revolvers, when
+he rode in hot haste with his vivid account of the latest battle to
+the telegraph office.
+
+But, unfortunately, this recent campaign did not, after all,
+necessitate these elaborate preparations, for there were no dervishes
+for us to shoot at or descriptions of bloody battles to be
+telegraphed. At all events, the cloudy ammonia and the thirteen
+breeches, with the assistance of a silken sash--a different color for
+each day of the week--made the brightest and smartest looking little
+man in camp. However, when I reflect on this new style of war
+correspondent, who, I forgot to mention, also carried with him two
+tents, a couple of beds, sundry chairs and tables, a silver-mounted
+dressing case, two baths, and a gross of toothpicks, and I think of
+the severe simplicity of the old style of campaigning when a famous
+correspondent who is still on the warpath, and who always sees the
+fighting if there be any, on one arduous campaign took with him the
+modest outfit of a tooth brush and a cake of carbolic soap, I joyfully
+feel that with the younger generation our profession is keeping pace
+with the luxury of the times.
+
+
+FROM BERBER TO SUAKIM.
+
+Toward the end of the campaign four colleagues--Messrs. Knight,
+Gwynne, Scudamore, Maud--and myself, took this opportunity of
+traversing a country very little known to the outside world, and a
+route which no European had followed for fourteen years, from Berber
+to Suakim. Moreover, there was a spice of adventure about it; there
+was an uncertainty regarding an altogether peaceful time on the way--a
+contingency which always appeals strongly to Englishmen of a roving
+and adventurous disposition. Only quite recently raids organized by
+the apparently irrepressible Osman Digna had been successfully carried
+out a few miles north and south of Berber. At the moment General
+Hunter, with two battalions of troops, was marching along the banks of
+the River Atbara to hunt for Osman and his followers, but there was
+much speculation as to whether five-and-twenty dervish raiders were
+still this side of the river, and drawing their water from the wells
+on the Suakim road.
+
+I was hardly prepared for this journey--one, probably, of twelve
+days--for my campaigning outfit, which I was compelled to leave on
+board my nugger on the Nile, had not yet arrived in Berber.
+Unfortunately, I could not wait for the gear, as the Sirdar insisted
+on our departure at once, for the road would be certainly insecure
+directly General Hunter returned from covering our right flank on the
+Atbara. I had no clothes but what I stood up in, and I had been more
+or less standing up in them without change for the last two weeks.
+
+Our caravan of nineteen camels, with two young ones, quite babies,
+following their mothers, and a couple of donkeys, about seven in the
+evening of the 30th of October quitted the mud-baked town of Berber,
+sleeping in the light of a new moon, and silently moved across the
+desert toward the Eastern Star. Next morning at the Morabeh Well, six
+miles from Berber, our camels having filled themselves up with water,
+and our numerous girbas, or water skins, being charged with the
+precious liquid--till they looked as if they were about to burst--our
+loads were packed and we started on a journey of fifty-two miles
+before the next water could be reached.
+
+We made quite a formidable show trailing over the desert. Probably it
+would have been more impressive if our two donkeys had restrained
+their ambition, and kept in the rear instead of leading the van. But
+animals mostly have their own way in these parts, and asses are no
+exception to this rule. The two baby camels commenced "grousing" with
+their elders directly we halted or made a fresh advance; they probably
+had an inkling of what was in store for them. After all, the world
+must seem a hard and unsympathetic place when, having only known it
+for two or three weeks, you are compelled to make a journey of 240
+miles to keep up with your commissariat. One of these babies was only
+in its eighteenth day. In spite of its tender youth the little beast
+trotted by the side of its mother, refreshing itself whenever we came
+to a halt with a pull from her teats, and, to the astonishment of all,
+arrived in Suakim safe and sound after twelve days' marching.
+
+To the uninitiated regarding the "grousing" of camels, I should
+explain that it is a peculiar noise which comes from their long funnel
+necks early or late, and for what reason it is difficult to tell.
+Sometimes the sound is not unlike the bray of an ass, occasionally it
+reaches the dignity of the roar of a lion with the bleating of a goat
+thrown in, then as quickly changes to the solemnity of a church organ.
+It is altogether so strange a sound that nothing but a phonograph
+could convey any adequate idea of it. It is a thing to be heard. No
+pen can properly describe it. After a long march, and when you are
+preparing to relieve the brute of his load, he begins to grouse. When
+he is about to start in the morning he grouses. If you hit him, he
+grouses; if you pat his neck gently, he grouses; if you offer him
+something to eat, he grouses; and if you twist his tail, he makes the
+same extraordinary noise. The camel evidently has not a large
+vocabulary, and he is compelled to express all his various sensations
+in this simple manner.
+
+The first part of our journey was monotonous enough, miles and miles
+of weary sandy plains, with alternate stretches of agabas or stony
+deserts, scored with shallow depressions, where torrential rains had
+recently soaked into the sand, leaving a glassy, clay-like surface,
+which had flaked or cracked into huge fissures under the heat of the
+fierce sun. And at every few hundred yards we came to patches of
+coarse camel grass, which had evidently cropped up on the coming of
+the rain, and, by its present aspect, seemed to feel very sorry that
+it had been induced to put in an appearance, for its sustenance was
+now fast passing into vapor, and its green young life was rapidly
+dying out as the sun scorched the tender shoots to the roots. But
+camels thrive on this parched-up grass, and our brutes nibbled at it
+whenever one slackened the head-rope.
+
+We traversed the dreary plain, marked every few yards by the bleached
+bones of camels fallen by the way; the only living thing met with for
+two days being a snake of the cobra type trailing across our path. The
+evening of the second day we camped in a long wadi, or shallow valley,
+full of mimosa trees, where our camels were hobbled and allowed to
+graze. They delighted in nibbling the young branches of these prickly
+acacias, which carry thorns at least an inch in length, that serve
+excellently well for toothpicks. Yet camels seem to rejoice in
+browsing off these trees, and chew up their thorns without blinking.
+This I can partly understand, for the camel's usual diet of dry,
+coarse grass must become rather insipid, and as we sometimes take
+"sauce piquante" with our cold dishes, so he tickles his palate with
+one inch thorns.
+
+Climbing ridge after ridge of the dunes, we at last saw stretching
+before us in the moonlight the valley of Obak, an extensive wadi of
+mimosa and sunt trees. Our guides halted on a smooth stretch of sand,
+and I wondered why we were not resting by the wells. Near were three
+native women squatting round a dark object that looked to me, in the
+faint light of the moon, like a tray. I walked up to them, thinking
+they might have some grain upon it for sale, but found to my surprise
+that it was a hole in the sand, and I realized at once that this must
+be a well. One of the women was manipulating a leather bucket at the
+end of a rope, which after a considerable time she began hauling up to
+the surface. It was about half full of thick, muddy water. Further on
+along the wadi I now noticed other groups of natives squatting on the
+sand doing sentinel over the primitive wells. I never came across a
+more slovenly method of getting water. The mouths of the holes were
+not banked or protected; a rain storm or sand drift at any moment
+might have blocked them for a considerable period.
+
+Not being able to get water for the camels was a serious matter, as
+our animals were not of the strongest, nor had they been recently
+trained for a long journey without water. This was the evening of the
+third day from Berber, and many of the poor brutes were showing signs
+of weakness. We resolved, therefore, to hurry on at once to the next
+well, that of Ariab; so we left the inhospitable wadi, and started at
+three in the morning on our next stretch of fifty-three miles.
+
+These night marches were pleasant enough; it was only the hour or two
+before dawn when the heaviness of sleep troubled us; but just as we
+began nodding, and felt in danger of falling off our camels, the keen
+change in the temperature which freshens the desert in the early
+morning braced us up, and, fully awake, we watched for the coming of
+Venus. As she sailed across the heavens, she flooded the desert with a
+warm, soft light, which in its luminosity equaled an English summer
+moon, and shortly seemingly following her guidance, the great fiery
+shield of the sun stood up from the horizon, and broad day swept over
+the plain.
+
+Toward the evening we found ourselves in a bowlder-strewn basin amid
+rocky, sterile hills, evidently the offshoots and spurs of the
+Jeb-el-Gharr, which stood out a purple serrated mass on our left, and
+here we saw for the first time for many a month rain clouds piling up
+above the rocky heights. Their tops, catching the rosy glow from the
+declining sun, appeared in their quaint forms like loftier mountains
+with their snowy summits all aglow. This was, indeed, a grateful sight
+to us; the camels already pricked up their ears, for the smell of
+moisture was in the air. We knew that the end of our waterless journey
+was not far off; for where those clouds were discharging their
+precious burdens the valley of Ariab lay. But many a weary ridge of
+black rock and agaba must still be crossed before our goal was
+reached.
+
+We camped at six that evening till midnight, when we started on our
+record march. Unfortunately at this time my filter gave out, owing to
+the perishable nature of the rubber tubing; the remaining water in our
+girbas was foul and nauseating from the strong flavor of the skins. I
+resolved to try and hold out without touching the thick, greasy fluid,
+and wait till the wells of Ariab were reached. As we advanced, the
+signs of water became more and more apparent; the camel grass was
+greener down by the roots, and mimosa and sunt trees flourished at
+every few hundred yards. When morning came, for the first time we
+heard the chirruping and piping of birds. The camels increased their
+pace, and all became eager to reach our destination before the extreme
+heat of the day. But pass after pass was traversed, and valley after
+valley crossed, and yet the wadi of Ariab, with its cool, deep wells
+of precious water, was still afar. It was not till past two o'clock in
+the afternoon that a long, toilsome defile of rugged rock brought us
+on the edge of a steep descent, and before us lay the winding Khor of
+Ariab, with its mass of green fresh foliage throwing gentle shadows on
+the silver sand of its dry watercourse. It seemed an age as we
+traversed that extended khor before our guide pointed to a large tree
+on our right, and said "Moja." We dismounted under the shadow of its
+branches, and found awaiting us the sheikh of the valley, who pressed
+our hands and greeted us in a most friendly way; but I was almost mad
+with thirst, and asked for the well. I was taken to a mound a few
+yards from our retreat, on the sides of which were two or three clay
+scoop-outs, all dry but one, and this held a few gallons of tepid
+water, from which camels had been drinking. The man took a gourd, half
+filled it, and offered it to me to drink. "But the well, the well!" I
+cried. "Oh! that's a little higher up," said he, and he led me to a
+wide revetted well about fifty feet deep, at the bottom of which,
+reflecting the sky, shone the water like a mirror. "That's the water I
+want," said I. The man shook his head. "You cannot drink of that till
+your baggage camels arrive; we have no means of reaching it." I almost
+groaned aloud, and with the agony of the Ancient Mariner could well
+cry, "Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink." There was no
+help for it. I made my way back to the shadow of the tree, threw
+myself on my blanket, and, racked with thirst, tried to wait patiently
+for the coming of the camel men. Fortunately, the sheikh of the well
+was inspired with hospitality, and after a while brought us some fresh
+milk in a metal wash basin, a utensil which he evidently produced in
+honor of our visit. I took a long draught, and though it was
+associated with native ablutions, I shall always remember it with the
+greatest satisfaction. We camped for 24 hours in the sylvan vicinity
+of Ariab Wells--stretched ourselves in the broad shadows of its mimosa
+trees, and drank of and bathed in its sweet, cool waters.
+
+This long rest improved our camels wonderfully. By the bye, there was
+much speculation between two of our party regarding the behavior of
+these curious animals on arriving at the wells after their long
+waterless march. A general impression was that for the last few miles
+the camels would race for the waters, and thwart all endeavors to hold
+them in. My experience of the strange beast was otherwise, and
+subsequent events proved that I was right. When the Hamleh, as we
+christened our caravan, arrived, the camels quietly waited awhile
+after their burdens were taken from their humps. Then, as if an
+afterthought had struck them, they slowly approached the scoop-outs
+and with the most indifferent air would take a mouthful of the liquid,
+then, stiffening their necks, they would lift their heads and calmly
+survey the scenery around them, till their drivers would draw their
+attention to the fact that there was at least another draught of water
+in the pool. It should be remembered that these animals had just come
+off a continuous journey of nearly fifteen hours, without a halt, and
+had been for three whole days without water.
+
+We left our camping ground as the sun began to dip behind the hills
+shutting in the khor. Our way now lay in a more northeasterly
+direction, and the sun threw the hills and valleys we were approaching
+into a marvelous medley of glorious color, and more than one of us
+regretted that we had not brought our color boxes with us. Sometimes
+we seemed to catch a glimpse of the heather-clad Highlands of
+Scotland. Then a twist in the khor we were traversing suggested the
+rugged passes of Afghanistan. Gazelle and ariel stole among the foot
+hills or stood gazing at us as near as a stone's throw. One of our
+party, Mr. Gwynne, commenced stalking a gazelle, but, darkness setting
+in, the beast got away. For the rest of the journey to Suakim,
+however, he had good sport, and saved us many a time from going hungry
+with his shooting for the pot.
+
+About 34 miles from Ariab we came to one of the most interesting spots
+of the whole journey--the extensive Valley of Khokreb, wherein lay the
+deserted dervish dem, or stronghold. Here some followers of Osman
+Digna used to levy toll on all caravans and persons moving toward
+Suakim, or taking routes south. The dem consisted of a number of well
+built tokuls, or straw huts, standing in their compounds, with
+stabling for horses and pounds for cattle. The whole was surrounded
+with a staked wall, in front of which was a zariba of prickly mimosa
+bush, to stop a sudden onrush of an enemy. The place was intact, but
+there was not a living soul within it, or in the vast valley in which
+it stood, that we could see. In fact, our whole journey up to the
+present seemed to be through a country that might have been ravished
+by some plague or bore some fatal curse. As the light of the moon
+prevailed, we came upon an extensive plain shelving upward toward
+steep hills. Specks of bright light stood out against the distant
+background, and we presently found that the moonlight was glinting on
+spear heads, and soon a line of camels crept toward us, and marching
+as escort was a small guard of Hadendowahs, with spear and shield.
+
+We found the convoy to be a detachment of a caravan of 160 camel loads
+of stores sent from Suakim to Berber by that enterprising Greek,
+Angelo, of the former town. They had been on the road already eight
+days, having to move cautiously owing to rumors of dervish activity,
+but had arrived so far safely. We bivouacked for several hours in the
+Wadi of Salalat, which was quite parklike with its fine growth of sunt
+trees.
+
+When we had crossed the frontier between Bisheren and Hadendowah
+country we were in comparative safety regarding any molestation by the
+natives, for we were escorted by the son of the sheikh of one of the
+subtribes of the latter country. At all events, I must have been a
+sore temptation for any evil disposed Fuzzy Wuzzy; for, owing to my
+camel being badly galled by an ill-fitting saddle, I would find myself
+for many hours entirely alone picking my way by the light of the moon,
+the poor brute I was riding not being able to keep pace with the rest.
+All the following day our route lay over stony plains of a bolder type
+than any we had yet seen, and when in the heart of the Hadendowah
+Hills we came suddenly upon a scene in its weirdness the most
+extraordinary and most appallingly grand I had ever seen. A huge
+wilderness lay before us like the dry bed of a vast ocean, whose
+waters by some subterranean convulsion had been sucked into the bowels
+of the earth, leaving in its whirling eddies the debris of submarine
+mountains heaped up in rugged confusion or scattered over its sandy
+bottom. Porphyry and black granite bowlders, in every conceivable form
+and size, lay strewn over the plain. Sometimes so fantastic did their
+shapes become that the least imaginative of our party could picture
+the gigantic ruins of some mighty citadel, with its ramparts, bastions
+and towering castle. For many hours we were traversing this weird and
+desolate valley, and when the sun cast long shadows across our track
+as he sank to rest, his ruddy light falling upon the dark bowlders,
+polished with the sand storms of thousands of years, stray pieces of
+red granite would catch his rosy glint, and sparkle like giant rubies
+in a setting of black pearls.
+
+We found more life in ten miles of the Hadendowah country than during
+the whole of the first part of our journey. Flocks of sheep, goats and
+oxen passed us coming to the wells, or going to some pasturage up in
+the hills, but few natives came near us, and there were no signs of
+habitation anywhere. The wells we now passed were mere water holes
+similar to those met with up country in Australia. The flocks of the
+natives would hurry down at eventide and drink up all the water that
+had percolated through the sand during the day, befouling the pools in
+every conceivable way. Natives seem to revel in water contaminated by
+all kind of horrors. They wash the sore backs of their camels, bathe
+their sheep and drink from the same pool. At one large hole round
+which a number of natives were filling their girbas we halted, and
+procured some of the liquid, which was muddy and tepid, but
+wholesomer. A native caravan had camped near by and the Hadendowah
+escort of spearmen crowded round us.
+
+The Fuzzy Wuzzy is a much more pleasant object when seen through a
+binocular than when he is close to you. His frizzy locks are generally
+clotted with rancid butter, his slender garment is not over clean. He
+is a very plucky individual, as we know, thrifty, and lives upon next
+to nothing, but many live upon him. Several graybeards came up to
+salute their sheikh, who was traveling with us, and this they did by
+pressing his hand many times, and bowing low, but they glanced at us
+with no amiable eyes, and suddenly turned away. There was no absolute
+discourtesy; they simply did not want to be introduced. Probably they
+remembered the incident at Tamai, where many of their friends were
+pierced with British bullets. So they slung their shields, trailed
+their spears and turned away.
+
+My camel had much improved by gentle treatment and I was able to ride
+on ahead. Just as I neared the narrow neck of the Tamai Pass, two men
+and a boy climbed down toward us from a small guard house, on a lofty
+rock to our left. My camel man and I instinctively came to a halt, for
+the manner of the comers, who were fully armed, was impressive. They
+confronted us and immediately began questioning my camel man, after
+much altercation, during which I quietly leaned over my saddle and
+unbuttoned my revolver case, for they looked truculent and somewhat
+offensive. My camel man mysteriously felt about his waist belt, and
+eventually handed something to the foremost native, whereat he and his
+companions turned and began to reclimb the hill. As we went on our
+way, I inquired the reason of the men barring our path. "Oh," my man
+said, "it is simply a question of snuff." "Snuff," I exclaimed, in
+astonishment. "Yes; that was all they wanted--a little tobacco powder
+to chew." Here was a possible adventure that seemed as if it were
+going to end in smoke, and snuff was its finale.
+
+After all the Suakim-Berber road, that was looked upon as full of
+dramatic incident--for even our military friends in Berber, when they
+bid us goodby, said, "It was a very sporting thing to do. Great Scott!
+They only wished they had the luck to come along"--was a highway
+without even a highwayman upon it, and apparently for the moment as
+pleasantly safe, minus the hostelries en route, as the road from
+London to York. Prom the top of Tamai Pass, 2,870 feet--though of the
+same name, not to be confounded with the famous battle which took
+place further south--we began to make a rapid descent, and the last
+sixty miles of our journey were spent in traversing some of the most
+lovely mountain scenery I think I have ever visited. Sometimes one
+might be passing over a Yorkshire moorland, with its purple backing of
+hills, for the sky was lowering and threatened rain. Then the scene
+would as quickly change to a Swiss valley, when, on rounding the base
+of a spur, one would strike a weird, volcanic-torn country whose
+mountains piled up in utter confusion like the waves of the stormy
+Atlantic; and further on we would come out upon a plain once more
+scattered with gigantic bowlders of porphyry and trap, out of which
+the monoliths of ancient Thebes might have been fashioned.
+
+On the morning of the tenth day out from Berber, we sighted the fort
+and signal tower of the Egyptian post at Tambuk, on a lofty rugged
+rock, standing out in the middle of an immense khor. This was
+practically the beginning of the end of our long journey, and here we
+rested a few hours, once more drinking our fill of pure sparkling
+water from its revetted wells.
+
+About half an hour in a northeasterly direction, after a continual
+descent from the Egyptian fort, we noticed, at intervals between the
+hills in front of us, a straight band of blue which sparkled in the
+sunlight. At this sight I could not refrain from giving a cheer--it
+was the Red Sea that glistened with the sun--for it meant so much to
+us. Across its shining bosom was our path to civilization and its
+attendant comforts, which we had been denied for many a month. Night
+found us steadily descending to ward the seaboard, as we neared Otao,
+in the vicinity of which we were to bivouac for the night. My camel
+nearly stumbled over an old rusty rail thrown across my path, and
+further on I could trace in the moonlight the dark trail of a crazy
+permanent way, with its rails all askew.
+
+We were passing the old rail head of the Suakim-Berber Railway, that
+was started in 1885. I wondered, as I followed fifteen miles of this
+rusty line, a gradual slope of 1,800 feet toward the sea, whether the
+road I had only just traversed had ever been surveyed for a railway,
+and whether anybody had the slightest notion of the difficulties to be
+contended with in carrying out the scheme. Of course, modern
+engineering, with such men as Sir Benjamin Baker at the fore, can
+overcome any difficulty if money be no object, but who can possibly
+see any return for the enormous outlay an undertaking of this kind
+would entail?
+
+To start with, there is one up grade of 2,870 feet within forty miles
+from Suakim, and the khors, through which the railway must wind, are
+sometimes raging torrents. To obviate this, if the line be built of
+trestles (timber elevations), as with the Canadian Pacific Railway,
+there is no wood in the country but for domestic purposes. Material,
+for every detail, must be imported. A smaller matter, but also
+somewhat important--though water apparently can be found in the khors
+for the digging, it is a question whether a sufficient quantity can be
+got at all times for the requirements of a railway. The natives
+themselves are often very badly off for water, as in the case of the
+Obak wells.
+
+Wells run dry at odd times in this country, and can never be depended
+upon. Of course, water can be condensed at Suakim and stored. Further,
+a rival line is already in progress, which will connect Wady Halfa
+with Berber early this year. European goods coming by that line from
+Alexandria would be free of the Suez Canal dues, and certainly the
+directors of that line would treat freights favorably if Suakim should
+ever be connected with Berber by rail. As for the interior trade of
+the country, nearly all the population have either died from recent
+famine or have been killed off in the Mahdi's cause. There is no
+commercial center or even market to tap from one end of the road to
+the other.
+
+The next morning we came in view of Suakim, the city of white coral,
+with her surf-beaten opalesque reefs stretching as far as the eye
+could follow. It seemed strange to me to be peacefully moving toward
+her outlying forts, for when I was last in her vicinity one could not
+go twenty yards outside the town without being shot at or running the
+gauntlet of a few spears. But here I was, slowly approaching its
+walls, accompanied by some of the very men who in those days would
+have cut my throat without the slightest hesitation. Suakim had
+changed much for the better; her streets were cleaner, and mostly free
+from Oriental smells. But these sanitary changes always take place
+when British officers are to the fore.
+
+Surgeon Capt. Fleming is the medical officer responsible for the
+health of the town, and he has been instrumental in carrying out great
+reforms, especially in doing away with the tokuls and hovels, in which
+the Arabs herded together, and removing them to a special quarter
+outside the town.
+
+The principal feature about Suakim to-day is its remarkable water
+supply. In 1884 our troops had to depend on condensed sea water,
+supplied from an old steamer anchored in the harbor, and the town folk
+drew an uncertain supply from the few wells outside the town. But now
+Suakim never wants for water, and that of the best. She even boasts of
+a fountain in the little square opposite the governor's house.
+Engineer Mason is responsible for this state of efficiency, to which
+Suakim owes much of her present immunity from disease. During the last
+twelve years immense condensing works have been erected on Quarantine
+Station; but, better still, about two years ago Mr. Mason discovered
+an apparently inexhaustible supply near Gemaiza, about three miles
+from the town. There is a theory--which this water finding has made a
+possible fact--that as coral does not grow in fresh water, the
+channel which allows steamers to approach close up to the town,
+through her miles of coral reefs, is caused by a fresh water current
+running from the shore.
+
+However, on this theory Mason set to work and found a splendid supply
+at Fort Charter; an excavation in the khor there, about 200 feet long
+and 40 deep, is now an immense cistern of sweet water, the result of
+which the machines condensing 150 tons of water a day are now only
+required to produce one-half the quantity, saving the Egyptian
+government a considerable outlay.
+
+The natives look upon Mason as a magician, the man who turns the salt
+ocean into sweet water. But metal refuse, scraps of iron, old boiler
+plates, under his magic touch, are also turned into the most useful
+things. For instance, the steam hammer used in the government workshop
+is rigged on steel columns from the debris of an engine room of a
+wrecked vessel. The hammer is the crank of a disused shaft of a cotton
+machine, the anvil is from an old "monkey," that drove the piles for
+the Suakim landing stage in 1884; the two cylinders are from an effete
+ice machine, and the steam and exhaust pipes come from a useless
+locomotive of the old railway. A lathe, a beautiful piece of
+workmanship, is fashioned out of one of the guns found at Tamai. And
+the building which covers these useful implements was erected by this
+clever engineer in the Sirdar's service, who had utilized the rails of
+the old Suakim-Berber line as girders for its roof, and, in my humble
+opinion, this is probably the very best purpose for which they can be
+used.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TAPIRS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN AT BRESLAU.
+
+
+A fine pair of shabrack (Tapirus indicus) and another pair of American
+tapirs (Tapirus americanus) constitute the chief attraction of the
+house devoted to pachyderms in the Zoological Garden at Breslau, and
+interest in this section of the garden has recently been greatly
+enhanced by the appearance of a healthy young shabrack. This is only
+the second time that a shabrack tapir has been born in captivity in
+Europe, and as the other one, which was born in the Zoological Garden
+at Hamburg, did not live many days, but few knew of its existence;
+consequently, little or nothing is known of the care and development
+of the young of this species, although they are so numerous in their
+native lands. Farther India, Southwestern China and the neighboring
+large islands, where they also do well in captivity. The tapir was not
+known until the beginning of this century, and even now it is a great
+rarity in the European animal market, and as the greatest care is
+required to keep it alive for any length of time in captivity, it is
+seldom seen in zoological gardens; therefore, the fact that the
+shabrack tapirs in the Breslau garden have not only lived, but their
+number has increased, is so much more remarkable.
+
+[Illustration: SHABRACK TAPIR WITH YOUNG ONE (FIVE DAYS OLD) IN THE
+BRESLAU ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN. FROM DRAWING BY ERICH SUCKOW.]
+
+Our engraving shows that the five days old tapir resembles its mother
+in form, although its marking is quite different. Its spots and
+stripes are very similar to those of the young of the American tapir,
+several of which have been born in captivity in Europe. They shade
+from yellow to brown on black or very dark brown ground, and the spots
+on the legs take a whitish tone. This little one's fur is longer on
+the body than on the head and extremities, and is soft and thick, but
+has not the peculiar glossiness of the full grown animal. Its iris is
+a beautiful blue violet, while that of the old one is dark violet, and
+its little hoofs are reddish brown, while those of the mother are horn
+gray. When standing, the new comer measures about two feet in
+length and one foot two inches in height, having gained about one
+inch in height in five days. Its fine condition is doubtless due
+partly to the great care given it and partly to the healthy
+constitution of the mother, and it is the pet of its keepers and
+of the public.--Illustrirte Zeitung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF SCENERY UPON THE CHARACTER OF MAN.
+
+
+The effect of scenery upon the mind of man has often been noticed and
+much has been written about it. Illustrations of this are generally
+drawn from the historic lands and from the ancient people of the East.
+The civilized races, such as the Greeks, Romans and other nations who
+formerly dwelt on the coast of the Mediterranean, are taken as
+examples. The Greeks are said to have owed their peculiar character
+and their taste for art to the varied and beautiful scenery which
+surrounded them. Their mythology and poetry are full of allusions to
+the scenes of nature. Mountains and springs, rivers and seas all come
+in as the background of the picture which represents their character
+and history. The same is true of the Romans, Egyptians, Phenicians,
+Syrians, Hebrews, the ancient Trojans and Carthaginians. Each one of
+these nations seems to have been affected by scenery. They were all,
+with the exception of the Carthaginians, confined within the limits of
+a narrow territory, and remained long enough in it to have partaken
+fully of the effect of their surroundings.
+
+The Romans were warlike at the beginning, and bore the air of
+conquerors, but their taste for art and literature resembled that of
+the Greeks. The Egyptians were sensuous and luxurious people. Their
+character bore the stamp of the river Nile with its periodical
+overflow, its rich soil and mild climate. The type of their religion
+was drawn from the gods who inhabited the same river valley. The
+Phenicians were a maritime people; they were the first navigators who
+reached the great seas. Their gods resembled those of the Assyrians
+and Chaldeans, but their character resembled the seas over which they
+roved; they did not originate, but they transported the products and
+inventions of the ancient world.
+
+The Hebrews had a national character which seemed to have been
+narrowed down to a small compass by their isolation and by their
+history, but their religion was as grand as the mountains of the
+desert, and their poetry as beautiful as the scenery along the river
+Jordan, which ran as a great artery through their land. It was a holy
+land which gave impress to the Holy Book. The effect of scenery upon
+human character is also illustrated in the case of the ancient
+inhabitants of America. This land was isolated from the rest of the
+world for many centuries--perhaps for thousands of years. It is
+supposed that up to the time of the discovery the tribes were
+permanent in their seats.
+
+Each tribe had its own habitat, its own customs, its own mythology and
+its own history. The effect of scenery must be considered, if we are
+to understand the peculiarities which mark the different tribes. Some
+imagine that the Indians are all alike, that they are all cruel
+savages, all given to drunkenness and degradation and only waiting
+their opportunity to wreak their vengeance upon helpless women and
+children. Those who know them, however, are impressed with the great
+variety which is manifest among them, and are especially convinced
+that much of this comes from the scenery amid which they have lived.
+The Eastern tribes may have had considerable sameness, yet the
+Algonquins, who were the prairie Indians, and the Iroquois, who dwelt
+in the forest and amid the lakes of New York, differed from one
+another in almost every respect, and the Sioux and Dakotas, who were
+also prairie Indians, differed from both of these. They were great
+warriors and great hunters, but had a system of religion which
+differed from that of any other tribe.
+
+The Sioux were cradled amid the mountains of the East, and bear the
+same stamp of their native scenery. They resemble the Iroquois in many
+respects. The same is true of the Cherokees, who were allied to the
+Iroquois in race and language. They were always mountain Indians; but
+the Southern tribes were very different from either. They were a
+people who were well advanced in civilization so far as the term can
+be applied to the aborigines. Their skulls are without angles and
+differ greatly from the keel-shaped skulls. They were dolichocephalic
+rather than kumbocephalic. They resemble the Polynesians, while the
+northern tribes resembled the Mongolians. Whatever their original home
+was, their adopted habitat was in accord with their tastes and
+character. It did not change them but rather made their traits more
+permanent and stable.
+
+The tribes of the northwest coast were seafarers; they inhabited the
+forest and worshiped the animals which were peculiar to the forest and
+took as their totems the eagle, wolf and raven, but they drew their
+subsistence in great part from the sea. They worshiped the animals of
+the seas, such as the shark, the whale and the sculpin. Their skill
+and courage as navigators have never been equaled. Taking their
+families and the few articles of commerce gathered from the forest
+they entered the symmetrical and beautifully carved canoes and
+breasted the storms and waves of the great sea near which they lived.
+There was a wildness in the waves which just suited them. The sea
+brought out the best traits and developed the heroic character. They
+were the "sea kings" of the Northwest. They were great navigators and
+great hero worshipers.
+
+The tribes of the interior, the Pueblos, the Zunis, differed from all
+other tribes. They were surrounded by wild tribes, such as the
+Apaches, Comanches and Navajoes. Whatever their origin, they had
+remained long enough in this territory to be affected by the scenery
+and surroundings. They were mild, luxurious, given over to religious
+ceremonies, made much of mythology and had many secret societies. They
+built their terraced houses, taking the cliffs and mesas as their
+patterns, and made them so similar to the rock and cliffs that it was
+difficult to recognize them at a distance. They did not mould the
+mountains into villages as the Mayas did, but they made their houses
+to conform to the mountains, and took the mountain gods and their
+nature divinities as chief objects of worship.
+
+The contrast between the ancient tribes of this region and the wild
+tribes which intruded upon them was very great. The Navajoes were a
+mountain people and drew their religion from the mountains. They
+borrowed many myths and customs from the ancient Pueblos, and like
+them, settled down to an agricultural life; but their sand paintings
+and their ceremonies reveal a taste for art and a poetical imagination
+which are very remarkable. The lone Indian who places his wigwam in
+the midst of the mountains seems to be always a stranger. The scenery
+has no effect upon him. It makes his spirit sad and his music
+plaintive, for he breathes out his spirit in his music. He never has
+had and never will have the character which some of his ancestors
+cultivated amid the wild scenes. His race is doomed; his fate is
+sealed. He can never catch up with the progress of the time.
+
+The railroad is bound to take the place of the Indian trail; the
+miners' cabin must supplant the Indian wigwam. Great cities will rise
+near where ancient villages stood, but the savage fails to appreciate
+the thought or the character of the people who have supplanted him.
+The wigwam amid the mountains is a symbol of what he is, but the
+locomotive at its side is an emblem of progress and of promise to
+those who will use their opportunities. The mountains are in the
+background--they suggest the possibilities which are before the
+settler. They interpose barriers, but the barriers themselves are
+fraught with good influences. Freedom has always dwelt among the
+mountains. Reverence for the Almighty has also prevailed. The leveling
+process must cease and man become more elevated in his thoughts as he
+rises to the altitude of these great heights.--The American
+Antiquarian.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NOVEL WAY OF RIDING A BICYCLE.
+
+
+"Artists" of the variety stage and the circus are always trying to
+find something new, for the same old trapeze performances, trials of
+strength, performances of rope dancers, etc., have been presented so
+many times that anyone who invents an entirely new trick is sure of
+making a large amount of money out of it; the more wild and dangerous
+it is, the better. Anything that naturally stands on its feet but can
+be made to stand on its head will be well received in the latter
+attitude by the public. Some such thought as this must have been in
+the mind of the man who conceived the idea of riding a bicycle on the
+ceiling instead of on the floor. The "trick" originated with the Swiss
+acrobat Di Batta, who, being too old to undertake such a performance
+himself, trained two of his pupils to do it, and they appeared with
+their wheel in Busch Circus in Berlin. The wheel, of course, ran on a
+track from which it was suspended in such a way that it could not
+fall, and the man who operated it used the handle bar as he would the
+cross bar of the trapeze. One would think that the position of the
+rider was sufficiently dangerous to satisfy any public, but the
+inventor of the trick sought to make it appear more wonderful by
+having the rider carry between his teeth a little trapeze from the
+crosspiece of which another man hung.
+
+[Illustration: BICYCLIST RIDING FROM THE CEILING OF A CIRCUS.]
+
+Different colored lights were thrown on the performers as they rode
+around the ceiling, and at the end of the performance first one and
+then the other dropped into the safety net which had been placed about
+sixty feet below them. We are indebted to the Illustrirte Zeitung for
+the cut and article.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF PALESTINE EXPLORER.
+
+
+Lieut.-Col. Conder says that the requirements for exploration demand a
+knowledge not only of Syrian antiquities, but of those of neighboring
+nations. It is necessary to understand the scripts and languages in
+use, and to study the original records as well as the art and
+architecture of various ages and countries. Much of our information
+is derived from Egyptian and Assyrian records of conquest, as well as
+from the monuments of Palestine itself. As regards scripts, the
+earliest alphabetical texts date only from about 900 B. C., but
+previous to this period we have to deal with the cuneiform, the
+Egyptian, the Hittite and the Cypriote characters.
+
+The explorer must know the history of the cuneiform from 2700 B. C.
+down to the Greek and Roman age, and the changes which occurred in the
+forms of some 550 characters originally hieroglyphics, but finally
+reduced to a rude alphabet by the Persians, and used not only in
+Babylonia and Assyria, but also as early as 1500 B. C. in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Armenia, Palestine and even by special scribes in Egypt. He
+should also be able to read the various Egyptian scripts--the 400
+hieroglyphics of the monuments, the hieratic, or running hand of the
+papyri, and the later demotic.
+
+The Hittite characters are quite distinct, and number at least 130
+characters, used in Syria and Asia Minor from 1500 B. C. or earlier
+down to about 700 B. C. The study of these characters is in its
+infancy. The syllabary of Cyprus was a character derived from these
+Hittite hieroglyphics, and used by the Greeks about 300 B. C. It
+includes some fifty characters, and was probably the original system
+whence the Phenician alphabet was derived. As regards alphabets, the
+explorer must study the early Phenician and the Hebrew, Samaritan and
+Moabite, with the later Aramean branch of this alphabet, whence square
+Hebrew is derived. He must also know the Ionian alphabet, whence Greek
+and Roman characters arose, and the early Arab scripts--Palmyrene,
+Nabathean and Sabean, whence are derived the Syriac, Cufic, Arabic and
+Himyaritic alphabets.
+
+As regards languages, the scholars of the last century had to deal
+only with Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic and Greek, but as the result
+of exploration we now deal with the ancient Egyptian whence Coptic is
+derived, and with various languages in cuneiform script, including the
+Akkadian (resembling pure Turkish) and the allied dialects of Susa,
+Media, Armenia and of the Hittites; the Assyrian, the earliest and
+most elaborate of Semitic languages; and Aryan tongues, such as the
+Persian, the Vannic and the Lycian.
+
+The art and architecture of Western Asia also furnish much information
+as to religious ideas, customs, dress and history, including inscribed
+seals and amulets, early coins and gems. The explorer must also study
+the remains of Greek, Roman, Arab and Crusader periods, in order to
+distinguish these from the earlier remains of the Canaanites,
+Phenicians, Hebrews, Egyptians and Assyrians, as well as the art of
+the Jews and Gnostics about the Christian era, and the later pagan
+structures down to the fourth century A.D.--Nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE NEUTRAL USE OF CABLES.
+
+
+Eleven submarine cables traverse the Atlantic between 60 and 40
+degrees north latitude. Nine of these connect the Canadian provinces
+and the United States with the territory of Great Britain; two (one
+American, the other Anglo-American) connect France. Of these, seven
+are largely owned, operated or controlled by American capital, while
+all the others are under English control and management. There is but
+one direct submarine cable connecting the territory of the United
+States with the continent of Europe, and that is the cable owned and
+operated by the Compagnie Francais Cables Telegraphiques, whose
+termini are Brest, France, and Cape Cod, on the coast of
+Massachusetts.
+
+All these cables between 60 and 40 degrees north latitude, which unite
+the United States with Europe, except the French cable, are under
+American or English control, and have their termini in the territory
+of Great Britain or the United States. In the event of war between
+these countries, unless restrained by conventional act, all these
+cables might be cut or subjected to exclusive censorship on the part
+of each of the belligerent states. Across the South Atlantic there are
+three cables, one American and two English, whose termini are
+Pernambuco, Brazil, and St. Louis, Africa, and near Lisbon, Portugal,
+with connecting English lines to England, one directly traversing the
+high seas between Lisbon and English territory and one touching at
+Vigo, Spain, at which point a German cable company has recently made a
+connection. The multiplication under English control of submarine
+cables has been the consistent policy of Great Britain, and to-day her
+cable communications connect the home government with all her colonies
+and with every strategic point, thus giving her exceptional advantages
+for commercial as well as for political purposes.
+
+The schedule blanks of rates of the English companies contain the
+following provisions: "The dispatches of the imperial government shall
+have priority when demanded. The cable must not, at any station,
+employ foreigners, and the lines must not pass through any office or
+be subject to the control of any foreign government. In the event of
+war, the government (of Great Britain) may occupy all the stations on
+English territory or under the protection of Great Britain, and it may
+use the cable by means of its own employes."
+
+It is not a pleasing reflection that in the actual situation the
+United States is at a great and embarrassing disadvantage. Meanwhile
+it would seem to be the policy of the United States to overcome this
+disadvantage by the multiplication of submarine cables under American
+or other than English competing foreign ownership and control.
+
+Although somewhat indeterminate, the policy of the United States in
+respect to the landing of foreign submarine cables, so far, at least,
+as the executive branch of the government is concerned, appears to be
+based chiefly upon considerations that shall guard against
+consolidation or amalgamation with other cable lines, while insisting
+upon reciprocal accommodations for American corporations and companies
+in foreign territory. The authority of the executive branch of the
+government to grant permission is exercised only in the absence of
+legislation by Congress regulating the subject, and concessions of the
+privileges heretofore have been subject to such further action by
+Congress in the matter as it may at any time take. Several bills are
+now pending in Congress relating to the landing of foreign submarine
+telegraph cables within the United States, and regulating the
+establishment of submarine telegraphic cable lines or systems in the
+United States. As this article is going to press, it is reported that
+the President has refused permission to a foreign cable company to
+renew a cable terminus within the territory of the United States, and
+that the question raised as to the power of the federal government to
+deny admission to the cable will be referred to the Attorney-General
+for an opinion. Meanwhile, the executive branch of the government
+holds to the doctrine that, in the absence of legislation by Congress,
+control of the landing and operation of foreign cables rests with the
+President. The question of the landing of foreign cables received some
+consideration from the late Attorney-General, in connection with an
+injunction suit brought by the United States against certain
+corporations engaged in placing on the coast of New York a cable
+having foreign connection. And he suggested for the consideration of
+Congress whether it would not be wise to give authority to some
+executive officer to grant or withhold consent to the entry of such
+foreign enterprises into this country on such terms and conditions as
+may be fixed by law.
+
+The principal and most important submarine cables traversing or
+connecting the great oceans are owned and operated by private
+corporations or companies. They are in number 310, and their length in
+nautical miles is 139,754. The length of cables owned or operated by
+state governments is, in nautical miles, 18,132.
+
+The policies of states, the movements of fleets and armies, and the
+regulation of the markets of the commercial world, depend upon
+devices, communications and orders that are habitually transmitted
+through the agency of submarine cables. In this view, the first aim is
+to safeguard from wanton destruction the delicate and expensive
+mechanism of these cables; the second is to restrain within the
+narrowest limits practicable interruptions in the operation of cables,
+even in the midst of hostilities; and the third is to encourage the
+establishment and extension of submarine cables owned and operated by
+American capital. All these ends may be advanced by the agreement of
+the powers to neutralize absolutely the submarine cable systems of
+the world. To do this will be a step in the direction of extending
+international jurisdiction, which is to be a controlling feature of
+the new periodical about to be established at Berlin, and to be
+printed in German, French and English, under the name of "Kosmodike."
+--Alexander Porter Morse in The Albany Law Journal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARK MAKING.
+
+
+Those who make public parks are apt to attempt too much and to injure
+not only the beauty, but the practical value of their creations by
+loading them with unnecessary and costly details. From the time when
+landscape gardening was first practiced as a fine art to the present
+day, park makers have been ambitious to change the face of nature--to
+dig lakes where lakes did not exist and to fill up lakes where they
+did exist, to cut down natural hills and to raise artificial ones, to
+plant in one place and to clear in another, and generally to spend
+money in construction entirely out of proportion to the value of the
+results obtained.
+
+The best art is simple in its expression, and the highest form of art
+in gardening is perhaps that which, taking advantage of such natural
+conditions as it finds, makes the best of them with the smallest
+expenditure of labor and money. Simplicity of design means not only
+economy of construction, but, what is of even more importance, economy
+of maintenance. The importance of making it possible to keep a great
+park in good condition without excessive annual expenditures for
+maintenance is a simple business proposition which would not seem to
+require much demonstration. Yet park makers, with their unnecessary
+walks and drives; with their expensive buildings which are always
+getting out of repair; their ponds, in which there is rarely water
+enough to keep them fresh; their brooks, which are frequently dry;
+their elaborate planting schemes, often ill suited to the positions
+where they are wanted, make parks expensive to construct and
+impossible to maintain in good condition, especially in this country,
+where the cost of labor is heavy and there is difficulty in obtaining
+under existing municipal methods skilled and faithful gardeners to
+keep anything like an elaborate garden in good condition. The most
+superficial examination of any of our large urban parks will show that
+wherever elaborate construction and planting have been attempted they
+have failed from subsequent neglect to produce the effects expected
+from them, and that broad, quiet, pastoral and sylvan features are the
+only permanent and really valuable ones we can hope to attain in our
+great city parks.
+
+It is needless, perhaps, to repeat what has been said so often in the
+columns of this journal, that in our judgment the greatest value and
+only justification of great urban parks exist in the fact that they
+can bring the country into the city and give to people who are obliged
+to pass their lives in cities the opportunity to enjoy the refreshment
+of mind and body which can only be found in communion with nature and
+the contemplation of beautiful natural objects harmoniously arranged.
+Parks have other and very important uses, but this is their highest
+claim to recognition. If it is the highest duty of the park maker to
+bring the country into the city, every road and every walk not
+absolutely needed to make the points of greatest interest and beauty
+easily accessible is an injury to his scheme, and every building and
+unnecessary construction of every kind reduces the value of his
+creation, as do trees and shrubs and other flowering plants which are
+out of harmony with their surroundings. Such things injure the
+artistic value of a park; they unnecessarily increase its cost and
+make the burden of annual maintenance more difficult to bear.
+Simplicity of design often means a saving of unnecessary expenditure,
+but it should not mean cheapness of construction. The most expensive
+parks to maintain are those which have been the most cheaply
+constructed, for cheap construction means expensive maintenance. Roads
+and walks should not be made where they are not needed, and they
+should not be made unnecessarily wide to accommodate possible crowds
+of another century, but those that are built should be constructed in
+the most thorough and durable manner possible, in order to reduce the
+cost of future care. When lawns are made, the work should be done
+thoroughly; and no tree or shrub should be planted in any manner but
+the best and in the most carefully prepared soil. Only as little work
+as possible should be done, but it should be done in the most
+permanent manner. The best investment a park maker can make is in good
+soil, for without an abundance of good soil it is impossible to
+produce large and permanent trees and good grass, and the chief value
+of any park is in its trees and grass; and if the money which has been
+spent in disfiguring American parks with unnecessary buildings and
+miscellaneous architectural terrors had been used in buying loam, they
+would not now present the dreary ranks of starved and stunted trees
+and the great patches of wornout turf which too often disfigure them.
+Only the hardiest trees and shrubs should be used in park planting;
+for there is no economy in planting trees or shrubs which are liable
+to be killed any year, partially, if not entirely, by frost or heat or
+drought, which annually ruin many exotic garden plants, nor is it wise
+to use in public parks plants which, unless carefully watched, are
+disfigured every year by insects. It costs a great deal of money to
+cut out dead and dying branches from trees and shrubs, to remove dead
+trees and fight insects, but work of this sort must be done, unless
+the selection of plants used to decorate our parks is made with the
+greatest care. Fortunately, the trees and shrubs which need the least
+attention, and are therefore the most economical ones to plant, are
+the best from an artistic point of view; and to produce large effects
+and such scenery as painters like to transfer to canvas, no great
+variety of material is needed. The most restful park scenery, and,
+therefore, the best, can be obtained by using judiciously a small
+number of varieties of the hardiest trees and shrubs, and the wise
+park maker will confine his choice to those species which Nature helps
+him to select, and which, therefore, stand the best chance of
+permanent success. No park can be beautiful unless the trees which
+adorn it are healthy, and no tree is healthy which suffers from
+uncongenial climatic conditions and insufficient nourishment. Even if
+they are not inharmonious in a natural combination, the trees and
+shrubs which need constant pruning to keep them from looking shabby
+are too expensive for park use and should, therefore, be rejected when
+broad, natural effects in construction and economy of maintenance are
+aimed for by the park maker.
+
+The sum of the matter of park construction is to make rural city parks
+less pretentious and artificial in design and to so construct them
+that the cost of maintenance will be reduced to the minimum. This will
+save money and lessen the danger of exhibitions of bad taste and
+encourage that simplicity which should be the controlling motive of
+sincere art.--Garden and Forest.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE.
+
+
+Few people realize that a very large part of inhabited Europe lies to
+the north of the latitude which in this country is considered the
+limit of habitation, says Prof. Ralph S. Tarr, in The Independent.
+London is situated in the same latitude as southern Labrador, where
+the inhabitants are scattered in small villages and are mainly summer
+residents who come there from the more southern lands to engage in
+fishing. During the winter their ports are closed by ice and
+navigation is stopped, while toward the British Isles steamers are
+constantly plying from all directions. The great city of St.
+Petersburg, which in winter is inaccessible to ships, but in summer
+enjoys a moderate climate, lies in the same latitude as the northern
+part of Labrador, where snow falls in every month of the year and
+where floating ice frequently retards navigation even in midsummer. As
+a result of the severity of climate the only people who find northern
+Labrador a place fit for existence are the Eskimo tribes, who win
+their living under great difficulties almost entirely from the sea. No
+white men live there, with the exception of some missionaries and the
+occasional traders.
+
+Everyone knows full well the reason for this difference in the
+climates of the two lands; the European coasts receive constant
+supplies of water that has been warmed in southern latitudes and
+carried northward in the great oceanic circulation and particularly in
+the Gulf Stream. The west winds, blowing toward the European coast,
+carry from this warm ocean belt air with higher temperature than that
+which exists over the land. On the eastern side of the Atlantic in
+place of a warm ocean current there is the cold Labrador current,
+which blows from the north and chills the water of the northwestern
+Atlantic. Therefore, the winds that come from the ocean blow over
+water that has been cooled, and the prevailing winds, which are from
+the west, come over the land, which is cool in winter and warm in
+summer.
+
+One may see these differences in climate and the causes for them even
+more strikingly exhibited within the Arctic belt than in this case
+which has been mentioned. The great land area of Greenland, with an
+area of six or seven hundred thousand square miles, is a highland
+capped over the greater part of its area with a snow field which
+completely buries all the land excepting that near the margins. The
+tongues from this ice field, whose area is some 500,000 square miles,
+reach into the sea and furnish innumerable icebergs that float away,
+chilling the waters. Notwithstanding the immense area of ice, the
+summer climate of the Greenland coast is remarkably moderate, even as
+far north as Melville Bay. The reason for this is the same as that
+mentioned for the climatic peculiarities of Europe. A current from the
+south, probably an eddy from the Gulf Stream, carries water northward
+along the Greenland coast, thus raising the temperature so that the
+ice which forms in the sea water and the bergs which float upon its
+surface are made to disappear during the warm part of the year.
+
+Sailing from the coast of Greenland at about the middle point, near
+Disco Island, in the early part of September, one leaves a land with a
+delightfully pleasant climate and warmth almost like that of the early
+autumn of temperate latitudes, and proceeding south-westward across
+Davis Straits to Baffin Land, two or three hundred miles southward,
+there finds himself in the midst of the conditions of early winter.
+The Greenland coast is not snow covered, plants are still in blossom
+and the hum of insects is heard; but in this more southern latitude,
+on the American side, the summer insects have entirely disappeared,
+only a few belated flowers are seen in protected places and a thin
+coat of snow covers all the land. Light snow may fall here during any
+time of the summer; but in spite of these differences Baffin Land is
+not ice covered, while Greenland is. The ice cap of the interior of
+Greenland is present less because of the severity of the climate at
+sea level than from the fact that the air which reaches this land has
+become humid in crossing the water areas, and further in the fact that
+the interior is a highland. On the Baffin Land side the interior is
+less elevated and there is less water to the westward in the direction
+from which the prevailing winds blow.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAUSES OF POVERTY.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Report of Richmond Mayo Smith, Franklin H. Giddings,
+   and Fred. W. Holls, Committee on Statistics of the New York
+   Charity Organization Society.--Condensed for Public Opinion.]
+
+
+The most interesting, and at the same time the most difficult, problem
+connected with an analysis of cases is to determine the real cause of
+destitution. It requires great experience and intelligence on the part
+of workers in charity to give even approximately the fundamental
+reason why a certain family has come to destitution. To classify cases
+from records without personal knowledge of each case, and then simply
+to count the cases, is a very inadequate method of arriving at the
+truth. The primary difficulty, of course, is to reach a
+classification. The one adopted by Mr. Warner in his book on American
+charities is: 1. Causes indicating misconduct; 2. Causes indicating
+misfortune. Under the first head come drink, immorality, laziness,
+shiftlessness and inefficiency, crime and dishonesty, a roving
+disposition. Under the second head come lack of normal support,
+matters of employment, matters of personal capacity, such as sickness
+or death in family, etc. The trouble with such a classification is
+that one cause may lie behind another, as drink is often the cause of
+lack of employment, of sickness or accident. On the other hand, lack
+of employment may lead to drink, immorality or laziness.
+
+With the limited number of cases that have been analyzed in this
+investigation, it would be impossible to expect any very conclusive
+results. We have endeavored, however, to make up for the small amount
+of the material by a careful and intelligent analysis, and by
+approaching the subject from three different points. We have first
+taken the alleged cause of distress--that is, the reason assigned by
+the person applying for relief. This, of course, will present the most
+favorable side, and the one most calculated to excite sympathy. We
+have, secondly, tabulated the real cause of distress, as gathered by
+the tabulator from the whole record. This, of course, is the judgment
+of an outside party, and the emphasis will be laid upon misfortune or
+misconduct according to the disposition of the investigator. We have,
+thirdly, the character of the man and woman as gathered from the
+record. This is supplementary evidence as to the real cause of
+distress. We go on now to present these three points of view. Loss of
+employment, 313; sickness or accident, 226; intemperance, 25;
+insufficient earnings, 52; physical defect or old age, 45; death of
+wage earner, 40; desertion, 40; other causes and uncertain, 103;
+total, 844. An attempt was made to follow the example of Mr. Booth and
+introduce supplementary causes as well as principal causes. About the
+only result, however, is that sickness often accompanies loss of
+employment, and that loss of employment often accompanies sickness or
+accident. It is clearly seen in this whole table how disposed
+applicants for relief are to attribute their distress to circumstances
+beyond their control.
+
+In the following table we have an attempt to analyze the real cause of
+distress, according to the judgment of the tabulator as gathered from
+the full record. In chronic cases the same cause is apt to appear in
+the successive applications. It was thought that this might lead to
+undue accumulation of particular causes. A separate tabulation,
+therefore, was made for the 500 first applications, and then for the
+total--832 applications. The table is as follows:
+
+THE REAL CAUSE OF DISTRESS.
+
+                           First Applications.  Total Applications.
+                           Number.    Percent.  Number.   Per cent.
+
+Lack of employment.           115        25.0      184        22.1
+Sickness or accident.         102        20.4      164        19.7
+Physical defects or old age.   27         5.4       42         5.0
+Death of wage earner.          18         3.6       30         3.6
+Desertion                      15         3.0       24         2.9
+Intemperance                   87        17.4      166        19.9
+Shiftlessness                  50        10.0      101        12.2
+No need                        86        17.2      121        14.6
+
+  Total                       500       100.0      832       100.0
+
+In this table it will be seen that emphasis is laid on misconduct
+rather than on misfortune. The difference between the two sets of
+returns is obvious. Where lack of employment and sickness have been
+alleged as accounting for 62-6/10 per cent. of the total, they are
+believed by the tabulator to really account for only 41-8/10 per cent.
+On the other hand, intemperance comes in as the real cause in 19-9/10
+per cent.; shiftlessness in 12-2/10 per cent. of the applications, and
+in 14-6/10 per cent. of the applications it was judged that there was
+no real need. It is very probable that these judgments are severe, but
+the result shows how frequently, at least, the personal character is a
+contributory cause of poverty.
+
+An attempt was made when reading the records to determine the general
+character of the man and woman--that is, the adult members of the
+family. Such classification is at the best very rough, and does not
+give us much information. It may be said that the character was put
+down as good unless something distinctly to the contrary appeared. The
+results are given in the following table:
+
+PERSONAL CHARACTER OF MAN AND WOMAN.
+
+               Male. Female. Total. Percentage.
+  Good          122     231    353      45
+  Criminal       15       1     16       2
+  Insane         ..       1      1      ..
+  Intemperate    81      56    137      17
+  Shiftless      56      52    108      14
+  Suspicious     13      30     43       6
+  Untruthful      5      15     20       3
+  Uncertain      38      65    103      13
+
+   Total        330     451    781     100
+
+  "Shiftless" includes  Male. Female. Total.
+  Professional beggers     5       5     10
+  Loss of independence     1       3      4
+  Lack of push             2       1      3
+  Laziness                 1      ..      1
+  Extravagance            ..       2      2
+  "Worthless"              7       5     12
+  Prostitute              ..       1      1
+
+  Total                   16      17     33
+  Shiftless indefinite    40      35     75
+
+  Total                   56      52    108
+
+It would seem from this table that the judgment of the investigators
+was lenient. In nearly one-half of the cases the character of the men
+and women was said to be good.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Fire tests of cast iron columns, made by order of the city authorities
+of Hamburg, are described in recent issues of the Deutsche Bauzeitung.
+The columns were 10 feet 8 inches long, 10.5 inches in diameter and of
+1/13 inch or 0.5 inch metal. They were loaded centrally and
+eccentrically, and some were cased with a fireproof covering. A
+hydraulic press was placed below the column and its crosshead above
+it, and then a hinged oven containing twelve large gas burners was
+clamped about the column. The oven was furnished with apparatus for
+measuring heat, with peep holes and with a water jet. On an average a
+load of 3.2 tons per square inch, with a heat of 1,400 deg. F., produced
+deformation in thirty-five minutes in a centrally loaded column
+without casing. This showed itself by bulging all round in the middle
+of the heated part, especially where the metal happened to be thinner;
+fracture occurred finally in the middle of the thickest point of the
+bulge. If the load was less, this occurred at a higher temperature.
+Jets of water had no effect until deformation heat was reached. The
+casings had the effect of increasing the time before deformation began
+from half an hour to four or five hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGINEERING NOTES.
+
+
+THE MASSILON (Ohio) Bridge Company has received an order for the
+construction of a cantilever bridge 562 feet long and 18 feet wide,
+which is to be built by the New York Dredging Company at Honda, on the
+Magdalena River, in Colombia, South America.
+
+NAVIGATION ON the Amoo-Darya is to be extended considerably, so that
+Russian steamers will proceed upward on that river to Feisabad-Kalch,
+which is only about 200 miles from the scene of the recent Indian
+frontier troubles.--Uhland's Wochenschrift.
+
+A NEW process of manufacturing artificial stone has been patented in
+England. The stone is formed in steel moulds, which can be adjusted to
+any size, shape or design for which the finished stone may be
+required, and solid blocks weighing several hundred pounds have been
+easily produced.
+
+M. BERLIER, the well known engineer, has laid before the governments
+of Spain and Morocco a project for the construction of a tunnel under
+the Straits of Gibraltar. The execution of this plan would have
+immense economic consequences, so that its fate will be followed with
+interest. M. Berlier is the inventor of a new method of subterranean
+boring.
+
+"THE SALE of the steamers 'Pennsylvania,' 'Ohio,' 'Indiana,'
+'Illinois,' and 'Conemaugh,' by the International Navigation Company
+to the States Steamship Company for the Pacific trade leaves but five
+steamships flying the American flag crossing the Atlantic Ocean," says
+The Marine Record. "They are the 'St. Paul,' gross tons 11,629.21;
+'St. Louis,' gross tons 11,629.21; 'New York,' gross tons 10,802.61;
+'Paris,' gross tons 10,794.86; 'Evelyn,' gross tons 1,963.44, the
+latter three built in English shipyards and denationalized."
+
+JOHN MURPHY, general manager of the United Traction Company, of
+Pittsburg, reports the average life of motor gears on his line as two
+years, and the average life of pinions, nine months. He is employing
+the gears and pinions of the Simonds Manufacturing Company. The
+service is an exceedingly severe one, on account of the many grades on
+the line. The average life of trolley wheels is 1,000 miles, and the
+conditions under which they operate are quite severe, as the company
+has on its main line eighteen railroad crossings. A tempered copper
+wheel is employed.
+
+ACCORDING TO a recent correspondent of The Buffalo Express, in the
+Pennsylvania oil region during the last year over 300 gas engines have
+been placed on oil leases and are doing satisfactory work. The engines
+vary from 10 to 50 horse power. Every big machine shop in the oil
+regions is turning out gas engines. The machine shops are also using
+gas engines to drive their own machinery. During the last year twenty
+of the Standard Oil Company's pipe line pumping stations have been
+equipped with gas engines. In all the new stations and in old ones
+where new machinery is needed, the gas engine will be preferred. Where
+natural gas cannot be had and coal was formerly burned, gasoline is
+used. The pumping station engines are all provided with electric
+ignition.
+
+IN A recent issue of The Railway Age is published the following, based
+upon the last report of the Interstate Commerce Commission: "Last year
+the railways of the United States carried over 13,000,000,000
+passengers one mile. They also carried 95,000,000,000 tons of freight
+one mile. The total amount paid in dividends on stock was
+$87,603,371--call it $88,000,000. Of the total earnings of the
+railways, about 70 per cent. came from freight service and 30 per
+cent. from passenger service. Let us assume, then, that of the
+$88,000,000 paid in dividends, 70 per cent., or $61,600,000, was
+profit on freight service and $26,400,000 was profit on passenger
+service. Let us drop fractions and call it $62,000,000 from freight
+and $26,000,000 from passengers. By dividing the passenger profit into
+the number of passengers carried (13,000,000,000), we find that the
+railways had to carry a passenger 500 miles in order to earn $1 of
+profit--or five miles to earn 1 cent. Their average profit, therefore,
+was less than two-tenths of 1 cent for carrying a passenger (and his
+baggage) one mile. By dividing the freight profit into the freight
+mileage (95,000,000,000) we find that the railways had to carry one
+ton of freight 1,530 miles in order to earn $1, or over fifteen miles
+to earn 1 cent. The average profit, therefore, was less than
+one-fifteenth of a cent for carrying a ton of freight (besides loading
+and unloading it) one mile."
+
+THE RAILROADS in the United States have cost about $60,000 per mile,
+and probably a considerable percentage of this has not entered into
+the construction of the railroads and the equipment of same, says
+"Signal Engineer" in The Railroad Gazette. The railroads of Great
+Britain have cost about $240,000 a mile, and yet we claim for the
+United States more luxurious travel than can be found in Great
+Britain; and this is true so long as the travel is safe. The
+difference in the cost of construction in the United States and
+England may be found in the item of safety appliances. The railroads
+of Great Britain carried during the last year 800,000,000 passengers,
+with safety to all but five, and this was possible because the
+railroads, instead of expending their capital in luxurious equipment
+and passenger stations, chose rather to equip their lines with the
+most improved signaling and interlocking. The railroad companies of
+the United States in expending large sums for handsome and convenient
+terminals and luxurious cars are placing monuments before the public
+eye which naturally lead to the belief that every appointment of such
+roads is on the same high plane, and it requires much less expenditure
+to furnish luxurious equipment to be carried over 1,000 miles of road
+than it does to equip 10 miles of the 1,000 so as to make it safe; and
+since the expenditure for safety appliances and permanent way is not
+seen and felt by the passenger so long as he is carried in safety, it
+is not, therefore, so prominent before the public gaze as is the
+handsome station and the palatial car. On one road in Great Britain,
+having but 2,000 miles of track, there are employed more men in the
+manufacture and installation of signal work than are employed by all
+the signal companies and in the signal departments of all the
+railroads of the United States, where we are now operating about
+182,000 miles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
+
+
+ORDERS FOR large quantities of aluminum have been received within the
+last few weeks by the Pittsburg Reduction Company from the principal
+foreign nations for the equipment of their armies. The contracts
+aggregate about fifty tons a month, Russia being the largest consumer.
+
+ACCORDING TO the return published by the Minister of Agriculture, the
+consumption of horseflesh in Paris has decreased slightly in the last
+year, being only 4,472 tons, as against 4,664 tons for 1895-96. This
+was the meat derived from 20,878 horses, 53 mules and 232 donkeys
+slaughtered during the twelve months; but a very strict supervision is
+exercised, and 575 of these animals were condemned as unfit for human
+food. The flesh of the remainder was sold at 190 stalls or shops, and,
+although the fillet and undercut made as much as 9d. a pound, the
+inferior parts sold for 2d. or less, and most of the meat was used for
+making sausages.
+
+ACCORDING TO La Propriete Industrielle, 5,372 Austrian patents were
+granted in 1896 (5,215 in 1895). Of these, residents of the
+Austro-Hungarian monarchy received 2,070 (2,031 in 1895), Austrians
+coming first with 1,813 (1,683 in 1895), Hungarians second with 254
+(347 in 1895), while residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina secured 3
+patents (1 in 1895). Among foreigners the following show an increase
+over 1895: United States, 394 (335); Great Britain, 355 (313); France,
+244 (243); Switzerland, 94 (79); Belgium, 66 (48); Sweden and Norway,
+60 (40); Italy, 50 (45); Russia, 47 (40); Australia, 32 (10); and
+Netherlands, 26 (18). A decrease is shown by Germany, 1,887 (1,950);
+Denmark, 10 (17); Canada, 7 (14); and Spain, 6 (10). The total number
+of Austrian patents granted to foreigners in 1896 was 3,302, as
+against 3,184 in 1895.
+
+ENGLISH AND FRENCH LIGHTHOUSES.--An English engineer named Purves has
+just made a comparison in regard to the intensity of light of the
+lighthouses on the English coasts and those which illuminate the
+shores of France. The comparison shows results which are altogether
+favorable to France. The average illumination intensity of eighty-six
+English lighthouses of the first class is 20,680 candle power, while
+thirty-six first class French lighthouses give an average of 34,166
+candle power. The difference is more striking if the lighthouses
+constructed within the last ten years be considered. Since 1886 France
+has built eleven lighthouses, whose average intensity of light is
+8,200,000 candle power; the new lighthouse of Eckmuehl gives
+40,000,000. According to Mr. Purves, the superior intensity of light
+of the French lighthouse lies in the use of the flashing rays, which
+have not yet found favor in England.
+
+IN AN address by Thomas Morris, before the Staffordshire, England,
+iron and steel works managers on the remarkable achievements that have
+been reached in the manufacture of fine wire, the interesting fact was
+mentioned that the lecturer had been presented by Warrington, the wire
+manufacturer, with specimens for which some $4.32 per pound were paid,
+or more than $8,600 per ton--drawn wire, largely used in the
+construction of piano and other musical and mechanical instruments.
+Among these specimens also was pinion wire, at a market price of
+$21.60 per pound, or $43,200 per ton. It took 754 hairsprings to weigh
+an ounce of 4371/2 grains; 27,000,000 of these were required to make a
+ton, and, taking one to be worth 11/2 cents, the value of a ton of these
+cheap little things ran up to over $400,000. The barbed instruments
+used by dentists for extracting nerves from teeth were even more
+expensive, representing some $2,150,000 per ton.
+
+AT A fete in the Elysee Palace the other day one of the features
+prepared for the entertainment of the guests was a cinematograph,
+which contained views taken during President Faure's visit to St.
+Petersburg. One of the pictures settled for the President a question
+which had been troubling him considerably. Several months ago a German
+paper printed an interview with Bismarck, in which the ex-chancellor
+commented on M. Faure's visit to St. Petersburg, saying that the
+Frenchman had conducted himself according to etiquette except on one
+occasion, when, on his arrival in the Russian capital he had been
+saluted by the Cossack guard of honor, he had returned the salute with
+the hand, not with the hat. M. Faure being a civilian, this was a
+serious breach of etiquette, Bismarck said. The interview was
+reprinted in the French papers and caught the President's eye. He was
+much concerned about the matter and asked several friends who had been
+present if he had actually committed the breach. No one could
+remember. Then came the cinematograph show. As the small audience
+gazed upon the screen they saw the President's image advance with
+slow, dignified step before the Cossacks, then all at once raise his
+hand to his hat, which he lifted with the quick motion so familiar to
+Parisians. The guests burst into applause and the President smiled.
+Bismarck was mistaken.
+
+"WE HEAR a great deal regarding the decline of our shipping interests,
+and so far as our shipping in the foreign trade is concerned it is
+unfortunately true," says The Boston Commercial Bulletin. "But few
+people realize the immensity of our coastwise commerce. The Custom
+House figures on the shipping of the port of New York for 1897 show
+that there were 4,614 arrivals of vessels from foreign ports, 7,095
+from Eastern domestic ports, and 3,798 from Southern domestic ports.
+Of the foreign, 2,313 were British, of which 1,667 were steamships;
+952 were American, of which 323 were steamships, and 517 were German
+of which 444 were steamships. This statement shows that the arrivals
+from American ports were nearly three times those from foreign
+countries, though of course this proportion is not borne out in
+tonnage, vessels on the deep sea trade averaging larger. But it will
+be doubtless a surprise that of the shipping from foreign ports more
+than one-fifth were American. At other Atlantic and Gulf ports this
+proportion undoubtedly does not hold true, but these figures show a
+less doleful condition of the American marine than some people have
+been led to expect. When it is remembered that the coastwise fleet
+numbers many steamers of 2,000 to 3,000 tons and many sailing craft of
+1,000 tons and upward, it will be seen that we are yet a sea power of
+the first class, in fact exceeded only by England."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SELECTED FORMULAE.
+
+
+ESSENCE OF PEPSIN.--
+
+  1. Pepsin (pure)                     128 grains.
+     Dilute muriatic acid                5 drops.
+     Simple elixir                       3 fl. ounces.
+     Glycerin                            1     "
+     Water                              16     "
+     Angelica wine                       6     "
+
+Dissolve by agitation and filter through purified talcum.
+
+  2. Glycerole of pepsin                 3 parts.
+     Sherry wine                         5   "
+     Glycerin                            1   "
+     Simple elixir, to make             16   "
+
+  3. Pepsin in scales                   64 grains.
+     Glycerin                            1 fl. ounce.
+     Elixir taraxacum compound           1      "
+     Alcohol                             2      "
+     Oil of cloves                       1 drop.
+     Sirup                               2 fl. ounces.
+     Dilute hydrochloric acid            1 fl. drachm.
+     Water, to make                     16 fl. ounces.
+
+                                 --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+APPLICATIONS TO INSECT BITES.--Brocq and Jacquet (Independance
+medicale, October 20) recommend the following for the bites of bugs,
+fleas and gnats:
+
+  1. Camphorated oil of chamomile        100 parts.
+     Liquid storax                        20   "
+     Essence of peppermint                 5   "
+  M.
+  2. Olive oil                            20 parts.
+     Storax ointment                      25   "
+     Balsam of Peru                        5   "
+  M.
+  3. Naphthol                        5 to 10 parts.
+     Ether, enough to dissolve it.
+     Menthol                         1/4 to 1 part.
+     Vaseline                        100 parts.
+
+
+BEAD FOR LIQUORS.--In the liquor trade, anything added to liquors to
+cause them to carry a "bead" and to hang in pearly drops about the
+side of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken is called
+"beading," the popular notion being that liquor is strong in alcohol
+in proportion as it "beads." The object of adding a so-called "bead
+oil" is to impart this quality to a low-proof liquor, so that it may
+appear to the eye to be of the proper strength. The following formulas
+for "bead oil" are given:
+
+  1. Sweet almond oil                   1 fl. ounce.
+     Sulphuric acid, concentrated       1      "
+     Sugar, lump, crushed               1 ounce.
+     Alcohol, sufficient.
+
+Triturate the oil and acid very carefully together in a glass,
+Wedgwood or porcelain mortar or other suitable vessel; add by degrees
+the sugar, continue trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, and
+then gradually add enough alcohol to render the whole perfectly fluid.
+Transfer to a quart bottle and wash out the mortar twice or oftener
+with strong alcohol until about 20 fluid ounces in all of the latter
+has been used, the washings to be added to the mixture in the bottle.
+Cautiously agitate the bottle, loosely corked, until admixture appears
+complete, and set aside in a cool place. This quantity of "oil" is
+supposed to be sufficient for 100 gallons of liquor, but is more
+commonly used for about 80 or 85 gallons. The liquor treated with this
+"oil" is usually allowed to become clearer by simple repose.
+
+  2. Soapwort, coarsely ground           13 ounces.
+     Diluted alcohol, enough to make      1 gallon.
+
+Extract the soapwort by maceration or percolation.
+
+This is also intended for 80 gallons of liquor, preferably adding to
+the latter one-half gallon of simple sirup.
+
+The ingredients of the above formulas, according to the "Manual of
+Beverages," are not injurious--not at least in the quantities required
+for "beading." It is said that beyond a certain degree of dilution of
+the liquor with water, these preparations fail to produce the intended
+effect. The addition of sugar or sirup increases their efficacy.
+                                           --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+QUININE HAIR TONIC.--
+
+  1. Quinine sulphate                     1 part.
+     Tincture cantharides                10  "
+     Glycerin                            75  "
+     Alcohol                            500  "
+     Tincture rhatany                    20  "
+     Spirit lavender                     50  "
+
+  2. Tincture cinchona                   50  "
+     Tincture cantharides                25  "
+     Peru balsam                         20  "
+     Tincture soap                      150  "
+     Cologne water                      250  "
+     Cognac                           2,000  "
+     Oil bergamot                        10  "
+     Oil sweet orange                    10  "
+     Oil rose geranium                    3  "
+
+  3. Bisulphate of quinine                1/2 ounce.
+     Vinegar of cantharides              21/2   "
+     Spirit of rosemary                  18   "
+     Lavender water                       8   "
+     Glycerite of borax                   1   "
+     Glycerin                            14   "
+     Distilled water                     80   "
+     Caramel, sufficient to color.
+
+                           --Pharmaceutical Era.
+
+
+SOAP FOR REMOVING RUST.--
+                                   Parts by Weight.
+  Whiting                                 9
+  Oil soap                                6
+  Cyanide of potassium                    5
+  Water                                  60
+
+Dissolve the soap in water over the fire and add the cyanide, then
+little by little the whiting. If the compound is too thick, which may
+be due either to the whiting or the soap employed, add a little water
+until a paste is made which can be run into an iron or wooden mould.
+This will remove rust from steel and give it a good polish.--Oils,
+Colors and Drysalteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER STEAMER "BRUCE."
+
+
+Messrs A. & J. Inglis, shipbuilders and engineers, of Pointhouse,
+Glasgow, have recently built a somewhat unique and certainly
+interesting steamer, for the conveyance of passengers between Port an
+Basque, in Newfoundland, and Sydney, Cape Breton, in connection with
+the Newfoundland and Canadian systems of railways. The distance from
+port to port is about one hundred miles, and the vessel has been
+designed to make the run in six hours. Messrs. Reid, of Newfoundland,
+who have founded the line of steamers to perform this service,
+intrusted to Messrs. Inglis the task of producing a vessel in all
+respects suitable for the work to be accomplished. The steamer
+"Bruce," the pioneer steamer, an illustration of which we are enabled
+to produce, is the result. The navigation of the waters in which this
+vessel will be employed is attended with some difficulties. Not only
+are storms of frequent occurrence, but in the months of winter and
+spring large quantities of drift ice are commonly encountered.
+
+To obtain the necessary speed and carry all that was required on a
+suitable draught of water, it was essential that the "Bruce" should be
+built of steel, but in view of the severe structural and local
+stresses to which she must inevitably be subjected when at sea, it was
+necessary to afford adequate stiffening and means for preventing
+penetration or abrasion by ice. Hence the frames are more closely
+spaced than is usual in vessels of her size, numerous web frames
+associated with arched supports at the main deck and adjacent to the
+waterline are fitted throughout her entire length, and a belt of
+3-inch greenheart planking, with a steel sheathing over it at the fore
+part of the vessel, is further provided. Indeed, throughout the
+vessel, every precaution has been taken with a view to insure her
+efficiency and safety when running swiftly from port to port, while at
+the same time the materials employed have been most wisely,
+judiciously and economically distributed.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEWFOUNDLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA PASSENGER STEAMER "BRUCE."]
+
+The dimensions of the "Bruce" are 230 feet long, 32 feet 6 inches
+broad, and 22 feet deep, her gross tonnage being 1250 tons. She has
+been built with very fine lines, a considerable rise of floor, and
+with a graceful outline, which gives her the appearance of a large
+yacht. Our illustration shows the "Bruce" when running at a speed of
+upward of 15 knots on the measured mile at Wemyss Bay. Not only has
+the structure of the vessel been skillfully designed, but her internal
+fittings are admirably arranged. It is really most interesting to note
+with what ingenuity passenger accommodation of a somewhat extensive
+character has been provided in so small a vessel. The "Bruce" has
+berths for seventy first-class and one hundred second class
+passengers, and the accommodation is of a very luxurious kind. The
+berths are between the awning and main decks, where there is also a
+special apartment set apart for ladies, and at the fore end for the
+officers' quarters. Besides these a large and handsome dining saloon
+is situated on the main deck, richly upholstered and fitted with
+unique little window recesses, which besides adding to the appearance
+of the apartment, furnishes additional dining accommodation. It is
+done up in dark mahogany panels, fringed with gold. The chairs are
+upholstered in blue morocco, and the floor is laid with a Turkey
+carpet. All the other rooms are in dark polished oak. A large smoking
+room is also provided on the main deck.
+
+The "Bruce" is further fitted with a complete installation of electric
+lighting, together with an electric search light; has Lord Kelvin's
+deep sea sounding apparatus and compasses, also Caldwell's steam
+steering gear and winches, Weir's evaporators and pumps. Alley and
+McLellan's feed water filters, and Howden's forced draught. She is
+steam heated throughout, and in every detail of the sanitary
+arrangements the health and comfort of the passengers have been
+attended to. Six lifeboats, having accommodation for 250 people, are
+hung in davits. When fully laden she carries 350 tons of cargo in her
+holds and 250 tons of coal in her bunkers.
+
+The contract speed for the "Bruce" was 15 knots--and to obtain this
+Messrs. Inglis fitted her with triple-expansion engines, which we
+shall illustrate in another impression, having cylinders 26 inches, 42
+inches and 65 inches in diameter, with a 42 inch stroke. Steam is
+supplied from four boilers loaded to a pressure of 160 pounds per
+square inch. When on the measured mile a mean speed of about 151/4 knots
+was obtained with an indicated horse power of 2200, the engines
+running at 90 revolutions per minute.
+
+The vessel has arrived safely at Newfoundland, having performed the
+voyage at a mean speed of very little under 15 knots, a most
+satisfactory performance. She has been running some little time on her
+route and been giving most satisfactory results.--We are indebted to
+London Engineer for the cut and description.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEAT IN GREAT TUNNELS.
+
+
+One phase of the construction of tunnels through the Alps was recently
+discussed by M. Brandicourt, secretary of the Linnaean Society of the
+North of France, in the columns of La Nature. He showed that only a
+few thousand feet below the eternal snows of that region so high a
+temperature may be found that workmen can scarcely live in it. Nearly
+all of the other difficulties encountered in those enterprises had
+been foreseen. This one was a great surprise. It shows how the
+interior heat of the earth extends above sea level into all great
+mountainous uplifts on the earth's surface.
+
+During the tunneling of Mont Cenis, says M. Brandicourt, the
+temperature of the rock was found to be 27.5 degrees C. (81.5 degrees
+F.) at about 5,000 meters (16,000 feet) from the entrance. It reached
+29.5 degrees (86 degrees F.) in the last 500 meters (1,600 feet) of
+the central part. The workmen were then about 1,600 meters (5,100
+feet) below the Alpine summit, whose mean temperature is 3 degrees
+below zero (27 degrees F.) Thus there was a difference of 32.5
+degrees: that is, one "geothermic" degree corresponded to about 50
+meters.
+
+This elevation of temperature was not at first regarded with anxiety.
+Soon a draught would be produced and would ameliorate the situation.
+It was time, for the disease known as "miner's anaemia" had begun to
+claim its victims.
+
+The situation at St. Gothard was much more serious. As at Mont Cenis,
+a temperature of 29 degrees C. (85 degrees F.) was found about 5,000
+meters from the portals of the tunnel. But there remained yet 5,000
+meters of rock to pierce. In the center of the tunnel there was
+observed for several days a temperature of 35 degrees (95 degrees F.)
+Generally it did not vary much from 32.5 degrees (90.5 degrees F.), a
+sufficiently high degree, if we remember that the men's perspiration
+was transformed into water vapor, and that the air was nearly
+saturated with humidity. In these conditions work was very difficult,
+and the horses employed to remove the debris almost all succumbed.
+
+Man can bear more than animals. In an absolutely dry air he can endure
+a temperature of 50 degrees (122 degrees F.) But in an atmosphere
+saturated with water, underground, where the breath of the workmen
+fills the narrow space with poisonous vapors, a temperature of even 30
+degrees (86 degrees F.) entails serious consequences. In a large
+number of workmen the bodily heat rose to 40 degrees (104 degrees F.)
+and the pulse to 140 and even 150 a minute. The most robust were
+obliged to lay off one day out of three, and even the working day was
+itself reduced to five hours, instead of seven or eight.
+
+According to Dr. Giaconni, who for ten years attended the workmen at
+Mont Cenis and St. Gothard, the proportion of invalids was as large as
+60 to the 100.
+
+More strange yet, the report of the physicians who dwelt at the works
+notes the presence among the workmen of the intestinal parasites
+called "ankylostomes," which have been observed in Egypt and other
+tropical countries, and which are the cause of what scientists call
+"Egyptian chlorosis" or "intertropical hyperaemia." This pathologic
+state is observed only in the hottest regions of the earth. The victim
+becomes thin, pale and dark. He is bathed in continual sweat, devoured
+by inextinguishable thirst, and the prey of continual fever. And thus,
+adds Mr. Lentherie, "the most robust mountaineer had only to pass a
+few months in the depths of the Alps to contract the germs of a
+tropical disease. Under the thick layer of snow and ice that enveloped
+him he had to work naked like a tropical negro or an Indian stoker on
+a Red Sea steamer; and in this Alpine world, where everything outside
+reminds one of the polar climate, he sweltered as in a caldron and
+often died of heat."
+
+The bad conditions found at St. Gothard will be met also, very
+probably, in the new Alpine tunnels that have been projected in recent
+years--those at the Simplon, St. Bernard and Mont Blanc. It can be
+predicted that for Mont Blanc in particular the temperature of 40
+degrees (104 degrees F.) will be far exceeded. M. de Lapparent even
+considers that the figure of 55 degrees (131 degrees F.) proposed by
+some geologists is moderate, and errs by defect rather than by excess.
+
+The engineer Stockalpa, who for four years has directed one of the
+workshops at St. Gothard, and has made a profound study of this
+temperature question, does not hesitate to say that under Mont Blanc
+the temperature will be 33 degrees (91 degrees F.) at three kilometers
+from the entrance, that it will reach 50 degrees (122 degrees F.)
+under the Saussure Pass, and 53.5 degrees (128 degrees F.) under the
+Tacul Peak, falling again to 31 degrees (88 degrees F.) under the
+White Valley.
+
+These are only probabilities, but they are founded on facts, and we
+may imagine all the preventive measures that they will render
+imperative.
+
+The experience that has been acquired in these latter years has
+indicated the best methods of ventilation and cooling. The compressed
+air used in the workings produces by its escape a very sensible
+lowering of the temperature, which can be made still lower by using
+saline solutions whose freezing point is as low as -20 degrees (4
+degrees F.), and which will circulate through pipes along the tunnel.
+The removal of the debris can be effected by electric locomotives;
+thus the horses, which use up the precious air, can be done away
+with. The electric light, which can be operated without contamination
+or consuming the air, will also render great service; these
+improvements can all be carried out with ease. Together with the
+preceding, they will form a group of processes that will enable us to
+gain the victory over the interior heat of the great Alpine tunnels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.
+
+
+[Illustration: AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.]
+
+The machine which we illustrate has lately been constructed by Messrs.
+Merryweather & Sons, of Greenwich Road, with the view to combining the
+advantages of both horizontal and vertical steam fire engines.
+Hitherto the horizontal engine has been considered by some firemen to
+be less handy of access than the vertical, and the vertical engine has
+had the undoubted disadvantage of not being stoked from the footplate.
+By shortening the length of stroke and constructing a special pump,
+the makers have been able to keep the engine sufficiently high in
+relation to the boiler to enable the firedoor to be placed directly in
+the rear of the boiler and underneath the engine, thus enabling the
+boiler to be stoked en route, and allowing access from the footplate
+to the starting valve, the suction and delivery connections, the whole
+of the boiler fittings and feed arrangements. This enables one man to
+drive and stoke the engine, and to attend to the suction and delivery
+hoses, and it does not interfere at all with the stability of engine
+in traveling or at work, as the center of gravity is well below the
+top of the side frames. Another feature is the absence of a main steam
+pipe, a bracket being arranged on the cylinders containing the steam
+passages, to bolt directly onto the top of the boiler. The close
+proximity of the engine to the boiler renders it peculiarly suitable
+for cold climates, and times of frost, reducing the chances of the
+pump or feed arrangements being frozen up. The pump valves are
+arranged between the barrels, and are all accessible by the removal of
+one cover, which weighs but 12 lb. The engine, we understand, may be
+stopped, the cover removed, a damaged valve replaced, the cover put on
+again, and the engine restarted in two minutes. A slotted link is used
+with a crankshaft for regulating the length of stroke. All the
+bearings have large wearing surfaces, and substantial eccentric straps
+are used, the whole of the motion being simple and accessible. There
+are three different methods of feeding the boiler, viz., by feed pump
+driven by the crosshead of the main pump, by forcing water directly
+into the boiler from the main pump, and by an injector taking its
+water from a tank either supplied from the main pump or by a bucket
+when pumping dirty water. All the feed pipes are fitted with strainers
+where attached to the main pump. Drop feed lubricators are fitted on
+the cylinders, and an efficient system of lubrication is provided for
+the rest of the working parts. The carriage frame, hose box, etc., are
+of the same design as usually employed for engines of this class, with
+the exception of the fore carriage, which is fitted with a cross
+spring in the rear, as well as the two longitudinal springs. This
+arrangement makes the engine run more lightly, and removes much of the
+strain on the side frames when traveling rapidly on a rough road. The
+wheels are fairly light for the weight they have to carry, and have
+gun metal stock hoops with diamond pent rims to prevent the men
+slipping when mounting in a hurry. The engine and boiler work is
+brightly polished where-ever possible, and the whole machine has a
+handsome appearance.--Engineering.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF TREES.
+
+
+In the exploitation of forests it is an important matter to be able to
+measure the cubature of trees, and the process most generally employed
+consists in determining their height and mean circumference, the
+apparatus used for this latter measurement being compasses having the
+form of the calipers used by mechanics. The figure indicated is read
+upon the graduated rule and is called off in a loud voice to another
+person, who at once writes it down. There are several causes of error:
+it is possible that the reading may be incorrectly made or improperly
+called off, or be misunderstood or incorrectly noted. Finally, it is a
+somewhat fatiguing operation that is often dispensed with and the
+measurement made by estimate. In order to do away with all such causes
+of error, M. Jobez, a mining engineer, has had M. Peccaud construct
+an apparatus that automatically registers all the measurements upon a
+paper tape analogous to that used in the Morse telegraphic apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING THE CUBATURE OF
+TREES.]
+
+The registering mechanism (Fig. 1) is fixed to the movable branch that
+forms the slide of the instrument. It is so arranged that when this
+branch is slid along the rule carrying the graduations, a gearing
+causes the revolution of a wheel, D, which carries figures
+corresponding to such graduation. At the same time, two feed rollers,
+E, cause a small portion of the paper tape (which is wound upon a
+spool, A) to move forward and wind around a receiving spool, B. After
+the apparatus has been made accurately to embrace the trunk of the
+tree to be measured, it is removed and a pressure given to the lever,
+H, which applies the paper to the type wheel, D. A special button
+permits, in addition, of making a dot alongside of the numbers, if it
+be desired to attract attention to one of the measurements, either for
+distinguishing one kind of a tree from another or for any other
+reason.
+
+With this apparatus one man can make all the measurements and inscribe
+them without any possible error and without any fatigue. It is
+possible for him to inscribe a thousand numbers an hour, and the tapes
+are long enough to permit of 4,000 measurements being made without a
+change of paper. There is, therefore, a saving of time as well as
+perfect accuracy in the operation.
+
+In order to make the calculations necessary for the estimate, M.
+Laurand has devised a sliding rule which facilitates the operation and
+which is based upon the method that consists in knowing the height and
+mean circumference of the tree. The circumference taken in the middle
+is divided by 4, 4.8 or 5 according as one employs the quarter without
+deduction or the sixth or fifth deduced. This first result, multiplied
+by itself and by the height, gives the cubature of the tree. As for
+the value, that is the product of this latter number by the price per
+cubic meter. It will be seen that there is a series of somewhat
+lengthy operations to be performed, and it is in order to dispense
+with these that has been constructed the rule under consideration,
+which, like all calculating rules, consists of two parts, one of which
+slides upon the other (Fig. 2). Upon each of these there are two
+graduated scales, or four in all, the first of which is designed for
+the circumference and the second for the height of the tree, the third
+for the price of the cubic meter and the fourth for the total result,
+that is, the value of the entire tree. The arrangements are such that,
+after the number corresponding to the circumference of the tree has
+been brought opposite that corresponding to its height, the result
+will be found opposite the price per cubic meter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LAURAND'S CALCULATING RULE.]
+
+Thus, in the position represented in the figure, we may suppose a tree
+having a circumference of 2.5 m. and a height of 3.2 m.; then, if a
+cubic meter is worth 25 francs, the tree will be worth 20 francs.
+
+In order to simplify the calculations and the construction of the
+rule, no account is taken of points; but this is of no importance,
+since the error that might be made in misplacing one would be so great
+that it would be immediately detected. A 2 franc tree would not be
+confounded with a 20 or a 200 franc one. As an approximation, the
+first two figures of the result are obtained accurately; and that
+suffices, because, since the whole is based upon an approximate
+measurement, which is the mean circumference of the tree, we cannot
+exact absolute precision in the results. The essential thing is to
+have a practically acceptable figure.--La Nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+EGYPT'S POPULATION, according to the census taken last June, is
+9,750,000, more than double the population in 1846. The foreign
+residents are 112,000; of these, 38,000 are Greeks, 24,500 Italians,
+19,500 Britishers, including the army of occupation, and 14,000 French
+subjects, including Algerians and Tunisians. Twelve per cent. of the
+native males can read and write; the other Egyptians are illiterate.
+Cairo has 570,000 inhabitants, Alexandria 320,000, Port Said 42,000,
+and Suez 17,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MACHINE MOULDING WITHOUT STRIPPING PLATES.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Paper presented at the New York meeting (December,
+   1897) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and
+   forming part of volume xix. of the Transactions.]
+
+BY E. H. MUMFORD, PLAINFLELD, N. J.
+
+(Member of the Society.)
+
+
+Moulding machines may be classed under three heads. First, machines
+which only ram the moulds, and, when the ramming is done by means of a
+side lever, by hand, are generally called "squeezers." Second,
+machines which only draw the patterns, the ramming being accomplished
+by the usual hand methods. Third, machines which both ram the moulds
+and draw the patterns, ramming either by a hand-pulled lever or by
+fluid pressure on piston or plunger and drawing the patterns through a
+plate called a "stripping plate" or "drop plate"--till recently the
+usual method--or without the use of this plate fitting everywhere to
+pattern outline at the parting surface, the patterns being effectively
+machine guided in either case.
+
+It is to the third class that the machine which is used to illustrate
+the subject of this paper belongs, and which would seem to have enough
+that is novel in the application of machinery to the foundry to merit
+the attention of the society.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ORDINARY METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERN SPIKE AND
+RAPPER.]
+
+At the risk of appearing pedantic, but with a view to developing an
+appreciation of the true function of the method of pattern drawing
+used in this machine, attention is called to the following sectional
+views of moulds and ways of drawing patterns occurring in machine
+moulding. Fig. 1 shows an ordinary "gate" of fitting patterns being
+drawn from the drag or nowel part of the mould by means of a spike and
+rapper wielded by the moulder's hand after cope and drag have been
+rammed together on a "squeezer" and cope has been removed. Frequently
+the pernicious "swab" is used to soak and so strengthen joint outlines
+of the sand before drawing patterns, in such cases as this. In this
+case, before cope is lifted, these patterns must be vigorously rapped
+through the cope; an amount depending (and so does the size of the
+casting) upon the mood and strength of the moulder.
+
+Fig. 2 shows the stripping or drop plate method of drawing patterns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--STRIPPING PLATE METHOD OF DRAWING PATTERNS.]
+
+In this method the patterns are not rapped at all and are drawn in a
+practically straight line so that the mould is absolutely pattern
+size.
+
+The stripping plate is fitted accurately to every outline at the joint
+surface of the patterns, obviously at considerable expense, and, of
+course, at the instant of drawing the patterns, supports the joint
+surface of the mould entirely. This is, at first sight, an ideal
+method of drawing patterns, and it has for years been the only method
+practiced on machines. It has two disadvantages. The patterns are
+separated from the stripping plate by the necessary joint fissure
+between the two. Fine sand continually falls into this and, adhering
+to the joint surfaces more or less, grinds the fissure wider. This
+leads to a gradual reduction of size of patterns on vertical surfaces
+and a widening of the joint fissure often to such an extent that wire
+edges are formed on the mould, causing, on fine work, "crushing" and
+consequently dirty joints. A nicely fitted but worn plate of
+twenty-four pieces which had cost, at shop expense only, $250, was
+recently replaced by a plate of twenty-eight pieces, fitted ready for
+the machine under the new system about to be described, for not more
+than $25.
+
+The stripping plate method has another drawback, not always
+appreciated, probably because accepted as inevitable. Stripping plate
+patterns are not rapped, and there frequently occur on surface of
+patterns, remote from the action of the stripping plate, rectangular
+corners just as important to mould sharply as those at the parting
+line. Such corners have either to be filleted or "stooled" in
+stripping plate work, and neither method often is practicable. When
+the entire pattern and plate are vibrated so that the corners where
+the pattern joins the plate draw perfectly, as they do in the machine
+to be described, it is obvious that similar corners anywhere on
+pattern surface will draw equally well.
+
+The vibrating of patterns, or rather of moulds, during the operation
+of drawing the patterns possesses little of novelty. Ever since a
+bench moulder's neighbor first rapped the bench while he lifted a cope
+or drew a pattern, the thing has been done in one way or another. In
+fact, machines are now and then found on the market in which a device
+like a ratchet or other mechanical means for jarring the machine
+structure during pattern drawing renders the working of easy patterns
+without stripping plates possible.
+
+The idea of applying a power driven vibrator directly to the plate
+carrying the patterns to thus vibrate them independently of other
+parts of the machine and the flask and sand has been the subject of
+the issue of patents to Mr. Harris Tabor, and the various figures
+shown will serve to illustrate the mechanism.
+
+Briefly, the operation of the machine is as follows: The ramming head
+shown thrown back at the top of the machine is drawn into a vertical
+position after flask has been placed and filled with sand. The 3-way
+cock shown at the extreme left is then quickly opened, admitting
+compressed air of 70 to 80 pounds pressure to the inverted cylinder
+shown at the center of the cut. The cylinder, with the entire upper
+portion of the machine, is thus driven forcibly up against the ramming
+head, flask, sand and all. Often a single blow suffices to rain the
+mould--often the blow is quickly repeated, according to the demands of
+the particular mould in hand. Gravity returns the machine to its
+original position, as the 3-way cock opens to exhaust. After pushing
+the ramming head back and cutting sprue, if the half mould is cope,
+the operator seizes the lever shown just inside the 3-way cock at the
+right, and, drawing it forward and down, raises the outer frame of the
+top of machine containing the flask pins, with flask and sand thereon,
+away from the patterns, thus drawing them from the sand. Just as he
+seizes the pattern drawing lever with his right hand, he presses with
+his left on the head of a compression valve shown at the left side of
+top of machine, thus admitting air to the pneumatic vibrator already
+referred to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--POWER DRIVEN VIBRATOR MACHINE.]
+
+Fig. 3, a rear view of the machine, shows at the top center, with its
+inlet hose hanging to it, this vibrator, which is shown in section in
+Fig. 4. It consists simply of a double acting elongated piston having
+a stroke of about 5/16 inch in a valveless cylinder and impacting upon
+hardened anvils at either end at the estimated rate of 5,000 blows per
+minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION THROUGH VIBRATOR.]
+
+The method of communicating the rapid yet small oscillations of the
+vibrator to the patterns and yet keeping them from being transmitted
+to the rest of the mechanism is this:
+
+A frame, called a vibrator frame, to which the pneumatic vibrator is
+bolted and keyed, is shown in Fig. 5. To this frame the plate carrying
+the patterns, often, in cases of patterns having irregular parting
+lines, forming one and the same casting with the patterns, is fastened
+by the four machine screws, the small tapped holes for which are shown
+in the corners. In fact, in changing patterns, the process consists of
+simply removing these four machine screws, taking up the pattern
+plate and screwing to the vibrator frame the new pattern plate. The
+vibrator frame itself is secured to the machine structure by the four
+larger bolts, the holes for which are shown in the inner corners.
+These bolts are, as shown in Fig. 7, surrounded by thick bushings.
+These bushings are elastic to such a degree as to absorb the sharp
+vibrations of vibrator frame and patterns, while so firm and well
+fitted as to hold patterns accurately to their position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--VIBRATOR FRAME.]
+
+The action of the vibrator is such as to give to the entire pattern
+surface an exceedingly violent shiver, making it impossible that any
+sand should adhere to this surface, while the magnitude of the actual
+movement of the pattern is so slight that it is found to fill the
+mould so completely that it is impracticable to draw it a second time
+without rapping. Yet, so truly are the patterns held and so little
+disturbed from their original position, that it is perfectly
+practicable to return patterns to a mould having the finest ornamental
+surface in the ordinary practice of "printing back."
+
+In cases where deep pockets of hanging sand occur, which cannot be
+held during lifting off and rolling over, machines are arranged to
+roll the flask over in their operation and draw the patterns up under
+the influence of the pneumatic vibrator, though, owing to the time
+consumed in the rolling over process (and each operation counts in
+seconds on a moulding machine) this style of machine is not usually as
+rapid in its working as the simpler type, in which the flasks come off
+in the same way they go on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SET OF PATTERNS FITTED TO PLATES.]
+
+Fig. 6 shows a set of patterns as they are ordinarily fitted to plates
+for this machine. Round holes will be noticed at places in the plate
+surface. These are openings for the insertion of what are called
+"stools."
+
+When it is found necessary to support the sand surface at any point,
+or generally, round holes are drilled through either plate or pattern
+surface and loose cylindrical pieces are dropped into these holes,
+their upper end surfaces being flush with the plate or pattern surface
+and their lower ends resting on the plate called, from this use, a
+stool plate. This plate appears in Fig. 7 at A and is hung solidly by
+the brackets shown at B from the frame which carries the flasks, so
+that it has the same upward motion as the flasks, and the upper ends
+of the stools remain in contact with the sand of the mould until same
+is lifted from machine. Fig. 7, showing a vertical section through a
+machine, will make perfectly clear the position and action of these
+stools.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. VERTICAL SECTIONS FITTED TO PLATES.]
+
+As illustrating the importance of being able to work without stripping
+plates on a line of work which is much more extended than that
+possible with them, we may say that a machinist with a drill press
+supplied with split patterns and planed pattern plates has matched and
+fixed five sets of from four to eight pieces in a day: and wooden
+patterns fitted for temporary use in the same way are of frequent
+occurrence when it is not thought wise to go to the expense of metal
+patterns on account of the relatively small number of castings to be
+made from them.
+
+It is not perhaps too much to say that pattern expense is not the
+final evil of the costly and not durable stripping plate patterns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARTIFICIAL INDIA RUBBER.
+
+
+One of the most recent important events in the history of chemistry
+was the discovery by an English professor that a substance
+corresponding in every respect to India rubber may be produced from
+oil of turpentine.
+
+Dr. W. A. Tilden, professor of chemistry in Mason College, Birmingham,
+began a series of experiments with a liquid hydrocarbon substance,
+known to chemists as isoprene, which was primarily discovered and
+named by Greville Williams, a well known English chemist, some years
+ago as a product of the destructive distillation of India rubber. In
+1884, says The New York Sun, Dr. Tilden discovered that an identical
+substance was among the more volatile compounds obtained by the action
+of moderate heat upon oil of turpentine and other vegetable oils, such
+as rape seed oil, linseed oil and castor oil.
+
+Isoprene is a very volatile liquid, boiling at a temperature of about
+30 degrees Fahrenheit. Chemical analysis shows it to be composed of
+carbon and hydrogen in the proportions of five to eight.
+
+In the course of his experiments Dr. Tilden found that when isoprene
+is brought into contact with strong acids, such as aqueous
+hydrochloric acid, for example, it is converted into a tough elastic
+solid, which is, to all appearances, true India rubber.
+
+Specimens of isoprene were made from several vegetable oils in the
+course of Dr. Tilden's work on those compounds. He preserved several
+of them and stowed the bottles containing them away upon an unused
+shelf in his laboratory.
+
+After some months had elapsed he was surprised at finding the contents
+of the bottles containing the substance derived from the turpentine
+entirely changed in appearance. In place of a limpid, colorless liquid
+the bottles contained a dense sirup, in which were floating several
+large masses of a solid of a yellowish color. Upon examination this
+turned out to be India rubber.
+
+This is the first instance on record of the spontaneous change of
+isoprene into India rubber. According to the doctor's hypothesis, this
+spontaneous change can only be accounted for by supposing that a small
+quantity of acetic or formic acid had been produced by the oxidizing
+action of the air, and that the presence of this compound had been the
+means of transforming the rest.
+
+Upon inserting the ordinary chemical test paper, the liquid was found
+to be slightly acid. It yielded a small portion of unchanged isoprene.
+
+The artificial India rubber found floating in the liquid upon analysis
+showed all the constituents of natural rubber. Like the latter, it
+consisted of two substances, one of which was more soluble in benzine
+or in carbon bisulphide than the other. A solution of the artificial
+rubber in benzine left on evaporation a residue which agreed in all
+characteristics with the residuum of the best Para rubber similarly
+dissolved and evaporated.
+
+The artificial rubber was found to unite with natural rubber in the
+same way as two pieces of ordinary pure rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound.
+
+Although the discovery is very interesting from a chemical point of
+view, it has not as yet any commercial importance. It is from such
+beginnings as these, however, that cheap chemical substitutes for many
+natural products have been developed. Few persons outside of those
+directly connected with rubber industries realize the vast quantities
+imported yearly into this country. Last year there were brought into
+United States ports, as shown by the reports of the customs officers,
+no less than 34,348,000 pounds of India rubber. The industry has been
+steadily progressive since the invention of machinery for
+manufacturing it into the various articles of everyday use. The
+wonderful growth of the India rubber interests in this country will be
+seen from the statistics compiled in the tenth census.
+
+In 1870 there were imported 5,132,000 pounds at an average rate of $1
+per pound; in 1880 the imports were 17,835,000 pounds, at an average
+price of 85 cents per pound; in 1890 31,949,000 pounds were imported,
+at an average price of 75 cents per pound. The present price of India
+rubber varies from 75 cents per pound for fine Para rubber to 45 cents
+per pound for the cheapest grade.
+
+It will be seen that, notwithstanding the increase in importations,
+the price of the raw material remains at a comparatively high figure.
+Many experiments have been made to find a substance possessing the
+same properties as India rubber, but which could be produced at a
+cheaper rate.
+
+Many of the compositions which have been invented have been well
+adapted for use for certain purposes and have been used to adulterate
+the pure rubber, but no substance has been produced which could even
+approach India rubber in several of its important characteristics.
+There has never been a substance yet recommended as a substitute for
+rubber which possessed the extraordinary elasticity which makes it
+indispensable in the manufacture of so many articles of common use.
+
+Great hopes were at one time placed in a product prepared from linseed
+oil. It was found that a material could be produced from it which
+would to a certain extent equal India rubber compositions in
+elasticity and toughness.
+
+It was argued that linseed oil varnish, when correctly prepared,
+should be clear, and dry in a few hours into a transparent, glossy
+mass of great tenacity. By changing the mode of preparing linseed oil
+varnish in so far as to boil the oil until it became a very thick
+fluid and spun threads, when it was taken from the boiler, a mass was
+obtained which in drying assumed a character resembling that of a
+thick, congealed solution of glue.
+
+Resin was added to the mass while hot, in a quantity depending upon
+the product designed to be made, and requiring a greater or less
+degree of elasticity.
+
+Many other recipes have been advocated at different times to make a
+product resembling caoutchouc out of linseed oil in combination with
+other substances, but all have failed to give satisfaction, save as
+adulterants to pure rubber.
+
+Among the best compounds in use in rubber factories at present is one
+made by boiling linseed oil to the consistency of thick glue.
+Unbleached shellac and a small quantity of lampblack is then stirred
+in. The mass is boiled and stirred until thoroughly mixed. It is then
+placed in flat vessels exposed to the air to congeal.
+
+While still warm the blocks formed in the flat vessels are passed
+between rollers to mix it as closely as possible. This compound was
+asserted by its inventor to be a perfect substitute for caoutchouc. It
+was also stated that it could be vulcanized. This was found to be an
+error, however. The compound, upon the addition of from 15 to 25 per
+cent. of pure rubber, may be vulcanized and used as a substitute for
+vulcanized rubber.
+
+Compounds of coal tar, asphalt, etc., with caoutchouc have been
+frequently tested, but they can only be used for very inferior goods.
+
+The need for a substitute for gutta percha is even more acute than for
+artificial India rubber. A compound used in its stead for many
+purposes is known as French gutta percha. This possesses nearly all
+the properties of gutta percha. It may be frequently used for the same
+purposes and has the advantage of not cracking when exposed to the
+air.
+
+Its inventors claimed that it was a perfect substitute for India
+rubber and gutta percha, fully as elastic and tough and not
+susceptible to injury from great pressure or high temperature.
+
+The composition of this ambitious substance is as follows: One part,
+by weight, of equal parts of wood tar oil and coal tar oil, or of the
+latter alone, is heated for several hours at a temperature of from 252
+to 270 degrees Fahrenheit, with two parts, by weight, of hemp oil,
+until the mass can be drawn into threads. Then one-half part, by
+weight, of linseed oil, thickened by boiling, is added. To each 100
+parts of the compound one-twentieth to one-tenth part of ozokerite and
+the same quantity of spermaceti are added.
+
+The entire mixture is then again heated to 252 degrees Fahrenheit and
+one-fifteenth to one-twelfth part of sulphur is added. The substance
+thus obtained upon cooling is worked up in a similar manner to natural
+India rubber. It has not been successfully used, however, without the
+addition of a quantity of pure rubber to give it the requisite
+elasticity.
+
+A substitute for gutta percha is obtained by boiling the bark of the
+birch tree, especially the outer part, in water over an open fire.
+This produces a black fluid mass, which quickly becomes solid and
+compact upon exposure to air.
+
+Each gutta percha and India rubber factory has a formula of its own
+for making up substances as nearly identical with the natural product
+as possible, which are used to adulterate the rubber and gutta percha
+used in the factory. No one has as yet, however, succeeded in
+discovering a perfect substitute for either rubber or gutta percha.
+
+The history of chemistry contains many instances where natural
+products have been supplanted by artificial compounds possessing the
+same properties and characteristics. One of the most notable of these
+is the substance known as alizarine, the coloring matter extracted
+from the madder root. This, like India rubber, is a hydrocarbon.
+
+Prior to 1869 all calico printing was done with the coloring matter
+derived from the madder root, and its cultivation was a leading
+industry in the eastern and southern portions of Europe.
+
+In 1869 alizarine was successfully produced from the refuse coal tar
+of gas works and the calico printing business was revolutionized.
+
+The essence of vanilla, made from the vanilla bean, and used as a
+flavoring extract, has been supplanted by the substance christened
+vanilla by chemists, which possesses the same characteristics and is
+made from sawdust.
+
+Isoprene, from which Dr. Tilden produced India rubber, is
+comparatively a new product, as derived from oil of turpentine. It yet
+remains to be seen whether rubber can be synthetically produced
+certainly and cheaply. The result of further experiments will be
+awaited with interest, as the production of artificial rubber at
+moderate cost would be an event of enormous importance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEEP AND FROSTED ETCHING ON GLASS.
+
+
+The best means of producing these effects is by printing from a steel
+plate or lithographic stone on thin transfer paper, which, in turn, is
+made to give up the design to the surface of the glass, the exposed
+portions of the latter being then etched with acid.
+
+In preparing the steel plate, a coating of varnish is prepared by
+mixing 200 parts by weight of oil of turpentine, 150 of Syrian
+asphaltum, 100 of beeswax, 50 of stearin, and 50 of Venice turpentine
+in the warm. The design is then copied in outline by tracing from the
+original, the shading being reproduced in a less detailed manner, but
+with fewer and bolder strokes, in order to adapt the picture to the
+process. It is then pricked through the tracing paper on to the
+varnish coating of the plate, and, after clearing out the lines with
+graving needles, the plate is etched with a mixture of 1 vol. of water
+and 4 to 7 vols. of nitric acid, either by application or immersion;
+in the latter event the back of the plate must be varnished over. When
+the metal is bitten by the acid to about 1-75 of an inch in depth, the
+operation is finished.
+
+To transfer the design to the glass it is printed from the steel plate
+on to thin silk paper, the ink used being compounded from 500 parts of
+oil of turpentine, 1,500 of Syrian asphalt, 500 of beeswax, 400 of
+paraffin, and 300 of thick litho varnish. The printing is performed in
+the usual manner, and the transfer laid on the warmed surface of the
+glass sheet or ware to be decorated, rubbed over uniformly with a
+cloth to make the ink adhere to the glass, and then the paper is
+moistened and taken off again, leaving the imprinted design behind. It
+is well to have the ink fairly thick, and rely on warmth to impart the
+necessary fluidity; otherwise the design may come away with the paper
+in patches, and be imperfect.
+
+For etching in the design on the glass, the edges of the latter are
+coated with the protective varnish, and then hydrofluoric acid is
+brushed over the exposed portions, which are thereby corroded, leaving
+the parts covered by the ink standing in relief. According as a clear
+or frosted etching is desired, the etching liquid is modified, being,
+for the latter purpose, composed of 500 parts of ammonium fluoride,
+100 of common salt, 300 of fuming hydrofluoric acid and 30 of ammonia.
+This is brushed over the glass two or three times, and then rinsed off
+with lukewarm water. For deep etching, hydrofluoric acid is diluted
+with 11/2 vols. of water and stored for twenty-four hours before use.
+The objects are immersed in the baths for thirty to fifty minutes, and
+kept quite still the while. If the etching is to be left clear, the
+acid is neutralized by boiling the glass in soda, but if to be frosted
+afterward it is coated with the first named etching liquid while still
+damp. Finally, the ink is washed off with turpentine, the glass rubbed
+over with sawdust, washed in hot lye and rinsed with water.
+
+Grained or lined designs can be very suitably printed from a litho
+stone, on paper faced with a mixture of 1,500 parts of water, 250 of
+wheaten starch, 1,000 of glycerine and 200 of a thick solution of gum
+arabic, the ink for printing being prepared by melting and mixing 500
+parts of pure tallow, 250 of white beeswax, 250 of liquid mastic, and
+150 of pale resin, with 100 parts of lampblack, 5 of minium, and 500
+of litho varnish. In transferring the design to the glass, the latter,
+if flat, may be passed between India rubber rollers or protected by
+layers of gutta percha when the pressure is applied. The impression
+produced by this lithographic process has to be strengthened to enable
+the thin coating of ink to resist the etching liquid, and this is done
+by dusting powdered resin over the printed surface of the glass,
+brushing off all that does not adhere, and causing the remainder to
+attach itself to the ink by means of warmth, and so form an impervious
+covering. The further treatment is the same as that already described.
+These methods are particularly suitable for reproducing landscapes,
+etc., on thinly flashed glass of various colors.--Diamant.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SLATE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
+
+
+Slate is, as we know, merely a variety of argillite. Slate quarries
+are found in England, Switzerland and Italy, but it is in France
+especially that the industry has been most extensively developed by
+reason of the large deposits that underlie its surface, particularly
+in the province of Anjou, where they extend from Trelaze to Avrille, a
+distance of six miles, and in the department of Ardennes, at Remogne,
+Fumay, etc.
+
+Normandy, Brittany, Dauphiny and Marne likewise possess quarries,
+although they are not so productive.
+
+The exploitation is commonly done in open quarry. After the vegetable
+mould (which in this case is called "cover") has been removed, we meet
+with a solid slate which it is difficult to split into laminae, and it
+is not until a depth of at least fifteen feet is reached that we find
+a material that is fit to be exploited. All the best beds of slate, in
+fact, improve in quality in proportion as they lie deeper under the
+surface, near to which they have little value. Without entering into
+details as to the exploitation of this product, let us say that the
+blocks have to be divided in the quarry, since, in the open air, they
+rapidly lose the property of readily splitting into thin, even laminae.
+
+[Illustration: SLATE STORE-VATS FOR BREWERIES.]
+
+Slate has but slight affinity for water, and, moreover, resists
+atmospheric influences, humidity and heat pretty well.
+
+This property renders it valuable for a large number of domestic
+purposes.
+
+There is no certain proof, it is true, that it was employed by the
+ancients, but it is, nevertheless, extremely probable that it was used
+in mass at an early period for stair heads, pillars for buildings and
+as a material for fencing.
+
+The exploitation of the material became especially active at the
+period when the idea occurred to some one to use slate for the rooting
+of houses. It was employed for this purpose along with tiles as far
+back as the eleventh century in the majority of schistose districts.
+It is well known, for example, that Fumay (Ardennes) at this period
+had a brotherhood of slate quarrymen.
+
+A method of getting out the material and cutting it regularly was
+found toward the end of the twelfth century, and it was not till then
+that it became of general application. Moreover, with the advent of
+the Gothic period slate became indispensable for castle roofs, which
+have a conical form.
+
+The best slate for roofing purposes is hard, heavy and of a bluish
+gray color. A good slate should readily split into even laminae; it
+should not be absorbent of water either on its face or endwise, a
+property evinced by its not increasing perceptibly in weight after
+immersion in water; and it should be sound, compact and not apt to
+disintegrate in the air.
+
+For a long time past there have been used in schools slate tablets
+upon which the pupils write with a pencil made of soft gray schist.
+This application, which is capable of rendering services in a host of
+details of domestic economy, has given rise to artificial slates,
+which, made by a process of moulding a composition analogous to
+cardboard pulp, present the same advantages as ordinary slate, while
+being much lighter.
+
+Along about 1834 an Englishman of the name of Magnus utilized the
+property that slate possesses of taking a fine polish in the invention
+of what are called enameled slates. These products are used especially
+in the manufacture of table tops, mantelpieces, altars, etc. They very
+closely imitate the most expensive marbles, and their properties,
+along with their low price, have been the cause of their introduction
+into the houses of all classes of the English population, as well as
+into those of entire Europe and America.
+
+The ease with which slate is obtained in slabs of large dimensions has
+greatly contributed in recent times toward still further increasing
+its applications. One of the first of such applications was the
+substitution of it in urinals for cast iron plates, which very rapidly
+oxidize and become impregnated with nauseous odors that necessitate a
+frequent cleaning and constitute a permanent source of infection.
+
+For a few years past, too, slate has been used, in the manufacture of
+vats designed for breweries. These vats, of which we show in the
+accompanying figure a model of the installation employed in the Ivry
+Brewery, are each 61/2 feet square and 5 feet in depth. For leading the
+beer, which, upon coming from the brewing apparatus, must rest for a
+few days, they are connected by a system of pipes. A second system of
+pipes, which in our figure is seen running along the cellar vault,
+serves as a cooling apparatus and maintains a temperature of 5 deg. C.
+above zero in the vats arranged in two rows to the right and left.
+
+The details or even a simple enumeration of the new applications of
+slate would, in order to be anywhere nearly complete, necessitate a
+lengthy article. Let us say in conclusion that slate is substituted
+for wood, which is too easily attackable, and for marble, which is
+much more costly, in our laboratories and amphitheaters and everywhere
+where the manipulation and stay of easily corrupted liquids and solids
+require the greatest cleanliness in the material of construction.--La
+Science en Famille.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIRTHPLACE OF THE OILCLOTH INDUSTRY.
+
+
+In Kennebec County, Me., is the quiet borough of East Winthrop, for
+more than half a century known wherever oilcloth carpeting was used as
+Baileyville.
+
+Were it not for the inventive brain of one of East Winthrop's early
+inhabitants, says a contemporary, the village would hardly be known
+across the lake, but early in the present century one of the numerous
+family of Maine Baileys evolved a scheme to fill his purse faster than
+the slow process of nature was likely to do it in growing crops.
+
+Oilcloth carpetings were not known in the long ago, when Ezekiel
+Bailey pictured in his mind how they might be made, and it was in the
+little hamlet of East Winthrop that the conceit of their manufacture
+was hatched and executed. Ezekiel Bailey was, in the days prior to the
+war of 1812, looked upon as a very likely boy. He was studious and
+industrious, and while other boys of the village were out in the white
+oak groves setting box traps for gray squirrels, and spearing pickerel
+by torch light in the waters of Cobosseecontee, Ezekiel was busy in
+his little workshop fashioning useful things to be used about the
+house.
+
+Just how and when and where he was prompted to attempt the making of
+oilcloth carpet nobody now living at East Winthrop seems to know. Many
+of the burghers thought he was "a-wastin' uv his time," but they
+thought different some years later when great factories for the
+manufacture of oilcloth floor carpeting were erected in East Winthrop,
+Hallowell, New Jersey, and other places.
+
+And Ezekiel? He amassed a considerable fortune and left the path of
+life much easier for his kin to pursue. Having met a peddler one day,
+he bought a table cover made of a combination of burlap and paint.
+Such things were a luxury in the country at that time, and Ezekiel
+Bailey was shrewd enough to foresee a big demand for them if the cost
+could be moderated a bit. While thinking, an idea came to him, and
+following the idea a small voice which whispered: "Make 'em yourself."
+He decided to try, and there is a legend to the effect that half the
+farmers of the village quit work to see the first table cover.
+
+Procuring a square of burlap, or rather enough burlap from which to
+fashion a square of the desired size, Ezekiel Bailey framed up the
+fabric as the good old grandmas used to hitch up quilts at a quilting
+bee, the only difference being that the burlap was framed or stretched
+over a table made of planed boards large enough for the full spread of
+the burlap. With paint and brush he began his work. The first coat was
+a tiller; the next, a thicker one, gave body to the cloth, and when
+this was rubbed down to a smooth surface the last coat was prepared.
+This was of a different color and was spread on thick. Then, with a
+straight edge, a piece of board with a true, thin edge, reaching
+across the whole surface of painted cloth, the finishing touches were
+put on. Commencing at one end of the fabric, the straight edge was
+moved back and forth, and straight along over the fresh paint once or
+twice, and the whole thing left to dry.
+
+The first table covers were great curiosities, and the homes of the
+Baileys were visited by all the neighboring housewives, who were
+anxious to see "how they worked." Of course, it was easy to keep them
+clean, and they saved the woodwork of the table, which was
+recommendation enough. To see a cloth was to covet it, and it was not
+long before Ezekiel Bailey had a considerable business. Employing a
+boy to help him, he turned out table cloths as fast as his limited
+facilities would permit, and, as he progressed, new ideas for
+decorating took shape in his mind. In less than a year he had men out
+on the road selling them.
+
+The turning out to perfection of an oilcloth carpet in those days was
+a task that would make a person in these piping times of labor-saving
+machinery wish for something easier. All the smoothing or rubbing down
+was done by hand. Heavy, long-bladed knives, as big as the "Sword of
+Bunker Hill," were used to scrape down the rough body coats of paint,
+and a smooth surface, on which to stamp the geometrical figures in
+colors, was fetched after long and laborious polishing with bricks and
+pumice stone.
+
+Drummers employed by Mr. Bailey traveled to Massachusetts, to New
+York, and away down into the South, and ere long the demand for
+oilcloth carpeting became so general that other factories were built
+and made to chatter and clank with the new industry. There was living
+not far from East Winthrop at this time a shrewd, wideawake Yankee
+farmer named Sampson, who had kept his weather eye peeled on the
+progress of Ezekiel Bailey, and when housewives everywhere began to
+yearn for the new carpeting, taking a neighbor in as a partner, Mr.
+Sampson built a factory, and in a very short time was in a position to
+be considered a formidable rival of Mr. Bailey.
+
+But the originator of the oilcloth carpet was not to be outdone.
+Discerning good returns from a plant established close to a big center
+of consumption, Mr. Bailey entered into a deal with New Jersey
+capitalists, and a big factory was set a-going in that State. A
+trusted employe of the Bailey concern, Levi Richardson (who still
+lives and is the proprietor of a modest little store in East
+Winthrop), was sent to New Jersey to instruct the green hands there
+in the art of manufacture. While thus engaged, Mr. Richardson's brain
+was busy with the problem of labor saving, and one day a phantom
+device for smoothing and rubbing down the first rough coats on the
+burlaps took form in his mind, and for some weeks he spent his spare
+time in experimenting. The result was the present patent used in most
+factories, whereby as much rubbing down can be done in one day as
+could have been accomplished in four by the old hand method.
+--Industrial World.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE KOPPEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.
+
+
+The question of the design of small locomotives for use on pioneer
+lines has been always a difficult matter.
+
+The needs of the railway contractor have called for such locomotives,
+for which several systems of power have been tried. In many ways the
+electric locomotive has distinct advantages over its rivals, steam and
+compressed air, for these narrow gage lines. Reviewing these
+advantages briefly, we see that the electrical equipment is more
+economical to work, as one good stationary engine develops power much
+more cheaply than several small locomotives. Again, the electric
+locomotive can be more readily designed for narrow gages than steam or
+compressed air locomotives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--AN ELECTRIC LINE EQUIPPED ON THE KOPPEL
+SYSTEM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE SECTION WITH THE SUPPORT FOR THE OVERHEAD
+LINE.]
+
+A new system of equipment of such lines is now being introduced into
+this country by Mr. Arthur Koppel, of 96 Leadenhall Street, E. C. The
+keynote of this system is flexibility, the arrangements being such
+that extensions or alterations can be readily effected. In fact, the
+line is portable, and it is claimed also to be cheaper than the
+ordinary construction. The overhead conductor is employed, as can be
+seen from Fig. 1, which gives a general view of a locomotive and train
+of skips on a line actually at work abroad. The supports for the wire
+are not provided by separate posts and brackets in the usual way, but
+by arched carriers attached to the sections of railway line, thereby
+forming a portable section of the electric railway, as illustrated by
+Fig. 2. The steel carrier or "arch" is fixed to one of the sleepers,
+which is made of sufficient length for that purpose. On the straight
+line these line supports are placed about 25 yards apart. In curves of
+a small radius each section of tramway is provided with an arch, to
+keep the line of the wire as nearly as possible parallel to the curve
+of the line. Apart from these special extended sleepers with wire
+carriers attached, the line is constructed in the ordinary mariner
+with rails 14 lb. per yard and upward. As the electric locomotives are
+lighter than steam locomotives, the weight of rail required is
+somewhat less. The special trolley for erecting the wires along the
+railway line is shown in Fig. 3. This consists of an ordinary four
+wheeled platform wagon with ladder, and wire drum with tightening gear
+and clamps or grips for anchoring the trolley to the line. The wire is
+led over a sheave on top of the ladder and fixed to the picket post at
+the beginning of the line. When erecting the wire the trolley is
+pushed beyond the first carrier arch, clamped on to the rails, and the
+wire is then tightened by means of the tightening gear. It is then
+firmly fixed to the insulator on the carrier arch The tension in the
+copper wire is taken up by a second portable ladder, which is also
+provided with a tightening gear and can be clamped to the rails in the
+same manner as the trolley, so that the trolley can then be pushed
+behind the second carrier arch and the process previously described
+repeated. By the tension in the wire the carrier arches acquire the
+necessary stability, while without the procedure previously described
+it would be impossible to use such light arches attached to the
+sleepers. On permanent lines, the extreme ends of the wire are
+attached to properly anchored picket posts. On portable lines, on the
+other hand, the trolley with the wire drum is fixed to the rails at
+the end of the line, as shown in Fig. 3, so as to enable the line to
+be lengthened or shortened, as may be required, with ease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE STRAINING GEAR AND TERMINAL ANCHOR.]
+
+Care is taken in insulating the drum and ladders so as to prevent
+leakage from this erecting trolley to earth. The feeders from the
+power house to the overhead wire and to the rails respectively are
+erected on light iron posts, which have also been standardized by Mr.
+Koppel. A specimen of these posts with an anchored stay is shown in
+Fig. 4. All these details are arranged for convenience of the
+contractor required to rapidly equip a line of railway, which can also
+be removed as soon as the work has been done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--LIGHT POLE FOR CARRYING THE FEEDERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE.]
+
+The locomotive used is varied in form with the gage of the line, but
+we are particularly concerned with those for gages under 24 inches.
+One form of such locomotive without a hood to protect the driver is
+shown in Fig. 5. In this locomotive the gear is the same as that of
+the next illustration, but it is securely boxed in a watertight iron
+cover. The controlling gear is then placed vertically in front. Figs.
+6 and 7 show the details of the electrical and mechanical parts of
+this locomotive when fitted with a platform at either end, and with a
+hood. The motor. M, is of the internal pole type, and is supported on
+the underframe of the wagon. A double gear is used. The first is a
+spur gearing, connecting the motor to a countershaft placed under the
+motor. This gear reduces the speed of rotation to about 200
+revolutions. The countershaft is then connected to the two axles of
+the trolley by chain gearing. This gives the necessary flexibility
+between the car body and the wheel required, as the springs give to
+any inequality of the rails. In this gearing there is no change of
+speed. The underframe is provided with spring axle boxes, and also
+with spring buffers and drawbars. The speed of the motor can be
+regulated within very wide limits by the regulator, R. An effective
+hand brake is also provided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--END ELEVATION OF LOCOMOTIVE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--DETAILED ELEVATION OF A KOPPEL LOCOMOTIVE WITH
+A DOUBLE PLATFORM AND HOOD.]
+
+For gages of 20 inches and upward the motors can be mounted on springs
+and attached to the running axles inside of the wagon underframe. This
+construction is particularly recommended by Mr. Koppel where, in order
+to mount heavy gradients, the dead load of the motor car must be
+assisted by the paying load to produce the necessary adhesion. In such
+cases several motor wagons would be used in the same train. As regards
+the working voltage, this can be varied to suit special requirements,
+but the locomotive we illustrate was designed for 110 volts. At this
+pressure its possible working speed was at least eight miles per hour.
+The supply of power is also a matter not referred to particularly, as
+in many cases a lighting plant is used by the contractors, which could
+also be employed to provide the necessary energy for the electric
+railway. The good work done by small electric locomotives in the
+excavation work for the Waterloo and City Railway[1] will convince our
+large contractors of the valuable service which electricity can render
+both above and below ground.--The Electrical Engineer.
+
+  [Footnote 1: Electrical Engineer, vol. xvi., p. 499.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A connection between Servian and Roumanian railways is to be
+established by bridging the Danube. It is reported proposals have
+already been made to the governments interested, by the Union Bridge
+Company, also by British and French constructors.--Uhland's
+Wochenschrift.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LIQUID RHEOSTATS.
+
+BY H. S. WEBB.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: In American Electrician.]
+
+
+The object in view when the following tests were commenced was to
+obtain some data from which the dimensions of a liquid rheostat for
+the dissipation as heat of a given amount of energy could be
+calculated, or at least estimated, when the maximum current and E.M.F.
+are known. These tests were rather hastily made and are far from being
+as complete as I should like to have them, and are published only to
+answer some inquiries for information on the subject.
+
+In the first test, an ordinary Daniell jar (61/4 inches in diameter by 8
+inches deep) with horizontal sheet iron electrodes was filled with tap
+water. It would not carry 4 amperes for over fifteen or twenty
+minutes, although the jar was full of water and the plates only 3/4 inch
+apart. After that length of time it became too hot, causing great
+variation in the current on account of the large amount of gas
+liberated, much of which adhered to the under surface of the upper
+electrode. The difference of potential between the plates was 200
+volts.
+
+A run was made with 1 ampere and then with 2 amperes for one hour. In
+the latter case the voltage between the electrodes was about 71 volts
+and the temperature rose to about 167 deg. F.
+
+From these tests it would be safe to allow a vessel with a cross
+section of 30.7 square inches to carry from 2 to 21/2 amperes when tap
+water and horizontal electrodes are used.
+
+In test No. 2 the same jar and electrodes were used as in the
+preceding test, but the tap water was replaced by a saturated solution
+of salt water. Eleven amperes with a potential difference of 7 volts
+between the electrodes, which were 73/4 inches apart, were passed
+through the solution for three hours, and the temperature at the end
+of the run was 122 deg. F., and was rising very slowly.
+
+Although the current per square inch is much greater, the watts
+absorbed per cubic inch is much less in this case than when water was
+used. With the water carrying 2 amperes the watts absorbed would be
+over 10 per cubic inch, while for the saturated solution of salt when
+carrying 11 amperes it would be only about 0.4 watt.
+
+In test No. 3 use was made of a long, wooden rectangular trough (42
+inches by 61/2 inches by 8 inches) with vertical, sheet iron electrodes.
+The cross section of the liquid, which was a 10 per cent. solution of
+salt in water, was 44 square inches, and with 10 amperes passing
+through the solution for 13/4 hours the temperature rose to 95 deg. F., and
+was rising slowly at the end of the run.
+
+The plates were 413/4 inches apart, and at the end of the run the
+voltmeter across the terminals read 20. This gives a current density
+of nearly 1/4 ampere per square inch and 0.11 watt per cubic inch. These
+values are too low to be considered maximum values, for this cross
+section of a 10 per cent. salt solution would probably carry 13 to 15
+amperes safely.
+
+It appears that as the amount of salt in the solution is increased
+from zero to saturation, the maximum current carrying capacity is
+increased, but the watts absorbed per cubic inch are less.
+
+A very small addition of salt to tap water makes the solution a much
+better conductor than the water, and reduces greatly the safe maximum
+watts absorbed. In using glass vessels, such as Daniell jars, there is
+danger of cracking the jar if the temperature rises much above 165 deg. to
+175 deg. F.
+
+In test No. 4 an ordinary whisky barrel, filled up with tap water, was
+used. Two horizontal circular iron plates (3/16 inch thick) were used
+for electrodes. The diameter of the inside of the barrel was
+approximately 19-1/2 inches. With the two plates 26-3/8 inches apart a
+difference of potential of 486 volts gave a current of 2.6 amperes.
+With the plates 7/8 inch apart, 228 volts gave 35.5 amperes at the end
+of one hour, when all the water in the barrel was very hot (175 deg. F.),
+and there was quite a good deal of gas given off. The current density
+in this case was about 0.12 ampere per square inch and the watts
+absorbed 30.5 per cubic inch. If it were not for the large amount of
+water above both electrodes, it is doubtful if this current density
+could have been maintained.
+
+In test No. 5 a rectangular box, in which were placed two vertical
+sheet iron plates, was filled with tap water. The distance between the
+plates was 5/8 inch, and with a difference of potential of 414 at
+start and 397 at end of the run, a current of 35 amperes was kept
+flowing for 35 minutes. Cold tap water was kept running in between the
+electrodes at the rate of 6.11 pounds per minute (about 1/10 cubic
+foot) by means of a small rubber tube about 1/4 inch inside diameter.
+This test is very interesting in comparison with the preceding. The
+current carrying capacity, 0.3 ampere per square inch, was more than
+double, and the energy absorbed 183 watts per cubic inch, more than
+six times as great as in case where running water was not used.
+
+The temperature in some places between the plates occasionally rose as
+high as 205 deg. F., and it was necessary, in order to avoid too violent
+ebullition, to keep the inflowing stream of water directed along the
+water surface between the two plates. Less water would not have been
+sufficient, and, of course, by using more water, the temperature
+could have been kept lower, or with the same temperature the watts
+absorbed could have been increased.
+
+When a large current density is used, there is considerable
+decomposition of the iron electrodes when either salt or pure water is
+used, and in the case of horizontal electrodes, the under surface of
+the top plate may become covered with bubbles of gas, making the
+resistance between the plates quite variable. For large current
+density a horizontal top plate is not advisable, unless a large number
+of holes are drilled through it. A better form for the top electrode
+would be a hollow cylinder long enough to give sufficient surface.
+Washing soda is often a convenient substance to use instead of salt.
+
+If, from experience, the size of a liquid rheostat for absorbing a
+given amount of energy cannot be estimated, the dimensions may be
+calculated approximately as follows:
+
+Suppose, for instance, it is desired to absorb 60 amperes at 40 volts
+difference of potential between the electrodes. Now, it is
+inconvenient to obtain a saturated solution of salt, and to use tap
+water would require too large a cross section--especially if a barrel
+or trough is to be used--in order to have the resistance with the
+plates at a safe distance apart, small enough to give 60 amperes with
+40 volts.
+
+Let us try a 10 per cent. solution of salt. Suppose the maximum
+current this will carry is 1/4 ampere per square inch, which will give a
+cross section of the solution of at least 60 / 1/4 = 240 square inches.
+Now, the specific resistance per inch cube (i.e., the resistance
+between two opposite surfaces of a cube whose side measures 1 inch) of
+the 10 per cent. solution of salt used in test No. 3 was 2.12 ohms.
+The drop, CR, will be 2.12 x 1/4 = 0.53 volt per inch length of solution
+between electrodes. Hence, the electrodes will have to be 40/0.53 = 75
+inches apart. This would require about three barrels connected in
+series. This was taken merely as an illustration, because its specific
+resistance was known when the current density was 1/4 ampere per square
+inch. This solution, however, will carry safely 1/3 ampere per square
+inch, but I used the previous figure, since I did not know its
+specific resistance for this current density, because its specific
+resistance will be lower for a larger current density on account of
+the higher temperature which it will have, for the resistance of a
+solution decreases as its temperature increases.
+
+To reduce this length would require a solution of higher specific
+resistance, that is, a solution containing less than 10 per cent. of
+salt, and an increase in the cross section, since the maximum carrying
+capacity also diminishes as the percentage of salt diminishes. Only
+approximate calculations are useful because variations in temperature,
+amount of salt actually in solution and the rate at which heat can be
+radiated, all combine to give results which may vary widely from those
+calculated.
+
+As a matter of fact, it is seldom necessary or advisable to use a
+solution containing over 2 or 3 per cent. of salt. The best way to
+add salt to a liquid rheostat is to make a strong solution in a
+separate vessel and add as much of this solution as is needed. This
+avoids the annoying increase in conductivity of the solution which
+happens when the salt itself is added and is gradually dissolved.
+
+Liquid rheostats are ever so much more satisfactory for alternating
+than for direct current testing. The electrodes and solution are
+practically free from decomposition, and a given cross section seems
+to be able to carry a larger alternating than direct current--probably
+due partly to the absence of the scum on the surface which hinders the
+radiation of heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PROGRESS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+A retrospective survey of the progress made and of the reforms
+instituted in medical education in the United States is instructive.
+In many respects there is cause for much congratulation, while for
+other reasons the situation gives rise to feelings of alarm. It is
+pleasing to note and it augurs well for the future that a decided
+advance has been made in the direction of a more thorough medical
+training, yet at the same time it is discouraging to observe that,
+despite these progressive steps, competition does not abate, but
+rather daily becomes more acute. Dr. William T. Slayton has just
+issued his small annual volume on "Medical Education and Registration
+in the United States and Canada." From a study of this book, which
+fairly bristles with facts, a sufficiently comprehensive opinion may
+be formed in regard to the present state of medical education in this
+country. According to this work, there is now a grand total of one
+hundred and fifty-four medical schools. Of this number, one hundred
+and seventeen require attendance on four annual courses of lectures,
+and twenty-seven require attendance on sessions of eight months, and
+ten on nine months each year. Twenty-nine States and the District of
+Columbia require an examination for license to practice medicine;
+eighteen of these require both a diploma from a recognized college and
+an examination. Fifteen States require a diploma from a college
+recognized by them or an examination. Five States, viz., Vermont,
+Michigan, Kansas, Wyoming and Nevada, have practically no laws
+governing the practice of medicine; Alaska the same. In order to gain
+a clear comprehension of the existing state of affairs, a comparison
+of the number of students at two periods, with a lapse of years
+intervening sufficient to eliminate all minor variations, will be more
+to the point than merely regarding the multiplication of schools. Many
+of these mushroom institutions are not worthy of notice, containing
+perhaps a dozen students, and brought into existence only for the
+purpose of profit or from other motives of self-interest. The number
+of students is as reliable an index as can be given. For instance,
+taking the decade between 1883-84 and 1893-94, it will be found that
+the students in regular schools in 1883-84 numbered 10,600; in 1893-94
+they had increased to 17,601. Students in homoeopathic schools in
+1883-84 were 1,267; in 1893-94, 1,666. The number of eclectic students
+was stationary at the two periods. The increase during the period from
+1893-94 to the present time has been at about the same ratio.
+
+These figures reveal more plainly than words the existing condition of
+affairs, which must, too, in the nature of things, continue until that
+time when all the States fall into line and resolve to adopt a four
+years' course of not less than eight months.
+
+To make yet another comparison, the total number of medical schools in
+Austria and Germany, with a population exceeding that of this country,
+is twenty-nine. Great Britain, with more than half the population, has
+seventeen; while Russia, with one hundred million inhabitants, has
+nine. Of course we do not argue that America, with her immense
+territory and scattered population, does not need greater facilities
+for the study of medicine than do thickly inhabited countries, as
+Germany and Great Britain; but we do contend that when a city of the
+size of St. Louis has as many schools as Russia, the craze for
+multiplying these schools is being carried to absurd and harmful
+lengths. However, that the number of schools and their yearly supply
+of graduates of medicine are far beyond the demand is perfectly well
+known to all. The Medical Record and other medical journals have fully
+discussed and insisted upon that point for a considerable time. The
+real question at issue is by what means to remedy or at least to
+lessen the bad effects of the system as quickly as possible. The first
+and most important steps toward this desirable consummation have been
+already taken, and when a four years' course comes into practice
+throughout the country, the difficult problem of checking excessive
+competition will at any rate be much nearer its solution. Why should
+France, Germany, Great Britain and other European nations consider
+that a course of from five to seven years is not too long to acquire a
+good knowledge of medical work, while in many parts of America two or
+three years' training is esteemed ample for the manufacture of a
+full-fledged doctor? Such methods are unfair both to the public and to
+the medical profession, and the result is that in numerous instances
+the short-time graduate has either to learn most of the practical part
+of his duties by hard experience, to starve, or to utilize his
+abilities in some more lucrative path of life. Taking into
+consideration the fact that the theory and practice of medicine have
+become so extended within recent years, it must be readily conceded
+that four years is barely sufficient time in which to gain a
+satisfactory insight into their various departments. For a person,
+however gifted, to hope to receive an adequate medical training in two
+or three years is vain.
+
+In those States in which the facilities for securing a medical
+education are abundant, and where the time and money to be expended
+are within the reach everyone, there is always the danger that an
+undue proportion will forsake trade in order to join the profession.
+This is especially the case when times are bad. Many persons seem to
+be possessed of the idea that the practice of medicine as a means of
+livelihood should be regarded as a something to fall back upon when
+other resources fail. Accordingly, when trade is depressed and money
+is scarce, there is a rush to enter its ranks. That this view of the
+matter is altogether an erroneous one is too self-evident to need any
+demonstrative proof. Again, although the question of a universal four
+years' course is a most important one, it must not be forgotten that
+examination takes almost as conspicuous a place. It is desirable that
+every one entering on medical studies should possess a general
+education. With the exception of a few unimportant schools, the
+entrance examinations would appear to afford the necessary test. Then
+comes the much more vital point of how to gage, in the fairest
+possible manner, the extent of the medical knowledge of those who have
+undergone their full term of study. For various reasons the conducting
+of the final examinations by professors in the school in which the
+student has been taught is open to many and grave objections, more
+especially when these professors are themselves teachers in that
+school. As has been pointed out in The Medical Record on more than one
+occasion, the most obviously fair regulation is that of independent
+examination by an unbiased State board. If this plan were carried into
+execution, medical education in America generally would rest on a
+firmer basis than in Great Britain, in which country the standard,
+although nowhere so low as in parts of the United States, still varies
+very considerably in the different schools. The General Medical
+Council of England has arrived at the conclusion that competition must
+be checked, and has lately brought into force two drastic measures
+calculated to attain this object; one is the lengthening of the course
+to five years, and, more recently, the abolishing of the unqualified
+assistant. The medical profession of America is quite as conscious of
+the disastrous results of competition as are its fellow practitioners
+on the other side, and should use every legitimate means to sweep away
+the evils of the present system.--Medical Record.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEATHS UNDER ANAESTHETICS.
+
+
+On December 17, 1897, a fatality occurred during the administration of
+ether. The patient, a woman aged forty-four years, who suffered from
+"internal cancer," was admitted for operation into the new hospital
+for women, Euston Road. It was considered that an operation would
+afford a chance of the prolongation of her life. At the time of
+admission the patient was in a very exhausted condition. Mrs. Keith,
+the anaesthetist to the hospital, administered nitrous oxide gas,
+followed by ether, which combination of anaesthetics the patient took
+well. After the expiration of thirty minutes and while the operation
+was in progress the patient became so collapsed that the surgeon was
+requested by the anaesthetist to desist from further surgical procedure
+and she at once complied. Resuscitative measures were at once applied,
+but the patient died after about ten minutes from circulatory failure
+arising from surgical shock and collapse. We have not received any
+particulars as to the means adopted to restore the woman or whether
+hemorrhage was severe. In all such cases posture, warmth and guarding
+the patient from the effects of hemorrhage are undoubtedly the most
+important points for attention both before and during the operation.
+The fact is established that both chloroform and ether cause a fall
+of body temperature, and so increase shock unless the trunk and limbs
+are kept wrapped in flannel or cotton-wool. The fall of temperature
+under severe abdominal and vaginal operations again is considerable. A
+profound anaesthesia allows of a considerable drop in arterial tension,
+which has been shown to be least when the limbs and pelvis are placed
+at a higher level than the head. Again, saline transfusion of Ringer's
+fluid certainly lessens the collapse in such cases when the bleeding,
+always severe, has been excessive. We do not doubt that such a severe
+operation undertaken when the patient was in a dangerous state of
+exhaustion was as far as possible safeguarded by every precaution, and
+we regret we have not been favored with the particulars of the methods
+employed. A death following the administration of ether is reported
+from the Corbett Hospital, Stourbridge.[1] The patient, aged
+thirty-nine years, was admitted on September 21, 1897, suffering from
+fracture of the right femur. A prolonged application of splints led to
+a stiffness with adhesions about the knee joint which were to be dealt
+with under an anaesthetic on December 8. Ether was given from a
+Clover's inhaler; one ounce was used. The induction was slightly
+longer than usual but was marked by no unusual phenomena. No sickness
+occurred during or after anaesthesia and no respiratory spasm was seen.
+There was a short struggling stage followed by true anaesthesia when
+the operation, a very brief one, was rapidly performed. The patient
+was then taken back to the ward and the corneal reflex was noticed as
+being present. Voluntary movements were also said to have been seen.
+Later he opened his eyes "and seemed to recognize an onlooker." After
+this no special supervision was exercised. A hospital porter engaged
+in the ward noticed the man was breathing in gasps; this was twenty
+minutes after the patient had been taken from the operating theater
+and half an hour subsequent to the first administration of the ether.
+The surgeons were fetched from the operating theater and found by that
+time that the man was dead. "He was lying with his head thrown back,
+so that no possible difficulty of breathing could have arisen due to
+his position. The eyes were open and the lips slightly parted; nor was
+there any sign of any struggle for breath having taken place." The
+ether was analyzed and found to fulfill the British Pharmacopoeia
+tests for purity. The necropsy revealed that the right heart was
+distended with venous fluid blood. The lungs also were loaded with
+blood, as were all the viscera. We cannot but feel that the fact shown
+at the post mortem examination seemed to indicate that the man died
+from asphyxia and not from heart failure. No doubt patients appear to
+resume consciousness after an anaesthetic and even mutter
+semi-intelligible words and recognize familiar faces. They then sink
+into deep sleep just like the stupefaction of the drunken, and in this
+condition the tongue falls back and the slightest cause--a little
+thick mucus or the dropping of the jaw--will completely prevent
+ventilation of the lungs taking place. Two very similar cases occurred
+in the practice of a French surgeon, who promptly opened the trachea
+and forced air into the lungs, with the result that both patients
+survived. In his cases chloroform had been given. A death under
+chloroform occurred at the infirmary, Kidderminster. The patient, a
+boy, aged eight years and nine months, suffered from a congenital
+hernia upon which it became necessary to operate for its radical cure.
+The house surgeon, Mr. Oliphant, M.B., C.M. Edin., administered
+chloroform from lint. In about eight minutes the breathing ceased, the
+operation not having then been commenced. Upon artificial respiration
+being adopted the child appeared to rally, but sank almost immediately
+and died within two minutes. The necropsy showed no organic disease.
+At the inquest the coroner asked Dr. Oliphant whether an inhaler was
+not a better means of giving chloroform, and whether that substance
+was not the most dangerous of the anaesthetics in common use, and
+received the answer that inhalers were not satisfactory for giving
+chloroform and that it was a matter of opinion as to which was the
+most dangerous anaesthetic. We so often hear that the Scotch schools
+never meet with casualties under anaesthetics because they always use
+chloroform, and prefer to dispense with any apparatus, that we can
+readily accept the replies given to the coroner as representing the
+views current among the majority of even the thoughtful alumni of
+those great centers of medical training. A glance over the long list
+of casualties under chloroform will unfortunately show that whatever
+charm Syme exercised during his life has not survived to his
+followers, and overdosage with chloroform proves as fatal in the hands
+of those who hail from beyond the Tweed as well as "down south." A
+death from chloroform contained in the A.C.E. mixture occurred at the
+General Hospital, Birmingham, on December 15. The patient, a girl,
+aged five years and ten months, suffered from hypertrophied tonsils
+and post-nasal adenoid growths. She was given the A.C.E. mixture by
+Mr. McCardie, one of the anaesthetists to the institution, and
+tonsillotomy was performed. As consciousness was returning some
+chloroform was given to enable Mr. Haslam, the operator, to remove the
+growths. She died at once from respiratory failure, in spite of
+restorative measures. A necropsy showed absence of organic disease.
+The anaesthetist regarded the death as one from cardiac failure due to
+reflex inhibition by irritation of the vagus. We are not told the
+posture of the child or the method employed.--The Lancet.
+
+  [Footnote 1: We are indebted to Mr. Hammond Smith, honorary
+  surgeon to the hospital, and Mr. Edgar Collis for the notes of the
+  case.--Ed. Lancet]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The resistance of nickel steel to the attack of water increases with
+the nickel contents. The least expanding alloys, containing about 36
+per cent. of nickel, are sufficiently unassailable, and can be exposed
+for months to air saturated with moisture without being tainted by
+rust. With a view of testing the expansion of nickel steel,
+experiments have been carried out by allowing measuring rods to remain
+in warm water for some hours, according to The Iron and Coal Trades
+Review. They were not wiped off when taken out, but were exposed for a
+longer period to hot steam, but the lines traced on the polished
+surfaces were not altered. The rough surfaces, when exposed to steam,
+were covered after several days with a continuous, but little
+adhesive, coat of rust.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT BOOKS
+
+
+APPLIED MECHANICS. A Treatise for the Use of Students who have
+time to work Experimental, Numerical, and Graphical Exercises
+illustrating the subject. By John Perry. With 371 illustrations.
+12mo, cloth. 678 pages. London, 1897.                       $3 50
+
+ARCHITECTURE. Architectural Drawing for Mechanics. By I. P.
+Hicks. A comprehensive treatise on Architectural Drawing for
+Building Mechanics, showing the learner how to proceed step by
+step in every detail of the work. Square 12mo, cloth. 6
+illustrations. 94 pages. New York, 1897.                    $1 00
+
+ARCHITECTURE. The Planning and Construction of High Office
+Buildings. By W. H. Birkmire. 8vo, cloth. Illustrated. 345
+pages. New York, 1898.                                      $3 50
+
+ARCHES. A Treatise on Arches. Designed for the Use of Engineers
+and Students in Technical Schools. By M. A. Howe. 8vo, cloth. New
+York, 1897.                                                 $4 00
+
+ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. Their Properties, Occurrence and Use. By
+R. H. Jones. With 11 Collotype Plates and other illustrations.
+8vo, cloth. London, 1897.                                   $6 50
+
+ASSAYING. A Manual of Assaying Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper. By
+Walter Lee Brown. Seventh edition. 533 pages. Illustrated. 12mo.
+cloth. Chicago,1897.                                        $2 60
+
+ASTRONOMY. A New Astronomy. By David P. Todd. 12mo, cloth. 480
+pages. Profusely illustrated. New York, 1898.               $1 50
+
+BEVERAGES. Standard Manual for Soda and other Beverages. A
+Treatise especially adapted to the requirements of Druggists and
+Confectioners. By A. Emil Hiss. 12mo, cloth. 260 pages. Chicago,
+1897.                                                       $4 00
+
+BICYCLE REPAIRING. A Manual compiled from articles in "The Iron
+Age." By S. D. V. Burr. 8vo, cloth. 166 pages. Fully illustrated.
+New York.                                                   $1 00
+
+BOOT MAKING AND MENDING. Including Repairing, Lasting and
+Finishing. With numerous engravings and diagrams. Edited by Paul
+N. Hasluck. (Work Handbooks.) 16mo, cloth. 160 pages, fully
+illustrated. New York, 1897.                                $0 50
+
+BOTANY. A Text Book of General Botany. By Carlton C. Curtis,
+Tutor in Botany in Columbia University. 8vo, cloth. 359 pages,
+illustrated. New York, 1897.                                $3 00
+
+BREWING CALCULATIONS. Gaging and Tabulation, Formulae, Tables and
+General Information for Brewers, and Excise Officers Surveying
+Breweries. By Claude H. Bater. 64mo, vest pocket size. 340 pages.
+London, 1898.                                               $0 60
+
+BRIDGES. DePontibus: A Pocket Book for Bridge Engineers. By J. A.
+L. Waddell. 12mo, leather. Pocketbook form with flap. 403 pages.
+New York, 1898.                                             $3 00
+
+CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. A Textbook for Architects, Engineers,
+Surveyors and Craftsmen. Fully illustrated and written by
+Banister F. Fletcher and H. Philip Fletcher. 12mo, cloth. 293
+pages. London, 1898.                                       $2 00
+
+CHEMISTRY FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS. By Chas. F. Townsend. Illustrated.
+12mo, cloth. New York, 1897.                               $0 75
+
+COMPRESSED AIR. Practical Information upon Air Compression and
+the Transmission and Application of Compressed Air. By Frank
+Richards. 12mo, cloth. 203 pages. Illustrated. New York.   $1 50
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+1157, March 5, 1898, by Various
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